Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko

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thecanadianencyclopedia.ca

h n

Robert Bothwell

3 minutes

Gouzenko was given a new identity, and for the rest of his life he

and his family had police protection. He produced a memoir, This

Was My Choice (1948), and a novel, The Fall of a Titan, which

received the Gov Gen's Award (1954).

Gouzenko, Igor

Igor Gouzenko on television, 1966. Over half of the convictions under the

Official Secrets Act were a result of Gouzenko's defection (courtesy Library

and Archives Canada/PA-129625).

Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko

Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko, intelligence officer, author (bat

Rogachov, USSR 13 Jan 1919; d near Toronto late June 1982). At

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I

:1

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the beginning of WWII Gouzenko took intelligence training and in

1943 was appointed cipher clerk at the Soviet legation in Ottawa,

where he learned that Soviet intelligence operated several spy

networks in Canada. Disenchanted with Soviet life and politics, he

decided to defect when he learned in 1945 that he and his family

were to be sent home. On Sept 5 Gouzenko left the embassy with

documents illustrating Soviet espionage activities. Initially, no one in

Ottawa took him seriously; only on Sept 7, following an abortive

Soviet attempt to recapture him, were he and his family given

protective custody. When it became evident that a widespread

espionage network was operating, Mackenzie King's government

authorized the arrest of 12 suspects. After interrogation, they were

brought before a royal commission. Gouzenko's testimony and

documents impressed the commissioners, who confirmed in July

1946 that a spy ring had been operating in Canada, aimed at,

among other things, the secrets of the atomic bomb. A number of

suspects were subsequently convicted and imprisoned.

Gouzenko was given a new identity, and for the rest of his life he

and his family had police protection. He produced a memoir, This

Was My Choice (1948), and a novel, The Fall of a Titan, which

received the Gov Gen's Award (1954). From time to time he

emerged from the shadows, always wearing a protective mask,

which for most Canadians became his trademark. Even his death,

apparently from natural causes, was surrounded in secrecy.

2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.

NATO: When Canada Really Mattered about:reader?url=http://v.rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/na ...

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n

Norman Hillmer

5-7 minutes

On 4 April 1949, in the auditorium of the State Department on

Washington's Constitution Avenue, the foreign ministers of Canada,

the United States, the United Kingdom, France and eight other

countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty.

On 4 April 1949, in the auditorium of the State Department on

Washington's Constitution Avenue, the foreign ministers of Canada,

the United States, the United Kingdom, France and eight other

countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty. An armed attack on one

member, the treaty's Article 5 pledged, would be an armed attack

on them all.

The leading historian of the event called it a Second American

Revolution, radically transforming United States foreign policy. It

was no less a revolution for Canada. North America was engaging

itself in the security of Europe for the long haul.

Louis St. Laurent was a prime architect of Canada's international

policies after WWII and promoted Canadian membership in NATO

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(courtesy NACIC-8099/copyright Bill and Jean Newton).

External Affairs minister L. B. Pearson signed Canada's first

peacetime military alliance on that brilliant spring afternoon, stating

that it was born out of fear, frustration and hope.

Fear of the military might of the Soviet Union, at the head of an

aggressive, subversive communist juggernaut on the move.

Frustration that the United Nations had fallen so short of its original

aims and dreams, and could not be relied on as an organization for

the protection of its members.

But hope, too, that the North Atlantic Treaty could be a pact for

peace and progress, not a narrow and old-fashioned military

alliance. A pact, furthermore, that would prevent an American

retreat into isolationism or a resort to unilateralism.

Before 1939, Canada had been a dry, cautious place, dragged

down by the Depression and chary of a role in the world. Yet the

hermit nation contributed mightily to victory in the Second World

War, putting one of every ten Canadians in uniform and pouring

food and weapons and economic assistance into the allied cause.

Canada came out of the war buoyant, with a powerful economy and

a realization that the world was too small to allow a return to a

pinched past. The country was united at home and atthe height of

its international influence. It had the finest medium-sized foreign

office in the world, the Department of External Affairs, which

supplied Canada's strategy for the North Atlantic Treaty

discussions.

Canada was one of the treaty's three initiators, along with traditional

partners Britain and the US. Louis St. Laurent, who preceded

Pearson as foreign minister, had been among the first public

advocates of a regional defence arrangement, telling the United

Nations in the late summer of 194 7 that it had become "frozen in

futility and divided by dissension." Democratic and peace-loving

states were being driven in the direction of forming their own

association with more specific obligations to ensure security.

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Pearson, then St. Laurent's deputy, had worked through the night in

his New York hotel room to craft the speech. He remembered that

the words of the respected Quebec politician-soon-to-be-prime

minister "gripped the attention of the world assembly."

Founding members of NATO, 1949 (Hulton Archives, HB-7277).

Initiators became negotiators. Canadians were present at the

creation of the treaty document, and were key drafters of Articles 4

and 5, dealing with consultation and obligations. Article 2,

moreover, was the result of sheer Canadian insistence and

perseverance. It summoned alliance members to improve

themselves and each other politically, socially and economically.

The argument behind the "Canadian article," its instant nickname,

was that there must be the development of a genuine North Atlantic

community if the alliance was to endure and reach out to find the

better, safer ground of a sane and moral world. It was inspiring

stuff, and St. Laurent and Pearson meant every word of it.

Canada was more significant at mid-twentieth century than it was

before or could be now. But a remarkable aspect of the North

Atlantic Treaty Organization's more than fifty-year story is that, after

an initial burst of commitment that carried its military to Europe on a

wave of defence spending in the early 1950s, Canada let its

security-building enthusiasm wane.

Canada preferred to regard NATO as a political arrangement, doing

only as much militarily as was necessary to maintain a modicum of

credibility inside the alliance. Nor did it press hard to turn the

Atlantic Alliance into an Atlantic Community, as Article 2 and its

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Canadian champions had promised.

Witness Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's 1969 decision to withdraw

half of the Canadian force from NATO Europe, and the

malnourishment of the military which has followed over the decades

since.

All those who are lining up to write the country off as internationally

invisible and irrelevant at the beginning of the twenty-first century

will find rich ammunition in the long neglect of an alliance Canada

helped to found and shape in the brief moment when it really

mattered in the world.

2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.

Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia

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about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k: ...



Alex Herd

17-22 minutes

The Korean War began 25 June 1950, when North Korean anned

forces invaded South Korea. The war's combat phase lasted until

an armistice was signed 27 July 1953.

The UN flag in Korea

The United Nations flag flies over the lmjin River, l<orea, 1945-1965.

Copyright: Department of National Defence/Library and Archives

Canada!R112-4226-4-E.

Library and Archives Canada

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Two young children, who Peter Chisholm came across on patrol during the Korean

War.

Image: Peter Chisholm/The Memory Project Archive.

http:/lwww.thememoryproject.com!stories/2869:peter-chisholml

The Memory Project Archive.

Members of the l(orean Service Corps, August 1953.

The Korean Service Corps included Korean males who were unable to

serve because of age or disability They worked on infrastructure projects

such as building roads and drainage ditches. In emergencies, they acted

as ammunition porters. Image: Peter Chisholm/The Memory Project

Archive.

The Memory Project Archive

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Allison Furlotte, Korean War veteran

Guardsman Allison Furlotte, 4th Battalion, The Canadian Guards.

Va/earlier (Quebec), 1952. Image: Allison Furlotte/The Memory Project

Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.comlstories/2793:a//ison-joseph

furlotte/


The Korean War began 25 June 1950, when North Korean armed

forces invaded South Korea. The war's combat phase lasted until

an armistice was signed 27 July 1953. As part of a United Nations

(UN) force consisting of 16 countries, 26,791 Canadian military

personnel served in the Korean War, during both the combat phase

and as peacekeepers afterward. The last Canadian soldiers left

Korea in 1957. After the two world wars, Korea remains Canada's

third-bloodiest overseas conflict, taking the lives of 516 Canadians

and wounding more than 1,200. The two ]0reas remain technically

at war today.

Korean Peninsula Divided

Late in the Second World War, the Japanese-held Korean

peninsula was liberated by both Soviet and American armed forces.

Soviet troops occupied the country north of the 38th parallel, with

the Americans to the south. After the war, the Soviets, Americans,

and their Korean supporters could not agree on the country's

government. The United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea,

which included Canadian members, oversaw elections in May

1948, but the Soviets forbid these elections in the north. The pro

West Republic of Korea (ROK) was then founded in the south and

not long after, the communist Democratic People's Republic of

Korea was declared in the north. Both governments sought to unify

all of Korea and civil war broke out in the country in the late 1940s.

Meanwhile, in late 1949, the Chinese Civil War ended with the

establishment of the communist People's Republic of China.

Communist Chinese and Soviet leaders believed that North Korea

could unify Korea by force, without Western interference, The

communists were emboldened by the American decision to limit

assistance to the non-communist nationalist Chinese regime on the

island of Formosa (Taiwan). In late June 1950, with Chinese and

Soviet-supplied weapons and equipment, the North Korean Army

invaded the ROK.

United Nations Intervenes

The United States led the decision to help the ROK through the UN.

The UN General Assembly was dominated by Western countries.

Since the Soviets were boycotting the Security Council because of

the UN's refusal to include the new communist Chinese regime as

one of its five permanent members, the Soviets could not exercise

a veto. The Security Council thus condemned North Korean

aggression and called on UN members "to render every assistance"

to the ROK. On 28 June 1950 Lester B. Pearson, Canada's

Secretary of State for External Affairs, encouraged a Canadian

response through the UN, and under US military leadership. In the

government's view, Canada would fight for the UN and the principle

of collective security.

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Lester B. Pearson

Lester B. Pearson in Ottawa, Ontario, 1945-68. Copyright: Duncan

Cameron/Library and Archives Canada!PA-212238.

LAC

Canada's Military Commitments

Initially, Canada contributed three Royal Canadian Navy destroyers

(HMCS Athabaskan, HMCS Cayuga, and HMCS Sioux) and a

Royal Canadian Air Force transport squadron, No. 426

"Thunderbird" Squadron. American, UN, and domestic pressure

then led to Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent's announcement on 7

August 1950 of a Canadian Army Special Force (CASF) - later

named the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade Group - to expand the

country's UN contributions to Korea.

Louis SL Laurent

Louis St. Laurent, 1960. Image: National Film Board/Library and Archives

Canada!C-000120.

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LAC

Cdn Delegation at United Nations Conference

The Canadian delegation at the United Nations Conference on

International Organization in San Francisco, California, United States.

From left to right are: C.S. Ritchie, P.E. Renaud, Elizabeth Maccallum,

Lucien Maraud, Escott Reid, WF. Chipman, Lester Pearson, J.H. King,

Louis St. Laurent, Rt. Hon. WL. Mackenzie King, Gordon Graydon, M.J.

Coldwell, Cora Casselman, Jean Desy, Hume Wrong, Louis Rasminsky,

L.D. Wilgress, M.A. Pope, R. Chaput. Image: Nicholas Morant I National

Film Board of Canada/Library and Archives Canada I C-047570


War's Early Phases

At first it appeared that the war would be short-lived as, under US

General Douglas MacArthur, UN forces drove the North Koreans

back, first to the 38th parallel, then to Korea's border with China.

However, by the end of October 1950 thousands of Chinese army

"volunteers" crossed the Yalu River into North Korea, driving the

UN forces back south.

Canadian Military Participation

In November 1950, the Canadian Army brigade's 2nd Battalion,

Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Regiment, was sent

overseas and landed in Korea in December. In May 1951, the rest

of the Canadian brigade arrived. For the army, the Korean War

became largely a "war of patrols" in rough, mountainous terrain, but

infantry, tank, and artillery units were also involved in heavy fighting

at the battles of~ (22-25 April 1951 ), Hill 355, also known

as Kowang-San, (22-25 November 1951 and 22-24 October 1952),

and Hill 187 (2-3 May 1953), among many other actions. Eight

Canadian warships took turns in Korean waters protecting UN

aircraft carriers, busting enemy trains along the coasts, and helping

other onshore operations. The air force's transport planes ferried

people and materials across the Pacific Ocean, while 22 Canadian

pilots flew jet aircraft with the United States Air Force in Korea.

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CBC Interview with Lt Col. Dextraze

Normand Eaves, at the mike, and Norman McBain, at the controls,

interviewing Lt. Col. James Dex/raze, commanding officer of the Royal

22nd Regiment © Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission

of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2012).

Source: Library and Archives Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tome/in/Department

of National Defence fonds/PA-183979

Private G.U.I. L mbert

Private G.U.I. Lambert, 2nd Battalion Royal 22e Regiment, reads comic

book in slit trench, Korea, 28 MaY, 1951. © Government of Canada.

Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and

Government Services Canada (2012). Source: Library and Archives

Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tome/in/Department of National Defence fonds/PA-

128806

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PrWate Heath Matthews of Charlie Company

Private Heath Matthews of Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, Royal

Canadian Regiment, awaiting medical aid after night patrol near Hill 166 ©

Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of

Public Works and Government Services Canada (2012). Source: Library

and Archives Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tomelin!Deparlment of National

Defence fonds/PA-128850

Korean Armistice signed

Canadian soldiers in Japan celebrating after the announcement that the

armistice was signed, ending the Korean War, 27 July 1953. Image: Fre.d

Joyce/The Memory Project Archive.

Memory Project Archive

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about:reader?url=http :/ lv.rww. thecanadianencyc l opedia. ca/ en/ arti cle/k ...

'-"'"'"'""'"'""'"""'" '""'"'"~'~""~~"'""' .-.~--~=e,-·:,

2nd Battalion PPCLJ in Korea

A 2nd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry soldier with

locals in Korea, ca. 1943-1965. Image: Canadian Department of National

Defence/Library and Archives Canada!R112-2643-X-E

LAC

Rene Levesque in Korea

Rene Levesque, puts his mini-tape recorder on his head as he mal<es his

way toward RCR troops deeper in enemy territory. Korea, 14 August,

1951. Image: Canadian Department of National Defence/Library and

Archives Canada!C-077793.

LAC

Andre Therrien, Korean War veteran

Lieutenant Therrien (left), commanding officer of the Pioneer Platoon,

poses with Captain Bouffard, commanding officer of A Company, 2nd

Bala/ion, Le Royal 22e Regiment. Korea, Winter 1951-1952. As Mr.

Therrien says, "The mustache is required." Image: Andre Therrien/The

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Memory Project Archive. http:l/www.thememoryproject.com/stories

/2632:andre-therrienl


Andre Therrien with Vincent Massey, Governor General of Canada.

Lieutenant Andre Therrien receiving the Military Cross for bravery in Korea

from His Excellency the Governor General of Canada Vincent Massey The

ceremony took place in front of 2nd Battalion, Le Royal 22e Regiment at

Camp Va/earlier, Quebec in summer 1952. Image: Andre Therrien/The

Memory Project Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com!stories

/2632:andre-therrienl


Allison Furlotte, Korean War veteran

Guardsman Allison Furlotte, 4th Battalion, The Canadian Guards.

Va/earlier (Quebec), 1952. Image: Allison Furlotte/The Memory Project

Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com/stories/2793:allison-joseph

fur/ottel


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"Dr." Joe Cyr (centre) tending to South Korean guerillas who had been injured

Leonard Wells MPA profile.

"Dr." Joe Cyr (centre) tending to South Korean guerillas who had been

injured. Ferdinand Demara pretended to be Dr. Cyr and was found out after

being awarded a medal. Image: Leonard Wells/The Memory Project

Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com/stories/2642:leonard-wells/


Sailor Leonard Wells of HMCS Cayuga in Korea, 1950-1952.

Image: Leonard Wells/The Memory Project Archive.

http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/2642:leonard-wells/

The Memory Project Archives

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Daniel Kendrick, Korean War veteran.

Neil Goodwill and Daniel Kendrick in Sasebo, Japan, 1953. Image: Daniel

Kendrick/The Memory Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com

/stories/2851 :daniel-kendrickl


HMCS Huron, Korean War; Daniel Kendrick's MPA profile.

HMCS Huron in dry dock for repairs in Sasebo, Japan after running

aground on the Korean island of Yang-do on 13 July 1953. Image: Daniel

Kendrick/The Memory Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com

/stories/2851 :daniel-kendrickl


A "wolf pack" (South Korean guerrilla fighters) with their sampan in 1952.

Image: Don Jatiouk!The Memory Project Archive.

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http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/2267:don-jatioukl


South Korean navy patrol ship. foundered on rocks and sinking in the

Yellow Sea, 1952. Image: Don Jatiouk/The Memory Project Archive.

http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/226 7:don-jatioukl


Brigadier~General Jean Victor Allard, 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade Commande~(

2nd from right).

Visiting R ("Roger'J Battery, 81st Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery,

May 1953. Donovan Redknap was a lieutenant in Roger Battery. Image:

Donovan Redknap!The Memory Project Archive.


Joseph Ganin, Korean War veteran.

At the frontline in 1952, soldiers are ready to go replace American troops.

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Joseph Ganin is on the right. Image: Joseph Ganin, The Memory Project

Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com!storiesl2576.joseph-ganinl


Joseph Ganin, Korean War veteran.

Josseph Ganin, Korean War veteran, aboard the boat that brings him back

to Canada, his tour in Korea complete. Image: Joseph Ganin/The Memory

Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com!stories/2576:joseph

ganinl


John Woods at 25 Canadian Infantry Brigade headquarters, Korea, 1951.

Image: John Woods/The Memory Project Archive.


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UnHed Nations Poster

A poster for the United Nations in 1943, issued by the United States Office

of War Information. Image: Harry MayerovitchA.ibrary and Archives

Canada/1981-32-23


End of the War and Aftermath

Patrol in Korea

Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry returning from patrol in Korea,

1951 (courtesy Library and Archives Canada!PA-128073).

After several months of movement by both sides, in mid-1951 the

front lines became static near the 38th parallel. Until the war ended

the fighting took place along these lines, mostly consisting of

patrols and raids against hilltop trench positions across the area in

between UN and enemy lines, known as "No Man's Land." During

the two years that followed the 1953 armistice, Canadians

continued to serve in Korea; many were troops who guarded and

patrolled the ROK's side of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which

continues to separate the two Koreas. All Canadian armed forces

personnel who served in Korea from 1950 to 1957 are considered

Korean War veterans.

See also f<oje-Do and Battle of f<apyong.

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Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v,,rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...

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LI

n

Jon Tattrie

8-10 minutes

The 1956 Suez Crisis was a military and political confrontation in

Egypt that threatened to divide the United States and Great Britain,

potentially harming the Western military alliance that had won the

Second World War. Lester B. Pearson, who later became prime

minister of Canada, won a Nobel Peace Prize for using the world's

first, large-scale United Nations peacekeeping force to de-escalate

the situation.

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' 1nsu

A map of the Suez Canal.

Image: University of Texas Libraries, Perry-Castaneda Library Map

Collection: Egypt Maps.

University of Texas Libraries

,e

Egypt

Sinai Peninsula -- lntomatlonnl boundary

~ Hnllroad

-- Expr06SW8y

-- Road

A map of the Sinai Peninsula.

Image: University of Texas Libraries, Perry-Castaneda Library Map

Collection: Egypt Maps.

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University of Texas.

The 1956 Suez Crisis was a military and political confrontation in

Egypt that threatened to divide the United States and Great Britain,

potentially harming the Western military alliance that had won the

Second World War. Le§:1:er:J3. Pearson, who later became prime

minister of Canada, won a Nobel Peace Prize for using the world's

first, large-scale United Nations peacekeeping force to de-escalate

the situation.

Egypt Seizes Canal

At Port Said in Egypt, ca. 1910-1915.

Image: Library of Congress/Prints and Photographs Division!LC-

82-3280-11.

Library of Congress

The Suez Canal directly links the Mediterranean Sea to the Red

Sea. It was built by Egyptian workers under the French and British

owned Suez Canal Company, and opened in 1869. The company

was seized and nationalized by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel

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®

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Nasser on 26 July 1956. The move worried Western governments,

as the canal was a vital route for oil travelling to Britain. If Egypt

blocked the flow of oil, Nasser could badly damage the British

economy.

The Egyptian seizure came during the Cold War, further ratcheting

up the tensions. Egypt's stated reason for the nationalization of the

canal was to use the shipping tolls to finance construction of the

Aswan Dam - which promised to control flooding on the Nile, and

provide hydroelectricity as well as other means of industrializing the

country. Nasser continued to operate the canal as usual, but Britain,

France and their regional ally Israel began plotting a military

response. Nasser, meanwhile, obtained military arms from the

Soviet Union.

Bombing the Canal

A tanker moving goods through the Suez Canal, 2008.

Image: Daniel Csorfoly!Wikicommons.

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Daniel Csorfoly/Wikicommons.

When diplomacy failed to produce a solution, France, Britain and

Israel secretly plotted to attack, without informing the US, Canada

and other NATO allies. Israeli forces advanced on 29 October to

within 42 kilometers of the canal. Britain and France ordered both

Israel and Egypt to withdraw from the Canal Zone (a move pre

planned with Israel). Nasser did not retreat. On 31 October, Britain

and France began bombing the Canal Zone.

The US, not wanting a war, had urged Britain to seek peace. British

aggression in Egypt caused the biggest rift between these

important allies in the 20th century.

Canada Becomes Peacemaker

Mr. Lester B. Pearson addressing one of the committees at the United Nations

Conference on International Organization in San Francisco, 1945.

Image: United Nations/Library and Archives Canada/C-018532.

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LAC

Publicly, the Canadian government's role was that of conciliator.

Privately, however, Ottawa strongly objected to the military action

out of concern that it was dividing the Commonwealth, damaging

relations with the US, and risking a wider war.

Pearson was Canada's secretary of state for external affairs

(foreign minister) and headed Canada's delegation to the UN. He

had played an important role in the creation of the state of Israel in

1947. He spent the summer and fall of 1956 working toward a

diplomatic solution to the Suez Crisis. When that failed, and the

bombing began, Pearson changed tactics.

Working with colleagues at the UN, he developed the idea for the

UN's first, large-scale Qeacekeel2i!Jg force. At that time, UN military

observers were already being used to monitor cease-fire

agreements in Kashmir and Palestine, but a more robust and

armoured peacekeeping force had not been tried before.

Addressing the UN General Assembly in New York, in the midst of

the Suez Crisis, Pearson made his case for a "peace and police

force," saying: "Peace is far more than ceasing to fire."

On 4 November, 57 UN states voted in favour of the idea and 19

abstained; no country voted against the peacekeeping mission. The

following day, however, British and Fre.nch paratroops ignored the

vote and landed in the Canal Zone.

The US continued to pressure British Prime Minister Sir Anthony

Eden to find a peaceful resolution. A cease-fire was arranged,

beginning on 6 November, and UN peacekeepers later entered the

canal area. Pearson's solution allowed Britain, France and Israel to

withdraw their forces without giving the appearance of having been

defeated. A United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) under the

command of Canadian General E.L.M. Burns, and including a

Canadian supply and logistics contingent, was in place by late

November.

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Canadian members of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) on the border

between Egypt and Israel, 1962.

Image: Department of National Defence/Library and Archives Canada

IPA-122737.

LAC

Pearson Wins the Nobel Peace Prize

Pearson won the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize for his initiative in Egypt.

In his acceptance speech, he highlighted Canada's important role in

the breakthrough.

"I realise also that I share this honour with many friends and

colleagues who have worked with me for the promotion of peace

and good understanding between peoples. I am grateful for the

opportunities I have been given to participate in that work as a

representative of my country, Canada, whose people have, I think,

shown their devotion to peace."

Some in Canada and Britain objected to Ottawa's perceived lack of

support for Britain. In the 1957 Canadian election, Pearson's

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Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://wv,rv,1.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...

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Liberals, under the leadership of Prime Minister Louis St-Laurent,

faced accusations that they had betrayed Britain - still regarded by

many Canadians as the Mother Country. Pearson defended his

position as the best way to stop the fighting before it spread. The

hostile view of some Canadians towards their country's role in the

Suez Crisis is thought to have played a part in the Liberal

government's defeat in the national election.

Pearson, however, would go on to become prime minister six years

later in 1963. And his role in creating the UN's first modern

peacekeeping force pointed the way to the future; UN-sponsored

peacekeeping missions would become the proud centrepiece of

Canada's military and diplomatic activities around the world for

decades to come.

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NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v,,rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...

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-The nadian ncyclopedia

J.L. Granatstein

7-8 minutes

The North American Defence Agreement was a 1957 pact that

placed under joint command the air forces of Canada and the

United States. Its name was later changed to the North American

Aerospace Defence Command.

NORAD

At the airshow in Bagotville, Quebec on 27 June 2013, a Royal Canadian

Air Force (RCAF) CF-18 fighter shows NORAD colours on its tail.

31908873 © Jean-francois Rivard I Dreamstime.com

31908873 © Jean-francois Rivard I Dreamstime.com

The North American Air Defense Agreement was a 1957 pact that

placed under joint command the air forces of Canada and the

United States. Its name was later changed to the North American

Aerospace Defense Command, but it kept the NORAD acronym.

Cold War Fears

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On 1 August 1957, the Canadian and American governments

announced the two countries would integrate their air-defence

forces under a joint command at Colorado Springs, Colorado. The

Cole;! War between the Soviet Union and western nations was

underway, and both Canada and the US feared long-range Soviet

attack. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and the United

States Air Force (USAF) would work together to ensure continental

protection.

NORAD describes itself as providing aerospace defence, which

"includes the detection, validation, and warning of attack against

North America whether by aircraft, missiles, or space vehicles."

Controversies

NORAD has occasionally been a focus of controversy. In 1957,

Prime Minister John Diefenbaker and National Defence Minister

Georg_e Pe~rkes, just installed in office, hastily accepted the advice

of the Canadian military and agreed to integrate the RCAF with the

USAF for the air defence of the continent. Critics felt the decision

was taken without adequate preparation (the formal signing did not

take place until 12 May 1958, one indication of subsequent

concerns), and the Conservative Diefenbaker government was

roasted by the Liberal opposition for its haste.

John Diefenbaker

The Diefenbaker era featured the personality and the style of the "man

from Prince Albert" (courtesy Library and Archives Canada!C-6779).

Technically, the agreement has been a success - co-ordinating two

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air forces in pursuit of a difficult mission, and keeping Canadian air

crews in line with NORAD doctrine and policy. However, because

the consent of both governments is required before any formal

alerts or action, there has sometimes been difficulty in

implementation, most notably in 1962 during the Cuban Missile

Crisis. The American military went on standby alert in 1962 as soon

as the crisis was apparent, but the Canadian government delayed

for a period of days, angering the administration of US President

John F. Kennedy, and provoking much criticism in Canada.

Cheyenne Mountain and Peterson AFB

In 1966, NORAD's command moved into the Cheyenne Mountain

Operations Center, a giant bunker complex situated underground in

Colorado Springs. It remained the main headquarters until 2006,

when the command centre moved to nearby Peterson Air Force

Base, and the Cheyenne Mountain complex became a backup

command centre.

NORAD has been maintained by successive governments. The

renaming of the command in 1981 reflected a new emphasis on

defence and warning against missiles. The advent of cruise

missiles also increased NORAD's necessity. The Canadian

government recognized this in 1985 by replacing the Distant Early

Warning (DEW) Line that had been built in the 1950s with the North

Warnin_g_~y_l:,tem - a series of radar installations across the

Canadian North.

DEW Line Site

The former DEW radar station at Hall Beach, NWT (photo by Sergeant Jim

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Smith/courtesy Canadian Forces).

In response to changing threats and the collapse of the Soviet

Union in 1991, the United States began moving its warning,

detection and surveillance into space. This shift in emphasis

lessened the importance of Canadian geography in the overall

North American aerospace defence strategy. A 1992 NORAD

strategy review said that while the Soviet Union no longer existed,

its successor states, primarily Russia, still had the weapons

NORAD was designed to protect against. The review also flagged

the threat of a possible terrorist attack with cruise missiles or similar

weaponry.

2001 Terror Attacks

Immediately after the September 2001 terror attacks in the US,

NORAD started Operation Noble Eagle to protect North American

airspace against further such events. NORAD responded to 2,100

potential threats by June 2006 and flew 42,000 sorties with military

aircraft.

Diverted Aircraft, September 11, 2001

Diverted Aircraft Landing at Halifax Stanfield International Airport on

September 11, 2001

Courtesy of Halifax International Airport Authority

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In 2006, Canada and the US renewed NORAD. The new pact

made the arrangement permanent, subject to review every four

years or at the request of either country. It also expanded NORAD's

mission into maritime (ocean) warnings, although the naval forces

of the two countries remain under separate commands.

In 2009, NORAD monitored North Korean nuclear and missile tests,

but decided the tests posed no immediate threat.

NORAD also provided air security at the 2010 Vancouver Winter

Olympics. It has provided similar protection to NASA space shuttle

launches, to G8 summit meetings and to Super Bowl football

games.

In 2012, NORAD renamed its headquarters at Peterson Air Force

Base the Eberhart-Findley Building, after both an American

general, and RCAF Lieutenant-General Eric Findley. Findley was

the first Canadian military officer to have his name used for a US

military command centre.

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Avro Arrow - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://w,vw.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/a ...

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rrow -The ncyclopedi

John Kirton

3-4 minutes

1an

Avro Arrow (CF-105), an advanced, supersonic, twin-engined, all

weather interceptor jet aircraft developed by A.V. Roe of Canada

from 1949 until the government's controversial cancellation of the

project in 1959.

Janusz Zurakowski, engineer

Janusz Zurakowski after the first flight of the Avro CF-105, Arrow; 25 March

1958, Malton, Ontario (courtesy Library and Archives Canada/C-61731).

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AvroArrow

The Arrow was the most advanced military aircraft of its time but it was

cancelled, and Canada purchased American equipment instead (courtesy

The Arrow Heads/Boston Mills Press).

Avro Arrow (CF-105), an advanced, supersonic, twin-engined, all

weather interceptor jet aircraft developed by A.V. Roe of Canada

from 1949 until the government's controversial cancellation of the

project in 1959. Encouraged by A.V. Roe's success in developing

the Avro CF-100 Canuck and recognizing the need for an aircraft to

counter the threat of Soviet bombers over the demanding Canadian

North, enthusiastic RCAF officers, defence scientists and defence

industry officials had persuaded the Liberal government by

December 1953 to authorize two prototype airframes in anticipation

of a production run of up to 600 aircraft costing $2 million apiece.

Canada was also forced to develop the Arrow's engine and fire

control and missile systems, and estimated costs rose to $12.5

million per aircraft. Test flights indicated that with the proper

engines the plane could well be the world's fastest and most

advanced interceptor. However, doubts mounted as the

government's order shrank to 100 and unit costs rose. In October

1958, to cut costs, the new Conservative government terminated

Canadian fire-control and missile development, and renewed efforts

to sell the aircraft to the US, just when the US was promoting

Bomarc missiles and the USSR's launch of an ICBM missile was

raising doubts about the priority of the Soviet bomber threat.

After export efforts again failed, the project was cancelled on 20

February 1959. A.V. Roe bitterly fired 14,000 employees; the

government ordered all plans and prototypes destroyed; and many

Canadians bemoaned the devastation of Canada's aircraft industry,

the resulting flight of scientists and engineers to the US, and

Canada's renewed dependence on the US for interceptor aircraft.

See also Avro Arrow: "There Never Was an Arrow."

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ii . n .. n n

n

Denis Stairs

4-5 minutes

The 1962 stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which posed a

threat to the United States and Canada, brought the world to the

edge of nuclear war.

The 1962 stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which posed a

threat to the United States and Canada, brought the world to the

edge of nuclear war. Although Canadian forces were placed on

heightened alert, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's hesitant

response to the crisis aggravated U.S. President John F. Kennedy,

and fuelled already difficult relations between Canada and the U.S.

in the 1960s.

Missiles Discovered

The Cuban Missile Crisis began on 15 October 1962, at the height

of the Cold War, when an American spy plane took photographs of

ballistic missiles, belonging to the Soviet Union, being installed in

Cuba. The missiles, designed to deliver nuclear warheads, were

capable of hitting targets anywhere in the United States or Canada.

U.S. President John F. Kennedy and his advisors secretly

discussed what to do about this unexpected threat for a week. After

rejecting calls from his military to launch air strikes against the

missile sites, Kennedy mounted an immediate naval blockade of

Cuba. He announced the crisis, and the blockade, in a televised

address to the American public on 22 October, threatening further

action if the missile sites were not dismantled.

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Canada Hesitates

Like other NATO leaders, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker was

personally informed by Kennedy of the U.S. plan, shortly before the

televised broadcast. The two leaders did not get along well at the

best of times. On the phone with Kennedy, Diefenbaker was

sceptical about the Soviet Union's intentions. He asked to see

further proof of what was taking place on the ground in Cuba.

Diefenbaker urged Kennedy to send a team of United Nations

inspectors to Cuba to verify what the Soviets were doing there.

The main issue for the Canadian government was whether to

comply with an American request to move Canadian forces to a

higher alert status known as "DEFCON-3." Diefenbaker was

reluctant. Not only did he dislike Kennedy, he was angry that the

U.S. hadn't consulted Canada earlier in the crisis. He and Canada's

Foreign Minister, Secretary of State for External Affairs Howard

Green, were also wary of falling quickly into line with U.S. wishes.

The Canadian government was also concerned that placing its

military on alert might provoke the Soviet Union.

"DEFCON-3"

In spite of these concerns and delays, National Defence Minister

Douglas Harkness allowed Canadian units to quietly raise their

readiness alert level to "DEFCON-3." Formal authorization,

however, was delayed while the Cabinet debated the matter over

the next two days. Harkness argued that the nature of the crisis,

combined with existing international defence arrangements, made

the alert necessary (Canada was a member, along with the U.S., of

both NATO and NORAD).

About half of Canada's ministers remained undecided on the issue.

But as Soviet ships approached the quarantine zone later in the

week - and other NATO members announced their support for the

blockade - Harkness' position gained support. On 24 October the

Diefenbaker government authorized the "DEFCON-3" alert.

Canadian ships and aircraft also participated in patrols at this time

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to locate Soviet submarines in the North Atlantic.

Canada's hesitant response reflected in part the desire of the

government to preserve the independence of Canadian foreign

policy, and to maintain a balanced posture in crisis conditions. The

delay, however, was widely criticized in Canada, and contributed to

a growing perception of indecisiveness in the Diefenbaker

government.

It also made worse already difficult relations with the Kennedy

administration, and fuelled controversy and confusion in Canada -

underway since the 1960 debate on Bomarc missiles - over

Canadian policy on nuclear weapons.

Crisis Defused

The Cuban Missile Crisis continued for 13 tense days, at which

time the world's two atomic superpowers came uncomfortably close

to nuclear war. The stand-off was resolved with the help of United

Nations diplomats. It ended on 28 October, when Soviet Premier

Nikita Khrushchev agreed to dismantle and remove the Soviet

missiles, in return for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba.

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Bomarc M ile risis ~ The Encyclopedia

Paul Buteux

3-4 minutes

n ian

The Bomarc Missile Crisis was a Cold War-era dispute over

whether Canada should house nuclear missiles as part of its

NORAD air defence agreement with the United States .

Bomarc Missile

The decision of the Conservative government in 1958 to cancel the Avro

Arrow and deploy two squadrons of the American Bomarc missile caused a

crisis in Canadian defence policy (courtesy Canadian Aviation Museum).

The Bomarc Missile Crisis was a Cold War-era dispute over

whether Canada should house nuclear missiles as part of its

NORAD air defence agreement with the United States.

Secret Nuclear Warheads

In the fall of 1958 Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's Conservative

government announced an agreement with the US to deploy two

squadrons of the American ramjet-powered "Bomarc" antiaircraft

missile in Canada. This controversial defence decision was one of

many flowing from the 1957 North American Air Defence (NORAD)

agreement with the US.

It was argued by some that the surface-to-air guided missile, with a

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range of 640 km, would be an effective replacement for the manned

interceptor Avro Arrow, which the Diefenbaker government had

scrapped. The missiles would theoretically intercept any Soviet

attacks on North America before they reached the industrial

heartland of Canada.

Fifty-six missiles were deployed at North Bay, Ontario, and La

Macaza, Quebec, under the ultimate control of the commander-in

chief of NORAD.

The Canadian government did not make it clear that the version to

be acquired, the Bomarc-B, was to be fitted with nuclear warheads.

When this became known in 1960 it gave rise to a dispute as to

whether Canada should adopt nuclear weapons. It led to anti

nuclear protests throughout the country.

Warheads Arrive

In the end the government did not accept nuclear warheads for the

Bomarcs, a reluctance which contributed to poor Canadian

American relations in this period.

The Conservative government was divided over the issue. Its

Cabinet failed to make a firm decision on whether Canada should

honour its NORAD obligations and house the nuclear missiles, or

maintain Canada's opposition to the spread of nuclear weapons.

The Liberal Opposition said that it supported the NORAD

obligations and would accept the nuclear warheads.

The Conservatives lost the 1963 election, in part over the Bomarc

issue. The Liberals returned to power under Prime Minister Lester

Pearson and decided to accept nuclear .warheads for Canadian

nuclear-capable forces. The Bomarc warheads were delivered to

their sites on 31 December 1963.

Canada Signs Treaty

In 1969 Prime Minister Pierre Irudeau's new Liberal government

announced that Canada would withdraw its armed forces from their

nuclear roles.

His government signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which

took force in 1970. As part of this process the Bomarc missile was

phased out of service by 1971.

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Vietnam War - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v.rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vi ...

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Vietnam ncycl

Victor Levant

7-9 minutes

rm The ia

nadian

The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era conflict between communist

Northern Vietnamese forces and United States-backed Southern

Vietnamese forces. Canada officially played the role of neutral

peacemaker, but secretly backed the American effort in Vietnam.

A South Vietnamese soldier stands on his tank to survey the situation at

Xom Suoi, about 20 miles north of Saigon, on 7 February 1973.

(photo by Boris Spremo, courtesy f/ickr)

French Colonialism vs Nationalism

The Vietnam War had its roots in the French colonial conquest of

Indochina in the mid-19th century and in the nationalist movements

that arose to oppose it. At the end of the Second World War, on 2

September 1945, nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the

Democratic Republic of Viet-Nam an independent country. He

named the northern city of Hanoi its capital. The French attempt to

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re-conquer Vietnam met with defeat in the valley of Dien Bien Phu

on 2 May 1954.

The July Geneva Agreements provided for a cease-fire and a

provisional military demarcation line at the 17th parallel, pending

nationwide elections for reunification in July 1956. France withdrew.

Western efforts to divide the country permanently by creating a

Vietnamese republic in Saigon, coupled with the US refusal to hold

the promised elections, led to rebellion, massive US military

intervention and the ensuing civil war. While the US and its allies

supported the South as a means of preventing the spread of

communism in southeast Asia, China and its allies backed the

communist North.

US War Costs Mount

The US tripled its military presence in the country in 1961 and

1962, but failed to defeat the North, which regarded the US as a

colonial aggressor akin to France.

The failure of US policy became apparent in February 1968 when

525,000 American soldiers were unable to stop the insurgents' Tet

Offensive; it would take two more assaults, the third lasting six

weeks, before US and South Vietnamese forces were able to stop

the offensive and retake lost territory.

In January 1973 the Paris Peace Accords were signed, upholding

the unity and territorial integrity of Vietnam. It also provided for the

orderly withdrawal of US troops, the release of 200,000 civilian

detainees and Prisoners of War, and the organization of free and

democratic elections in South Vietnam. The refusal to implement

these last conditions provoked an armed insurrection and on 30

April 1975 the capital of the South, Saigon, fell to Northern forces.

The city was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. The US withdrew from

Vietnam.

The cost of the war was staggering: 1.7 million dead, three million

wounded and maimed, and 13 million refugees. The US dropped 7

million tons of bombs, 75 million litres of jungle-defoliating herbicide

and lost 10,000 helicopters and warplanes. Some 56,000 US

soldiers were killed and another 303,000 were wounded. The direct

cost of the war was $140 billion; indirect costs are estimated at

$900 billion.

Canada's Partisan Role

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During the years 1954 to 1975 Canada served on two international

truce commissions and provided medical supplies and technical

assistance. Canadian diplomats were involved in negotiations

between Washington and Hanoi and successive Canadian

governments, both Liberal and Conservative, maintained that

Ottawa was an impartial and objective peacekeeper, an innocent

and helpful bystander negotiating for peace and administering aid

to victims of the war. However, Cabinet papers, confidential

stenographic minutes of the truce commissions as well as top

secret American government cables revealed Canada to be a

willing ally of US counterinsurgency efforts.

Canada's record on the truce commissions was a partisan one,

rooted in the presumption of Hanoi's guilt and Saigon's innocence

and designed to discredit North Vietnam while exonerating South

Vietnam from its obligations to uphold the Geneva Agreements.

Canadian delegates engaged in espionage for the US Central

Intelligence Agency and aided the covert introduction of American

arms and personnel into South Vietnam while they spotted for US

bombers over North Vietnam.

Canadian commissioners shielded the US chemical defoliant

program from public inquiry, parlayed American threats of

expanded war to Hanoi, and penned the reports legitimating both

the rupture of the Geneva Agreements and the US air war over

North Vietnam. Ottawa would later assert that these actions were

necessary to counterbalance the activities of the Eastern bloc

countries with whom they shared membership on the truce

commissions.

Canada Helps the South

Canadian aid during the war went only to South Vietnam. It totalled

$29 million from 1950-75 and was routed through the Colombo

Planand the Canadian Red Cross. Although humanitarian in

appearance, Canadian assistance was an integral part of the Free

World Assistance Program, co-ordinated by the US Department of

State with the International Security Office of the Pentagon as the

point of contact.

In the field, Canadian capital assistance was regulated by the US

RVN Health Defense Agreement and administered by the

International Military Assistance Force Office in Saigon. On a

number of occasions, Ottawa stopped the shipment of medical

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relief to civilian victims of the war in North Vietnam.

War Boom in Canada

At home, 500 Canadian firms sold $2.5 billion of war materiel

(ammunition, napalm, aircraft engines and explosives) to the

Pentagon. Another $10 billion in food, beverages, berets and boots

for the troops was exported to the US, as well as nickel, copper,

lead, brass and oil for shell casings, wiring, plate armour and

military transport.

In Canada unemployment fell to record low levels of 3.9 per cent,

the gross domestic product rose by 6 per cent yearly, and capital

expenditure expanded exponentially in manufacturing and mining

as US firms invested more than $3 billion in Canada to offset

shrinking domestic capacity as a result of the war.

Agent Orange and Draft Dodgers

The herbicide "Agent Orange" was tested for use in Vietnam at

Canadian Forces Base Gagetown, New Brunswick. US bomber

pilots also practised carpet-bombing runs over Suffield, Alberta, and

North Battleford, Saskatchewan, before their tours of duty in

southeast Asia. And the results of the only successful peace

initiative to Hanoi - by Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning -

would be kept from public knowledge in order not to harm official

US-Canadian relations.

Ten thousand young Canadian men fought in the US armed forces

in the war. At the same time 20,000 American draft-dodgers and

12,000 army deserters found refuge in Canada from military service

in Vietnam.

Refugees

The end of the war sparked a massive movement of refugees out of

South Vietnam. Canada admitted more than 5,600 Vietnamese in

1975 and 1976 - mainly migrants with relatives already living in

Canada. Beginning in 1979, Canada also welcomed about 60,000

refugees from among a second wave of migrants known as the

"boat people" - who fled the country via dangerous sea voyages to

Hong Kong and elsewhere.

See also Americans; Sherwood Lett; James B. Seaborn.

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Documents

Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko