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iMSIT
Teaching KnowledgeChapter 4 □ “Building Intelligent Interactive Tutors” □ Beverly Park Woolf
J. D. Cole
iMSITTopics
1. What is teaching knowledge?
2. Tutoring Components.
3. Representing Teaching Knowledge.
4. ITSs by Teaching Strategy.
5. Why Model Teaching Knowledge?
6. Strategy Features.
7. Comparisons.
8. Empirical Models.
9. Apprenticeship.
10.Problem-Solving.
11. Coaching.
12.Bug-Based Tutoring.
13.Learning Theory.
14.Model Tracing.
15.ACT-R.
16.Constructivism.
17.Piaget & Vigotsky.
18.Socratic Tutors.
19.SHERLOCK.
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iMSITWhat is Teaching Knowledge?
Teaching knowledge
1. Includes a teacher’s repertoire of teaching actions.
2. Teachers customize their responses and vary guidance based on the learning needs of the student.
3. Talented teachers choose different teaching knowledge for each student.
Automated tutoring
Adapted from human tutors, an intelligent tutor has a variety of teaching objects to use and potential actions and can decide which ones to present to the student.
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iMSITTutoring Components
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iMSITRepresenting Teaching Knowledge
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iMSITITS Classified by Teaching Strategy
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iMSITWhy Model Teaching Knowledge?
1. Ensure that the tutor has knowledge about how to teach and can ultimately customize teaching strategies to a student’s specific needs, prior knowledge and learning styles.
2. Research Questions:1. Should computers adopt a human teaching approach?
2. Can effective strategies be encoded?
3. What teaching features are critical to the success of each strategy?
4. For which domains and type of student does each approach work best?
5. Which factors are critical to using human tactics with computers?
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iMSITTutoring Strategy Features
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iMSITComparison of Teaching Strategies
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Discovery-Based
CoachedEnvironment
Inquiry-based
ScaffoldedLearning
Problem-Solving
More FormalTraditional Teaching
More Open Discovery-basedInformal Teaching
Lajoie,Bio-World
Lesgold,Sherlock
WoolfGeology; Biology
Chemland,Vining
Anderson,GeometryAlgebra
Less Student ChoiceGreater Student Choice
iMSITEmpirical Models of Human Teaching
1. Apprenticeship learning.
2. Problem–solving and handling errors.
3. Bug-based Tutoring.
4. Tutorial dialogue.
5. Case-based reasoning.
6. Collaborative learning.
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iMSITApprenticeship
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Sherlock, Lajoie and Lesgold, 1992.
iMSITApprenticeship…
1. Provides situated hands-on active learning, for example: training to be a pilot, musician, athlete, or physician.
2. Situational learning involves students with expert behavior in real situations.
3. Apprenticeship teaching emphasizes practice, involving students in a reactive environment that responds to the learner’s actions.
4. Coaching tracks a students’ work, reflects on his approach, scaffolds instruction, provides support for problem-solving process, and then fades out.
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iMSITApprenticeship…
1. Example: SOPHIE assisted learners to develop electronic troubleshooting skills while locating faults in a broken electronic piece of equipment.
2. SOPHIE included:1. A process model, or mathematical simulation.
2. A program to understand a subset of natural language.
3. Routines to set up contexts and keep history lists.
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iMSITProblem-Solving Tutoring
1. One goal is to define incorrect concepts or bugs; students are presented with appropriate problems, gradually increasing in difficulty.
2. Used in structured domains: math, physics, computer programming, electronics, and complex machinery.
3. Not supported as an effective pedagogy by mathematics research; problem-solving imposes heavy cognitive load on students and does not assist in learning expert knowledge.Expert learning is characterized by acquisition of a schema, (structure that permits experts to categorize one problem as belonging to a family).Schemata contain:
1. Memory or problem state configurations
2. Problem-solving strategies
3. The ability to readily categorize problems14
iMSITCoached Problem Solving
Van Lehn, ANDES, Physics Problems.
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iMSITBug-Based Tutoring
1. Track student’s actions and compare them with the stored bugs; might dynamically generate a new bug/rule.
2. Bug library considered as an ideal bug collection.3. Student’s bugs are treated as an overlay.4. Has the potential to provide better diagnostic output
than most tutors because it can provide the reason for an error rather that just pointing it out.
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iMSITLearning Theory
Analytical Models.
1. Model-tracing Tutors.
2. Constructivist Theory.
3. Situated Learning/ Experiential Learning.
4. The Zone of Proximal Development.
5. Self-explanation.
6. Socratic Learning.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
1. Experimental Psychology.
2. Wilhelm Wundt.
3. Scientific Methods.1. Apperception.
1. Introspection.
2. Physiological responses to stimuli.Sensations and corresponding mental states.
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iMSITLearning Theories
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Associationism.
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949).
1. The Law of Effect .Responses that produce a pleasant state are more likely to occur again in a similar situation. Conversely, responses that produce a discomforting, annoying or unpleasant effect are less likely to occur again in the situation.
2. Puzzle Box Experiments.1. Associating sense impressions to impulses.
2. Problem solving by trial and error.
3. Reinforcement - early behaviorist idea.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Associationism.
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1946).
1. Reflexology.
2. Classical Conditioning.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Behaviorism.
1. Learning Theory developed by Watson.
2. Major work done by Skinner.
3. Operant Conditioning.
4. Stimulus – Response.
5. Animal Experimentation.
6. Mind as Black Box.
7. Focus on Observable Phenomenon.
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iMSITLearning Theory.
Behaviorism.
John B. Watson.Stimulus-Response.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Behaviorism.
B.F. Skinner.
1. Operant Behavior.S-R-S.
2. Contingencies of Reinforcement.1. Positive reinforcement.
2. Negative reinforcement.
3. Punishment.
4. Extinguishing behaviors.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Criticism of Behaviorism.
George Herbert Mead.
1. Observable Data only - denial of mind.
2. Mind is more than a set of conditioned responses.
3. The I and the Me.
4. Conversation of Gestures.Meaning constructed through social interaction.
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iMSITGestalt
1. A Unified or Meaningful Whole.
2. Max Wertheimer.Productive Thinking.
3. Perception of Motion.Phi Phenomenon.
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iMSITLearning Theory…
Insight.
1. Wolfgang Kohler. 1. The Mentality of Apes.
2. Experiments with apes solving problems.
2. Recognizing the Relationship Among Stimuli.
3. New Organization of Stimuli.
4. Grasping the Structure of the Stimuli.
5. Insight = Problem Solution.
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iMSITGestalt Law…
Law of Pregnanz Law of Similarity
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iMSITGestalt Law…
Law of Proximity Law of Symmetry
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iMSITGestalt Law…
Law of Continuity Figure Ground
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iMSITModel-Tracing Tutors
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Contain a cognitive model or simulation of an expert’s correct thinking in the domain.
1. The cognitive model is capable or correctly solving any problem assigned to the student.
2. The students’ actions are compared to those of the expert and if their actions diverge sufficiently, the tutor offers advice or feedback.
3. The tutor keeps track of student actions, such as making selections from a menu or drawing on graphical user interface.
4. Advantage is when a student is lost the model tracing tutor offered advice within the context of the problem.
iMSITModel-Tracing Tutors…
1. Built on ACT-R Theory of cognitive problem solving.
2. Have the procedural knowledge necessary to master a given subject.
3. Some buggy rules that represent the students’ most common errors.
4. Keep track of which procedural rules the student mastered. Constantly updating the student model, following the student’s thinking and anticipating her next move.
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iMSITACT-R Theory: Principles of Design
1. Represent the student as a production set.
2. Communicate the goal structure underlying the problem solving.
3. Provide instruction in the problem solving context.
4. Promote the use of general problem-solving rules over analogy.
5. Minimize working memory load.
6. Provide immediate feedback on errors.
7. Adjust the grain size of instruction according to learning principles.
8. Enable the student to approach the target skill by successive approximation.
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iMSITACT-R: Instruction in Context
1. Situated/authentic learning.
2. Memories are associated to the features of the context in which they were learned.The probability of retrieving memories is increased when the context of recall matches the context of in which they were learned.
3. It is difficult to encode and understand information presented outside a problem context.
4. If knowledge is presented in a problem-solving context its goal-relevance is much more apparent. (Learning transfer).
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iMSITPretest Cognitive Abilities
Math Fact Retrieval Spatial Ability
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iMSITMatch Abilities to Strategies
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iMSITConstructivist Theory
1. Set of developmental stages of conceptual growth that every human must move through while learning.
2. According to J. Bruner learning is an active process in which individual constructs new ideas or concepts based on their current/past knowledge (prior knowledge).
3. The learner’s cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental model) attempts to organize new information based on previous learning.
4. Both the student and tutor are involved in a process involving discovery through active dialog.
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iMSITPiaget’s Cognitive Stages
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iMSITSituated / Experiential Learning
1. The learner is involved with other people within an authentic environment. Knowledge is socially constructed.
2. Attributes include:1. Personal involvement.
2. Self-initiation.
3. Evaluation by learner.
3. Lave’s theory – learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context, and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated).Social interaction within an authentic context is critical – learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired.
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iMSITSituated / Experiential Learning…
1. Knowledge presented in an authentic context, (i.e., setting and applications) which would normally involve that knowledge.
2. Social interaction and collaboration.
3. Subject matter that is relevant to the personal interests of the student.
4. Self-initiated learning, which is the most lasting and pervasive.
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iMSITZone of Proximal Development
The distance between the actual development level and the level of potential development with adult or peer guidance.
1. A student can perform a task under adult guidance or with the help of a peer that could not be achieved by his/herself.
2. Vygotsky believed that what a child can perform today with assistance she will be able to perform tomorrow independently.
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iMSITZone of Proximal Development
Cognitive Response to Affect (Murray & Arroyo, 2002).
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iMSITZone of Proximal Development…
1. The ZPD is always changing with the increasing independent capability displayed.
2. Teacher acts as support for the student, but also minimizes the support necessary for a student to succeed.
3. Assist just enough with out eliminating the students need or desires to build on their prior knowledge.
4. The challenge is for the teacher to finds a balance between supporting and pushing the student to act independently.
5. Teacher to stay one step ahead of the student, always pushing her to get to the next level. Highly important to not push the student past the ZPD, an occurrence that would limit the growth of the student.
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iMSITZone of Proximal Development…
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iMSITSocratic Learning
1. Socratic teaching recognizes that people contain elements of the answer to the problems that confront them [Bell].
2. Drawing forth from what we are ready know. – draw ideas out of people.
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iMSITSHERLOCK
Computer-based coached practice environment driven by a dynamic student model.
1. Used by Air Force trainees (F-15 manual avionics technicians) to learn difficult skills of troubleshooting the electronic equipment they use to make diagnoses in faulty devices.
2. Learning is situated in a “test station” social context similar to those in which the skills will be used.
3. Both novice and master are active participants in the learning environment.
4. Cognitive processes are externalized and displayed for inspection.
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iMSITSHERLOCK…
1. Modeling, coaching and fading are essential activities of masters in relation to apprentices.
2. In apprenticeship, the learners perform with support (coaching) that is gradually withdrawn (fading).1. SHERLOCK uses explicit models of the student’s competence to
drive the coaching and fading of feedback.
2. SHERLOCK individualizes coaching by giving different levels of help according to the student’s current state of achievement.
3. Apprenticeship learning is “situated”, it is embedded in a context of activity rather than being taught as abstract knowledge to be applied later.
4. Student driven – discovery learning environment.
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