Importance of Noun

7/30/2019 Importance of Noun

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Background

Sentence structure, or syntax, is about the relationships among the words that form a sentence. It isone of the most important factors affecting the readability of a text. In fact, one readability study hasshown that improvements to sentence structure generally have a greater impact on readability thanthe elimination of obscure terminology (See Masson and Waldron, "Comprehension of Legal Contracts"

by Non-experts: Effectiveness of Plain Language Redrafting (1994), 8Applied Cognitive Psychology67at 78). This is not surprising given the degree to which meaning depends on context. If it is easy tounderstand how the words of a sentence relate to each other, readers are often able to figure out themeaning of particular words that are unfamiliar.

Sentence structure has two aspects: complexity (including length) and organization (word order). Thisnote examines them separately, but these aspects are related to each other because word order is theprincipal device available in English to express the interrelationship of ideas in a sentence. The moreideas a sentence contains (complexity), the greater the temptation to depart from the way sentencesare normally organized in order to make it clear how the ideas relate to each other.

Complexity

Studies of how people read show that the reading process involves two types of memory: short-termand long-term. Short-term memory is used to store the ideas contained in a single sentence. Once thesentence has been read, the reader's mind extracts its meaning and stores the meaning in long-termmemory. Frederick Bowers, a linguist, describes this process as follows:

The process of reading is generally seen as one in which the reader first scans a sentence, organizingit into its semantic-syntactic grouping, and next reduces the organization into a semantic whole for

storage in the memory as the succeeding sentence is scanned. (Linguistic Aspects of LegislativeExpression (1989) at 338)

The difficulty posed by a complex sentence is that it strains the limits of short-term memory and often

requires a reader to reread the sentence several times in order to understand it. Readers need breaksin the progression of ideas so that they can consolidate what they have read and then move on. In

fact, the process of rereading is one of breaking the sentence into more manageable units from whichmeaning can be more readily extracted. The need for breaks also helps explain why more white-spaceon a page makes it a more inviting text for readers.

One way of overcoming the readability problems of complex sentences is simply to make themshorter. One of the most eminent people to suggest this was Driedger, who wrote:

My main criticism of common law legislation is that sentences are too long. This is a characteristic ofEnglish writing generally and not just of legislation. It seems to be thought to be a great intellectualachievement to write one sentence consisting of three or more main clauses, each modified by asmany subordinate clauses as can be worked in grammatically. Much of our common law legislation

would be better if sentences were shorter and there were more sections and subsections. (A Manual ofInstructions for Legislative and Legal Writing, vol 6 at 556-557)

However, it is a mistake to assume that legislation can or should always be drafted in short sentences.There are often good reasons for long sentences and better ways to make them more easilyunderstood. Long legislative sentences may avoid repetition or make clear the logical links betweenideas. Just after the passage quoted above, Driedger quoted Sir John Fiennes, a former FirstParliamentary Counsel of the United Kingdom:

Shorter sentences are easier in themselves, and it would probably help overall to have them shorter,but of course you are then faced with having to find the relationship between that sentence and


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another sentence two sentences away, which, if you have it all in one sentence, is really done for youby the draftsman.

Fiennes's point underscores the price that must sometimes be paid for dividing ideas into a series ofsentences: the division may obscure the relationship of some of the ideas unless cohesive devices areincluded to knit them back together. The division may also be accentuated by formatting devices, suchas numbering each sentence as a separate section.

Another price for shorter sentences is that they may result in the repetition of ideas that couldotherwise be expressed elliptically in a single sentence. Consider the following example:

21. The Commission, with the approval of the Governor in Council, may make regulations

(a) prescribing products, substances and organisms to be included in the classes listed in theschedule;

(b) establishing classes, divisions, subdivisions and groups of dangerous goods;

(c) specifying, for each prescribed product, substance and organism, the class listed in the scheduleand the division, subdivision or group into which it falls;

In this example, the lengthy sentence avoids repetition of the opening words. It also makes it easierfor the reader to see that the ideas presented in the paragraphs are linked to each other. Theproblems of complexity are overcome through paragraphing (for more information on paragraphing,see Part 3 - Paragraphing).

Complexity may also be overcome by introducing definitions of words that express ideas that recurthroughout the text. Consider the following example:

"Minister" means the Minister of the Crown designated by the Governor in Council for the purposes ofthis Act.

This definition avoids the repetition of the details of the Minister's designation throughout the text andsimplifies the sentences in which it occurs. For example, it would allow

3. The Minister of the Crown designated by the Governor in Council for the purposes of this Act mayissue a licence.

to be drafted more simply as

3. The Minister may issue a licence.

The drafting techniques of paragraphing and defining produce much the same result as shorteningsentences. They divide a sentence into logical units that can be easily transformed and stored inmemory. This demonstrates that problems do not necessarily arise because a sentence is long.Rather, they result from undistinguished groups of ideas and the complexity of their interrelationship.

Although paragraphing can often be used to make complex sentences easier to read, it requiresparallel grammatical units, which are not always found in a sentence. When paragraphing is notavailable, you should consider dividing a complex sentence into shorter sentences. Like paragraphing,it may not only improve readability, it may also help uncover ambiguities lurking within complexsentences.

Cohesion of ideas is not necessarily disrupted by creating multiple sentences, particularly if thesentences are contained within the same section. Numbering sentences as subsections within the

same section generally indicates that they are related by a common theme and should be read


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together as a group. In addition, multiple sentences can be used within a subsection (or a sectionwithout subsections) as long as they are closely related: see Part 2 - Sentences (More than onesentence in a section or subsection). Finally, ambiguity about the relationship of ideas can often beovercome by cross-references, although you should avoid including unnecessary cross-references: seePart 2 - Sentences (Cross-references).

Consider the following example:

19. Where a person who handles, offers for transport or transports dangerous goods destined forCanada, or for any place outside Canada through Canada, is not resident in Canada or has their chiefplace of business or head office in a place outside Canada, that person, if required by the regulationsto do so, shall file with the Minister the name of a person who resides in Canada or has their chiefplace of business or head office in Canada and who is willing to act as an agent, together with proof ofsuch willingness, and on such filing that person is deemed to be the person handling, offering fortransport or transporting for the purposes of this Act.

This example has three parts:

a description of a group of persons who are required to file something with the Minister,

a description of what they are required to file, a provision that filing has a particular legal effect.

These parts have been combined into one sentence to make clear the links between them. Forexample, the phrase "and on such filing " is a succinct way of describing the relationship betweenfiling and its legal effect. But is this precision worth the price of a longer sentence? Consider thefollowing redraft:

19. (1) A person who handles, offers for transport or transports dangerous goods shall file with theMinister the name of a qualified agent in Canada if

(a) the person is not resident in Canada or has their chief place of business or head office in aplace outside Canada;

(b) the goods are destined for Canada, or for any place outside Canada but passing throughCanada; and

(c) the regulations require the person to file the name of an agent.

(2) A person is qualified to be an agent in Canada if

(a) the person resides in Canada or has a chief place of business or head office in Canada; and

(b) the person is willing to act as an agent and proof of their willingness is filed with theMinister.

(3) The person whose name is filed is deemed for the purposes of this Act to be the person whohandles, offers for transport or transports the dangerous goods.

In this redraft, the links between the various elements of the original sentence are implicit in thearrangement of ideas and the use of the definite article "the" in subsection (3) (see also Cross-references at page 59).

Sentence Organization

Overview


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The meaning of sentences depends on more than the meaning of the individual words they contain. Italso depends on the relationships among the ideas conveyed by the words. The order in which theseideas are presented greatly affects the ease with which their relationships can be understood.

In English, the usual order of ideas is subject - verb - object. In legislation, these components areoften modified by adjectives, adverbs, participles and subordinate clauses. This results in threefeatures that have attracted criticism:

subjects are often separated from verbs and auxiliary verbs are often separated from mainverbs,

subordinate clauses, particularly clauses expressing conditions ("if" and "where" clauses), areoften placed before the subject and verb,

adverbial clauses are used when simpler adjectival clauses will do.

This section looks at each of these criticisms and suggests ways of responding to them.

Separation of Subject and Verb

The relationship between the subject and the verb in a sentence is critical. If they are close together,it is easy to see this relationship. In sentences with compound verbs, it is also easier to see thisrelationship when the auxiliary verb is next to the principal verb.

The main reason for separating subjects and verbs is to achieve greater precision. When a descriptivephrase is inserted between them, it is clear that it modifies the subject or the verb and not some othernoun or verb found in the sentence. When the descriptive phrase is short, it seldom obscures thesubject-verb relationship. For example:

13. The Minister may, in accordance with the regulations, designate inspectors as analysts for thepurposes of this Act.

However, when a lengthy descriptive phrase is inserted, it is more difficult for the reader to connect

the subject and verb. Consider the following example:

12. A certificate or report appearing to have been signed by an inspector or analyst stating that they

have made an inspection or analysed or examined a product, a substance or an organism and statingthe results of the inspection, analysis or examination is admissible in evidence in any prosecution foran offence under this Act without proof of the signature or official character of the person appearing tohave signed the certificate or report and, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, is proof of thestatements contained in the certificate or report.

In this provision, almost four lines of text separate the subject, "certificate or report", from the verb,"is admissible". This provision is also too complex. Both problems can be corrected by dividing it intotwo subsections and subdividing the first one into paragraphs:

12. (1) A certificate or report of an analyst or inspector is admissible in evidence in any prosecutionfor an offence under this Act if it

(a) appears to have been signed by the inspector or analyst;

(b) states that the inspector or analyst has made an inspection or analysed or examined a product,a substance or an organism; and

(c) states the results of the inspection, analysis or examination.


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(2) The certificate or report is admissible without proof of the signature or official character of theperson appearing to have signed the certificate or report. In the absence of evidence to the contrary,it is proof of the statements it contains.

The separation of subjects and verbs often occurs in "clause sandwiches". Part 3 - Paragraphingcautions against their use because of this.

Conditional Clauses

An adverbial clause that describes the circumstances in which a provision applies is sometimes calledthe "case". George Coode distinguished the case from other adverbial clauses (which he called"conditions") establishing things that must be done before a provision will apply. Coode used thedistinction as a basis for determining whether an adverbial clause should go before the main clause orafter it (this is discussed below).

However, the distinction has no grammatical basis and is often difficult to make. Driedger has doubtedits utility (see Composition of Legislation, 2nd ed. at 7). Both types of clauses may be described asconditional clauses.

Conditional clauses are a fact of life for legislative drafters. Legislation is unlikely ever to be simplifiedto the point where they are not needed. However, two things can be done to make them easier tounderstand:

consolidate conditional clauses; and

be careful about placing them at the beginning of a sentence.

Consolidation

Provisions are often qualified by two or more sets of circumstances. Consider the following example:

15. (1) If an inspector believes on reasonable grounds that

(a) there is occurring or has occurred a discharge, an emission or an escape of dangerousgoods or an emission of ionizing radiation exceeding levels or quantities prescribed pursuantto theAtomic Energy Control Actfrom any container, packaging or means of transport bymeans of which the goods are being handled or transported,

(b) there exists a serious and an imminent danger of such a discharge, an emission or anescape by reason of any condition, or

(c) any provision of this Act or the regulations is being or has been contravened,the inspectormay take any measure referred to in subsection

(2) if he or she considers it necessary to prevent or reduce any serious and imminent danger to life,health, property or the environment.

In this example, two sets of circumstances govern the exercise of the inspector's power. One isexpressed at the beginning of the provision, the other at the end. This complicates the readingprocess by requiring the reader to understand the first set of circumstances, then the main clause andfinally another set of circumstances. Consider the following redraft:

15. (1) If an inspector

(a) believes on reasonable grounds that


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(i) there is occurring , and

(b) considers it necessary to take any measure mentioned in subsection (2) to prevent or reduceany serious and imminent danger to life, health, property or the environment,

the inspector may take the measure.

This redraft consolidates the two conditions, but it results in a clause sandwich that poses anotherproblem that is considered next.

The Place of the Case (and other Adverbial Clauses)

The question of where to place conditional clauses is more debatable. It can be answered byconsidering why the order of ideas in a sentence is important at all.

Grammarians have developed a concept that may be useful in examining this question. It is called"thematization". It points to the fact that a series of sentences generally has a principal idea or"theme" that connects them. Each sentence adds more information about the theme. In progressingfrom one sentence to the next, the reader looks first for the theme and then for the supplementaryinformation. In general, the subject of a sentence is its theme. This is reflected in the usual order ofideas: subject - verb - object. Sentences are sometimes cast in the passive voice in order to keep thefocus on the theme (more on this in a later drafting note).

When the theme is in the middle of a sentence or at the end, the reader must first read to find it andthen reread to link it to the other parts of the sentence. This occurs, for example, when a lengthyexception is at the beginning of a provision or when other circumstances relating to its applicationappear at the beginning, as in the previous example. This order of ideas generally makes it moredifficult to understand the sentence. This was noted more than 160 years ago in Bentham'sNomography(1839):

Whatever be the principal object which your sentence is designed to bring into view, bring forward asearly as you conveniently can the word employed in the expression of it: if you can make the sentencebegin with the same word, so much the better. (quoted in Bowers, Linguistic Aspects of Legislative

Expression (1989) at 347-8)

This rule is at odds with a drafting convention that originated with George Coode in the middle of the19th century. This convention relates to conditional clauses that describe the circumstances in which aprovision operates (the "case"). Coode recommended that these clauses generally be placed at thebeginning of the provision. The rationale is expressed in the following comments:

The case being placed first, the first few words of the sentence answer immediately to the inquirerwhether his case is included in the provision or not; whether he need read on or should proceed to

seek another law applicable to his circumstances in another clause. (Driedger, Composition ofLegislation, 2nd ed. (1976) at 344)

This recommendation found its way into the Legislative Drafting Conventions of the Uniform Law

Conference of Canada, but it was criticized by Driedger and has been omitted from the most recentversion of those Conventions. It also contradicts the findings of modern linguistic studies, whichsuggest that difficulty in comprehension increases when an adverbial clause is placed at the beginningof a sentence. (See A.C. Lovgren, "The Place of the Case in Legislative Sentences" [1986] Statute LawRev. 23 at 27, citing Dennis Kurzon, "Clarity and Word Order in Legislation" (1985), 5Oxford J. Leg.Studies 269 at 270).

Finally, the applicability of the rationale given by Coode is questionable. It assumes that peopleusually read legislation to find the provisions that deal with their particular circumstances and skip

over those that do not. This may occur when legislation sets out a series of prohibitions or rules that


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apply in mutually exclusive circumstances. But readers often want to gain a general understanding ofthe law so that they may be equipped to deal with whatever situations come along. It all depends onwhat the reader's focus is. Are they trying to weed out the rules that do not apply to them, or are theytrying to understand the legislation as a whole?

Most modern legislation sets out groups of interrelated rules that must be understood together, suchas rules describing administrative processes, as opposed to prohibiting distinct forms of conduct.Readers can seldom ignore the principal clause. Rather, they are likely to need the information itconveys in order to construct the meaning of the rest of the provision. Until its meaning is understood,the conditional clause has no point. When this clause is short, for example "If an inspector finds ahazardous condition, ", there is seldom a problem. But when it is lengthy or includes multipleconditions, readers will usually have to reread it to grasp the meaning of the provision in which it isfound. The following redraft of one of the examples above corrects this problem.

15. (1) An inspector may take any emergency measure referred to in subsection (2) if the inspector

(a) believes on reasonable grounds that

(i) there is occurring , and

(b) considers the measure necessary to prevent or reduce any serious and imminent danger to life,health, property or the environment

Adjectival Clauses instead of Adverbial Clauses

Another technique for simplifying the complexity of long sentences is to avoid adverbial clauses thathave the same subject as the principal clause. This corresponds to the usage of "lorsque" in theFrench version, which is restricted to instances where the subjects are different.

As noted above, adverbial clauses at the beginning of sentences tend to be more difficult tounderstand. If the subject is the same as that of the principal clause, the adverbial clause can usuallybe transformed into an adjectival clause that modifies the subject. Consider the following example:

(3) If an inspector inspects or seizes a sample of any thing, the inspector shall, if the thing is sealed orclosed up, provide the person in charge of it with a certificate in prescribed form as evidence of theinspection or seizure.

This can be redrafted as follows:

(3) An inspector who inspects or seizes a sample of any thing shall, if the thing is sealed or closed up,provide the person in charge of it with a certificate in prescribed form as evidence of the inspection orseizure.

The use of this technique simplifies the sentence structure and avoids repeating the subject. However,its use is limited to relatively short adverbial clauses. If the clause is longer, it should instead be

shifted to the end of the provision, as suggested above in the discussion of the place of the case.

Conclusion

Legislative sentences can be improved by paying attention to their complexity and organization.

A complex series of ideas is often hard to understand. When they are presented in one sentence as ablock of text, the difficulty becomes all the greater. Drafting techniques such as paragraphing ordefinitions can make a complex sentence easier to understand, but there are limits on their use.


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Another approach is to divide a complex sentence into a series of sentences. This allows the reader todigest the ideas in stages. However, it also requires the drafter to make sure that the sentences flowtogether so that the ideas are cohesive.

Sentence organization is equally critical to the reader's understanding. Readers need to know theprincipal parts of a sentence before they can understand the rest of its information. Reading difficultyis often increased by splitting subjects and verbs and by putting lengthy subordinate clauses at thebeginning of a sentence. Drafters can help readers considerably by avoiding these practices and byusing simpler adjectival phrases instead of more complex subordinate clauses.

The Importance of Nouns&

Nouns in Context

Hear the Lecture

The Importance of Nouns & Noun Phrases

In our ESL/EFL grammar materials, lessons, and curricula, we often make the mistake

of over-emphasizing verbs and forgetting about the central importance of nouns and

noun phrases. Verbs are certainly important, but you can't say much without nouns!

In any sample of English--spoken or written--one of the 10 most common words

is the. What does that suggest? Yes! Lots of nouns--because the just about always

occurs with a noun.

Additionally, noun phrase structure is complex and often a puzzle for our students.

We know that learning to use a/an and the with the right noun types for the right

meanings is difficult for many students. And, the is one of the most common words,

so the challenge meets students at every turn.

Take a look at these 3 samples from the sociology textbook that I'm using for many of

my examples in this course.

Sample #1 has only 99 words with 9 verbs--but there are at least 22 noun phrases (and

more if we count the nouns inside of the longer noun phrases).

#1Nouns in Generalizations
http://www.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/ram/lecture6/important.ramhttp://www.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/ram/lecture6/important.ramhttp://www.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/ram/lecture6/important.ram


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A Sample from

an undergraduate sociology textbook

By the age of 4, children show guilt and shame. This indicates

that a sense of selfis developing,

forguilt and shame require an awareness of being judged byothers. By the age of 5childrenalso display pride, humility,

envy, andjealousy - emotions that indicate growing "self-

awareness." By age 6 or 7, having developed the ability to

take the role of the other, childrenexpress emotions that

indicate a judgment of the self in comparison with qualities

that others possess. That is, they exhibit feelings about their

own relative abilities, attractiveness, honesty, bravery,

dominance, and popularity.

Sample #2 has 122 words with 14 verbs and at least 16 noun phrases.

#2Nouns in Narratives

A Sample from


The old man was horrified when he found out. Life never hadbeen good since his daughter had lost her hearing when she

was just 2 yearsold. She couldn't even talk - just fluttered her

handsaround trying to tell him things. Overthe years, he had

gotten used to that. But now he shuddered at the thought of her

being pregnant. No one would be willing to marry her; he

knew that. And the neighbors, their tongues would never stop

wagging. Everywhere he went, he could hearpeople talking

behind his back.

If only his wife were still alive, maybe she could come up withsomething. What should he do? He couldn't just kickhis

daughterout into the street.

Sample #3 has 213 words with 24 verbs and around 50 noun phrases.


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A Sample from


Jack Yufe and Oskar Stohr are identical twins born

in 1932 to a Jewish father and a Catholic mother. They were

separated asbabies aftertheir parents divorced. Oskar was

reared inCzechoslovakia by his mother's mother, who was a

strict Catholic. When Oskar was a

toddler, Hitler annexed this area of Czechoslovakia,

and Oskar learned to love Hitler and to hateJews. He became

involved with the Hitler Youth (a sort of Boy Scout

organization designed to instill the "virtues" of patriotism,

loyalty, obedience, - and hatred).

Jack's upbringing provides an almost total contrast. Reared

inTrinidad by his father, he

learned loyalty to Jews and hatred of Hitler and the Nazis.

Afterthe war, Jackemigrated to Israel, where, at the age of

17, he joined a kibbutz. Later, Jackserved inthe Israeli

army. In 1954, the two brothers met. It was a short meeting,

and Jackhad been warned not to tell Oskar that they

were Jews. Twenty-five years later, in 1979, when they

were 47 years old, social scientists at the University ofMinnesotabrought them together, again. These

researchers figured that sinceJackand Oskar had the same

genes, whateverdifferences they showed would have to be due

to the environment - to their different social experiences.

Noun Phrase Complexity

Later this semester, we'll look in more detail at the forms that can be combined to

make noun phrases, especially the use of prepositional phrases and relative clauses.Here let's just notice that the noun phrases in these passages come in lots of different

shapes:

Samples #1, #2, & #3


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Noun phrase type Example

single noun children

life

babies

determiner + noun his wife

his mother's mother

determiner + adjective + noun the old man

determiner + noun + prepositionalphrase

a sense of self

noun + relative clause emotions that indicate growing self-awareness

determiner + noun + infinitive the ability to take the role of the other

determiner + (adverb + adjective)+ noun

an almost total contrast

proper noun Oskar Stohr

Czechoslovakia

We can also see that both the generic and specific meanings are mixed together in

both of these samples. Sample #1 has numerous generic noun phrases with its

generalizations about children andpride and other emotions, but it also has specific

reference with their own relative abilities. The noun phrases in Sample #2 are

primarily specific in reference, but life is a generic noncount noun. You can see some

of that same mixture in Sample #3 although proper nouns and other specific nouns

predominate.

Noun Phrases in Context

Research has shown that different types of noun phrases tend to be characteristic of

different discourse types.


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In conversational spoken English, we tend to use everyday words and to repeat the

same vocabulary over and over--especially in the same conversation on a single or a

small set of topics. And, many of these nouns tend to be names with personal

pronouns used to stand in for the name.

In academic writing, we tend to use much longer noun phrases as we try to beextremely accurate about complex information. Moreover, academic generalizations

tend to be noun-centric: they use lots of long noun phrases and a very simple range of

verbs. A noun or noun phrase can be repeated without using a pronoun--repeating a

particular term that is the only way to talk about a concept in that field of study.

In fiction and other story telling, we tend to use a wider range of verbs to be accurate

and interesting about the actions of the characters in the story and, as in conversation,

to use a lot of names and personal pronouns.

We can see these tendencies in our samples. Look at Sample #1 again--what is thegrammar of that sample like?

#1Nouns in Generalizations

A Sample from


By the age of 4, children show guilt and shame. This indicates

that a sense of selfis developing,

forguilt and shame require an awareness of being judged by

others. By the age of 5childrenalso display pride, humility,

envy, andjealousy - emotions that indicate growing "self-

awareness." By age 6 or 7, having developed the ability to

take the role of the other, childrenexpress emotions that

indicate a judgment of the self in comparison with qualities

that others possess. That is, they exhibit feelings about their

own relative abilities, attractiveness, honesty, bravery,dominance, and popularity.

generic nouns predominate--with the use of personal pronouns limited

to theyand theirbecause of the focus on children as a group rather than on individual

people


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present tense verbs are used for generalizations--and verbs that seem to have some

technical use that might be characteristic of the way that sociologists analyze

behaviors--indicate, show, display, develop

Sample #2 tells a heart-rending story of a horrifying choice made by a father to make

his daughter and her baby live in the attic of his home and the terrible results for thechild. This sample is a narrative being used in a textbook to give dramatic

background to the general topic of child development and to provide an example of

the topic of feral children (and what sociologists try to learn about society by studying

these unfortunate children). What's the grammar like? Well, it is very like the

grammar of just about any story:

#2

Nouns in NarrativesA Sample from


The old man was horrified when he found out. Life never had

been good since his daughter had lost her hearing when she

was just 2 yearsold. She couldn't even talk - just fluttered her

handsaround trying to tell him things. Overthe years, he had

gotten used to that. But now he shuddered at the thought of her

being pregnant. No one would be willing to marry her; he

knew that. And the neighbors, their tongues would never stopwagging. Everywhere he went, he could hearpeople talking

behind his back.

If only his wife were still alive, maybe she could come up with

something. What should he do? He couldn't just kickhis

daughterout into the street.

specific nouns predominate (the characters in the story: the old man, the daughter,

the neighbors, the dead wife)--along with personal pronouns used to refer to the

charactersthe verbs are different in tone from those in Sample #1--a wider range of words are

selected to help us picture the people in the story and their actions

the verbs are in the past tense


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Sample #3 presents the history of two men in a narrative format--telling the story here

with many of the narrative-grammar features of Sample #2: names, past tense,

personal pronouns. I've selected Sample #3 to show the use of names in a narrative so

that we can add the use of proper nouns to our picture of the noun phrase in English.

And these proper nouns can be terrifically difficult for people from different naming

traditions, trying to figure out which name is the first or given name and which is thefamily name--and which to use to refer to people in different settings.


A Sample from


Jack Yufe and Oskar Stohr are identical twins bornin 1932 to a Jewish father and a Catholic mother. They were

separated asbabies aftertheir parents divorced. Oskar was

reared inCzechoslovakia by his mother's mother, who was a

strict Catholic. When Oskar was a

toddler, Hitler annexed this area of Czechoslovakia,

and Oskar learned to love Hitler and to hateJews. He became

involved with the Hitler Youth (a sort of Boy Scout

organization designed to instill the "virtues" of patriotism,loyalty, obedience, - and hatred).

Jack's upbringing provides an almost total contrast. Reared

inTrinidad by his father, he

learned loyalty to Jews and hatred of Hitler and the Nazis.

Afterthe war, Jackemigrated to Israel, where, at the age of

17, he joined a kibbutz. Later, Jackserved inthe Israeli

army. In 1954, the two brothers met. It was a short meeting,

and Jackhad been warned not to tell Oskar that they

were Jews. Twenty-five years later, in 1979, when they

were 47 years old, social scientists at the University of

Minnesotabrought them together, again. Theseresearchers figured that sinceJackand Oskar had the same

genes, whateverdifferences they showed would have to be due

to the environment - to their different social experiences.

In sum, all three kinds of writing use nouns but they tend to use slightly different


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types with generic nouns in statements of theory (and other generalizations--what

Biber calls "informational" discourse), specific nouns in the generalizated narrative,

and proper nouns in the historical narrative (with the names of people and places).

Learning Challenges with Nouns

What are the learning and teaching challenges related to nouns and noun phrases?

learning the spelling and pronunciation of regular and irregular nouns

learning a wide variety of words to expand proficiency

understanding the differences in use among words that seem to be synonyms

being able to distinguish count and noncount forms and meanings

being able to understand the naming system used in a culture and a language

knowing how to put together the various types of words that can be used to make

noun phrases

recognizing the meanings of the different combinations in different contexts

being able to produce the right combinations for the right meanings in different

contexts

Nouns in ESL/EFL Materials

I'd like to close this section back where we began. Nouns and noun phrases are

important and need to be given more time and study in ESL/EFL programs.

How can we contextualize the materials that we provide for our students to help them

be knowledgable and skillful users of a wide variety of nouns and noun phrases? I'd

like to know more about your ideas and look forward to learning from you about this

important topic.

Please send me your questions and comments [email protected]. Thanks.

http://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_6/important.html

English Nouns
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_6/important.htmlhttp://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_6/important.htmlhttp://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_6/important.htmlmailto:[email protected]


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Learning the English Nouns is very important because its structure is used in every day conversation. The more you

practice the subject, the closer you get to mastering the English language. But first we need to know what the role

of Nouns is in the structure of the grammar in English.

English nouns are words used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract ideas. Nouns are usually the most

important part of vocabulary.

A noun is a word talking about a person, a thing or an abstract idea. A noun can also answer the question

of "who or what".

Who lives in the house? - David, (David = Noun), also house is a Noun.

What do you have in your hand? - A book (Book = Noun), also hand is a Noun.

These also are nouns, example: cat, dog, milk, brother, county, pen.

There are different types of nouns:

Abstract nouns: freedom, friendship, idea ... (you can't see them so they're called abstract).

Common nouns: man, woman, mouse, school, paper... (Talking about people, places, and things)

Gerunds: you can change a verb to become a noun when you add ing to the end of the verb, speak is

a verb, speak + ing = speaking (noun). I like to write (verb), I like writing (noun).

Examples: go => going, live => living, drive => driving, (for more information click here English Gerund)

Nouns are 2 types, countable, and uncountable, Countable is used for things that you can count (one

banana, a spoon, an orange), you can say one banana, two bananas, three bananas, so that means that

banana is a countable noun.

Uncountable is when you cannot count the noun, milk for example is uncountable, because it is a liquid.

You cannot say one milk, two milks ... so that means milk is uncountable, that means you can only

say: milk, some milk, a lot of milk ...etc. If you want to use countable expressions to uncountable words

then put a countable noun before it, for example you can say: I want 2 cups of milk (cups are countable,

you can use it before milk), you cannot say "two milks".

Plural NounsA singular noun means a noun referring to one person, one thing or one place , if you want to refer to

more than one person, thing or place, you need to use the plural.

If you have (one pen + one pen), then you cannot say I have 2 pen, you have to use the plural, and say

I have 2 pens, you see that we added s to the end of pen.

Other examples: House => houses, one computer => two computers, a friend => some friends, my sister

=> my sisters.

English is very easy when you want to use the plural, most of the time you just need to add s at the end.

But you need to know that if the end of a word in singular is (-ch, -x, -s, -sh, z) you will have to add es

not only s, for example: one church = two churches, fox => foxes, kiss => kisses

There are some other rules you need to know, but in general cases you only need to add one s at the

end of the nouns. Remember you only can make the plural of nouns, unlike other languages such asSpanish, French or Arabic, English adjectives or adverbs dont have the plural form. (only nouns), for

example you cannotsay: I have two reds cars. The correct way is: I have two red cars. (red doesnt add

s at the end).

Research Imperative & Context


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Nouns are of pivotal importance in languages like English. It has been observed that along with verbs they are a dominant part of

speech, and that the semantic content of sentences is borne mostly by nouns (Algeo 1995: 203). The importance of the Noun

Phrase in language was acknowledged by the European Science Foundation, when it made this topic one of the central themes of

its Eurotyp Project (Programme in Language Typology, 1990-4; Siewierska 1997). However, Eurotyp was concerned with universals

in the languages of Europe, and not specifically with the typology of English. Theoretical, typological, as well as descriptive research

on English Noun Phrases has tended to concentrate on specific, isolated aspects of their internal structure. This work is very

valuable, but it is noteworthy that no study has yet been carried out which comprehensively considers the structural, functional and

textual dimensions of NPs, with an emphasis on the interrelationships between these dimensions. Many fundamental issues in NP

structure and distribution therefore remain unresolved. Some of these are listed in the next section.

Aims & Objectives

The project's aims are to carry out a large-scale study of the English Noun Phrase (NP), using the recently completed British

component of the International Corpus of English (ICE-GB) as a database. ICE-GB is a fully tagged and parsed one-million word

corpus (see below under Methodology). The overall research objective will be to produce a comprehensive typology of English NPs

which will be published in a monograph, and in a searchable form on the project website.

Research Issues
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/ice-gb/index.htmhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/ice-gb/index.htmhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/ice-gb/index.htmhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/ice-gb/index.htm

Documents

Importance of Noun