Identity Formation in the Postmodern World

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Postmodernism Identity Formation

Identity Formation in the Postmodern World

Abstract

This work shall look at the idea of identity formation in the post modern world. First, at definitions of

postmodernism and identity formation, and then moving on to describe how identities are formed. To

be discussed in particular, are Giddens sense of the reflexive self and Halls theory of the crisis of the

self, drawing upon examples from recreational drug use and looking at how consumption and

globalisation have led to multiple narrative representations of self.

Chapter 1

Introduction: Postmodernism and Identity Formation

What is post modernity? Postmodernism; a reaction to modernism; is a state (or complex set of states)

that lacks a clear organizing principle which embodies complexity, contradiction, ambiguity and

interconnectedness. It is, perhaps, essentially, the embodiment of a general dissatisfaction with

modernity, reflecting fundamental changes in attitudes towards what has gone in the past and towards

long-held beliefs.

Everyone, it seems, has a different view of what post-modernism actually is. Postmodernism has

different definitions in different research areas and according to different academics within these

different research arenas. Some academics even disagree about the presence of post-modernity,

arguing that postmodernism does not exist.

Giddens (1991), for example, prefers to use the term post-traditionalist to describe the state of society

at the moment. Postmodernism is, to some, a world view, whereas to others, it is little more than a

buzz word (Hebdige, 2006).


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Kirby (2006) builds on this sentiment of Hebdige (2006). He argues that, following the rise of pseudo-

modernism, postmodernism is dead, whilst other authors argue that postmodernism was never a

movement, rather only ...the rough outline of a set of self-referential ideals than a genuine cultural

movement. (Willis, 2007, p.44). Many have called postmodernism meaningless, in its most profound

sense, as the movement as a whole (if, indeed, it can be called a movement), adds nothing to our

collective knowledge base.

However this phenomenon is labelled, the idea of identity formation in this changing, post modern

atmosphere is of interest. How do individuals, in this fractured, multi-narrative society, form their

identities? This is certainly a topic that continues to grow in sociological significance, as the factors and

conditions pertaining to the construction of our identities have changed, diversified, spread and become

more dynamic in this post modern world.

Identity formation is the process by which a person develops a personality that is distinct from that of

other people. This process serves to define an individual, not only to others, but also to the individual

them self (see Levine et al., 2002). In terms of how this definition is maintained, the identity is actuated

through a process of development of uniqueness, reinforced through continuity and affiliation (see

Levine et al., 2002). The process of identity formation ultimately leads to the notion of personal identity,

where identity is forged through individualism and an understanding of ones own self-concept (see

Levine et al., 2002).

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What is identity in a post modern world? For many, identity is now a fluid concept, an open question, a

construct that is built as one moves along, according to ones environment and ones interests and

interactions, be these physical or virtual. In a post modern sense, the self is shifting, fluid, or as

Berzonsky (2005) argues, identity is dynamic, multiplistic, relativistic, context-specific and fragmented

(Berzonsky, 2005). Further, Berzonsky (2005) states, ego identity may serve as a way in which individuals

reach out from a personal standpoint in this fractured, post-modern world.

As Kellner (1995) and Featherstone (1991) argue, identity, in the post-modern world, is closely identified

with the active consumption of products that are offered to individuals by the media and leisure

industries (Ott, 2003). Several academics, whilst disagreeing on the mechanism for this, agree that socio

- cultural factors and forces, that structure difference and subsequently create the boundaries essential


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to identity, have changed dramatically in recent decades (Ott, 2003; see Kellner, 1995; Rosenau, 1992

and Van Poecke, 1996).

As Poster states, ...a post-modern society is emerging which nurtures forms of identity different from,

or even opposite to, those of modernity. (Ott, 2003, p.58). As Kellner (1995) argues, ...one is a mother,

a son, a Texan, a Scot, a professor, a socialist, a Catholic, a lesbian - or rather a combination of these

social roles and possibilities. Identities are thus still relatively fixed and limited, though the boundaries

of possible identities, of new identities, are continually expanding. (Ott, 2003, p.63).

As the mode of economics shifts from goods-based to service-based, from centralized mass-production

to a trans-national, globalise and production, individuals are less likely to locate their identities in pre-

given categories and ascribed roles, such that ...class, gender and ethnicity decline in social

significance (see Crook et al., 1992, p.84), whilst the active consumption of ideas and styles grows in

importance (see Kellner, 1995).Such that, difference - and, through this - identity, is now defined and

affirmed through consumer choice, and, ultimately, therefore, through consumption (see Ott, 2003).

As Ott (2003) argues, the culture industry performs two main functions in terms of identity formation: it

provides consumers with explicit identity models showing them how to be, and also provides consumers

with the symbolic resources with which to (re)construct their identities. Cultural media, such as

television, magazines and general advertising, consequently come to shape the nature of identity, byproviding identity models and the symbolic resources for the enactment of the chosen identity (Ott,

2003).

As Ott (2003) argues this purchasing of identity can lead to serious problems, such as losing sight of

oneself: as Ott (2003, p. 74) states, in his analysis of The Simpsons as an exemplifier of postmodern

identity construction, Homer eats, Homer drinks, Homer belches, but, in reality, there is nothing called

Homer beyond the eating, drinking and belching.

There is no being behind the doing. Homer is just the sum of his actions and no more.In this mode, the

subject evaporates and all social and political action becomes futile and absurd.. Similarly, in the

postmodern world, where identity formation is so closely linked to consumerism, it is easy to lose sight

of ones true self, in the midst of so many identities that, through the media, are thrown at one.


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Although, as Berzonsky (2005) contends, ego identity may serve as a way in which individuals reach out

from a personal standpoint in a fractured, postmodern world, through which an individuals sense of self

is preserved, as something that is, yes, adapted by consumerism but which is, essentially, the product of

ones own experiences and decisions regarding self, Further, ego identity can provide a personal

standpoint for acting and decision-making in the fractured, fluid, postmodern world.

For Berzonsky (2005), therefore, identity is a fluid concept in the postmodern sense. There can,

however, be no multiple identities for, by definition, identity is ...a singularity, fixed on some dimension

that is conserved over time and place (Berzonsky, 2005, p. 133). As Berzonsky (2005) states, then, there

cannot be multiple identities, rather only multiple aspects of ones personality, something that is

exposed through consumerism, with different purchases allowing individuals to express different facets

of their personalities.

In summary, identity formation in the postmodern age has arisen from, and is dependent on,

consumerism as a driving force. In Berzonskys opinion, the quest to achieve a sense of identity is

important because we live in a relativistic, postmodern age of continual social, political, economic and

technological change, which requires continually shifting expressions of ones self. (Berzonsky, 2005,

p.133).

Whilst postmodernism requires fluidity, this fluidity arises as different responses to ever-changing

stimuli, through changing expressions in the different facets of an individuals multi-faceted personality.

Berzonskys (2005) view of identity formation in the postmodern world is not as pessimistic as that

presented by Ott (2003), which suggests that nothing but a vacuum exists at the core of an individual,

but both theoretical approaches to identity formation in postmodern times rely on the development of

multiple narratives as a way of dealing with the fluidity of concepts that postmodernism presents to

individuals. Subsequent sections of the work will concentrate on expanding these ideas further.

Chapter 2

Literature Review & Methodology

This section will describe how the literature review, which forms the basis of this work, was conducted,

in terms of the methodology used to search for, and use, the literature that forms the basis of this work.

This section explains exactly how the literature review was performed, in terms of what was done


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practically in order to find the literature that has been used as the basis for this work. This section

essentially describes the methodology that was used to provide an analysis of the specific research

question of interest in this work, i.e., How is identity formed in this postmodern world?

A literature review is, essentially, a classification and a thorough evaluation of the most relevant works

that have previously been published on a particular subject. The literature review is usually organized

depending on the particular research objective, so that it presents a systematic, comprehensive review

of the work that has been previously published on that specific topic of interest.

From this basis, decisions as to what further research needs to be conducted on the specific topic of

interest can be made, from the thorough understanding of the previous works on this subject. A full

understanding of the existing literature provides not only a comprehensive review of the existing

literature but will also enable the researcher to decide what specific sub-topics, for example, needfurther investigation.

In this way, therefore, a literature review can inform not only the current research plans but also map

the way for future research. After due consideration to the human resources and time frame necessary

to collect primary empirical evidence that would prove pertinent to this specific study, adopting a

completely literature-based library approach was deemed the most efficient and pragmatic method of

research.

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Within the scope of this work, the literature refers not only to literature such as textbooks, and

specialist academic books, but also to the relevant research literature, via published journal articles. A

review of the literature that is relevant to the research question of interest thus serves many purposes,

including, as has been seen, showing how the current research programme fits in with previous research

on the topic, presenting alternate views in order to allow an evaluation of how the proposed research

should proceed, and, finally, showing that all of the relevant, previous, work on the current research

topic has been evaluated and has been fully understood, validating the current research programme

through the support of previously published work (see Hart, 1999).

A literature review is usually conducted before starting any new academic research, because, as has

been seen, a thorough review of the literature provides a comprehensive overview of what research has

been performed, and provides further information, such as how other researchers have analysed or


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solved similar problems. In this sense, a literature review is a simple review of the existing literature on a

subject but is also an evaluation of this work and the relationships between the existing works (Hart,

1999).

The literature review also allows an evaluation of the relationship between the research that is being

proposed and the existing research, giving the researcher food for thought, based on what has gone

previously. In this sense, reviewing the literature puts the work that is being proposed in to context by

asking any number of relevant questions, concerning what is already known about the topic of interest,

what the relationships are between the key ideas, what ideas already exist in terms of understanding

the topic, what evidence is needed to finally reach a conclusion and contribution the proposed research

will make to the literature (see Hart, 1999).

This exercise, whilst it can be thought of as time-consuming, can be valuable in terms of deciding whatproblems to approach in the course of the research, how to approach these problems, and how to

present the literature review once the relevant literature has been searched, evaluated and summarised

(Krathwohl, 1988).

Reviewing previous work can, therefore, provide a practical guide as to how the research one is

conducting should proceed, from before the research begins in earnest until its final completion

(Madsen, 1992).

The main aim of a thorough review of the literature, as outlined in this section, is to search out and

locate relevant literature, to read and to analyse the information that has been found, to evaluate the

information, through finding the relevant information in the literature, in terms of positioning the

previous literature within the framework of the research that is about to be undertaken (Muskal, 2000).

This requires many skills, such as knowing how to retrieve the necessary information, gathering and

organizing the information, being able to critically appraise this information and developing further

research questions once the information has been gathered and evaluated (Fink, 2004).


Standard bibliographic databases can be used in order to search relevant literature (Hart, 1999). If, for

example, one wishes to find out about how identity is formed in the postmodern world, one would first


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need to know something about identity formation and postmodernism in general and would thus enter

these as search terms. One would then wait for the database to return the details of any relevant,

existing, literature.

Such general search terms would normally provide millions of unspecific articles, and, if this is the case,

the search terms can be narrowed by entering more specific search terms, for example, identity

formation and postmodernism or Antony Giddens. The usual procedure is to enter narrower and

narrower search terms until such a point that only literature containing specific information, on the

specific research topic of interest, are returned.

These would be the articles that would then be looked at in detail, or used as the basis of other

searches. For example, a Citation search can be performed, which will return other related articles that

focuses on the specific topic of interest that have cited the original article as a reference. This type ofsearching will obviously return more recent work that has referenced the original research article in

some way, either through using the article as the basis for their own research or using the results of the

article to support some new findings.

The results from searching the bibliographic database(s) should then be collected together, as these will

form the basis of the review of the literature in any further academic work on this topic. Bibliographic

database searching is an accepted research tool, and, as such, is a well-recognised ethical research tool

(Anson and Schwegler, 2000).

In terms of how the literature for this work was sought for, terms such as postmodernist identity,

Giddens and identity formation were used as search terms, amongst many others. Web of Science

was used as the bibliographic database. This database contains references to most articles published in

the last century, covering the fields of psychology and philosophy, amongst others. In terms of deciding

which literature to following the bibliographic database search, various criteria were used to assess

whether the literature should be included or not.

The literature that was returned following the bibliographic database search was read if it was of

general interest to the subject i.e., if it contained any information on identity formation and

postmodernism, and if the literature was recent (i.e., published within the last fifteen years) because

only recent articles would contain up-to-date information.


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This literature was useful in contextualizing the research, in terms of providing a general overview of the

topic. The literature that was used in this work was selected if it included specific information on

identity formation and postmodernism. A list of the literature used in the work is given in the

References section, at the end of the work.

In terms of how the work of others can be incorporated in to ones own research, it is necessary to build

upon the work of other researchers in order for knowledge, on a particular subject, to be advanced.

Research proceeds in this way; by using the work of others as a starting point; so that research is not

repeated and so that research moves in a positive direction, building constructively on the work of

others (Krathwohl, 1988).

Using the work of others through the development of a literature-based work is, therefore, entirely

ethical, on the condition that the previous work is referenced and cited correctly within the subsequentwork (Madsen, 1992). On this basis, then, the bibliographic database searches and the use of literature

of interest is a valid protocol for conducting research.

Chapter 3

Examples of Postmodern Identity Formation

Recreational Drug Culture

One example of the formation of identity in the postmodern world is the taking of recreational drugs.

The taking of recreational drugs increased with the development of the dance and rave scene in the

1980s, increasing during the development of the clubbing scene.

Polls indicate that up to 79% of clubbers have taken recreational drugs at some point in their lives, with

ecstasy, cannabis and cocaine being the most widely-used recreational drugs. Although ketamine,

heroin and GBH were also mentioned in the responses to the survey (Home Office Survey, 2003).



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The same survey (Home Office, 2003) found that the majority of the individuals interviewed felt that

drug-taking was an integral part of their lives, which heightened their clubbing experience. Most of the

interviewees admitting using recreational drugs and drinking alcohol on the same night every time they

go clubbing.

This finding is not to say that drug-taking is as widespread in the general youth population, because

many youths are not clubbers and are thus perhaps, not involved in the drug scene (see Measham et

al., 2001), however, recreational drug-taking is a huge part of many young peoples lives, the way in

which they express themselves and identify themselves to others. Why?

What encourages recreational drug use amongst young people? Coggans and McKellar (1994) look at

drug use amongst young people, reviewing the importance of peer pressure in the onset of illicit drug

use; finding that there is little actual evidence for a causal relationship and that, as such, the role ofindividual choice in drug taking needs to be analysed.

As Coggans and McKellar (1994) suggest, individuals are free to choose to take recreational drugs,

whether or not this is bound to social interaction with peers or not, and the choice to do so is not,

therefore, necessarily a function of peer pressure.

Novacek et al. (1991) looked at the use of recreational drugs amongst adolescents, finding that there

were five main explanations as to why adolescents admit to using recreational drugs: for a sense of

belonging, to cope with problems they are having, for pleasure, for enhancing creativity and to cope

with the aggression they feel inside themselves. The different reasons corresponding to the frequency

with which drugs are used.

In addition, Novacek et al. (1991) found that there were age- and gender-specific relationships between

drug use and the reasons behind the drug use, with older males, for example, more likely to admit to

using drugs for pleasure, and younger girls more likely to admit to using drugs to foster a sense of

belonging.

Dorn (1975) looks at the different functions and varieties of possible explanations for drug use, finding

that society has to give a label to drug use (that is usually wholly negative), in order to decide upon how

to prosecute drug use. This is affected through the development of policies to achieve social control,

and how to treat drug users in need of help.


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As Dorn (1975) argues, there are, however, many and varied reasons why individuals take to drugs,

including social and economic perspectives, and personal events which lead to the individual deciding to

try drugs. Each of these routes to drug use says something about the identity the individual has fostered

for themselves and, as such, represents a distinct route to identity formation.

As Duff (2004) argues, recreational drug use is no more than a practice of the self, as Foucault would

say, an expression of ones self and, as such, should be dealt with using ethics of moderation and not as

an illegal blight on society. As Duff (2004) argues, referencing Foucault and his ideas of pleasure gives a

different perspective on recreational drug use, helping to understand the changing nature of

recreational drug use amongst young people, and thus providing new conceptual frameworks with

which to attempt to derive policies for controlling drug use.

Duff (2005) continues this reasoning, looking at recreational drug use amongst what she terms party

people, finding (in common with Home Office, 2003) that, amongst this group of young people, drug

use has been normalised, becoming a normal part of their leisure time, as normal as having a beer, for

example, or smoking a cigarette.

As Duff (2005) argues, this normalization has implications for policy development in terms of harm

minimization programmes. For the youth sampled by Duff (2005), recreational drugs have passed from

being something dangerous and illegal, to something that is normal and acceptable amongst their peergroup, and the wider society in which they mingle.

For the young people who take recreational drugs regularly, therefore, drugs are part and parcel of their

identity formation in our post-modern times.

There is no question that they should not, for various reasons, be taking these drugs: for them, it is

absolutely normal behaviour, with their safety being protected and assured through buying their drugsof choice from friends (see, also, Sherlock and Conner, 1999).

This easy, secure, access to the drugs perhaps explains the ease and comfort with which respondents

admit their drug taking and use their drugs: for them, it is a natural, safe, thing to be doing, a natural


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part of their social lives. Many of them do not question the fact that they take drugs: it is as natural to

them as any other part of the lifestyle they have chosen for themselves (Duff, 2005).


Jay (1999) looks at the issue of why young people take recreational drugs, arguing from the traditional

medical framework, which suggests that people take drugs because they become addicted to them and

from a newer perspective, which suggests that people take drugs for pleasure (see, also, Parker et al.,

1998).

The latter hypothesis seems to make sense. It is, after all, the recreational drugs that give pleasure

which consequently, give fewer records of abusive behaviour associated with them. The use of

recreational drugs for pleasure has even been noted in the animal kingdom (Jay, 1999; see Siegel, 1989).

As Jay (1999) further argues, embellished in this idea of pleasure being the main motivation for

recreational drug use is the fact that society has, in general, become more adventurous and

accommodating as a whole. This general societal climate has led to the atmosphere in which young

people grow up assuming experimentation with recreational drugs is acceptable behaviour, becoming a

part of their formative years when they are forming their own identity.

They, of course, realize taking recreational drugs is illegal and potentially dangerous, but, as shown by

Duff (2005), they minimize the risks by ensuring supply from trusted peers and pass off the illegality

issue through references to greater, unpunished, crimes going on around them and the fact that alcohol

- now legal - was also illegal only a few decades ago.

As such, the issues of drug use being illegal is not really a concern for them, as their drug use is

considered, by them, to be a normal part of their lives, for which, if they keep it low-profile and at a

personal level, they are highly unlikely to be punished.

McCrystal et al. (2006) looks at drug use patterns amongst 11 to 12 year olds, finding that there are high

levels of drug use in these ages of children, many of whom appear to be otherwise good students.

These students use drugs for many and varied reasons, many of which are centred around pleasure

seeking and relieving boredom. Very few cases of peer pressure were reported.


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Although there were suggestions that drug use had become a normal occurrence amongst this group of

children, similar to other studies already discussed (such as Jay, 1999 and Duff, 2005). Similar findings

were reported by Bahora et al. (2008), who looked at ecstasy use in the United States, concluding that

the use of ecstasy amongst those surveyed was regarded as normal behaviour, as something that

everyone does. Again, recreationaldrug use is a way of forming ones identity; of identifying oneself

with other recreational drugs users, of being accepted into that section of society.

In conclusion, recreational drugs are used widely by youth across the world, a large proportion of whom

are assumed to be connected with the dance scene in some way. That said, it is also known that children

as young as 11 or 12 are using cannabis on a regular basis (see McCrystal et al., 2006), the drug

problem is not just confined to clubbers. Many reasons have been put forward as motivators of drug

use in this essay; peer pressure, curiosity about what effects the drugs will have on them, a sense of

belonging, to cope with problems youth may be having, for pleasure, for enhancing creativity and to

cope with the aggression they feel inside themselves.

The different reasons largely corresponding to the frequency with which drugs are used (see Novacek et

al., 1991). It has also been seen that people have stated that they take drugs because it is considered

normal to do so, is nothing out of the ordinary, that everyone does it and so, therefore, them too (see,

for example, Duff, 2005). Thus, there are many and varied reasons as to why people start taking, and

continue using recreational drugs, all of which have a basis in forging identity.

Chapter 4

Consumption and Identity

Dunn (1999) argues that postmodernism has led to a shift in the bases for identity formation, something

that itself, per se, marks the post-modern era. As Lyon (2000) so eloquentlyphrases it: ...we are

recipients of entertainment, shopping for a self. (Lyon, 2000, p.75). Developments in information

technology and the ability to shop anywhere, any time, have reduced time and space, meaning that wenow demand the ability to access information in an instant.

People are on demand 24/7, leading to reconfigurations of how we view ourselves and our place in

the world. We are in a world which we feel we know much better, a world which is virtually available at

the touch of a button (or the swish of a mouse), on demand. Information on anything anyone is


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interested in can be found instantly. Through this open, instantaneous, process, we feel we are part of a

much larger culture than our long-established, local selves.

For Lyon (2000), in his book Jesus in Disneyland; Religion in Post-Modern Times,it is a complex social

situation in which some of the dynamics inherited from modernism are inherited and in which some are

distorted beyond recognition. For Lyon (2000) postmodernism has been defined by the development of

information technology and social networking and the rise of consumerism. Information technology has

made the world smaller, has made identities more fragmented and consumerism has allowed us to

express ourselves like never before.


This process, whilst connecting individuals with more people, information and places than ever before,

can mean that people become less connected with real - physical, intimate, face-to-face, relationships,

leading to social isolation. McPherson et al. (2001) showed, for example, that Americans have

significantly less friends than they did two decades ago, with social isolation increasing as a result of this.

However, McPherson and Smith-Lovins (1987) hypothesis of homophily - that friends are similar in

character and identity - still holds for virtual friends. Members of online forums, for example, who

become close over cyberspace: similar people will always band together, with peoples personal

networks being homogeneous with regards to many socio-demographic factors and interpersonal

characteristics (see McPherson et al., 2001).

The times they are a-changing sang Bob Dylan, and nowhere is that truer than now, where children

plug themselves in to their iPods, downloading music as they wish, accessing information on the

internet as and when they desire. It is possible to now parcel the world into discrete pockets, according

to your own desires.

Technology has allowed individuals the choice of how, and when, they want to communicate, closing offfrom other commuters with an iPod, sharing common musical tastes with cyber-friends, again through

the iPod, joining in online forums if that is what they want to do. Choice is everywhere, choice is

expected, as a fundamental right of this generation.


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Through choice, through the freedom of expression that is around, through blogs, for example, and

through online forums that are available for almost any specialist interest, from internet sites like You

Tube and My Space, individuals can choose who they want to interact with and when they want to

interact with them.

For many young persons, this artificial, cyber life, is their life. It may not be a life that would be

recognizable to their grandparents, nor even understood by their parents, but that is their reality. They

choose to live like that, maintaining multiple narratives with individuals they have actively chosen to

communicate with.

Social isolation is not a concern for these individuals: they drive their own pathway through their lives,

interacting with whom they want to interact, when they want to interact, shunning physical

relationships in favour of what they consider to be more meaningful virtual relationships.

Individuals are opting out of physical interactions with people they dont want to interact with

(neighbours, commuters etc) in favour of their own world, through their headphones, for example,

connected to their iPod, whilst out and about. At home they immerse themselves in online

communities, such as SecondLife or any of the number of specialist online forums dedicated to their

interests.

Technology has enabled people to have the choice of how and when to interact with others,

empowering individuals to dictate how their life flows, at the pace they want it to flow. Many people

argue that devices such as iPods and online forums are social minimisers, but postmodernism would,

perhaps, label them enablers: enablers of multiple narratives, for example.

As users of SecondLife would argue, social interaction does occur in SecondLife, just not as we know it,

i.e., in a different, pixilated, format. Perhaps SecondLife is the perfect post-modern environment: a

meta-verse, a universe allowing simultaneous, multiple, narratives.

Identity, as a concept, can be defined by consumerism (Dunn, 1999), with the displacement of social

relations by commodities having two consequences. Firstly, consumer culture is the primary means

through which self is constructed and secondly, the collective identities of class, gender, race, sexuality


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and ethnicity, along with conventional, institutionalised, social roles are weakened or replaced by more

individualised, fluid, lifestyle identities, that are constructed in relation to consumer goods, mass media

images and fictional media characters (Dunn, 1999, p.67). In this postmodern scenario, relationships are

weakened and the definition of self comes to rely on an appropriation of the attributes of commodities

(Dunn, 1999, p.67).

The modern view of the self, as an integrated social concept, has thus become replaced by a loose

aggregate of personality traits that have been assembled through the process of consuming goods and

images.

The breakdown of identity formation from social roles to a packaged world of mass culture is viewed as

a breakdown in the socialisation process which, in turn, leads to the situation in which media systems

undermine the authority of the traditional socialisation agents, leaving the individual adrift in a world ofcommercialised distractions (Dunn, 1999, p.67).

As Croghan et al. (2006) suggest, consumption is central to the construction of adolescent identities,

with consumption, style and identity being linked and style being a crucial means of sustaining and

defining both individual identity and also group boundaries. Failure to adhere to such style boundaries

leads to style failure, with dire consequences for the social life of adolescents, through social exclusion

and status loss (Croghan et al., 2006).

Bovone (2006) looks at the issue of postmodern identity and the transformation of fashion, arguing that

the relationship between clothes and identity is part of the larger postmodern set of ideals. As Bovone

(2006) argues, precise clothing distinctions, that were traditionally anchored to social class and socio-

economic status, are becoming a thing of the past: the fragmented post-modern ideal, and the lack of

shared models is leading to the use of clothing as away in which to communicate to others ones non-

exclusive identity.

As Bovones work (2006) shows, the production and consumption of culture is changing, no longer thehomogenising force it once was, with cultural fragmentation and dispersal becoming dominant, leading

to individuals expressing their own identities in subversive ways (Dunn, 1999). Postmodernism ushered

in a period in which the perpetually changing marketplace of goods and images offers personal freedom,

of expression, and the choice to position oneself within a range of possible selves.


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As Dunn (1999) argues, the postmodern has replaced the idea of self-realisation, which pre-supposed

some sort of lifetime destiny, with experimental self-creation in the Nietzschean sense. Within this,

however, individuals are expected to produce new self-images all the time, in response to the ever-

changing landscapes surrounding them.


Consumerism allows changeable expression of ones fluid self, through the purchasing of objects that

allow ones self to be expressed. Consumerism provides an arena of conscious experimentation and

choice in the construction and elaboration of identity (see Dunn, 1999, p.68).

This has been made possible through the rise of the consumerist society, and the commercial co-

optation of new cultural attitudes and values, leading to this postmodern era being labelled hedonistic

and the era of self-fulfilment (Dunn, 1999). Consumerism has pluralized style, providing multiple

possibilities for the demonstration of personal style, either in the form of individually constructed

lifestyle-based identities or as part of lifestyle identification with different collective groups and

categories (Dunn, 1999).

Consumer culture allows novel identities to be constructed: either mass-marketed identities or

individualised constructions of style, through the segmentation of markets and the use of sales

strategies that target customers with specialised tastes (Dunn, 1999).

The commodity has thus become a vehicle for developing more fully ones sense of self, with

commodities being used, not as instruments of manipulation that distort ones sense of self but as

outward identifiers of self-formation and self-realisation. This is, however, all within the context of

mass culture being run by a few massive companies, who control the media channels and provide a

corporate-led basis to postmodern society. Thus, consumer-based individualism is not pure

individualism but rather a pale imitation of authentic individualism, based not on the values of

achievement and self-worth but the appropriation of commodities as ways in which to express ones self

within a corporate framework.

A back-lash to this corporate framework is the development of the so-called handmade movement, as

witnessed by the popularity of Etsy (www.etsy.com), a place in which artists and crafts people can sell

their handmade items. However, postmodern mass culture is still very much based on mass media run

by corporations. A great deal of peoples sense of identities, for example, relies on the television, which


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reinforces the idea of consumer culture (through advertising using this media) and which democratises

taste and social relations (Dunn, 1999).

Television, whilst dependent on stereotyping and ritualisation to get its message across, is the site of

intersection of multiple social and cultural determinations, a site of multiple messages with intersecting

genres, images, styles and experiences. There is, therefore, heterogeneity of television culture, which

can provide fuel for the parameters of self experience and identity formation. Indeed, television was the

first mass media format to reach a wide range of people, globally, and to encourage people to explore

ideas of self and identity.


Gauntlett (2002) discusses the influence of television on identity, from the viewpoint of Giddens that

we are in a period of late modernity, not yet at a fully post-modern stage, in which the role of tradition

is declining and where identities are fluid. As Gauntlett (2002) argues, there are now choices presented

to individuals, daily, regarding ways of living. This is translated into the fact that individuals have to

face up to these decisions daily, are forced to assess the ways in which they are living daily, with every

new onslaught on their sense of self.

As Gauntlett (2002) argues, the rise of Girl Power with the Spice Girls, delineated, through labelling,

with Posh, Baby, Scary was ultimately postmodern and challenged people to define their own

identities. In the postmodern world, however, individuals are not passive consumers of technology andmarketing. Individuals use the props they gain from television, magazines and popular culture in

general, as resources which individuals use as reference points, to think through their own sense of self

and possible modes of expression of this sense of self (Gauntlett, 2002, p.256).

As Giddens argues, in the post-traditional order (he does not admit we are in a post-modern era, rather

late modernism), self-identity is a reflexive project, and endeavour on which we are continually working

and continually reflecting upon (Giddens, 1990; Gauntlett, 2002).

In this scenario, argues Giddens (1990), individuals are continually creating, maintaining and revising a

set of narratives to describe our own lives and our position in the world. Self-identity, under this

scenario, is thus not a set of traits or characteristics that could be observed but, rather, a persons own

reflexive understanding of their own biography (Giddens, 1991, p.53). As Giddens (1991, p.54) states, A


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persons identity is not to be found in behaviour not in the reactions of others but in the capacity to

keep a narrative going.

The individuals biography, if she is to maintain regular interaction with others in the day-to-day world,

cannot be wholly fictive; ...it must continually integrate events which occur in the external world and

sort them in to an on-going story about the self (see Gauntlett, 2002). As Giddens (1991) argues, in this

post-traditional society, our role is not defined for us, individuals have to define it for themselves, What

to do? How to act? Who to be? These are focal questions for everyone living in circumstances of late

modernity - and ones which, on some level, all of us answer, either discursively or through day-to-day

social behaviour. (Giddens, 1991, p.70).

Thus, consumerism is a fact. We live in a consumerist society, which offers us the chance for multiple

narratives to be developed, maintained and changed at will, as circumstances require. This fluidity in theconcept of self and in the process of identity formation is a very postmodern phenomenon, with such

multiple narratives being upheld through consumerism, of commodities such as consumer wares, or of

mass media, either through television, magazines or other popular culture formats.

This atmosphere presents individuals with a variety of lifestyle formats and choices. Lifestyles acting like

genre, to provide a background for ones own particular brand of consumerism, leading to ones own

particular brand of identity through the construction, in the Giddenian sense of the reflexive self, of our

own narratives, telling the story of who we are and how we got here.


Chapter 5

Globalisation and Identity

Globalisation is an umbrella term that is used to describe increasing global connectivity and integration

and also interdependence in economic, social, technological, cultural and political spheres. Singers 2002

book One World: The Effects of Globalisationshows the ethical consequences, and the consequences for

notions of self, of national borders and state-centrism blurring, meaning that individuals increasingly

come to share one, the same, world. Singer (2002) argues that this decentralization of the worlds


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markets and drivers, and the construction of this new, wholly global society, makes them

interdependent, constituting the basis for an entirely new ethic.

This new ethic, according to Singer (2002), accommodates the interests of everyone living on the planet,

not just those select few who happen to be lucky enough to live in the developed world, and to have

access to everything they need. Singer (2002) argues that this new ethic is beginning to manifest itself in

society, and that, at no previous point in history has such a truly global ethic been developed.

This ethic is manifested in the ways in which certain individuals choose to speak out against global

issues, such as free trade and global warming, as a way in which to define their self. Their sense of

identity, their reflexive narrative understanding of their own self is as part of this global movement.

Singer (2002) argues that a new moral philosophy needs to be developed that is no longer dependent on

borders but which is dependent on this idea of one world. We can, through technology, connect to

anyone and anywhere we wish, and so, in some sense, the narratives of self that are maintained are

maintained in the knowledge of our global position, our global responsibility.

Singer (2002) thus argues for a change in how we view our moral responsibilities across borders, due to

the process of globalisation, arguing that morality itself has become globalised, and that, as such, we

need to consider all citizens of the planet in our decisions, not simply just those in our immediate

surroundings. This is, of course, a consequence of our sense of selves being extended from our local

environment to a more global context.

Globalisation is generally agreed to result in an increasing overall homogeneity, and an increase in

standardisation, in broad terms, across the world, due to the swapping of local business and media by

multinationals.

As Hall (1997) and Giddens (199) argue, this homogenising tendency leads to crises of the self (Hall,

1997) and to re-definitions of self, on the basis of reflexive narratives (Giddens, 1990). As Hall (1997)

argues, in the newly globalising world, individuals are both producers and consumers of culture at the

same time, leading to the situation in which identity is in crisis.


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Old identities, which stabilised the social world, are in decline and new, fragmented, identities are

becoming prominent, leading to the crisis of the individual, which Hall (1997) sees as part of a wider

process of change that is dislocating the central structures and processes of society, consequently

undermining the frameworks that gave individuals stable anchorage in the social world.


Giddens (1990) contends that as different areas of the globe are drawn in to interconnection with one

another, waves of social transformation crash across the whole earths surface, changing the nature of

modern institutions. These institutions then take on new forms and are organised on quite different

principles, disembodying the social space, lifting relations out from the local contexts of interaction and

restructuring them across indefinite time-space dimensions (Giddens, 1990), leading to discontinuities.

...the transformations involved in modernity are more profound than most sorts of change

characteristic of prior periods. On the extensional plane, we have served to establish forms of social

interconnection which span the globe; in intentional terms they have come to alter some of our most

intimate and personal features of our day-to-day existence. (Giddens, 1990, p.21).

As Ernst et al. (2006) argue, culture has, through the process of globalisation and through the enabling

force of technology, made the world smaller and more accessible, leading to cultures merging and

traditions being swept away and ultimately, to the bastardisation of cultures. As Ernst et al. (2006)

show in their cultural survey, this bastardisation does not lead to a blanket homogenisation of culture,but rather to different individual responses to the consequences of globalisation.

They argue that the rise of the handmade culture is a response to globalisation, that individuals are

expressing themselves through their creativity, something that is enabled, as never before, in this

technological world in which one can buy a laptop with enough editing software to be able to produce

video, music, high quality photographs and all manner of other programmes to enable creativity and

connectedness.

Ernst et al. (2006) thus argue that, in spite of globalisation appearing to lead to homogenisation, a

process of crises in identity (Hall, 1997) and an evaluation of an individuals reflexive narratives

(Giddens, 1990), leads to an outpouring of creativity and to the active production of self through this

creativity. For Ernst et al. (2006), therefore, globalisation in the postmodern world, allows multiple


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narratives to be creatively developed, tested and upheld as and when desired. Globalisation is actually,

therefore, actively leading to the creation of individuality (Ernst et al., 2006).

Ruediger (2006) takes this argument further, stipulating that; Globalization is not the problem as

such...The real problem is that cultures lack the strength to cultivate and enforce values outside of

economic norms and widen their transnational scope successfully. Globalization enhances a cultural

crisis. Culture is not referred to here as a mere cultural branch, which offers an array of entertainment

from pure spectacle to modern free time pleasures.

Simply put, culture is a society-dependent, tradition-based, cognitive and value-building ritual and

reflection canon. It creates a commitment (in attitude and behaviour), to values...in regards to ethics

and morals...In individuals, it also creates the cognitive ability in dealing with complexity, which is

essential to the existential and personal search for identity and freedom... (Ruediger, 2006, p.157).

Thus, globalisation, in this sense, is a force that inspires an enabling of the multiple narrative

development of a sense of self, through searching, creatively, for a sense of ones own identity. The

choice of clothes one wears, the choice of friends, the choice of books/blogs/magazines one reads, all of

these can be freely made, from a global pool, in order to construct a narrative for ones sense of self

that is workable for that individual.

The globalisation of ideas, of information, has thus been a great enabler of the post-modern

development of self identity, in terms of opening up the number of possible narratives and providing

evidence that alternative narratives are not only possible, but also desirable.

Therefore; One does not simply become an integral part of a given culture, but rather trends and fads

decide on the validity of a person and give proof that one is capable of becoming integrated as an

individual..In fact, we are recipients, members of consumer target groups, who perform quasi-religious

acts of substitution in the name of cultural self-conception. (Ruediger, 2006, p.154).

The globalised world enables such self-directed participation, as active creators of ones own identity,

where an individual will fit in somewhere, due to the re-defining of social space as a variety of niches,

all of which are open for new members who have defined their reflexive self on the basis of that

particular narrative.


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Chapter 6

Conclusion

This chapter will provide a review of the main conclusions of each previous chapter and will then

present a summary of conclusions regarding the issue of identity formation in the postmodern world.

In Chapter 1, postmodernity was discussed, and it was seen that postmodernism, can be defined as a

reaction to modernism, as a state (or complex set of states) that lacks a clear organizing principle which

embodies complexity, contradiction, ambiguity and interconnectedness.

It was seen that some academics question the presence of postmodernity, arguing that postmodernism

does not exist. Giddens (1991), for example, prefers to use the term post-traditionalist to describe the

state of society at the moment. Postmodernism is, to some, a world view, whereas to others, it is little

more than a buzz word (Hebdige, 2006).

As was seen, Kirby (2006) argues that, following the rise of pseudo-modernism, postmodernism is dead,

with other authors arguing that postmodernism was never a movement, rather only ...the rough

outline of a set of self-referential ideals than a genuine cultural movement. (Willis, 2007, p.44).

Chapter 1 then moved on to ask what is identity in a postmodern world? finding that, for many,

identity is now a fluid concept, an open question, a construct that is built as one moves along, according

to ones environment and ones interests and interactions: be these physical or virtual. In a postmodern

sense, the self is shifting, fluid, or as Berzonsky (2005) argues, identity is dynamic, multiplistic,

relativistic, context-specific and fragmented (Berzonsky, 2005). As Berzonsky (2005) argues, ego identity

may serve as a way in which individuals reach out from a personal standpoint in a fractured,

postmodern world.


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Chapter 2 is the literature review and methodology. The literature review was done using both the

internet searching for the relevant bibliographic databases and the sources of authority. A list of the

literature used is detailed in the References section of this work.

This study was conducted, using a library/literature based approach method. No primary research was

conducted to gather empirical data. This was due to several factors including, insufficient human

resources and time restraints. Furthermore, factors such as the highly theoretical standpoints, and at

times sensitive nature of some of the topics (recreational drug consumption) explored in this study, lent

considerable support to the proposed appropriateness of choosing this particular research method in

this instance.

Chapter 3 looked at recreational drug taking and the culture that surrounds this fact. In conclusion,

recreational drugs are used widely by youth, across the world, especially those connected with thedance scene in some way, although it is known that children as young as 11 or 12 are using cannabis on

a regular basis (see McCrystal et al., 2006), and so the drug problem is not just confined to clubbers.


Chapter 4 looked at the issue of consumption and identity, arguing that postmodernism has led to a

shift in the bases for identity formation, something that itself, per se, marks the postmodern era. As

Lyon (2000) puts it, we are recipients of entertainment, shopping for a self.

It is concluded that we live in a consumerist society, which offers us the chance for multiple narratives to

be developed, maintained and changed at will, as circumstances dictate.

Chapter 5 looked at Globalisation and Identity. The globalised world enables self-directed participation

as active creators of ones own identity.

Individuals are freer than ever before to enter in to a reflexive narrative process regarding how they

have created themselves and how they want to develop themselves in future. We can watch this

reflexive narrative process (Giddens, 1991) almost daily, as individuals constantly create new selves in

the reality TV programmes that bring us stories of would-be singers, celebrities, Entrepreneurs, dancers,

and so on (Pop Idol, The Hills, The Apprentice and Dancing with the Stars, for example).


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In many such programmes, we are shown amateurish individuals, who are then taken through a process

of development, leading to them becoming what they have always wanted to be (a singer, or a dancer

or a chef, and so on, depending on the particular programme). The whole of Giddens' (1991) reflexive

narrative theory is laid bare for viewers.

These shows tell us that we can reinvent ourselves, we can hold multiple narratives regarding our sense

of self: it is there, for us to see, with our own eyes! Perhaps this is postmodernism in action, the

creation of manufactured selves through the choosing of a pathway through multiple possible

narratives.

The world has never been so open and information has never flowed so freely: it is natural that identity

would be fluid in times such as these, where the possibilities are open for anyone to form any narrative

they wish, in an environment where any narrative can find a place, physical or virtual.

In summary; self identity and postmodernism is a complex issue, constantly being (re)shaped by many

factors, such as globalisation and the subsequent loss of traditions that this process entails.

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Identity Formation in the Postmodern World