Impacts of Copper on Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Health

7/26/2019 Impacts of Copper on Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Health

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MINING.com January 2009 2

Environment & Communities

copper is one of the most toxic metals toaquatic organisms and ecosystems. This

is just one of the reasons that environ-

mentally sensitive mining practicesare so

important.

Copper is moderately soluble in water

and binds easily to sediments and organic

matter. Bioconcentration, which means

that the concentration of copper is higher

in plants and animals than in the water or

sediments in which they live, is particularly

high in animals found in the sediments at

the bottom of a waterbody and in shellfish,

such as oysters, that can filter materialsfrom large volumes of water. However,

copper does not biomagnify in food

webs. Predators, as Heike Bradl(2005)

andWright and Welbourn(2002) explain

in their textbooks, do not have higher tissue

concentrations than their prey.

The most bioavailable and therefore

most toxic form of copper is the cupric

ion (Cu+2). Fish and crustaceans are 10 to

100 times more sensitive to the toxic ef-

fects of copper than are mammals. Algae,

Impacts of Copper on AquaticEcosystems and Human Health

By Frances Solomon

Copper is an essential trace

nutrient that is required in small

amounts (5-20 micrograms per

gram (g/g)) by humans, other mammals,

fish and shellfish for carbohydrate metab-

olism and the functioning of more than 30

enzymes. It is also needed for the forma-

tion of haemoglobin and haemocyanin,

the oxygen-transporting pigments in the

blood of vertebrates and shellfish respect-

ively. However, copper concentrations that

exceed 20 micrograms per gram (g/g)can be toxic, as explained by Heike Bradl

(2005) andWright and Welbourn(2002).

Copper has been known to humans

for at least 6000 years. Its uses in alloys,

tools, coins, jewelry, food and beverage

containers, automobile brake pads, elec-

trical wiring and electroplating reflect its

malleability, ductility and electrical con-

ductivity. The use of copper to kill algae,

fungi and molluscs demonstrates that it is

highly toxic to aquatic organisms. In fact,

Exposure to copper concentrations can make fish lose their sense of smell and, therefore, reduce their appetite and food intake

especially blue-green algae species, are1,000 times more sensitive to the toxic

effects of copper than are mammals, as

several authors, including Forstner and

Wittman (1979), Hodson (1979) and Wright

and Welbourn (2002), have demonstrated.

This is an exception to the general principle

that aquatic animals are more sensitive

than aquatic plants to the toxic effects of

metals.

A Matter of Life or Death

Fish and shellfishare exposed to copper

via their gills and the water and sedimentsin which they live, as well as through the

food chain. From the 1970s through the

1990s, the impacts of copper on fish

were evident at the Britannia Beach Mine

site in Squamish, British Columbia. The

mine operated from 1905 until 1974, first

as a copper mine and then as a copper-

zinc mine starting in 1929. At that time,

the Britannia Beach Mine was the big-

gest producer of copper in the British

Commonwealth. The mine also produced
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26 MINING.com January 2009


acid rock drainage (ARD) when rain and snow came into contact

with the sulfides in the exposed ores. After the mine was closed,

600 kilograms per day of copper, zinc and sulfuric acid leached

from the mine site to Jane Creek, Britannia Creek and Howe

Sound. Copper levels in the effluent were 20 milligrams per liter

(mg/L), which violated the 15 mg/L effluent standard in the 1970s,

as well as the current standard of 0.1 mg/L. In 1993, EnvironmentCanada classified the Britannia Beach Mine site as the worst ARD

site in Canada (Meech, 2007; Rector, 2007).

The continual discharge of metal-contaminated and ARD-

contaminated effluent and groundwater resulted in a marine dead

zone in Howe Sound. Almost no fish or shellfish were to be found.

The discharge also triggered signif icantly reduced runs of chinook

and chum salmon in Britannia Creek. The installation of a plug

in 2001 to divert effluent away from Howe Sound, as well as a

high density sludge lime treatment plant built in 2005 to neutralize

ARD and precipitate metals from the effluent, have prevented the

discharge of copper and low pH effluent to Howe Sound and its

tributary creeks. Fish have now returned to these waterbodies.

The effects of copper on aquatic organisms can be directly or

indirectly lethal. Gillsbecome frayed and lose their abilit y to regulate

transport of salts such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride

into and out of fish. These salts are important for the normal func-

tioning of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. When the salt

balance is disrupted between the body of a copper-exposed fish

and the surrounding water the death of the fish can result. The

presence of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the water column

provides some protection from the effects of copper on the gills

because copper forms complexes with DOC and will therefore be

less bioavailable. Copper toxicity to fish gills will be higher if the

pH of the water is acidic, the water has low buffering capacity or

the water is soft, i.e., has a low concentration of calcium ions. The

lower toxicity of copper in hard water compared to soft water is

due to the protective effects of calcium ions on and in living cells.Countries such as Canada have outilinedWater Quality Standards

for protection of aquatic life. These standards are stricter for soft

waterthan for hard water(Bradl, 2005; Nriagu, 1980; Wright and

Welbourn, 2002).

Copper also adversely affectsolfaction(sense of smell) in fish.

Detection of odours occurs when dissolved odorant molecules

bind with olfactory receptor molecules. The direct contact of fish

olfactory tissues with the surrounding water facilitates copper

uptake. Copper can affect olfaction by competing with natural

odorants for binding sites, by affecting activation of the olfactory

receptor neurons or by affecting intracellular s ignalling in the neur-

ons (Baldwin et al., 2003).

Fish rely on their sense of smell to find food, avoid predatorsand migrate. Salmon migrate hundreds or thousands of kilometres

from the Pacific Ocean back to the river or stream where they

were born; spawning then occurs in the home r iver or stream.

Successful homing depends on olfaction (McIntyre et al., 2008).

Brief exposure to copper at environmentally realistic concen-

trations can impair the function of olfactory receptor neurons in

coho salmon; longer exposures can kill these neurons, as demon-

strated by Baldwin et al. (2003). When juvenile coho salmon were

exposed for 30 minutes to 20 g/L copper, electrophysiological

recordings from the olfactory tissues indicated an 82% reduction

in olfactory response (McIntyre et al., 2008). Exposure of juvenile

coho salmon for seven days to copper concentrations ranging

from 5-20 g/L caused a concentration-dependent reduction in

olfactory response. The lowest concentration of copper caused

at least a 20% loss of olfactory function. These data suggest that

periodic, non-point source contamination of salmon habitats with

copper could interfere with olfactory function in natural waterbodies

and therefore interfere with olfactory-mediated behaviours, such as

homing, that are important for the survival and migration of salmon

(Sandahl et al., 2004).

Reduced olfaction leads to reduced appetite and food intake,which in turn contr ibute to reduced growth of salmon and other

fish (McIntyre et al., 2008). These are examples of sublethal effects

that are eventually lethal; smaller or weaker f ish will be less resist-

ant to disease and to predation. Furthermore, reduced olfaction

decreases the abilit y of fish of any size to detect predators, thereby

causing them to be more vulnerable to predation.

Hard water and buffered waterdo not protect fish against

copper impacts on olfaction. DOC levels of 0.1-6.0 mg/L were

found to partially restore olfactory capacity in salmon that were

exposed to copper (McIntyre et al., 2008).

Rainbow troutare particularly sensitive to the toxic effects

of copper and other metals. Very low levels of copper (1.4 g/L)

produce a physiological stress response, characterized by hyper-activity, increased blood levels of the stress hormone cortisol and

synthesis of the metal-detoxifying protein metallothionein in the

liver (Taub, 2004).

Copper can impact populations and ecosystems as well as

individual aquatic organisms. For example, whensea scallopswere

exposed to environmental ly realistic concentrations of copper, i.e.,

10-20 g/L, sperm and egg production decreased. Copper also

causes reduced sperm and egg production in many species of

fish, such as fathead minnows, as well as early hatching of eggs,

smaller fry (newly hatched fi sh) and increased incidence of abnor-

malities and reduced survival in the fry (Taub, 2004). Although the

The effects of copper on aquatic organisms can be direct or indirect
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MINING.com January 2009 2


Ecological Impacts of Acid Rock Drainage at the Britannia Beach Mine Site

individual adult sea scallops and adult fish might not be harmed

by copper, the adverse effects of copper on reproductive potential

will lead to smaller populations in subsequent generations.

Because copper is an algaecide, used to control nuisancealgae in lakes and rivers, it is not surprising that it causes de-

creased algal growth when inadvertently discharged to a water-

body. Because algae are at the base of food chains, the amount

of algal biomass present in an aquatic ecosystem will affect the

amount of food available for aquatic animals including zooplankton,

insects, shellfish, fish and aquatic mammals. Additionally, insects

such as mayfliesthat do not tolerate polluted water will disappear

and other species of insects that can tolerate polluted water will

appear.

A change in the composition of the insect community will

affect which species of shellfish and fish are present. The high

toxicity of copper to algae creates a ripple effect throughout the

ecosystem and demonstrates that changing one part of an eco-system will affect the entire ecosystem (Odum, 1971; Taub, 2004;

Wright and Welbourn, 2002).

Impacts on Human Health

Humans are exposed to copper via inhalation of particulate copper

(typical of occupational exposure), drinking copper-contaminated

water and eating copper-contaminated food. However, the toxicity

of copper to humans is relatively low compared to other metals

such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and chromium. When a person

is exposed to copper levels above the essential levels needed

for good health, the liver and kidneys produce metallothionein

This low molecular weight protein binds with the copper to form a

complex that is water-soluble and can be excreted. Additionally,

the availability of copper is low in many foods due to the tendency

of copper to bind with organic matter.Copper is present in normal human serum (the liquid part

of blood) at concentrations of 120-140 g/L. Signs of toxicity will

be seen if the copper concentration rises significantly above this

range (Bradl, 2005; Wright and Welbourn, 2002).

Consequently, the Canadian Federal Drink ing Water standard

for copper is based on the taste of the water, not on protection of

human health. The standard is 1000 g/L, compared to 1 g/L

for mercury, 5 g/L for cadmium, 10 g/L for lead and 50 g/L for

chromium (Wright and Welbourn, 2002). Nevertheless, the high

toxicity of copper to aquatic organisms and ecosystems warrants

source control and treatment measures to prevent and reduce

the discharge of copper from operating, closed and abandoned

mines to surface water and groundwater.

Frances Solomon is an Adjunct Professor at the Norman

B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British

Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. For further information on the toxic

effects of copper and other metals that are mined or emitted as

by-products of mining, register for the online EduMine course

entitled Metal Mining Discharges Impacts and Controls.

EduMineand the University of British Columbia Mining Studies

Institute will offer a three-day classroom version of this course

from October 21-23, 2009.
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28 MINING.com January 2009


Links and References

Acid Rock Drainag e

Aquatic Organisms and Ecosystem

sBaldwin, D. H., J. F. Sandahl, J. S. Labenia and

N.L. Scholz (2003). Sublethal Effects of Copper on

Coho Salmon: Impacts on Nonoverlapping Receptor

Pathways in the Peripheral Olfactory Nervous

System, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

22(10): 2266-2274.

Bradl, Heike (2005). Heavy Metals in the

Environment: Origin, Interaction and Remediation.

Elsevier/Academic Press, London.

Beyond the Mine Mouth: The Equator Principles and

IFC Performance Standards

Bioconcentration

Blue-Green Algae Specie s

Britannia Beach Min e

Britannia Beach Mines Story

Buffered Water

Canadian Federal Water Quality Standard s

Chinook Salmo n

Chum Salmo n

Coho Salmo n

Coppe r

Cortiso l

Dissolved Organic Carbo n

EduMin e

EduMine Course Metal Mining Discharges Impacts

and Controls

Forstner, U. and G.T.W. Witmann (1979). MetalPollution in the Aquatic Environment. Springer-Verlag,

Berlin.

High Density Sludge Lime Treatmen t

Hodson, P.V., U. Borgmann and H. Shear (1979).

Toxicity of Copper to Aquatic Biota. In: Nriagu,

J.O., ed., Biogeochemistr y of Copper, Part II. Health

Effects. John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y., pp.

307-372.

Impacts of Metals on Aquatic Ecosystems and

Human Health

Environmentally Sensitive Mining Practices

Fathead Minnow s

Gill sHard Wate r

Highly Toxic to Aquatic Organisms

Howe Soun d

May fly

McIntyre, Jenifer K., David H. Baldwin, James

P. Meador and Nathaniel L. Scholz (2008).

Chemosensory Deprivation in Juvenile Coho

Salmon Exposed to Dissolved Copper under Varying

Water Chemistry Conditions. Environmental Science

and Technology 42: 1352-1358.

Meech, Joh n(2007). Guest Lecture to Impacts of

Metals on Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Healthclass at University of British Columbia, January 25,

2007.

Metallothionei n

Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering,

UBC

Nriagu, J.O. (ed.) (1980). Copper in the Environment.

John Wiley Publishers, New York, New York.

Olfactio n

Odum, Eugene P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology.

Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.

Rector, David (2007). Lecture at Britannia Beach

Mine Site Wastewater Treatment Plant, Squamish,

B.C., March 24, 2007

Rainbow Trou t

Sandahl, J.F., D.H. Baldwin, J.J. Jenkins and N.L.

Scholz (2004). Odor-Evoked Field Potentials as

Indicators of Sublethal Neurotoxicity in Juvenile Coho

Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) Exposed to Copper,

Chlorpyrifos, or Esfenvalerate, Canadian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61(3): 404-413

Sea Scallop s

Soft Wate r

Taub, Frieda B. (2004), Fish 430 lectures (Biological

Impacts of Pollutants on Aquatic Organisms),

University of Washington College of Ocean and

Fishery Sciences, Seattle, WA.

Wright, David A. and Pamela Welbourn (2002).

Environmental Toxicology. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge, U.K.

Click here for full list of links:

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http://technology.infomine.com/enviromine/ard/home.htmhttp://technology.infomine.com/enviromine/ard/home.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystemhttp://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1http://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1http://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1http://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1http://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1http://www.amazon.co.uk/Heavy-Metals-Environment-Interaction-Remediation/dp/0120883813http://www.amazon.co.uk/Heavy-Metals-Environment-Interaction-Remediation/dp/0120883813http://viewer.zmags.com/showmag.php?mid=drddw&pageid=6http://viewer.zmags.com/showmag.php?mid=drddw&pageid=6http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/bioconcentration.htmlhttp://www.chebucto.ns.ca/ccn/info/Science/SWCS/cyano.htmlhttp://www.chebucto.ns.ca/ccn/info/Science/SWCS/cyano.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_Beach,_British_Columbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_Beach,_British_Columbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_Beach,_British_Columbiahttp://faq.thekrib.com/begin-chem.htmlhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/info/pubs/fedpol/e_fedpol.htmhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/info/pubs/fedpol/e_fedpol.htmhttp://www.landbigfish.com/fish/fish.cfm?ID=99http://www.landbigfish.com/fish/fish.cfm?ID=99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chum_salmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chum_salmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coho_salmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coho_salmonhttp://www.infomine.com/commodities/Copper.asphttp://www.infomine.com/commodities/Copper.asphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttp://www.pearl.maine.edu/glossary/misc/doc.htmhttp://www.pearl.maine.edu/glossary/misc/doc.htmhttp://www.edumine.com/http://www.edumine.com/http://www.edumine.com/xutility/html/menu.asp?category=Xcourse&course=ximpacthttp://www.edumine.com/xutility/html/menu.asp?category=Xcourse&course=ximpacthttp://www.amazon.co.uk/Pollution-Aquatic-Environment-Ulrich-Forstner/dp/0387093079/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234218550&sr=1-1http://www.amazon.co.uk/Pollution-Aquatic-Environment-Ulrich-Forstner/dp/0387093079/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234218550&sr=1-1http://www.unr.edu/mines/ramstech/1highdensity.asphttp://www.unr.edu/mines/ramstech/1highdensity.asphttp://www.amazon.co.uk/Toxic-Contamination-Large-Lakes-Contaminants/dp/0873710894/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234218762&sr=1-1http://viewer.zmags.com/showmag.php?mid=drddw&pageid=14http://viewer.zmags.com/showmag.php?mid=drddw&pageid=14http://viewer.zmags.com/showmag.php?mid=drddw&pageid=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathead_minnowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathead_minnowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_waterhttp://www.setacjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1897%2F02-428&ct=1&SESSID=225fb68951964b3c52797f138e4ea853http://www.britishcolumbia.com/regions/towns/?townID=4026http://www.britishcolumbia.com/regions/towns/?townID=4026http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayflyhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18351116http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18351116http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18351116http://www.mining.ubc.ca/faculty/meech/JMeech.htmlhttp://www.mining.ubc.ca/faculty/meech/JMeech.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallothioneinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallothioneinhttp://www.mining.ubc.ca/http://www.mining.ubc.ca/http://www.amazon.com/Copper-Environment-Part-Ecological-Environmental/dp/0471047783/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234219942&sr=1-1http://www.leffingwell.com/olfaction.htmhttp://www.leffingwell.com/olfaction.htmhttp://www.amazon.com/Fundamentals-Ecology-Eugene-Odum/dp/0534420664/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234219998&sr=8-1http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/wtp/04_02_06_meeting/presentation_ppt.pdfhttp://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/wtp/04_02_06_meeting/presentation_ppt.pdfhttp://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/rainbow-trout.htmlhttp://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/rainbow-trout.htmlhttp://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=61&year=2004&issue=3&msno=f04-011http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=61&year=2004&issue=3&msno=f04-011http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=61&year=2004&issue=3&msno=f04-011http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=61&year=2004&issue=3&msno=f04-011http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scallophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scallophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_waterhttp://en.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Impacts of Copper on Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Health