Improved livelihoods for smallholder farmers

A tool for planning agricultural water management investments

LIVELIHOOD ZONES ANALYSIS

Tanzania

Prepared by Joseph Perfect (MSc) & A.E. Majule, (Ph.D.), Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, in consultation with FAO, 2010

About this report The AgWater Solutions Project aimed at designing agricultural water management (AWM) strategies for smallholder farmers in sub Saharan Africa and in India. The project was managed by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and operated jointly with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI) and International Development Enterprise (IDE). It was implemented in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania, Zambia and in the States of Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal in India. Several studies have highlighted the potential of AWM for poverty alleviation. In practice, however, adoption rates of AWM solutions remain low, and where adoption has taken place locally, programmes aimed at disseminating these solutions often remain a challenge. The overall goal of the project was to stimulate and support successful pro-poor, gender-equitable AWM investments, policies and implementation strategies through concrete, evidence-based knowledge and decision-making tools. The project has examined AWM interventions at the farm, community, watershed, and national levels. It has analyzed opportunities and constraints of a number of small-scale AWM interventions in several pilot research sites across the different project countries, and assessed their potential in different agro-climatic, socio-economic and political contexts. This report was prepared as part of the efforts to assess the potential for AWM solutions at national level. The livelihood zones analysis divides the country in a series of areas where rural people share relatively homogeneous living conditions on the basis of a combination of biophysical and socio-economic determinants. It describes the main sources of livelihood of rural populations (by category of people), their natural resources base, potential and key constraints to development. It analyses the relation between people and water and helps understanding to what extent and how water can be a factor for development.

CONTENTS LISTOFFIGURES ........................................................................................................................................................IILISTOFTABLES..........................................................................................................................................................IIABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS ...........................................................................................................................IIEXECUTIVESUMMARY..................................................................................................................................... III

1. BACKGROUND................................................................................................................................11.1 ABOUTTHEPROJECT .................................................................................................................................11.2 COUNTRY‐LEVELLIVELIHOODANALYSISANDMAPPINGINTANZANIA ...........................................1

2. NATIONALEXPERTCONSULTATIONWORKSHOPONLIVELIHOODMAPPING ........1

3. METHODOLOGYUSEDINCONSULTATIONS.........................................................................23.1 DEVELOPMENTOFTANZANIALIVELIHOODZONES .............................................................................23.2 COLLECTIONOFRELEVANTINFORMATIONFOREACHOFTHELIVELIHOODZONES.......................23.3 INITIALIDENTIFICATIONOFPROMISINGAGRICULTUREWATERMANAGEMENT............................3

4. FINALOUTPUTBASEDONTHEWORKSHOP .......................................................................3

5. LIVELIHOODPROFILES ...............................................................................................................55.1 LIVELIHOODZONE1(COFFEE‐BANANAHUMIDHIGHLANDS)..........................................................55.2 LIVELIHOODZONE2(COTTON‐PADDY‐CATTLEMIDLANDS).............................................................65.3 LIVELIHOODZONE3(TOBACCO‐COTTON‐MIOMBOWOODLANDZONE).........................................65.4 LIVELIHOODZONE4(SEMI‐ARID,SORGHUM‐LIVESTOCKZONE) ....................................................75.5 LIVELIHOODZONE5(PASTORALZONE)...............................................................................................85.6 LIVELIHOODZONE6(TREECROPS‐FISHINGCOASTALZONE)...........................................................85.7 LIVELIHOODZONE7(LAKETANGANYIKAZONE)...............................................................................95.8 LIVELIHOODZONE8(TREEPLANTATIONSWITHCROPS‐PYRETHRUMANDTEA)........................95.9 LIVELIHOODZONE9(MAIZE‐CASSAVA‐CASHEW‐SIMSIMZONE) .................................................105.10 LIVELIHOODZONE10(RICEZONE)....................................................................................................115.11 LIVELIHOODZONE11(SISAL‐SUGARCANE‐CATTLEZONE) ..........................................................115.12 LIVELIHOODZONE12(MAIZE‐TOBACCOZONE) .............................................................................115.13 LIVELIHOODZONE13(RICE‐MAIZEUNIMODALZONE)..................................................................125.14 LIVELIHOODZONE14(RICE‐MAIZEBIMODALZONE) ....................................................................126.POTENTIALFORPOVERTYREDUCTIONTHROUGHAWM........................................................13

7. RELEVANCEANDPOTENTIALOFPROMISINGAWMSOLUTIONS .............................. 16

8. CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................ 19

9. REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 20

10. ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................. 23ANNEX1–DESCRIPTIONOFLIVELIHOODZONESBYGROUP ........................................................................23ANNEX2–DESCRIPTIONOFLIVELIHOODZONESBYGROUP ........................................................................24ANNEX3–DESCRIPTIONOFLIVELIHOODZONESBYGROUP ........................................................................25

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ListofFigures1. ConsolidatedmapoflivelihoodzonesinTanzania 4

ListofTables1. FinallivelihoodzonesagreedbyG1,G2andG3 52. Priorityforaction,povertyreductionthroughwaterinterventionsbylivelihoodzone 163. RelevanceofpromisingAWMsolutionsinthedifferentlivelihoodzones 19

AbbreviationsandacronymsAWM AgricultureWaterManagement

BMGF BillandMelindaGatesFoundation

DRC DemocraticRepublicofCongo

ECF EastCoastFever(Theileriosis,atick‐bornediseaseofcattleandgoats

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

GIS Geographicalinformationsystems

iDE AnNGOcreatesincomeandlivelihoodopportunitiesforpoorruralhouseholds

IFPRI InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute

IRA InstituteofResourceAssessment

IWMI InternationalWaterManagementInstitute

Miombo Species‐richtropicalsavannahecosystem

NAFCO NationalAgricultureandFoodCorporation

NGO Non‐governmentalorganization

PADEP Participatory Agricultural Development and Empowerment Project (Ministry ofAgricultureandFoodSecurity;Tanzania)

PMD Pasteurellamultocidadisease

SEI StockholmEnvironmentalInstitute

SSA Sub‐SaharaAfrica

WMA WildlifeManagementAreas

WUA Wateruserassociation

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EXECUTIVESUMMARYThelivelihoodsofthemajorityofcommunitieslivingintheruralareasofTanzaniadependonagricultureproductionwhereawiderangeofbothannualandperennialfoodandcashcropspredominate.Livestockand crop production continue to dominate the national economy through export of agriculturalcommoditiesandproducts,inparticularcashews,coffee,tea,pyrethrum,tobacco,sisal,cocoaandstaplefoodcrops.

Agriculture ismainly rainfedandproduction iscurrently threatenedbyseveral factors includingclimatechangeandvariabilityaswellasprogressivelanddegradationassociatedwithhuman‐inducedactivities.This poses a serious challenge to agricultural, irrigation and water sectors, which requires specificinterventionstoincreaseandsustainproductivity.

Thelivelihoodmappingapproachintendstoaddresssomeoftheseagriculturalchallenges,includinglackofwater forcropproduction insupportofrainfedagriculture.Thereportpresents findingsonmappinglivelihoodzonesinTanzaniafocusingonthepotentialfordevelopingagricultureinTanzania.Atotalof14livelihoodzoneswereidentifiedandcharacterizedaccordinglyusingexistingsecondarydata.

An attempt has been made to identify and assess the potentiality of poverty alleviation throughagriculturalwatermanagement (AWM) in different zones. PromisingAWM solutions in different zoneshavebeenanalysed.

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1. BACKGROUND

1.1 AbouttheprojectTheBill andMelindaGatesFoundation fundedaproject tohelpdesignagriculturalwatermanagementstrategies for smallholder farmers in sub‐SaharanAfrica and in India. The projectwasmanagedby theInternational Water Management Institute (IWMI) and jointly operated by IWMI, the Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI),theStockholmEnvironmentalInstitute(SEI)and(IDE),anon‐governmentalorganization(NGO)specializedin small‐scale water technologies. This project was implemented in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana,Tanzania,ZambiaandIndia.

The overall goal of the project was to stimulate and support successful pro‐poor, gender‐equitableagricultural water management (AWM) investment, policy and implementation strategies throughconcrete,evidence‐basedknowledgeanddecision‐makingtools.Severallarge‐scalestudiescarriedoutbytheproject teamandothershavehighlighted thepotentialofAWMforpovertyalleviation. Inpractice,however,adoptionratesofAWMsolutionsremainlow.Moreover,evenwhereadoptionhastakenplacelocally,implementingprogrammespromotingadoptionatalargescale,inasustainablemanner,andthattargetingthepoorestpeople,includingwomen,isstillachallenge.UnderstandingtheconstraintstoAWMadoptionindifferentsettingsandconcretemeasurestoovercomingthemopensignificantopportunitiesforsuccessfullyachievingpro‐poor,gender‐equitableAWMinvestmentsinthefuture.

Theprojectexaminesagriculturalwatermanagementinterventionsatthefarm,community,watershed,and national levels in selected countries in sub‐Saharan Africa and India. The project assessedopportunitiesandconstraintsofanumberofsmall‐scaleAWMinterventionsinseveralpilotresearchsitesacross the different project countries. The project also assessed promising agricultural watermanagement interventions and theirpotential in different agro‐climatic, socio‐economic and politicalcontexts, and recommended out‐scaling strategies. The results were presented in country levelinvestmentguidesforselectedcountries.

1.2 Country‐levellivelihoodanalysisandmappinginTanzaniaThe analysis is the basis for the out‐scaling strategy of themost promising AWM solutions at countrylevel.Theobjectiveoftheanalysisistodescribethesocio‐economicandbiophysicalcontextwhereAWMrelatedactivitiesareinplaceand,morespecifically,todefinelinkagesbetweenwater,ruralpovertyandlivelihoods,andhowaccesstoagriculturalwaterisdirectlyrelatedtorurallivelihoods.

Tothisend,theexpertstakeholders’workshopwastospecificallymapoutanddescriberurallivelihoods,and to assess the potential for poverty reduction through AWM solutions out‐scaling of promisinginterventionsoptionsatthenationalscale.Morespecificallytheproject:

describedandlocatedthecontextswhereagricultureispracticedandAWMinterventionsareinplace;

assessedthepotentialforpovertyreductionthroughAWMsolutions;and assessedtherelevanceandpotentialofpromisingAWMsolutionsatthecountrylevelaccording

tothedifferentlivelihoodcontexts.

2. NATIONALEXPERTCONSULTATIONWORKSHOPONLIVELIHOOD

MAPPING

FAO and IRA organized a one‐day national consultationworkshop that gathered national experts fromdifferentfields (agriculture,socialsciences,geography,etc.)and institutions(seeworkshopreport).Themainpurposeoftheconsultationwastoconductaparticipatorymappingprocesstoidentify,locateand

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describethemain livelihoodpatterns inTanzaniaanddiscusstherelevanceofAWMinrelationtorurallivelihoods.Becauseofthetimeconstraintofaone‐dayworkshopparticipantsdidnotmanagetoaddressrelevantAWMafteridentifyingthelivelihoodzones.

Morespecificallythenationalstockholder’sconsultationaimedto:

1.PrepareanationalmaplocatingmainlivelihoodzonesofTanzaniawithlegendandcriteriaachievedby: delineatingtheboundariesofthemainzones; describingthemaincharacteristicsofeachzone(agro‐climaticconditions,croppingpatterns,

livestock,populationandgender,water,etc.)bythreeworkinggroups.2.IdentifythemaincriteriafordefiningthepotentialofAWMinterventionstocontributetopoverty

reductionby: discussingcriteriaforidentifyingareaswhereAWMinterventionshavehighestimpacton

rurallivelihoodsandcancontributethemosttopovertyreduction.3.AssesstherelevanceofthemostpromisingAWMsolutionsinthedifferentlivelihoodzones.

3. METHODOLOGYUSEDINCONSULTATIONS

3.1 DevelopmentofTanzanialivelihoodzonesTo develop livelihood zones, a total of 17 experts fromdifferent sectorministries, academic principlesfrom Dar es Salaam and Sokoine Universities, from national and international NGOs and others withexperience with water resource management and agriculture were divided into three groups, whichproducedlivelihoodmapsanddescriptions.SeeTables1to3inAnnex1.

Duringtheexpert’sconsultation,themainbiophysicalandsocio‐economicvariablesweremappedusinggeographical information systems (GIS),whichwere thebasis for interactionbetween theexperts. ThemapsofTanzaniaatdifferentscalesincluded:

agro‐ecologicalmap

landcoverpatterns

climatezonemap

topographymap

principlecropproductionmapsformaize,cassavaandrice

cattle/livestock

accesstomarkets

ruralpopulationdensitymap

waterinfrastructure

groundwaterlevels

3.2 CollectionofrelevantinformationforeachofthelivelihoodzonesDetailedinformationthatdescribedbothbiophysicalandsocialeconomicprofilesofthelivelihoodzonesidentifiedwereinitiallycollectedfromexistingstudiesandfromregionalsocialeconomicprofilereports(latest versions). The collected information was updated from the agricultural survey reports of 2003.Different research reportsandpaperswereused toprovide relevant informationrequiredperzones. Itshouldbenotedthatthezonesdonotfollowadministrativeboundaries,ratherinformationfromaregionordistrictthatsuitedaparticularzonewasusedforreporting.Thereison‐goingupdatingofinformation.

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3.3 InitialidentificationofpromisingagriculturewatermanagementBased on the experts’ experience concerning water sources and management in Tanzania, andinformation obtained during the secondary data review of socio‐economic profiles of zones indicatingpotentialforirrigationandwatermanagement,theteamwasabletoidentifydifferentAWMperzonebyfilling a template developed by FAO. The input of assessed AWM was based on the on‐going AWMmapping project, implemented by the soil and water management group of Sokoine University. Theinformationprovidedwillbefurtherdiscussedbyawide‐rangeofstakeholders.

4. FINALOUTPUTBASEDONTHEWORKSHOP

Thethreegroups’outputswereintegratedintoonemap,whichwasthendigitized(Figure1).Theexercisewas particularly challenging because of the complexity of the livelihood patterns in Tanzania and thedifferentviewsof theparticipants.Uponanalysisof the threegroupmaps,workshopparticipants,withtheir facilitators,designeda livelihoodmapwitha totalof14 zones (Figure1) thatdescribed themaincharacteristicsofthedifferentlivelihoodzones.

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Figure 1 – Consolidated map of livelihood zones in Tanzania

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Table 1 – Final livelihood zones agreed by G1, G2 and G3 Similarities Livelihood

zone (LZ) Description

G1 G2 G3 LZ 1 Highlands, humid, high rainfall,

bi-modal coffee and banana zone

1, 3a

1, 5

1

LZ 2 Cotton, paddy and cattle midlands

2, 4 2 2

LZ 3 Tobacco-cotton zone 1, 3a 1, 5 1 LZ 4 Unimodal, semi-arid, sorghum-

livestock zone 2 3 5

LZ 5 Pastoral zone 4 4 4 LZ 6 Coastal zone-tree crop

(Cashew, coconut, fishing zone, spices, tourism)

1 6-9 9

LZ 7 Lake Tanganyika zone 2 9 10, 16 LZ 8 Plantation zone (tree, pyrethrum

and tea) 12

LZ 9 Maize, cassava, cashew, Simsim zone

No significant similarities from the three groups. Agreed upon by workshop participants through dialogue and consensus

LZ 10 Rice zone 13 LZ 11 Sisal, sugar cane and cattle LZ 12 Maize-tobacco zone

No significant similarities between the three groups. Agreed upon by workshop participants through dialogue and consensus

LZ 13 Unimodal rainfall (Rice, maize, pulse, banana, tree, fishing, tourism, cotton, mining)

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LZ 14 Bimodal rainfall (Rice, maize, banana, fishing, tourism, Cotton, mining)

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5. LIVELIHOODPROFILES

The team collected relevant information from the literature, i.e. books, research reports, consultancyreports,mapsinordertocomeupwiththelivelihoodprofileforeachlivelihoodzone.Collectionofthisinformation was particularly challenging as the livelihood zones do not necessarily represent theadministrativeboundaries, i.e.regionsofTanzania,andcarefulattentionwasexercisedtowriteprofilesappropriateforeachlivelihoodzone.Thissection,therefore,presentsasummaryofthemainbiophysicalandsocio‐economiccharacteristicsofthe14livelihoodzones.

5.1 LivelihoodZone1(Coffee‐bananahumidhighlands)ThiscoversthehighlandsofKilimanjaro,KageraandpartsofIringaregion.ItalsoincludesTukuyu,Tarimeand Kasulu in Mbeya, Mara and Kigoma regions respectively. These areas are surrounded bymountainous forests andwoodlands that formwet and dryMiombowoodlands. These highland areashaverelativelyfertilesoilswithgoodpotentialforgrowingdifferentperennialandannualcrops.Theareareceives high rainfall of over 1250mm/year and have a long growing period of between 250 and 300days. Livelihoods are basedon the sale of coffee, banana, tea, beans andmaize crops aswell as dairycattleproducts, includingmilk.Somecommunitymembersareemployedonlargecoffeeandteaestatefarms.Traditional farmersmakeup90percentof farmersandtherestarecommercial.Thiszonehasahighpopulationwithadensityofmorethan150peopleperkm2.Genderissuesarecharacterizedbymale

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dominance,wherebymenownthecashcropsandincomefromcropproducts.Accessibilitytomarketsisgood,taking1‐2hourstoreachthemarketsorless,andmostroadsarepassableyearround.Povertyisrelativelylowandthepercentageofpeoplelivingbelowthepovertylineisaround31percent.

These areas are blessed with near perfect climate, rainfall regime and soils. The major constraintsaffectingproductivityincludelandscarcity,lowsoilfertilityincoffee/bananacomplexes,decliningyields,lowtechnologyandlowproducerprices.Theimportanceofwaterforrurallivelihoodsishigh,especiallyfor irrigated agriculture and domestic consumption. Irrigation is not common but exceptionally high inMoshi rural and Hai districts in Kilimanjaro region. Irrigation infrastructure can be improved to makeagriculturalproductionpossibleyear‐roundinmostparts.

5.2 Livelihoodzone2(cotton‐paddy‐cattlemidlands)This zone covers themidlandsofBukombe,Kahama,Maswa,Meatu,Bariadi, Sengerema,Geita,Magu,Kwimba,Misugwidistricts.Thelandformisgentlyundulatingplainscoveredwithlow,sparsevegetation.The rainfall pattern is medium, ranging from 700 to 1200mm/year with a crop growing period ofbetween200and250days/yearininter‐lacustrineareas.ThereisverylowrainfallintheeasternpartsofShinyangaandMwanzaregions.Livelihoodsarebasedoncotton,paddy,cattleandmaizecropsgrownforsaleandforfood.Othersourcesincludefishing,livestockkeepingandminingactivities,inparticulargold,whichisplentifulinthezone.

Employment on farms and in gold mines provides another source of income to a many communitieswithinandoutsidethezone.Mostcommunitiesaremadeupoftraditionalfarmerscomprising90percentof the population, which is very high, around 200 people per km2. Gender is characterized by maledominancewherebymenowncattleandincomefromthesaleofcrops.

Accessibilitytomarketsisrelativelygood,mostly2hourstothemarketcentresorless.Mostly,roadsareearthandaresomewhatdifficulttotravelonduringtherainyseason.Povertyisrelativelyhighwithnearly45percentlivingbelowthepovertyline.Generally,soilshavemediumtopoorfertility,whichalsoaffectssoil‐waterretention.Rainfallinmostareasiserratic,withtheexceptionofinter‐lacustrineareas.

Constraints to development include land scarcity because of the high population density, excessivelivestocknumbersandpoorlandtenuresystems.Therearealsolarge‐scalefisheries,whichlargelyaffectsmall‐scale fisherswhoarethemajority.Decliningproductivityof livestock,cropsandfisheries isalsoamajor factor affecting productivity. Other documented factors affecting productivity include, lowtechnology and low producers price paid to farmers. Water has a high importance for livelihoods,especially foragriculture, livestock, fishing, farmingand fordomestic consumption. Lackofwater limitscropsproduction,withoutwatermostagriculturalpracticesapplied tocropsdonot result in significantyields.Thereis,however,averyhighirrigationpotentialwithwaterbeingdrawnfromLakeVictoriaandtheMarariver.

5.3 LivelihoodZone3(tobacco‐cotton‐miombowoodlandzone)The zone covers the midlands (1100‐1300m asl) of Nzega, Uyui, Sikonge and Urambo, Tabora ruraldistricts inTaboraregion. ItalsocoverspartsofKigomaruraldistrict inKigomaregion.The landform ismostly flat andgentlyundulatingplainsbrokenbyprominenthills. Rainfall ranges from700mm in thenortheast toover1000mm in thewesternparts. This zonehasa veryhighwater tablewithplentyofseasonal wetlands as well as a large permanent wetland. The zone contains the famous MalagarasiMuyowosiwetlands,whichhavebeendesignedasaRamsarsite.

Thelengthofgrowingperiodrangesfrom150daysintheeastto250daysinthewestperyear.Livelihoodsourcesarefoodcrops includingtobacco,cotton,maize,rice,cassava,andsorghum.Theconditionsaresuitableforcattlerearingandhaveattractedownersof largeherdsofcattlefromnearbyzones.Cottonand tobacco farmsprovidea livelihood to thoseemployed. Farmers aremadeupofmostly 60percentemergent,30percenttraditionaland10percentcommercial.Muchincomeisgeneratedfromharvestingforestproducts(woodandnon‐wood)includinghoney,timber,buildingpolesandwildlifeproducts.

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Theareahastwodesignatedwildlifemanagementareas(WMA),whichattracttouristsandhunters,andcontributestoincomegeneration.Fishing,mainlyfromtheMalagarasiMuyowosiwetlandsissustainableandlargefishcatchesarerealizedduringthefishingseason.

Thepopulationdensity is lowwith about 20peopleper km2.Miombowoodlands,which are crucial toecosystem conservation, dominate 50percent or more of the land. Gender is characterized by maledominanceinmanagingmostlivelihoodsources,inparticularagricultureandlivestock.

Access tomarkets is reasonable in that it takesalmost3 to5hours to reach themarket.However, themarketingoftobaccohasbeenimprovedbyestablishingmarketingcentresinspecificlocationsinvillages.There is evidence that traders are now buying food crops, in particularmaize and rice in villages. Theroadswithin villages are generallypoor andmostly impassable in the rainy seasonbecauseofwetlandcharacteristics.However,roadsconnectingdistrictsareaccessible.

Poverty isrelatively lowand26percentreportedly livebelowthepoverty line.Themajorconstraintstodevelopment and community livelihoods include low and erratic rainfall, prolonged spells of drought(Mongietal.,2010)andlanddegradationassociatedwithlargenumbersoflivestock(Majuleetal.,2010).Tsetseflyinfestationisalsoamajorfactorlimitinglivestockproduction.

In the past, watering facilities for livestock used to be a constraint but the zone benefited from theParticipatory Agricultural Development and Empowerment Project (PADEP) programme funded by theWorld Bank, which introduced a number of chaco dams. Water is highly important especially foragriculture and domestic consumption. There is good potential for irrigation by either promoting thecurrent rice bund systems for harvesting rainwater or, because of the high water table, by extractinggroundwater.

5.4 LivelihoodZone4(Semi‐arid,sorghum‐livestockzone)Covers themidlands areas ranging from 900 to 1500m asl in the central plateau, comprising Iramba,Singida rural,Manyoni in Singida region and Kondoa districts in Dodoma region. The great central RiftValleypassesthroughthiszoneandthereareaseriesofRiftValleylakesincludingKindai,SingidaandtheseasonalwetlandsofKitangiriandBahi.

Rainfallrangesfrom200to800mmperyearandthelengthofgrowingperiodisshort,usuallylessthan200 days per year. Livelihood is mainly based on the production of annual drought‐resistant cropsincludingsorghum,maize,cassava,bulrushmillet,cassava,groundnuts,sunflower,sesame,pigeonpeasandfingermillet.SmallnumbersofcattlecontributetothecommunitylivelihoodinparticulartoBarbaigandNyirambatribes(Kangalaweetal.,2005).Mostly,farmersaretraditional(90percent),and10percentareemergent.

The population is low (about 10 people per km2) and the zone is among themainland's least denselypopulated. Gender is characterized bymale dominance, i.e.men own cattle, cash crops and income.Access to markets is fair, taking almost 2‐3 hours to reach the market centres and most roads areaccessibleyearround.

Poverty is high and nearly 50percent of the communities live below the poverty line. A study byKangalawe et al., (2005) established three main wealth groups at the community level (the rich, themiddle‐incomeandthepoor).Therichareveryfewfollowedbythemiddle‐income,buttheformergroupisverystrongandtendstoemploythepoortoworkforthem.Eventuallythepoorreceiveacashor in‐kindincometosustaintheirlivelihoods.

Themainconstraintstodevelopmentinclude:unreliableandlowrainfall; lowanddecliningsoilfertility;crop pests and diseases; prevalence of livestock diseases, in particular East Coast Fever (ECF), tsetseinfestationand limitedmarketingofbothcropsand livestock.Lackofwaterfor livestockduringthedryseasonisamajorconstrainttolivestockproduction.Waterishighlyimportanttolivelihoodsinthiszone,especiallyforcropproduction,livestockkeepinganddomesticconsumption.Useofirrigationforfarmingis uncommon, except in the lowland areas. Soil and water conservation should focus on harvesting

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rainwaterincludingdeeptillage,tieridges,contoursandterracesonslopesaswellasvalleybottomwaterharvestingandconservation.

Currentlywaterisharvestedfromriversandinsomeplaces.UsingthisapproachmanyhectaresoflandintheBahidepressionareahavebeenputintoproductionbytakingwaterforirrigationfromtheBuburiverthatpassesthroughthearea.

5.5 LivelihoodZone5(Pastoralzone)ThiszonecoverslargepartsofArushaandManyararegionsinthenorthernpartsofTanzania.Itconsistsoflowlandstomidlandswithlowrainfallof450to700mmperyearandincludesNgorongoro,Monduli,Simanjiro,Kitetodistricts.Therainfallregimeisunreliable.Soilsaresandyloamstoloamysandswithpoorfertilityandthemainlivelihoodsourcesarefromsalesofcattleandassociatedproducts,cultivationandsaleofannualcropsmainlysorghum,bulrushmillet,wheat,pigeonpea,fingermillet,cassavaandsweetpotatoes. Some communities are involved in small‐scale mining and tourism. Almost 80percent arepastoralistsand20percentareemergentfarmerswhocombinecropswithafewlivestock.

The population density is very low (1 to 5 people per km2),making this the least populated livelihoodzone.Gender ischaracterizedbymaledominancewherebymenownthecattleand incomefromcropsandlivestocksales.Menarealsoheadofthehousehold.

Accesstomarketsispoor,asmostpeopleliveinremoteareasandittakesabout6to8hourstoreachthenearestmarkets.Mostroadsarepassableduringthewetseasonbutfewarenot.

The rateofpoverty ismedium,with about39percent livingbelow thepoverty line. The zone is in thedrylands,therefore,constraintstoproduction includewaterscarcity,whichaffects livestockrearingandcropproduction.Livestockproductionisalsolimitedbytsetseinfestation.Tick‐bornediseases, includingECF,HeartwaterandAnaplasmosisarerampantintheregionleadingtopoorlivestockhealthandcausingdeath of large numbers of livestock. Lack of adequate watering facilities and properly working dips isanother problem. The poor technology of small‐scale miners reportedly affects mining activities, inparticular Tanzanite.Water is highly important for livelihoods, especially for livestock rearing (wateringpoints,dips),cropproductionanddomesticconsumption.

Thiszonedoesnotofferagreatpotentialforirrigationbecauseofthepoorbiophysicalconditions.Thereare,however,areassuitableformedium‐andsmall‐scaleirrigation.Simanjirodistricthasthelargestareaunder irrigation (2315 ha) and the potential irrigation area is 5416ha. There are no potential areassuitable for irrigation in Kiteto. Analysis of secondary data indicates that spring, shallowwells, gravitypumpschemes,hand‐operatedpumpschemesarecommonsourcesofirrigationwaterinthezone.

5.6 LivelihoodZone6(treecrops‐fishingcoastalzone)This zone is along the IndianOcean coastal belt (lowlands 0 to 400m asl) comprisingMuheza, Tanga,Pangani inTanga region,Bagamoyo,Kibaha,Bagamoyo,Mkuranga,Rufiji in thecoast regionandKilwa,LindiruralinLindiregionaswellasMtwararuraldistrictsinMtwararegion.Thiszonealsoknownastheeastern‐southcashewzonebecausemostcashewnutsproducedinTanzaniaoriginateinthiszone.

Rainfallismedium,bimodal,rangingfrom700to1100mmperyear.Thelengthofgrowingperiodis200to250daysperyearandthemainlivelihoodsourcesareproductionofcashewnuts,coconut,spices,rice,maize,cassava,pulses,fruitsandvegetables.FishingiscarriedoutintheIndianOcean,whichcontributestocommunitylivelihoods.Coastaltourism,especiallyinBagamoyo,KilwaandMikindanialsocontributestocommunity livelihoods.Farmersaremostlytraditional(70percent),20percentareemergentfarmersand10percentarelarge‐scalecommercialcashewgrowers.Thezonehasamediumpopulationofabout40peopleperkm2.

Marketsaremostly2to3hourswayinTanga,Pangani,Bagamoyo,Kibaha,MkurangaandMtwararural.Kilwa and Rufiji areas, however, are remote being 6 to 8 hours away. The road that connects Dar esSalaam and the southern part of the coastal belt is accessible, but roads connecting remote areas aremostlyimpassableduringtherainyseason.

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The poverty level in the zone is high, around 43percent live below the poverty line. Climate and soilconditions for crops are good but flooding during the rain season is a major obstacle to agriculturalproduction inRufiji.Amongotherconstraintsaffectingcashewproduction is thedramatic infestationofcashew trees and flowers by powdery mildew that may result in zero yields during severe epidemics(Majule,1999).

The high costs of pesticides to control Pasteurellamultocida disease (PMD), lack of agricultural inputssuch as fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides are also constraints. Other factors affecting incomegenerationistheinadequatelevelofhorticulturaltechnologyfortheproductionoffruitsandvegetablesand a lack of processing and storage facilities. Water is highly important to livelihoods, especially forhorticulturalproductionanddomesticconsumption.

ThereisthepotentialforirrigationforfarmingwithwaterfromthePangani,Wami,RuvuandRufijiriverson188500ha.Currentlythereareseveralsmall‐scaleirrigationschemesincludingMatipwili,Makurunge,Mkoko.

5.7 LivelihoodZone7(LakeTanganyikazone)This covers themidlandsofRukwaandKigoma regions, inparticularNkansi,Kigoma ruralandKibondodistricts.Thelandisagentlyinclinedplateauwithsteephillsrisingsharplyfrom800matthelevelofLakeTanganyikatoabout1700mintheeast.Rainfall isvariable,rangingfrom600to1500mm/yearand isheaviest in thehighlands, intermediateon the lower slopes and low in the lowlands and lakeoffshoreareas.

The main livelihoods are based on agricultural crops, in particular palm oil, maize, cassava, fishing,tobacco, cotton, beans and sweet potatoes. Fishing from Lake Tanganyika, especially fish and sardinesprovideagoodsourceofincometocommunitieslivingbothnearandfarfromthelakeshores.Thezonealso attracts tourism from the Igombe Game Reserve. Almost 80percent of farmers are traditional,15percentareemergentandonly5percentarecommercialfarmers.

This zonehas a relatively lowpopulation density ranging from5people per km2 in sparsely populatedareas to 10 people per km2 in slightly densely populated areas in peri‐and urban centre. Gender ischaracterizedbymaledominanceforownershipofcropsandincome.Accesstomarketsispoor,taking6to8hourstoreachthenearestmarkets.Mostruralroadsareaccessibleduringtheyearbutveryfewarenot.

TheroadfromUrambotoKigomatownisinaccessibleduringthewetseasonbecauseoftheconnectingbridgethroughtheMalagarasiwetland.Povertyishighand43percentofthepopulationlivesbelowthepovertyline.

Constraintstodevelopmentarepoorroadinfrastructureandpoortransporttomarketcentres(includingtheDemocracticRepublicofCongo),lackofappropriateagriculturalproductiontechnology,includinglackofsufficientfarminputssuchasfertilizersandpesticides.Productivityiscurtailedbytsetseinfestationoflivestockandwatershortagesduringthedryseasons.Waterisimportantforcropproduction,fishinganddomesticconsumption.

There is limited irrigationpotential fromwater reservoirs. Researchhas confirmed thebetter irrigationpotentialinthevalleysofLuicheandRuchugi.

5.8 LivelihoodZone8(Treeplantationswithcrops‐pyrethrumandtea)ThiszonecoversmostpartsofthesouthernhighlandsofMufindi,NjombeandMaketedistrictsrangingfrom1600to2700masl.Rainfallrangesbetween1000and1600mmfallingwithin200to280daysperyear.

Themainlivelihoodsourcesincludesaleoftimberfromplantationsandotherwoodproducts,pyrethrumandtea.Othercropsproducedincludevegetables,tomatoesandgreenmaize,whichisproducedinthevalley bottoms of Vinyungu (Majule and Mwalyosi, 2005). This is a zone where there is good milk

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productionfromexoticdairycattle,whichalsosuppliesotherpartsofthezoneandtownsincludingDaresSalaam.

Many communities are employed on tea estates and tree plantations and related industries. ThelivelihoodzoneisalsosupportedbycultivationofmaizeandIrishpotatoesforfoodandsale.Farmersarealmost60emergent,30percentcommercialand10percenttraditional.

Population density ismedium, between 30 to 40 people per km2.Male dominance is characterized byownership of woodlots and income generated from the sale of different products. Men are mostlyemployedontheplantations.

Access tomarkets is fair, taking 2 to 4 hours to reach the nearestmarkets. Roads are relatively good;although some feeder roads are impassable during the rainy season. Poverty is relatively low and thepercentageofpeoplelivingbelowthepovertylineisaround27percent.Waterisimportantespeciallyforcropproduction,wateringplantationnurseries(seedlings)anddomesticconsumption.

Wateravailabilityforplantationsisrelativelygoodbecauseofthecharacteristicsofthecatchmentintheupperpartsofthezone.Small‐scaleandtraditionalirrigationiscommonandanattempttodeveloplarge‐scaleirrigationhasbeentestedintheKalengafloodplains.Itisfeasibleconsideringtheexistingriversandstreams forartificialdamstosupplywater for irrigation.Furrow irrigation is frequentlyused inMufindiareas.Localizedfloodingafterrainisusedwheretopographicalconditionscreatelow‐lying,flat‐bottomedbasins.

5.9 LivelihoodZone9(Maize‐cassava‐cashew‐simsimzone)This zone covers the lowlands (300m) to midlands (900m) formed by Tunduru (Ruvuma region),Nachingwea, Liwale (Lindi region) plains and part of the Masasi district in Mtwara. The mean annualrainfall rangesbetween700 and1200mmper seasonwith a growingperiodof between200 and250daysperseason.

Majorcropsgrowninthezonethatcontributetocommunitylivelihoodsincludecashew,sesame,cassava,maize, pulses (pigeon peas, cowpeas), groundnuts and rice in thewetlands of the Kitere, Kinyope andRuvumariverbasin.Farmersare70percenttraditional,20percentemergentand10percentcommercial.

Populationdensityinthiszoneisverylowwithbetween1and5peopleperkm2inruralandperi‐urbanareas.Recently,therehasbeenmassivepressureto introduce livestock intothezonefollowingevictionfromUsanguplainsandotherpartsofwesternTanzaniaunderMiombowoodlands.

This zonehas relativelybettergenderbalance in termsof socio‐economicactivities.Menmanagetreescrops,inparticularcashew,whilewomenmanageothersourcesoflivelihoodparticularlyexploitationofnon‐woodfoodforestproducts(Majuleetal.,2009).

Inthepastaccesstomarketsusedtobeverybad,takingbetween8to24hourstothenearestmarket.Traveltimehasbeenreducedtoamaximumof6hoursbecauseofsignificantimprovementoftheroads.Although villages are very remote, andmost of the roads are bad, they are passable during the rainyseason.

Poverty is very high and the percentage of people living below the poverty line is around 53percent.Factors contributing to poor productivity include poor distribution and unreliability of rainfall, lack oftechnologyforagriculture,lackofsufficientfarminputs,i.e.fertilizersandpesticides,tsetseinfestationoflivestock.

Water is highly important for crop production, watering livestock and domestic consumption. Watersupply in the zone is met mainly by a multitude of shallow wells fitted with hand pumps. RainwaterharvestingisfeasibleusingvariousmeansformostcommunitiesinNewalaandLiwaledistricts.Waterisalsousedtoirrigatesmallvegetablegardens.Groundwatersupplyisplentifulandfavouringinstallationofshallowwells.

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5.10 LivelihoodZone10(ricezone)ThiscoversthemidlandsareasofofMbaralidistrictinMbeyaregion,withanelevationofabout1000to1400masl.Rainfallrangesbetween650and800mmperyear.Thelengthofcropgrowingseasonrangesfrom 150 to 200 days per year. Community livelihoods depend on the production of both rainfed andirrigatedrice.This istheareawhereMbaraliricefarmunderNationalAgricultureandFoodCorporation(NAFCO)wasdevelopedandrecentlyprivatizedbythegovernment.

Over90percentofsmall‐scalefarmersontheUsanguplains,Mbarali,aregrowingpaddyrice.Othercropsincludemaizeandsorghuminmarginalareas.Livestockkeeping,particularlyontheUsangaplains, isbyagro‐pastoralists originating from drier parts of central and western parts of Tanzania. Farmers are40percenttraditional,40percentemergentand20percentcommercial.

Populationdensityismediumtohighrangingfrom50to100peopleperkm2.Thereisgenderequalityintermsofdivisionoflabourandownershipsofcrops.Therearemanyfemale‐headedhouseholds.

Accesstomarkets is fair (2‐4hours) tothenearestmarketscentresandmostroadsarefairlygoodandaccessibleduringthewetseason.Povertyisrelativelylowaround2percentlivebelowthepovertyline.

Insufficient technology, poor farm implements and conflicts over resource uses, in particular land andwater are among production constraints in the zone. Water is important for crop production anddomestic consumption.Traditional irrigationpracticeson theUsanguplainsdatesbackabout50years.Thissuggeststhatthezonehaspotentialfordevelopmentofirrigationonabout130000ha;onlyabout50000haoffarmsarecurrentlybeingirrigated.

5.11 LivelihoodZone11(Sisal‐sugarcane‐cattlezone)ThiszoneiscomprisedofthemountainsofUluguruandNguru inMorogororegionandthe lowlandsoftheMgetaandRuvuplains(300‐600masl)aswellastheKilomberofloodplains.Thelengthofgrowingperiodrangesfrom200daysonthefloodplainsto300daysintheUlugurumountainsperyear.

Sisal production, sugar cane (large and small scale), cattle rearing, maize, Irish potatoes, paddy andoilseed production are the main livelihood sources. Farmers are 40percent traditional, 40percentemergentand20percentcommercial.

Thepopulationdensity isabout20to30peopleperkm2andthere ishighpressureon landbecauseofpopulationgrowthandexpansionofagriculturalactivities.TheKilomberoplainsaresurroundedbygameandforestreservesthatrestrictfurtherexpansion.

AccesstomarketsisvariablebutgoodintheMorogorourbanarea,whichisabout2hourstraveltimetothemarkets.Someroadsareimpassableduringtherainyseasons.InKilomberoandKilosadistrictstraveltime to markets from rural areas is 2 to 4 hours. Regular flooding, however, during the rainy seasonaffectsmudroadsmakingtransportationofagriculturalcommoditiesmoredifficult.Thepovertylevelisrelativelylowand29percentofthepopulationlivesbelowthepovertyline.

Productivityofbothcropsandlivestockinthezoneisaffectedbyinadequateagricultural inputs, lackofpriceincentives,inadequatecropmarketingarrangements,andpoortransportsystem.Clashesbetweenpastoralistsandcropfarmersarecommonbecauseofthescarcityofgrazinglandduringthedryseason.

Floodingofthefloodplainsintherainyseasonconstrainscropproduction.Kilomberowetlandsareamongthe four designated Ramsar sites in Tanzania but a management plan is yet to be developed. TheKilombero river is themain sourceofwater for varioususes including irrigation of rice and sugar caneestates.IrrigationpotentialisenormousbecauseoftheKilomberoandWamiriverbasins.Itisestimatedthat about 300000ha have potential for developing irrigation. Already, about 20000 ha are underirrigationschemes,i.e.Mlegeni.

5.12 LivelihoodZone12(Maize‐tobaccozone)ThiszonecoverspartofthesouthernhighlandsofNamtumbo,SongearuralareainRuvumaregionandMbinga and Ludewa district in Iringa region, which rises from 300 to 2000m asl. The zone receives

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adequateannualrainfallandhasonelonggrowingseason,whichbeginsinNovemberandendsinMay.Thelengthofgrowingperiodisbetween150and200daysperyearandthemajorcropsgrownaremaize,tobacco, paddy, coffee and cashew (in Tunduru‐Ruvuma region). These crops are themain sources ofcommunitylivelihoodsinthezone.

Farmersare70percenttraditional,20percentemergentand10percentcommercial.Populationdensityinthiszoneislow(5‐10peopleperkm2).Menheadthehouseholdsandtheydominatethemajorsourcesoflivelihoodshowingagenderimbalance.

Ittakes6to12hourstoreachthenearestmarkets.Mostvillagesare inremoteareasandoffthemainroads. Poverty is relatively high and41percentof people livebelow thepoverty line. Factors affectingproduction includepoor road infrastructure, transport and soil fertility; lackof technologyandmodernagriculturalinnovations;lackofsufficientfarminputs,i.e.fertilizersandpesticides.Waterisimportantforcropproductionanddomesticconsumption.

About1390haoflandiscurrentlyirrigated.Thereis,however,anpotential irrigationareaof65730ha.WatercanbeaccessedfromLakeMalawi,RiverRuahaandotherriversfoundinLudewa.

5.13 LivelihoodZone13(Rice‐maizeunimodalzone)ThiszoneincludesthemidlandsandhighlandsareasoftheUfipaplateaurangingfrom1200to2460masl.Rainfallrangesfrom800to1200mm/yeardependingonelevation.Thelengthofgrowingperiodis150or200days/year.

Themajorsourcesoflivelihoodareagricultureandcropsproducedforbothsaleandfoodarerice,maize,pulses and banana. Fishing, tourism and mining are also undertaken and contribute to communitylivelihoods. Farmers are 80percent traditional, 15percent emergent and 5percent commercial.Populationdensityinthiszoneislow(about5‐10peopleperkm2).Menatthehouseholdleveldominatethemajorsourcesofincome;althoughwomendomuchofthework.

Accesstomarkets isbad,traveltimeis8‐24hourstothenearestmarkets.Thevillagesareveryremoteandmostroadsarebadandsomeareinaccessibleduringtherainyseason.Povertyisrelativelylowandaround24percentofpeoplelivebelowthepovertyline.

Constraints affecting production include inadequate and expensive agricultural inputs, lack of priceincentives, inadequate crop‐marketing arrangements, and poor transport system. Other constrains arelackofadequatecattledipsandprevalenceoftsetseinfestationaffectinglivestock.

Waterishighlyimportant,especiallyforcropproductionanddomesticconsumption.Irrigationpotentialis high with 814000 ha of land classified as very suitable 68000 ha; and about 746000 ha beingmarginallysuitablebecauseoflowsoilfertility.Thezonehasagoodnetworkofrivers,mostareperennialwithfertilevalleys.Veryfewoftheseriversareutilizedduringthedryseasonforirrigatedfarming.

5.14 LivelihoodZone14(Rice‐maizebimodalzone)ThiszonecoversthesouthernhighlandsofTanzaniaandrisesfrom1000to2400masl.Rainfallrangesfrom800to2700mm/year.Thelengthofgrowingperiodvariesfrom150to250days/year.

Majorsourcesoflivelihoodincludegrowingrice,maize,bananaandcotton.Fishing,tourismandminingalsocontributetocommunitylivelihoods.

Farmersare40percenttraditional,40percentemergentand20percentcommercial.Populationdensityismediumwithabout30peopleperkm2.Thereisrelativelybettergenderbalanceintermsofactivitiesandresourceownership.

Travel timetomarketsvaries from2 to8hours to thenearestmarkets.Therearegoodandbadroadsthatdetermineaccessibilitytodifferentplaces.

Povertyisrelativelylowand25percentofpeoplelivebelowthepovertyline.

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Factors affecting productivity include lack of modern production technologies, including modern farmimplements; farmer‐herder conflicts and poor prices paid to farmers. Water is important for cropproduction anddomestic consumption. Potential irrigation area is about 374450ha, out ofwhichonly50325haarecurrentlyinuse.

6.POTENTIALFORPOVERTYREDUCTIONTHROUGHAWMAWMusedtobesynonymouswithirrigationand,therefore,otherformsofwatermanagementbeneficialto agricultureweredisregarded. The current trendamongprofessionals andpractitioners is to adopt amoreholisticapproachtowaterforagriculture.Thus,AWMisheredefinedas:

“Alldeliberatehumanactionsdesignedtooptimizetheavailabilityandutilizationofwaterforagriculturalpurposes.Thesourceofwatercouldincludedirectrainaswellaswatersuppliedfromsurfaceandundergroundsources.AWMisthereforethemanagementofallthewaterputintoagriculture(crops,treesandlivestock)inthecontinuumfromrainfedsystemstoirrigatedagricultureandallrelevantaspectsofmanagementofwaterandland”(IMAWESA,2008). Therefore, AWM includes, soil and water conservation, rainwater harvesting, irrigation (full andsupplemental irrigation), agronomic management, rangeland rehabilitation, wetland management andutilization, drainage of waterlogged soils, water conservation for livestock, soil fertility management,conservationagriculture,agroforestry,climaticvariabilitymitigation,useoflowqualityorrecycledwater,waterusedforvalueaddition,andinterventionssuchasintegratedwatershedmanagement(IMAWESA,2008).

Waterisnotalwaysthemainconstrainttopovertyreductioninruralareas,butitisanessentialinputforenhancing agricultural production and other water‐related livelihood activities. To achieve greatestefficiency in use of resources, water investment policies should take into consideration where waterinterventionscanmakeadifferenceforrural livelihoods(FAO,2008). Inotherterms,suchinterventionsshould be directed to livelihood zones where water is fundamental for alleviating rural poverty (FAO,2008).

Potential for poverty reduction via AWM is analysed based on three criteria: rural poverty prevalence,waterasalimitingfactorforproductionandpotentialforwaterdevelopment(FAO,2008).Forinstance,areascharacterizedbythesethreefactors:(i)highprevalenceofpoverty(ii)waterisalimitingfactorforincreasedagriculturalproductionand(iii)goodpotentialforwaterdevelopment,aretherightzonesforinvestingonAWM.

Ontheotherhand,areaswithverylowprevalenceofpoverty,andeitherwaterisnotalimitingfactorforincreasingagriculturalproductionorthereisnopotentialforwaterdevelopment,theninvestinginAWMmostlikelywillnotmakeadifference.

Table2,showsthepotentialforpovertyreductionusingAWMinthedifferentlivelihoodzones.Livelihoodzones2,4,5,7and9havethehighestpotentialforpovertyreductionimplementingAWM.Specifically,Livelihood Zone 2 (Table 2) has relatively high poverty incidence (nearly 45percent living below thepoverty line).Water is the factor limiting crop production in this zone andwithoutwater (insufficientwater) most agricultural practices applied to crops do not result in significant increase in yield (URT,20032,URT,20023).

ThereisalsohighirrigationpotentialforAWMinthiszonewithwaterdrawnfromfromLakeVictoriaandtheMarariverforirrigation;conservationagriculture;variouswater‐liftingdevices;charcodams;paddy‐field bunding and rainwater harvesting (URT, 20032, URT, 20023). Moreover, Livelihood Zone 4, whichcoversthecentralplateau,characterizedbysemi‐aridconditions,isalsoagoodprospectforAWM(Table2)asthezonehasahighlevelofpoverty,nearly50percentofcommunitieslivebelowthepovertyline.Unreliable and low rainfall is amain constraint to development in this zone (URT, 20031, URT, 20051).Though irrigation farming is not common, soil and water conservation practices are paramount andshould focus on harvesting rainwater‐using practices including deep tillage, chololo pits, tie ridges,

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contoursandterracesonslopesaswellasvalleybottomwaterharvestingi.e.charcodams(URT,20031,URT,20051).

LivelihoodZone5,whichislowlandstomidlandswithlowrainfallof450to700mm/yearandfallswithintheNgorongoro,Monduli,Simanjiro,Kitetodistricts,isalsopriorityforAWM.Thezonehasmoderatetohighpoverty,39percentofthepopulationlivebelowthepovertyline.Waterscarcityisamajorconstrainttodevelopmentaffectinglivestockrearingandcropproductionasthezoneisfoundinthedrylands.Thiszonehasfewareasthataresuitableformedium‐andsmall‐scale irrigation. It isnotwellendowedwithlargepotentialareasforirrigationbecauseofitspoorbiophysicalconditions(URT,19976).Ananalysisofsecondarydataindicatesthatsprings,charcodams,shallowwells,gravitypumpschemes,hand‐operatedpumpschemes,rainwaterharvestingandconservationagriculturearepossibleinvestmentsinthiszone,whichisverymuchaffectedbyunreliablesourcesofwater.

LivelihoodZone9isalsoahighpriorityforAWMasthepovertylevelisveryhigh,ataround53percent.Factors contributing to poor productivity include poor distribution and unreliability of rainfall.Conservation agriculture practices, i.e. conservation tillage, contour farming, are feasible in this zone.Rainwaterharvestingisalsoapossibility,especiallyinNewalaandLiwaledistricts.Groundwatersupplyisplentiful,favouringinstallationoftreadlepumps,motorizedpumpsandshallowwells(URT,19975).

On the other hand, Livelihood Zone 1, characterized by highlands, humid conditions, high rainfallwithbimodaltrends,appearstobearelativelylowpriorityareaforpovertyreductionthroughinvestmentinAWM(Table2).Theseareasareblessedwithnearperfectclimateandrainfallregimeandsoilsandwateraregoodforproduction(URT,19972,URT,20021).Although,thereisahighpotentialforAWM,especiallyrainwaterharvesting,water‐liftingtechnologiesandconservationagriculture intheseareas,theexistingwateravailabilityforagricultureandlowpovertylevelofabout31percentlivingbelowthepovertyline,makeitacomparativelylowpriorityforpovertyreductionusingAWMsolutions.

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Table 2 – Priority for action, poverty reduction through water interventions by livelihood zone Livelihoodzones Criteria

LZ

Name Description Ruralpovertyprevalence

Waterasalimitingfactor

Potentialforwaterdevelopment

Priorityforpovertyreduction

LZ1 Coffee‐BananaHumidHighlands Highlands,humid,highrainfall,bi‐modal‐CoffeeandBananazone Low(31%) Low High Low

LZ2 Cotton‐Paddy‐CattleMidlands Cotton,PaddyandCattlemidlands High(45%) High High HighLZ3 Tobacco‐CottonZone Tobacco‐Cottonzone Low(26%) High High ModerateLZ4 SemiaridSorghumLivestockZone Unimodal,semi‐arid,sorghum‐

livestockzone High(50%) High Moderate HighLZ5 PastoralZone Pastoralzone Moderate

toHigh(39%) High Moderate High

LZ6 TreeCrops‐FishingCoastalZone Coastalzone‐Treecrop(Cashew,coconut,fishingzone,spices,tourism) High(43%) LowtoModerate High Moderate

LZ7 LakeTanganyikaZone LakeTanganyikazone High(43%) Low High ModerateLZ8 PlantationZone Plantationzone(tree,pyrethrum

andtea) Low(27%) Low High LowLZ9 Maize‐Cassava‐Cashew‐Simsim

ZoneMaize,Cassava,Cashew,SSesamezone High(53%) High High High

LZ10 RiceZone Ricezone Low(21%) Low High LowLZ11 Sisal‐Sugarcane‐CattleZone Sisal,SugarcaneandCattle Low(29%) low High LowLZ12 Maize‐TobaccoZone Maize‐Tobaccozone High(41%) low High ModerateLZ13 Rice‐MaizeUnimodalZone Unimodalrainfall(Rice,maize,

pulse,banana,tree,fishing,tourism,cotton,mining) Low(26%) Moderate High Moderate

LZ14 Rice‐MaizeBimodalZone Bimodalrainfall(Rice,Maize,Banana,Fishing,Tourism,Cotton,Mining) Low(25%) Low High Low

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7. RELEVANCEANDPOTENTIALOFPROMISINGAWMSOLUTIONS

AccordingtoIWMI,(2010)andMajuleetal.,(2010),themostpromisingAWMsolutionsinTanzaniaarecategorizedas: (i)conservationagriculture;(ii)water liftingandapplicationtechnologies; (iii)communalirrigationschemes;and(iv)smallreservoirs.

(i)Conservationagriculture–includescontourfarming,matengopits,vinyungu,terracing,deeptillage,minimumtillage,rippingandpitcultivation.Farmersusuallyusedifferentcombinationsofconservationagriculturepractices.Theadoptedconservationagriculturepracticesareagro‐ecological zone specific. In the highlands such as Usambara (especially Lushoto), Kilimajaro(corresponds to Livelihood Zone 1) and Iringa (corresponds to Livelihood Zone 1) the specificpracticesincludeterracingandcontourfarming.Insemi‐aridareassuchasthoseinSingidaandDodomaregion (LivelihoodZone4)conservationagriculturepracticesareconservation tillage,deeptillage,rippingandpitcultivation.Agoodexampleischololopits,whicharenamedafterthevillagewheretheywereinventedinDodoma region of Tanzania (Livelihood Zone 4).Chololo pits comprise a series of pits, about22cm in diameter and 30cm deep. The pits are spaced 60cm apartwithin rows, and 90cmbetweenrows,withtherowsrunningalongthecontour.Thesoilremovedduringexcavationisusedtomakeasmallbundaroundthehole.Insidethepit,ashes(toexpeltermites),farmyardmanure and crop residues are added, then covered with the requisite amount of soil whileretaining sufficient space in the hole for runoff to pond. These preparations ensure that theorganicmaterialsholdtheinfiltratedwater.Oneortwoseedsofeithermaize/milletorsorghumareplantedperhole.Themethodcanbewidelyadoptedinsemi‐aridareasofTanzania(Bancy,2007).(ii)Water lifting and application technologies–including treadle,motorized pumps and dripirrigation.Agoodexampleofawater‐liftingdeviceistreadlepumps.Thetreadlepumpsarenotlocation specific in Tanzania, but follow up KickStart Tanzania pumps (IWMI, 2010). Themoneymakingtreadlepumpisamanualpumpthatcanbeowned,operatedandmanagedbyahouseholdoranindividual.Thecost‐benefitanalysisforapumpownergrowingonionshowsapositivenetbenefit.The increased incomecanallowafarmertoproperly feedandclothethefamily (IWMI, 2005). Apart from the pump being used for irrigation it can be used for otherpurposessuchasdomesticand livestockwatersupplywithoutchange indesign.TheKickStartmode of promotion needs to be copiedwhen promoting this technology. A good example ofwater application technology is drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is described as awater deliverysystemthat involvesapplicationofwater intothesoil throughasmallopeningdirectlyonthesoilsurface.Althoughthistechnologyseemstobeexpensiveforthesmall‐scalefarmer,thecostbenefit analysis shows the investment is viable for onion production (IWMI, 2005). Thetechnology has other advantages such as the small amount of water used for production(suitable for semi‐aridareas) and its convenienceofoperation.Adoptionand theuseofdrip‐irrigation technologies in Tanzania are found to be associated with high value crops such asflowersandvegetablesgrownmainlyformarketing(IWMI,2005).(iii)Communalirrigationschemes+aquaculture–includesMkindoirrigationscheme,faroandNdimba systems. The Mkindo irrigation scheme is 42ha with 96 farmers. A water userassociation (WUA) has been established with sub‐committees responsible for different tasks(water distribution, field operations, operation andmaintenance, etc.). The farmers each pay

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TSh4500per year to theWUA formaintenanceof the scheme. Theyhave applied forwaterrights, but do are not yet paying for the water. The WUA needs to be strengthened andconsolidated.Itlacksforexampleskillsonhowmuchwaterisneeded,whichisveryimportantifpaymentofwaterbasedonvolumeofwaterusedisintroduced(Frenken,2001).(iv) Small reservoirs–includes Ndiva system in Pare and charco dams. The charco damtechnologyissuitableinsemi‐aridareaswherefarmerskeeplivestocksuchasLivelihoodZone5(Monduli, Simanjiro, Kiteto andNgorongoro districts), Livelihood Zone 4 (most of Singida andDodoma region) and Shinyanga region (Livelihood Zone 2). Promotion of this technologywillresult inminimizingshortageandunreliablewatersources,whichcreatespermanentstresstolivestock,especiallyduring thedry season. Itwill alsominimizedeforestationandacceleratedsoil erosion resulting from semi‐normadic animal husbandry practiced in response to watershortage.However, in promoting this technology the respective communitymust be involvedfromthebeginning,toencourageasenseofownership.Sincethetechnology isexpensivethegovernmentordonoragenciesintendingtopromoteitmustagreewiththecommunityonthepercentagecontributionforconstructionofthedam(Bancy,2007).Table3 shows the relevanceofpromisingAWMsolutions in thedifferent livelihood zones. InLivelihood Zone 1 (mostly highlands), the most promising AWM intervention is conservationagriculturethroughterracingandcontourfarming(Bancy,2007).InLivelihoodZone2,themostpromising AWM technologies range from conservation agriculture (Table 3), i.e. conservationtillageachievedby:(i)zeroorminimumsoilturning,(ii)permanentsoilcover,(iii)stubblemulchtillage, and (iv) crop selection and rotations. Also low cost water‐lifting devices, communalirrigation schemes and small reservoirs for farming and livestock watering are promisingsolutions (URT, 20032, URT, 20023). In Livelihood Zone 3, themost promising AWM solutionsincludelowcostwater liftingtechniques,smallreservoirsandcommunal irrigationschemesasthiszonehasahighwatertableandpermanentwetlands(URT,20052).InLivelihoodZone4andLivelihoodZone5(semi‐aridareas),themostpromisingAWMsolutionis conservation agriculture such as conservation tillage, ripping and pit cultivation.Moreover,althoughwater‐liftingdevicesandsmallreservoirshavemediumpotential(Table3)becauseofthelimitedwateravailability,theyarecrucialincertainareaswithinthesetwozones,bearinginmind that water is the main factor constraining production in these semi‐arid areas. Forinstance,areaswithpotentialforcharcodamsorareaswheretreadlepumpscanextractwaterfromsprings.

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Table 3 – Relevance of promising AWM solutions in the different livelihood zones Livelihoodzones AWMSolutions

LZ

Name Description Conservationagriculture

Individualfarmer,lowcostliftingdevices(treadle,motorizedpumps,ropeandwasher,drip,etc.)

Communalirrigationschemes(includingaquaculture)

Smalldams

LZ1 Coffee‐BananaHumidHighlands Highlands,humid,highrainfall,bi‐modalCoffeeandBananazone High Medium Medium Medium

LZ2 Cotton‐Paddy‐CattleMidlands Cotton,PaddyandCattlemidlands High High High HighLZ3 Tobacco‐CottonZone Tobacco‐cottonzone Medium High High HighLZ4 SemiaridSorghumLivestockZone Unimodal,semi‐arid,sorghum‐

livestockzone High Medium Medium MediumLZ5 PastoralZone Pastoralzone High Medium Medium MediumLZ6 TreeCrops‐FishingCoastalZone Coastalzone‐Treecrop(Cashew,

coconut,fishingzone,spices,tourism) Medium High High low

LZ7 LakeTanganyikaZone LakeTanganyikazone Medium Medium High lowLZ8 PlantationZone Plantationzone(tree,pyrethrum

andtea) Medium Medium Medium MediumLZ9 Maize‐Cassava‐Cashew‐Simsim

ZoneMaize,Cassava,Cashew,SSesamezone High High Medium Low

LZ10 RiceZone Ricezone Medium Medium High MediumLZ11 Sisal‐Sugarcane‐CattleZone Sisal,SugarcaneandCattle High low High MediumLZ12 Maize‐TobaccoZone Maize‐Tobaccozone High low High MediumLZ13 Rice‐MaizeUnimodalZone Unimodalrainfall(Rice,maize,

pulse,banana,tree,fishing,tourism,cotton,mining) Medium Low High Medium

LZ14 Rice‐MaizeBimodalZone Bimodalrainfall(Rice,Maize,Banana,Fishing,Tourism,Cotton,Mining) High Medium High Medium

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Furthermore, in Livelihood Zone 6, the promising AWM solutions are water‐lifting technologies andcommunalirrigationschemes,madepossiblebythemultitudeofrivers(Pangani,Wami,RuvuandRufiji)and their tributaries. In Livelihood Zone 7, the promising AWM intervention is communal irrigationschemes,which ispossible in thevalleysofLuicheandRuchugi. InLivelihoodZone8, there is relativelygoodavailabilityofwaterforplantationsbutcommunalirrigationschemesisalsofeasibleforothercropsgrowninthedryseason,i.e.vegetables,becauseoftheexistingriversandstreams.InLivelihoodZone9,useofwater‐liftingdevicesisapromisingAWMsolutionbecauseofplentifulofgroundwaterinthiszone(URT,19975).

In Livelihood Zone 10 (Table 3), communal irrigation schemes are most promising, demonstrated byexisting irrigation schemes (50000 ha) and full potential for irrigation schemes (130000 ha) on theUsanguplains (URT, 20033). In Livelihood Zone11, conservation agriculture, i.e. terracing and contourfarming,isthemostpromisingAWMsolutionintheUluguruandNgurumountains.IntheplainsofMgetaandRuvu,themostpromisingAWMsolutioniscommunal irrigationschemesasthereisanunexploitedpotentialof180000ha(URT,20024).

Moreover, in Livelihood Zone 12, the most promising AWM solution is communal irrigation schemes.Thereareabout64000hathatmaybecultivatedusingthisinterventionaswatercanbedrawnfromLakeMalawi, Ruaha river and other rivers found in Ludewa (URT, 20024). Also conservation agriculture, i.e.contour farming, terracing,matengopits, are promisingAWMsolutions in theNamtumbo andMbingahighlands.InLivelihoodZone13(Table3),communalirrigationschemesarepromisingAWMsolutionsasthis zone contains large areas with irrigation potential (814000 ha) because of the good network ofperennial rivers. In Livelihood Zone 14, conservation agriculture, i.e. contour farming, terracing andcommunal irrigation schemes are promising AWM solutions in this zone as there is good potential forirrigation,i.e.about324000ha(URT,19972).

8. CONCLUSION

In this report, 14 livelihood zones were identified based on different sets of data, for example, agro‐ecologicaldata,landcover,accesstomarkets,livelihoodsources,populationdensity,genderpatternsandrainfallpatterns.Intheselivelihoodzones,potentialforpovertyreductionwasanalysedbasedonpovertyprevalence, water as a limiting factor for production and potential for small‐holder AWM investment.After analysis, Livelihood Zones 2, 4, 5, 7 and 9were found to have the highest potential for povertyreductionusingAWM.AgoodexampleisLivelihoodZone2,whichhasrelativelyhighpoverty incidence(nearly45percent livingbelow thepoverty line).Water is the limiting factor to cropproduction in thiszoneandwithoutwater (insufficientwater)mostagriculturalpracticesappliedtocropsdonotresult insignificant increase in yield. There is also high irrigation potential for AWM in this zone for irrigation,drawingwaterfromLakeVictoriaandtheMarariver;variousconservationagriculturepractices;variouswater lifting and application technologies; charco dams, paddy‐field bunding and rainwater harvesting.The most promising AWM solutions are conservation agriculture, water lifting and applicationtechnologies,communalirrigationschemesandsmallwaterreservoirs.

In Livelihood Zone 2, for instance, the most promising AWM solution is conservation agriculture, i.e.conservationtillageachievedby: (i) zeroorminimumsoil turning, (ii)permanentsoilcover, (iii) stubblemulch tillage, and (iv) crop selection and rotations. Also low cost water‐lifting devices, communalirrigationschemesandsmallreservoirsforfarmingandlivestockwateringarequitepromisingsolutionsinthiszone.

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Majule,A.E., Liwenga,E.T.,Kangalawe,R.M.&Yanda,P.Z. 2009.Natural resourcecontribution tocommunity livelihoods. Experience from selected case studies in Tanzania. Dar es SalaamUniversityPressLTD(Acceptedforpublication.ISBN:978‐9976‐60‐486‐6).

MajuleA.E.&Mwalyosi,R.B.B.2005.Enhancingagriculturalproductivitythroughsustainableirrigation.AcaseofVinyungufarmingsysteminselectedzonesofsouthernHighlan,Tanzania.In:SocialandenvironmentalimpactsofirrigationfarminginTanzania:Selectedcases.(EditedbyH.Sosovele,J.BoesenandF.Maganga).DaresSalaamUniversityPress.ISBN9976604319.

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URT.19973.Mtwararegion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andMtwaraRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

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URT.20051.Singidaregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andSingidaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.20031.Dodomaregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andDodomaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.19974.Kigomaregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andKigomaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.20032.Mwanzaregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andMwanzaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.20023.Shinyangaregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andShinyangaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.20024.Morogororegion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andMorogoroRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

URT.19975.Lindiregion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andLindiRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

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URT.19976.Arusharegion.Socio‐economicprofile.JointpublicationbyNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS)andArushaRegionalCommissioner’sOffice.CoordinatedbyThePresident’sOffice,PlanningandPrivatisation.Daressalaam.

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10. ANNEXES

Annex1–DescriptionofLivelihoodZonesbyGroupZone Climate Livelihoodsource Farmer

typologyAccesstomarkets Ruralpopulation

densityGenderpatterns Poverty

I Highrainfall>1000mm,deepsoils,2growingseasons,longrains

Saleofcashandfoodcrops.Employmentinfarms

Small,mediumandlargescalefarmers

Withinoroutsidezones

Mediumtohigh

Malewithcashcropsandincome

10%rich,50‐70%middleincome,<50%poor.

II Low,<1000mm,onegrowingseason

Saleofcashandfoodcrops.Employment

Small–mediumscalefarmers

Withinthezone

Lowtomedium

Bothmaleandfemale

Approx.70%poor

III Highrainfall,1‐2Seasons.

Saleofcashandfoodcrops Smallscale Withinzone Highpopulation Maledominated Poor,majority

IV Lowtomediumrainfall<700m,infertilesoils,drylands

Saleofcropsandlivestockproducts

Smallscalefarmers Withinandoutsidezones

Low

Male Medium

V 2rainseasons,hightemperature,poorsoils

‐SaleoffishandseaproductsEmployment

Smallscale Withinthezone

HighCoastalandlakeregion

Male Poormajority

VI 1‐2rainseasons,fertilesoils Salesofcrops/fishproductsSelfemployed

Smallscale

Within

Low BothF/M Majoritymedium

VII Variable Salesoffarmandnonfarmproducts

Small‐Medium Withinandoutsidezone

Medium Both Medium(40%to50%)

VIII Lowrainfall,bushland,poorsoils Huntingandforestproducts

Smallscale Within Verylow Male Majoritypoor

IX Semiaridareas,poorsoils SaleofmineralsEmployment

Small‐large Withinandoutside Veryhigh,Exceeding5000percamp

Male Mixed

X ‐Semi‐arid‐Variablesoils

‐Saleofcrops‐Huntingandrevenuecollections

Smallscalefarmers Withinandoutside Low Male Majoritypoor

XI LowtoMediumrainfall(miombozone)Deepsoils

Saleofcropsandforestproducts

Small‐mediumscale Withinandoutsidezones

Low Mixed(FandM) Poormajority

XII Highrainfall(>1000mm)‐Fertilesoils‐Lowtemperature

‐Saleoflivestockproducts‐Employment

Smalltomedium Withinandoutside High Mixed Lowandmedium

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Annex2–DescriptionofLivelihoodZonesbyGroupLivelihoodzone Climate Livelhdsource Farmers Population

GenderMarket

Poverty

LZ1 Evergreen Banana,beans,coffee,dairycattle,weaving,fishing,oilpalm

100%traditional High MHH80%FHH20%

Moderate

LowtoMed

LZ2 Uni‐modal Maize,Rice,Cassava,Sorghum,Cattle,Cotton,Fishing,Mining,Tourism

100%traditional Veryhigh MHH90% Good Lowtomedium

LZ3LZ3aTourism

Semi‐arid Cattle,Cotton,Rice,Maize.Tobacco,Simsim,Pulses,Tourism,Minerals

90%traditional10%emergent

MedtoHigh MHH90%

Good

Lowtomedium

LZ4Agropastoralareas

Semi‐arid Cattle,rice,Maize,Pulses,Wheat,Coffee,Sugar,Tourism,Vegetables

70%Traditional30%Commercial

Lowtomedium MHH90% VeryGood Lowtomedium

LZ5 BimodalandSem Coffee,banana,sugar,maize,vegetable,flower,tourism,cattle

Traditional‐70%,Emergent‐15%Commercial‐15%

Veryhigh

MHH90 Verygood Low

LZ6 Humid/Mod Fishing,treecrops,rice,maize,pulses,tourism,poultry,swine,spices

Traditional90% MedtoHigh MHH80% VariableLMH

Low

LZ7 Humid/Mod Fishing,treecrops,rice,maize,pulses,tourism,poultry,swine,spices

Traditional90% Low MHH80% Low High

LZ8 Bimodal Maize,rice,vegetable,cass,potato,banana,sugarcane,timber,tobacco,fish

Outgrower‐5%Traditional‐95%

Med

FHH50%

Good

Medium

LZ9 Uni‐modal Rice,maize,pulse,banana,tree,fishing,tourism,cotton,mining

90%traditional10%emergent

High(refugees)

MHH80% Verygood(Zambia) Low

LZ10 Uni‐modal Rice,maize,pulse,banana,tree,fishing,tourism,cotton,mining

90%traditional10%emergent

High(refugees)

MHH80%

Low

High

LZ11 Semiarid Farming,maize,pulse,tree,cassava,fishing,tourism,livestock

Traditional(100%)

Low‐med MHH70%

Low MediumtoHigh

LZ12 HumidTemperature

Tea,Potatoes,Sheep,Timber, Traditional(100%) High

FHH40%

Low

Variable

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Annex3–DescriptionofLivelihoodZonesbyGroupTypologyLivelhd

zonesAgro‐climate Livelihood

source Traditional

Emergent

CommercialAccesstomarkets

Populationdensity

Genderpatterns

Ruralpoverty

Areas

LZ1 Heavyrainfall,highlands

Coffee,banana,teazone

93% 5% 2% Good Veryhigh Maledominance

Low Kagera,Kigoma,Tarime,Moshi,Meru,Tukuyu

LZ2 Mediumrainfallmidlands

Cotton,paddy,cattlezone

90% 7% 3% Good Medium Maledominance

Low Mwanza,Shinyanga,Mara,Morogoro,Mbeya

LZ3 Mediumrainfall,Midlands

Tobacco‐cottonzone

30% 60% 10% Good Mediumtolow Mixed Low Kigoma,Tabora,Iringa,Mbeya

LZ4 Drylowlands Pastoralzone 100% ‐ ‐ Mixed Verylow Maledominance

Veryhigh Serengeti,Ngorongoro,Monduli,Simanjiro,Handeni,Kiteto,Hanang

LZ5 Lowrainfall,lowlands,dry

Agro‐pastoralzone

40% 45% 15% Good Low Mixed High Singida,Dodoma,Tabora,Mara,Shinyanga

LZ6 Sorroundingwaterbodies

Fishingzone 30% 50% 20% Good High Mixed High LakeVictoria,Nyasa,Tanganyika,Rukwa,Dams‐Mtera,NyumbayaMungu,Coastline

LZ7 SurroundingNationalparksandotherheritagesites

Tourismzone 5% 15% 80% Poor Low Mixed High Arusha,Morogoro,Kilimanjaro,Coast,Iringa

LZ8 Surroundingmines

Miningzone 10% 30% 60% Good High Mixed High Mara,Shinyanga,Arusha,

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Mwanza,Chunya,Uvinza

LZ9 Coastline,Mediumrainfall

Cashewnut,Coconut,Cassava

70% 20% 10% Good Medium Balanced High Tanga,Pwani,Lindi,Mtwara

LZ10 Highlands,highrainfall

Maize,beans,sunflower,paddyzone

50% 40% 10% Good Medium Balanced Medium Rukwa,Ruvuma,Iringa,Mbeya,Morogoro

LZ11 Mediumrainfall,Midlands

Wheatcomplex 70% 25% 5% Good High Maledominance

Medium Babati,Mbulu,Karatu,Hanang

LZ12 Highrainfall,highlands

Forestbased,Irishpotato,tea

10% 60% 30% Good High Mixed Medium Njombe,Makambako,Mufindi,Makete

LZ13 Highrainfall Paddyzone 40% 30% 20% Good Medium Balanced Medium Kyela,Mbarali,Ifakara,Kilombero

LZ14 Mediumtohighrainfall

Fruitzone 70% 25% 5% Good High Balanced Medium Handeni,Lushoto,Karagwe,Morogoro

LZ15 Mediumrainfall Lindi‐Mtwarainlandcashew

70% 20% 10% Poor Low Balanced High LindiandMtwarainland

LZ16 Mediumrainfall‐midlands

Kigoma‐Palm,MaizeandCassava

80% 15% 5% Good Low Maledominance

High KigomaPalmareas