IN THE NAME OF ALLĀH, THE MERCIFUL, THE MERCY-GIVING

IN THE NAME OF ALLĀH, THE MERCIFUL,

THE MERCY-GIVING

A GUIDE TO

ENGINEERING DESIGN METHODOLOGIES

AND TECHNICAL PRESENTATION

Bahattin Karagözoğlu Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University

Scientific Publishing Center

King Abdulaziz University

Jeddah

© King Abdulaziz University 1429 A.H. (2008 A.D.)

All rights reserved.

1st Edition: 1429 A.H. (2008 A.D.)

© King Abdulaziz University, 2008 King Fahd National Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data Karagözoğlu, Bahattin

A guide to engineering design methodologies and technical presentation. / Bahattin Karagozoglu, – Jeddah, 2008

350p ; 24 cm

ISBN: 978-9960-06-502-1

1- Engineering design I – Title 620.00425 dc 1429/6245 L.D. no. 1429/6245 ISBN: 978-9960-06-502-1

v

FOREWORD

The undergraduate education in the Faculty of Engineering at King

Abdulaziz University takes five years. Students take a variety of subjects

to cover the background needed and obtain expertise in their fields of

specialization. XE-499 Senior Project Course is a departmental

requirement for all students and is normally carried out in the last two

semesters before graduation. It is a capstone design course that gives

students exercise in engineering design and development

methodology, and technical presentation.

There are two important issues related to the course as exercised in

the Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE) Department: Firstly, it

has been observed that students normally carry out their projects only

during the second half of the second semester. At the end, both the staff

and students are run out of time, and the project doesn't serve its purpose.

Also, the quality and quantity of the work done vary considerably.

Secondly, although our graduates are fully equipped with necessary

material to carry out their duties, they are not successful in presentation

and interviews since they are not properly trained

This problem has been evaluated at different levels at the ECE

Department. The academic staff appreciated the importance of proper

training of students in design methodology and technical presentation.

Eventually, the Department Council decided that lectures on the subject

would be given in a formal manner every semester starting from spring

1417 H. Students would attend lectures in the first term of the project and

15% of the total project grade would be assigned to this part. This policy

has been carried out in the Department during the last ten years

effectively.

The ECE Department received ABET recognition for its four

academic programs in September 2003. Lecture notes for the senior

project course have been modified to place more emphasis on the design

vi A Guide to Engineering Design Methodologies and Technical Presentation

to agree with ABET criteria. I wish that these lecture notes are beneficial,

and improve the standard of our graduates. Finally, I would like to thank

Dr. Bahattin Karagözِoğlu for his sincere efforts in preparing the original

manuscript of these lecture notes and maturing them through the years

into the form of a book. Wishing all the best to our young engineers.

Dr. Abdulaziz Uthman Al- Abdulaziz

Vice-Dean, Faculty of Engineering

Safar 27, 1428H – March 17, 2007G

vii

PREFACE

Knowledge is a virtue respected by everybody. People normally call each

other by honorary words related to the knowledge. The strength of

individuals, societies and nations are evaluated according to the level of

knowledge that they acquire. Engineers lay scientific knowledge into

practical uses called the engineering design. There are some guidelines

followed by most successful engineers that can be points of reference for

the novels.

The curricula for the engineering programs contain capstone design

projects as a graduation requirement. The Electrical and Computer

Engineering Department initiated lectures/seminars on “Engineering

Design Methodologies and Technical Presentation” to guide the senior

project students in their design works. When I was asked to take the

responsibility of conducting lectures, I spent a considerable amount of

time in sorting out the material that would be beneficial to our young

engineers in performing their design works, and they would also keep it

as a reference for future. Hence, the book contains a summary of

procedures that are written in the form of "to do lists". Students can

develop their senior projects in parallel with the lectures and apply the

ideas and actions taught immediately.

The Faculty of Engineering crossed a historic milestone in

September 2003; all 12 programs administered by the Faculty were

granted substantial equivalency by ABET. Concurrently, a new

curriculum commenced in which two new courses have been introduced

at low level to introduce the design concepts to the students at early

stages; IE 201 Engineering Design I that deals with introduction of

modern design tools and methodologies and IE 202 Engineering Design

II that deals with formulation of an engineering problem. My lecture

notes coincided with these activities. I thought that within the four years

A Guide to Engineering Design Methodologies and Technical Presentation

viii

period the need for EE 499 seminars would diminish since students have

been prepared for the design methodologies at early stages by these

courses. This didn’t materialize and lectures given as components of EE

499 still keep their significance.

Engineering design has been the bottleneck in the ABET

accreditation. Interim reports were sent to ABET and progress was found

satisfactory with some concerns in engineering design. You are heading

for new accreditation at 2009 according to EC2000 criteria that is more

elaborate in the design aspects than the previous conventional criteria.

There have been many activities at various levels in the Faculty to

improve XE 499 senior project courses in all departments. XE 499 Senior

Project report writing guidelines were requested by the Faculty

Administration. I prepared them with considerable contributions from my

esteemed colleagues from ECE and from other departments in the

Faculty. The guidelines were approved by the Faculty Council and

distributed to all engineering departments for implementation.

Meanwhile, the senior project committee in the ECE Department

prepared monitoring guidelines and a model timetable for EE 499

students.

Lecture notes for EE 499 have been revised with improved contents

to meet the challenges of EC2000 and converted into a book. Chapter 1

provides an overview of engineering design methodologies while chapter

2 focuses on the capstone design project course. Chapter 3 describes the

selection and defining the design problem. Chapter 4 discusses the

background search including the literature survey, studying the

concurrent design examples and observing the design problem at its

original site of occurrence. Chapter 5 addresses the analysis and

synthesis of the problem. Chapter 6 deals with the evaluation of the

design and related measurement, data processing and modeling issues.

Chapters 7, 8 and 9 are for documenting the design, organizing the

project report and orally presenting the technical work respectively.

Chapter 10 deals with safety in engineering environment. Chapter 11

introduces and discusses some of the issues related to engineering ethics

from a Muslim engineer point of view. Chapter 12 deals with self

presentation skills including resumé writing and managing interviews.

Most chapters contain examples and sample problems for the

assignments in the course, supplemented by previous design examples.

Preface

ix

The information provided in the book is all-purpose and can be used

by any engineering specialization. Each chapter is covered in one sitting

of about 70 minutes in the ECE Department. The lectures are given in

seminar style with some active learning exercises, quizzes and drills.

I carry out process checks in many lectures and an exit survey at the

end of the term. I have seen that our students are responsive. The critics

help me a lot in improving my lecture notes. I would like to express my

goodwill for all my students and express my appreciations for those who

criticize me, my way of instruction, power point slides and my lecture

notes. I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues who worked

with me in preparing some of the material; especially Dr. Osman Taylan

in Industrial Engineering, Dr. Nedim Turkmen in Thermal Engineering,

Dr. Haitham Bogis in Production Engineering and Dr. Soliman Ali in the

English Language Center. Previous and current chairmen of the ECE

Department, Dr. Abdulaziz Uthman Al-Abdulaziz and Prof. Dr. Rabah

Aldhaheri have been very cooperative and encouraging; I always value

their contributions. Finally, I would like express my sincere appreciations

to Mr. Mahmoud Saeed of the Scientific Publishing Centre for his serious

review of the manuscript.

May Allah Almighty enables us to accomplish what pleases Him,

and may He dear us, endear us and gratify us. And He is the Knower of

intentions.

Dr. Bahattin Karag ِözoğlu

Jeddah, Jumada II 28, 1429H – July 2, 2008

xi

CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...................................................................................... v

PREFACE ........................................................................................... vii

1. AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING DESIGN..................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 3 1.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ....................................... 4 1.2.1 Definition of Science ............................................. 4 1.2.2 Teaching and Training ........................................... 4 1.2.3 Ethics...................................................................... 5 1.2.4 Engineering Accreditation ..................................... 5 1.2.5 Levels of Knowledge ............................................. 7 1.3 THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS ........................................ 7 1.3.1 The Affective Domain ........................................... 8 1.3.2 Levels of Learning – The Cognitive Domain ........ 9 1.4 ENGINEERING DESIGN................................................... 10 1.4.1 Definition of Engineering Design.......................... 11 1.4.2 Summary of Realistic Design Constrains .............. 12 1.4.3 Stages of Engineering Design................................ 12 1.5 DESIGN VERSUS RESEARCH......................................... 14 1.5.1 Characteristics of Research Problems.................... 15 1.5.2 Execution of the Investigation ............................... 15 1.5.3 Publication and Application................................... 16 1.6 IMPORTANT STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC WORK............. 16 1.6.1 Literature Survey (Background) ............................ 16 1.6.2 Primary Investigation (Basic Research- Observation)........................................................... 16 1.6.3 Objectives - Hypothesis ......................................... 17 1.6.4 Experimentation..................................................... 17 1.6.5 Application............................................................. 17 1.7 THE DESIGN NOTEBOOK ............................................... 17 1.7.1 Why Keep a Design Notebook?............................. 18


xii

1.7.2 Contents of the Design Notebook .......................... 18 1.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 19 1.8.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 19 1.8.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 19

2. THE CAPSTONE DESIGN PROJECT.................................... 21

2.1 PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT ........................................... 23 2.2 PROGRESS OF THE PROJECT WORK ........................... 24 2.2.1 Working on a Team Project ................................... 24 2.2.2 Project Topics ........................................................ 24 2.2.3 Attending Lectures................................................. 25 2.2.4 Expected Outcomes from the Senior Project ......... 25 2.3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT............................................... 25 2.3.1 Stages of the Project............................................... 25 2.3.2 Project Planning and Monitoring ........................... 25 2.3.3 Decision Analysis()................................................. 27 2.3.4 The Timing Diagrams (Gantt Charts) .................... 28 2.3.5 Program Evaluation ............................................... 29 2.3.6 A Sample Time Schedule for a Senior Project ...... 29 2.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 31 2.4.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 31 2.4.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 31

3. SELECTING AND DEFINING THE DESIGN PROBLEM... 33

3.1 THREE PHASES OF ALL EVENTS.................................. 35 3.2 SELECTING A DESIGN PROBLEM ................................ 36 3.2.1 Desirable criteria for topic selection ...................... 36 3.2.2 Avoid Trivial Problems.......................................... 36 3.2.3 Specific Steps of the Scientific Method................. 37 3.3 DEFINING THE PROBLEM .............................................. 38 3.3.1 State the Problem as Clearly as Possible and

Prepare a Work Plan .............................................. 39 3.3.2 Hypothesis or Objectives ....................................... 40 3.3.3 Estimating the Feasibility of a Design Project....... 40 3.4 THE PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION (PDS) ......... 40 3.4.1 Preparation and Evolution of the PDS................... 40 3.4.2 Contents of PDS..................................................... 41 3.5 EXAMPLES......................................................................... 43 3.5.1 Example for Situation Description......................... 43

Contents

xiii

3.5.2 Case Study: Design of a System to Locate a Free Ranging Patient within the Hospital......................... 44

3.6 EXERCISES ........................................................................ 47 3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 50 3.7.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 50 3.7.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 50

4. THE BACKGROUND SEARCH............................................... 51

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 53 4.1.1 Essential Components in Decision Making ........... 53 4.1.2 An Anecdote .......................................................... 53 4.1.3 Essentials of the Background Search..................... 54 4.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................... 54 4.2.1 Phases of the Literature Review ............................ 55 4.2.2 Purpose of the Literature Review .......................... 55 4.2.3 How to Begin a Search for Information................. 56 4.2.4 Traditional Sources of Related Literature.............. 56 4.2.5 The Internet() .......................................................... 58 4.3 APPROACHES TO THE SEARCH.................................... 60 4.3.1 Building a Working Bibliography ......................... 60 4.3.2 Search Tools – Computerized Search,

Index Cards and Interviews ................................. 60 4.4 COMPLETING THE CARDS............................................. 63 4.4.1 Information that Goes to the Index Card ............... 63 4.4.2 Note Cards ............................................................. 64 4.5 ABSTRACTING.................................................................. 65 4.5.1 Relevant Parts of an Article ................................... 65 4.5.2 Guidelines for Reading any Report........................ 66 4.6 ORGANIZING THE SEARCH ........................................... 67 4.7 WRITING THE ROUGH DRAFT ...................................... 69 4.8 THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD ................................. 70 4.8.1 Necessity of the Observational Method................. 70 4.8.2 Places of Observation ............................................ 71 4.8.3 Characteristics of the Observational Method......... 71 4.9 AN EXAMPLE .................................................................... 72 4.10 EXERCISES ........................................................................ 73 4.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 74 4.11.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 74 4.11.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 74


xiv

5. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS OF THE PROBLEM............. 75

5.1 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.......................................... 77 5.1.1 Analysis of the Problem......................................... 77

5.1.2 Synthesis of the Problem ....................................... 77 5.1.3 Case Study: Design of a System to Locate a Free-

Ranging Patient within the Hospital ...................... 77 5.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD .................................... 82 5.2.1 Need for the Experiment........................................ 82 5.2.2 Design of the Experiment ...................................... 83 5.2.3 Basic Steps in an Experiment ................................ 83 5.2.4 Differences between Exercise and Design............. 85 5.2.5 Experimental Design and Optimization................. 86 5.2.6 Important Reminder ............................................... 88 5.3 CASE STUDY: DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS FOR BODY

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT.................. 88 5.3.1 Purpose and Types of Experiments........................ 88 5.3.2 Experimental Protocols.......................................... 88 5.4 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF DESIGN .......................... 89 5.5 AN EXAMPLE ON EXPERIMENT DESIGN ................... 90 5.5.1 Measurement Constraints....................................... 91 5.5.2 Experimental Procedure......................................... 92 5.5.3 Presentation of Data and Results ........................... 93 5.6 EXERCISES ........................................................................ 94 5.6.1 True-False Questions ............................................. 94 5.6.2 Multiple-Choice Questions .................................... 95 5.6.3 General Questions.................................................. 96 5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 97 5.7.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 97 6. MEASUREMENT, DATA ANALYSIS AND MODELS......... 99

6.1 ERRORS AND SAMPLE PARAMETERS OF A MEASUREMENT ............................................................... 101

6.1.1 Accuracy, Resolution and Precision ...................... 101 6.1.2 Sources of Errors.................................................... 101 6.2 RANDOM ERRORS AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION .. 103 6.3 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS .................................................... 104 6.3.1 Systematic Errors Variable in Time....................... 105 6.3.2 Propagation of Errors............................................. 106

Contents

xv

6.4 MODELS AND SIMULATIONS ....................................... 106 6.4.1 Definitions and Classification of Models .............. 106 6.4.2 Model Testing ........................................................ 107 6.4.3 Computer Simulations ........................................... 108 6.5 EXERCISES ........................................................................ 108 6.5.1 True-False Questions ............................................. 108 6.5.2 Multiple-Choice Questions .................................... 109 6.5.3 General Questions.................................................. 110 6.5.4 Active Learning on Graphs and Plots .................... 111 6.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 113 6.6.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 113 6.6.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 113 7. DOCUMENTING THE DESIGN .............................................. 115

7.1 STYLE, FORMAT, AND READABILITY ........................ 117 7.1.1 Basic Requirements ............................................... 117 7.1.2 Technical Details and Stylistic Matters ................. 118 7.1.3 Display of Data ...................................................... 118 7.2 USING GRAPHS AND CHARTS ...................................... 119 7.2.1 Line Graphs............................................................ 119 7.2.2 Bar or Column Charts ............................................ 121 7.2.3 Pie Charts ............................................................... 122 7.2.4 Flow (Organization) Charts ................................... 123 7.2.5 Diagrams ................................................................ 124 7.2.6 Design (Assembly) Drawings() .............................. 124 7.3 PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES().................... 126 7.3.1 Topic Sentences ..................................................... 126 7.3.2 Paragraph Structure................................................ 127 7.3.3 Coherence .............................................................. 128 7.4 SELF-CRITIC OF THE REPORT....................................... 130 7.4.1 Self-Critic............................................................... 130 7.4.2 General Suggestions for Improving Written

Reports ................................................................... 131 7.5 EXAMPLE OF A SHORT ESSAY ..................................... 131 7.6 EXERCISES ........................................................................ 134 7.6.1 True-False Questions ............................................. 134 7.6.2 General Questions.................................................. 135 7.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 135 7.7.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 135


xvi

8. WRITING THE PROJECT REPORT...................................... 137

8.1 PREAMBLE ........................................................................ 139 8.2 PRELIMINARY MATERIALS .......................................... 141 8.2.1 The Title (Cover) Page........................................... 141 8.2.2 Approval Page........................................................ 142 8.2.3 Remembrance and Dedication Page ...................... 143 8.2.4 Project Summary or Abstract................................. 143 8.2.5 Acknowledgement ................................................. 144 8.2.6 Lists and Tables ..................................................... 144 8.3 BODY OF THE REPORT ................................................... 145 8.3.1 The Introduction..................................................... 145 8.3.2 Methodology .......................................................... 147 8.3.3 Results, Discussions and Conclusions ................... 149 8.4 REFERENCE MATERIALS............................................... 152 8.4.1 Listing the References............................................ 152 8.4.2 Appendices............................................................. 153 8.5 FORMAT OF THE REPORT.............................................. 153 8.5.1 Margins, Headings and Justification...................... 153 8.5.2 Paragraphs, Indentation, Spacing and Font Size.... 154 8.5.3 Pagination .............................................................. 154 8.5.4 Tables, Figures and Equations ............................... 154 8.5.5 Chapter, Section, and Subsection Headings .......... 155 8.6 QUESTIONS ....................................................................... 156 8.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 156 8.7.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 156 8.7.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 156 9. ORAL PRESENTATION........................................................... 157

9.1 ESSENTIALS OF ORAL PRESENTATION ..................... 159 9.1.1 Essentials................................................................ 159 9.1.2 Personal Control (Poise) ........................................ 160 9.1.3 Delivery Quality..................................................... 160 9.2 PLANNING AND PREPARING FOR ORAL PRESENTATION................................................................ 161 9.2.1 Differences between Oral and Written

Communications .................................................... 161 9.2.2 Planning Oral Presentation .................................... 162 9.2.3 Preparing for Oral Presentation ............................. 162 9.2.4 Visual Aids............................................................. 163

Contents

xvii

9.3 PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION TO AN AUDIENCE ......................................................................... 164

9.3.1 Organization........................................................... 164 9.3.2 Emphasis ................................................................ 165 9.3.3 Presentation and Drawing Attention of

the Audience ......................................................... 166 9.4 FORMATION AND UTILIZATION OF AUDIO-

VISUAL AIDS..................................................................... 167 9.4.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids .................................. 167 9.4.2 The Speaker ........................................................... 168 9.4.3 Using the Mike....................................................... 168 9.4.4 Legibility of Slides................................................. 168 9.5 HANDLING QUESTIONS COMING FROM THE

AUDIENCE ......................................................................... 170 9.5.1 The Question Period .............................................. 170 9.5.2 Guidelines for Handling Questions........................ 170 9.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 172 9.6.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 172 9.6.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 173 10. SAFETY ....................................................................................... 175

10.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 177 10.2 GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ................................ 178 10.2.1 Health Hazards....................................................... 178 10.2.2 Prevention and Control of Workplace Hazards ..... 179 10.2.3 Principles of Hazard Control ................................. 179 10.2.4 Application of Hazard Control Principles.............. 180 10.2.5 Development of Hazard Control

Recommendations.................................................. 181 10.2.6 Hazard Reporting ................................................... 182 10.2.7 First Aid ................................................................. 182 10.2.8 Safety and Health Signs and Tags ......................... 183 10.2.9 Housekeeping......................................................... 183 10.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ....................... 184 10.3.1 Use of Tools........................................................... 184 10.3.2 Engineer and Student Training .............................. 184 10.3.3 Eye Protection........................................................ 185 10.3.4 Hearing Protection ................................................. 185 10.3.5 Hand and Foot Protection ...................................... 186


xviii

10.3.6 Respiratory Protection ........................................... 186 10.3.7 Head and Body Protection ..................................... 186 10.3.8 Other ...................................................................... 187 10.4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS AND EQUIPMENT ... 187 10.4.1 Electrical Safety ..................................................... 187 10.4.2 The Electrical Shock .............................................. 188 10.4.3 How to Prevent Electrical Shocks.......................... 189 10.4.4 Electrical Safety in Power Distribution ................. 190 10.4.5 Electrical Safety in Equipment Design .................. 191 10.4.6 Electrical Safety in Utilization............................... 192 10.4.7 Controls of Hazardous Energy (Lock-Out/Tag-Out) . 192

10.5 MACHINERY ..................................................................... 193 10.5.1 Personnel Training ................................................. 193 10.5.2 Guards .................................................................... 193 10.5.3 Material Storage..................................................... 194 10.6 FIRE PREVENTION........................................................... 194 10.7 QUESTIONS ....................................................................... 195 10.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 195 10.8.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 195 10.8.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 196 11. ETHICS FOR A MUSLIM ENGINEER .................................. 197

11.1 NEEDS FOR STUDYING ETHICS.................................... 199 11.1.1 Etiquette and Morality ........................................... 199 11.1.2 Engineering Ethics ................................................. 199 11.1.3 Teaching Ethics...................................................... 200 11.2 THE MUSLIM ATTITUDE ................................................ 201 11.2.1 The Purpose of Life ............................................... 201 11.2.2 Ethics and Morality................................................ 202 11.2.3 Responsibilities in the Society ............................... 203 11.2.4 The Muslim Attitude Concerning Continuous Improvement .......................................................... 204 11.3 CODES OF ETHICS ........................................................... 205 11.3.1 Fundamental Canons of Ethics .............................. 207 11.3.2 Rules of Practice .................................................... 207 11.3.3 Professional Obligations ........................................ 209 11.4 THE MUSLIM ENGINEER – (A POEM)........................... 213 11.5 QUESTIONS ....................................................................... 214 11.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 214

Contents

xix

11.6.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 214 11.6.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 215 12. SELF-PRESENTATION SKILLS............................................. 217

12.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 219 12.1.1 Essentials of Self-Presentation............................... 219 12.1.2 Stating Qualifications............................................. 220

12.2 PREPARING A CV RÉSUMÉ............................................ 220 12.2.1 Differences Between Résumé and CV................... 220 12.2.2 General Advice ...................................................... 220 12.2.3 Before You Start .................................................... 221 12.3 COMPONENTS OF A CV RÉSUMÉ................................. 222 12.3.1 Personal Details ..................................................... 222 12.3.2 Education ............................................................... 222 12.3.3 Work Experience ................................................... 222 12.3.4 Interests .................................................................. 222 12.3.5 Interests that Draw Employer’s Attention ............. 223 12.3.6 Skills ...................................................................... 223 12.3.7 References.............................................................. 223 12.3.8 Length .................................................................... 224 12.3.9 Style ....................................................................... 224 12.3.10 Optional Extras ...................................................... 224 12.3.11 Presentation............................................................ 225 12.4 ACHIEVEMENTS AND SKILLS ...................................... 225 12.4.1 General Business Objectives.................................. 225 12.4.2 Defining an Achievement ...................................... 225 12.4.3 Stating Achievements ............................................ 226 12.4.4 Achievements in a CV ........................................... 226 12.5 COVER LETTERS AND APPLICATION FORMS........... 226 12.5.1 Covering letter – Purpose....................................... 226 12.5.2 Covering letter – Style ........................................... 227 12.5.3 Application Forms – Use ....................................... 227 12.6 JOB INTERVIEWS ............................................................. 228 12.6.1 Preparing for an Interview ..................................... 228 12.6.2 Some General Job Interview Tips.......................... 228 12.6.3 Various Kinds of Interviews .................................. 229 12.6.4 Tricky Interview Questions.................................... 229 12.6.5 Other Points ........................................................... 229 12.7 CONCLUSION.................................................................... 230


xx

12.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 230 12.8.1 Further Reading ..................................................... 230 12.8.2 Useful Websites ..................................................... 230 REFERENCES ................................................................................... 231

APPENDICES .................................................................................... 235

APPENDIX A– MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF SENIOR DESIGN PROJECT .................................................................... 237

APPENDIX B – PLANNING AND MONITORING GUIDE ............ 241

APPENDIX C – ILLUSTRATIONS FOR AN XE 499 PROJECT REPORT........................................................................................ 245

APPENDIX D – A GOOD SAMPLE RÉSUMÉ ................................. 251

INDEX ................................................................................................. 255

CHAPTER 1

AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

■ INTRODUCTION

■ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

■ THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS

■ ENGINEERING DESIGN

■ DESIGN VERSUS RESEARCH

■ IMPORTANT STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC WORK

■ THE DESIGN NOTEBOOK

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

3

1.1 INTRODUCTION

We must live in this universe and carry out many activities to support our

lives. Wisdom is granted to the mankind to seek knowledge. Knowledge

is all that the mind knows, from whatever source derived or obtained, or

by whatever process. It is the aggregate facts, truths or principles

acquired and retained by the mind. Human body collects information

about the environment in which he is living using his natural senses. The

information collected is assessed with wisdom and it becomes the

knowledge. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) says:

“Wisdom is the lost property of a Muslim; he takes it wherever he finds it”.

Everybody is a genius. Education through design helps more people

to discover their capabilities. Human being has been developing tools and

techniques to extend his capabilities in collecting information and

fulfilling his duties in daily living. Engineering design is the process of

adapting these tools and techniques to the society to solve problems and

improve the living standards. While doing this, care must be taken not to

disturb and devastate the economy, society and the environment(1)

.

The book provides basic material for lectures on engineering design

methodology and technical presentation. It is intended to guide the senior

project students in their project works and remain as a reference for the

future. This chapter describes some of the technical terms pertinent to

scientific work. It continues with the characteristics of an engineering

design process, differences between design and research, and stages of

design. Importance of a design notebook and ways of keeping one is

introduced. Finally, it supplies a sample timetable for a senior project

work.

(1) “Man is a tool using animal. Without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all.”

Thomas Carlyle in Carlyle, T., Sartor Resartus: The Life and Opinions of Herr

Teufelsdrockh, Hard Press, 2006.

4 A Guide to Engineering Design Methodologies and Technical Presentation

1.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1.2.1 Definition of Science

Science can be defined as knowledge of facts, phenomena, laws, and

proximate causes, gained and verified by exact observation, organized

experiment, and correct thinking. It is the name given to the knowledge

that illuminates the way, guides to the correct path and relieves the stress

of worldly duties from the person who owns it.

Sciences are divided into two distinct categories as the definitive

(explicit) and probabilistic (implicit) sciences. In definitive sciences, the

truth is given by Allah, the Almighty, in the form of Qur’anic verses, and

traditions of His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The mankind

uses the wisdom bestowed upon them to be understood and adopted in

their life. In probabilistic sciences however, the fact is not given to the

mankind, but they seek to find it using the wisdom and guidance of

definitive sciences. Both have several branches and each branch has its

own method of study.

1.2.2 Teaching and Training

The scientific knowledge is gained by a mature wisdom, true revelations

and correct observations. Training changes how we perform. Teaching

changes how we think. Naturally, teaching and training are not mutually

exclusive. In fact, training and teaching occur simultaneously in many

instances, although some fields require more training than others. The

professional education covers teaching and training for a specific

profession. The youngsters are formally educated in one of the

application areas in a university/college in classrooms, scientific

laboratories and field studies. Training requires a trainer but teaching is

expedited by a teacher.

Engineering is the profession in which the knowledge of

mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and

practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize,

economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of

mankind. By its very nature, an engineer needs a sound background in

explicit and implicit sciences to carry out his profession successfully.

This background is achieved in secondary and high school stages and

consolidated at the university stage. Eventually, engineers are armed with

An Overview of Engineering Design 5

sufficient knowledge and skills to practice their professions. They base

their decisions on facts, respect opinions but do not take them for granted

unless proved scientifically.

1.2.3 Ethics

Ethic is defined as the system of moral values; the principle of right or

good conducts. An action is called ethical if it conforms to right

principles of conduct as specified and accepted by a specific profession,

such as engineering or medicine. We must make judgments on what is

right, what is good and what is excellent, and act accordingly. The base

for our decisions comes from the facts that are universally accepted as

true. Muslims believe that Allah Almighty states the truth through His

Book and His Apostle. Believers of other religions also have statements

in their holy books. Non-believers and secular people rely on the

thoughts of philosophers. In a predominantly Muslim community,

teaching of Islam and its moral values provide sufficient culture to a

Muslim engineer for his decision making since he whole-heartedly

believes that there is a Day of Judgment where nobody can hide

anything. Ethical codes for several professions are established based on

religious beliefs or ideas of philosophers in mixed societies. These codes

are used to train the people in what is considered right and good, and

judging their actions in case of any wrongdoing.

Science gives us knowledge about the facts of the nature. Science

and technology tell us how to do things without differentiating right from

wrong. Accepted standards of right and wrong are the morals. A code or

system of rules defining moral behavior for a particular society is called

the ethics. Hence, what we ought to do in our profession is the domain of

ethics. A Muslim engineer must be aware of his duties, responsibilities

and constraints imposed on him according to the Qur’an, Sunnah and

their contemporary interpretations.

1.2.4 Engineering Accreditation

The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) is a

federation of 31 professional and technical societies in applied science,

computing, engineering, and technology, and is a recognized accreditor

for college and university programs representing these fields. It has

provided leadership and quality assurance in higher education for over 70


years. Currently it accredits some 2,500 programs at over 550 colleges

and universities in the U.S. The activity for evaluating programs outside

the U.S. is a program review in which ABET, through selected

representatives, acts on a consultancy basis, and leads to an assessment of

"substantial equivalency“.

"Substantial equivalency" implies reasonable confidence that the

program has prepared its graduates to begin professional practice at the

entry level. Faculty of Engineering at King Abdulaziz University wanted

to appear in the international arena to prove that academic programs in

the Faculty were competitive to those of high-ranking institutions

worldwide. Preparations for evaluation for substantial equivalency by

ABET started in the year 2000. Academic programs offered by the

Faculty have been repeatedly revised to account for the dynamic growth

in the fields of engineering. In anticipation of the ABET evaluation visits

scheduled for Spring 2001/2002, the Faculty of Engineering made

necessary preparations and crossed a historic milestone in 2003.

Representatives from ABET visited the Faculty and evaluated the

academic programs, course contents, laboratory facilities, etc. Each

program was evaluated by an auditor and all evaluators acknowledged

several strengths and pinpointed some shortcomings. Corrective

measures were taken starting immediately after the ABET visit at various

administrative and academic levels. Reports submitted to ABET

demonstrated satisfactory progress and the substantial equivalency status

(SE 2003) has been extended until September 2009.

It is ABET’s main idea to adjust the engineering programs to the

institution’s environment and needs. The beneficiaries of the programs

have been identified as students, academic staff, alumni and employers of

graduates. They have been consulted by various means; program

missions (how we want to be seen) and educational objectives (expected

accomplishments of graduates during the first few years after graduation)

have been prepared accordingly. Program outcomes (abilities and skills

gained by students at the graduation) have been drawn to satisfy the

objectives and their foundations in courses have been specified for each

course as course learning objectives (statements of observable student


actions that serve as evidence of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes

acquired in a course). Procedures for evaluating and measuring program

outcomes have been established. Consequently, program objectives are

determined and periodically evaluated, and program outcomes are

continuously monitored. Results are applied to continuously develop and

improve the programs.

The Faculty of Engineering is preparing for a new accreditation that

will be effective after the expiration of the current one. It is a continuous

improvement process that will provide skilled workforce to cope with the

dynamic growth of the Kingdom. It is certain to have the following

advantages for our students:

• Increase the job potential in the local and international markets.

• Graduates desirous of higher education can easily seek admission

in other international institutions.

• A continuous overall improvement process for the educational

programs will assure keeping up with international standards.

1.2.5 Levels of Knowledge

The knowledge can be classified into two broad levels as the level of

appreciating and level of expressing. During your studies you are

exposed to different subjects. You feel that you know a subject you

studied but you can't clearly answer questions related to it. This is the

level of appreciation which is also part of your culture. Level of

expressing requires extensive efforts involving repetitions and

experimentations. The knowledge and its utilization form the educational

status of a person.

1.3 THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS

Education is a process of gaining knowledge, reasoning power and skills,

and reflecting them to the attitudes and behaviors. The educational status

is an umbrella covering the attributes of the education. It contains three

domains as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. The three domains are:


1. The affective domain that has the interests, attitudes, appreciations,

values, and emotional sets or biases;

2. The cognitive domain that is related to recall of knowledge and

development of intellectual abilities and skills;

3. The psychomotor domain that deals with manipulative and motor skills.

1.3.1 The Affective Domain

The affective domain contains several stages as receiving, responding,

valuing, organizing and characterizing by a value or value complex. The

distinction between different stages is rather fuzzy. Nevertheless, they

can be ordered as illustrated in Fig 1.2 according to the increasing level

of complexity.

1. Receiving: Demonstrate willingness and passively accept the

knowledge.

2. Responding: Agree to respond and feel comfortable from responding

to requests, techniques, procedures and solutions.

3. Valuing: It is a higher level compared to the first two. Here, you

implement the ideas and techniques in solving problems in general.

4. Organizing: Use what you have learned in improving the status of

your nation in line with the family and social values you have gained

through your life.

Fig. 1.1 Three domains of the educational status.

Cognitive domainRecall of knowledge

and development

of intellectual

Abilities and

Skills

Psychomotor

domain Manipulative

and

Motor skills

Affective

Domain Interest, Attitudes

Appreciations

Values,

Emotional

sets or Biases


5. Characterizing by a value or value complex: this is the highest level

in which you consider your divine responsibility. Make sure that your

solutions and decisions agree with (or do not conflict with) the

religious settings and moral values of the public.

Fig. 1.2 The affective domain.

The character, which is reflected as honesty, integrity and truthfulness, is

also an attribute of the affective domain.

1.3.2 Levels of Learning – The Cognitive Domain

The activity of learning takes place at several stages as illustrated in the

learning pyramid in Fig. 1.3.

1. Knowledge (information): you can recall, collect material in suitable

times.

2. Comprehension (understanding): you use ideas associated with a

subject without relating them to other ideas and/or subjects. It

requires knowledge.

3. Application (independent problem solving) requires both knowledge

and comprehension.

R e ce iv in g

R e spon din g

V alu in g

O rga niz in g

C ha ra cter izing


4. Analysis (breaking into components): you can logically order

components, ideas, theories, concepts, principles, techniques and

procedures etc. and separate these into their component parts or basic

elements. It requires knowledge and comprehension.

5. Synthesis (invention): you assemble parts and elements into a unified

organization or entirety that requires original or imaginative

thinking. This level requires knowledge, comprehension, application

and analysis.

6. Evaluation (appreciation): you gain the ability to judge and appreciate

the values of ideas, concepts, principles, theories, techniques and

procedures using appropriate criteria. It requires all previous levels of

learning.

1.4 ENGINEERING DESIGN

An engineer is a person skilled in some branch of engineering. He is an

elite person who needs knowledge at cultural level in all branches of

science so that he can make correct decisions. When he receives a

problem to solve, he must formulate it in a scientific way, he must follow

certain scientific procedures to reach a solution and finally he must

present and defend his decisions.

Knowledge (information)

Comprehension (understanding)

Application

(Independent problem solving)

Analysis(Logical order, com ponents)

Synthesis (invent)

Evaluation (appreciation)

Fig. 1.3 The learning pyramid.


1.4 .1 Definition of Engineering Design

Practically, everything that is not a constituent or by-product of nature is

designed. In essence engineers are designers. They invent or design

products or processes to meet the basic needs or desires of the customers.

They develop the product or process through additional design to

improve it so that it becomes cheaper, more reliable, safer, easier and

more comfortable to use. Engineering Design (ED) can be shortly

described as fitting technology to society. Accreditation Board for

Engineering and Technologies (ABET) gives the most comprehensive

definition as

� It is the process of devising a system, component, or process to

meet desired needs.

� It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic

sciences, mathematics, and engineering sciences are applied to

convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective.

Among the fundamental elements of the design process are; the

establishment of objectives and criteria, analysis, synthesis, construction,

testing, and evaluation. The engineering design component of a

curriculum must include some of the following features:

o Development of student creativity,

o Use of open-ended problems,

o Development and use of modern design theory and

methodology,

o Formulation of design problem statements and

specifications,

o Consideration of alternative solutions,

o Feasibility considerations and

o Detailed system descriptions.

Further, it is essential to include a variety of realistic constrains such as:

economic factors, safety, reliability, aesthetics, ethics, and social impact.

Courses that contain engineering design normally are taught at the upper

division level of the engineering program. Some portion of this

requirement must be satisfied by at least one course, which is primarily

design, preferably at the senior level, and draws upon coursework in the

relevant disciplines.


1.4.2 Summary of Realistic Design Constrains

Design is a process that involves decision-making, alternative solutions

and addressing the needs. The designer must consider several limitations

that are imposed on him as he fits the technology into society. Some of

them were listed above in the ABET criteria and they are explained

briefly below.

� Economic factors: the cost of the project including the material,

development, production, manpower, operation and maintenance

etc.

� Safety: the product and its utilization must not cause any harm to

anybody who may get in touch with. The dangers include

electrical, chemical, mechanical and nuclear hazards. The product

must be friendly to the equipment working at the neighborhood;

should not generate electrical and magnetic fields and excessive

heat energy that disturb the operation of other equipment. It must

be safe to the environment as well; i.e. it should not shed any of

toxic and hazardous materials, and should not cause pollution in

air, water and earth.

� Reliability: the product must effectively and efficiently run during

its life-expectancy; it must be robust to withstand the harsh

utilization in the field. Results achieved by using the product must

be accurate and repeatable.

� Aesthetics: the product and people by using the product should

not look awkward; the user must easily handle it and must be

comfortable in using it.

� Ethics: the device and its application must conform to right

principles of conduct as specified and accepted by engineering

and allied professions. In your society, you must care for the

moral values according to Islamic teachings and must not violate

them unless there is a decent technical reason supported by

universally accepted engineering ethics.

� Social impact: utilization of the developed product must

contribute to the well being of the society.

1.4.3 Stages of Engineering Design

There are seven stages of engineering design with many iterations and

feedbacks between stages.


Accepting the Problem

The first stage is the acceptance of the problem or problem definition that

involves understanding as much as possible about the project regarding

goals of the project and collecting necessary background information.

Sources that help in problem definition can be meeting with client (end

user – what is the client asking for?), meeting with supervisors, literature

searches (web, library, technical literature) and preparation and

development of the Product Design Specification (PDS). Necessary

background information includes social issues (understanding of

constraints due to industrial use of the device e.g., is worker data being

stored – confidentiality issues), economical issues, technical issues and

safety (understanding of the engineering aspects of the project e.g., no

metals if device is to be used in MRI chamber) and ethical issues.

Analysis of the Problem and Preliminary Design

The second stage is the preliminary design in which ideas should first be

developed by brainstorming alternative solutions. The key is to use your

imagination to think of as many independent design concepts as possible

(everything is under control and nothing is out of bounds yet). At this

point, there should be no evaluation of design yet, just idea generation.

Sketches are VERY important here to illustrate your ideas (and should be

in design notebook).

Choosing a Single Problem to Continue

The third stage is to choose one idea to pursue. In this stage, you

compare each design against the items in the Product Design

Specification (PDS) to see which idea best meets specifications. At this

point, you may combine the positive aspects of different designs to form

a single, final design. Once a decision has been made, you go back and

evaluate your choice. It should be remembered that it is much easier to

change things on paper than if something has been built!


Ideate

As you fill in the details of the design you go to the fourth stage, which is

called, ideate. You should continually evaluate your design choice. Here,

you will consider items such as dimensions, materials, fasteners, analysis

(loads, flow rates, etc.) and more sketches and drawings. It is also useful

at this point to build simple models using everyday materials; anything

from Popsicle sticks to coat hangers and anything else that works. This

is constructive for understanding spatial relationships of the design (how

different parts fit together, etc.).

Selecting the Unified Solution

Once a single design has been chosen, there should be continual

evaluation throughout the entire process; here, you should look over the

design in its entirety before building. You review the set of trial solutions

discarding those, which prove to be not feasible. You select the most

promising one(s) for implementation and evaluation. This is the fifth

stage of the design.

Prototyping and Evaluation

The last two stages involve development of the prototype and evaluation

of the developed prototype. Finalize all the design drawings and build a

fully operational prototype of the device. Test your device in the field,

under conditions that it will encounter in practice.

1.5 DESIGN VERSUS RESEARCH

Engineering design is the practice of devising a system, component, or

process to meet desired needs. The designer uses the existing technology

and know-how and utilizes them to solve the problem. Research is an

endeavor to develop new techniques that are not available to the society

and/or discover new areas of applications for the available techniques.

Hence, research is a process that is grown up from a problem under

investigation. It continues throughout the life span of the researcher. It

can be classified into distinct activities related to individual problems.

Hence, the problem is the seed of the research and it should have certain

properties for a successful one. The designer refers the problem to


research and development when he faces difficulty in finding a proper

solution.

1.5.1 Characteristics of Research Problems

Problems one faces can be classified as personal and research problems.

A personal problem concerns only an individual or small group of people

and can't be generalized to the rest of the public. Investigating ways to

rectify a broken relation with a friend, how to design an amplifier that is

well known but you are unaware of it are examples to personal problems.

An investigation can be called a research if:

� The problem is a research problem;

� The execution of the investigation is carried out in a systematic

manner, and

� Results are published and applied.

A research problem however, is related to obtaining knowledge that is

new to a wider audience. Experience, creativity and originality of the

researcher play key roles here. An original problem is generally very

crude and modified after discussions with colleagues and several visits to

the library. Many projects are terminated at this stage since it will be

found that other researchers have already tackled the subject. If the

modified problem is researchable, then an execution plan must be

prepared. At this stage, religious, administrative and financial aspects

must be considered.

1.5.2 Execution of the Investigation

The design and research use similar scientific approaches and techniques

in their activities. The success of a scientific activity depends upon a

well-planned and timely execution of the investigation. The time required

for a completion of a specific part of the work might be much longer than

expected. Normally, however, there comes a point when the research has

resulted in something new and the project is approaching the goal set at

the beginning of the work.


1.5.3 Publication and Application

The final product of the senior project work is the publication and

defending of the thesis report. It will be very appropriate if the novelties

are also published in a suitable journal later so that other researchers will

benefit from it. If the design or research involves a technological

development that will be applied, then the designer or researcher must

convince people about the feasibility and applicability of his work.

1.6 IMPORTANT STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC WORK

A scientific work starts with the problem definition in which the purpose

of work (research or design) and development is stated. Then it goes

through five phases as literature survey, primary investigation (basic

research – observation), objectives – hypothesis, experimentation and

application. There are lots of overlaps and feedback between these

phases. The first two are related to familiarization with the problem and

the last one is the utilization of the end product.

1.6.1 Literature Survey (Background)

It is the activity involving studying of past knowledge in the problem

area. Sources of knowledge include literature (published and unpublished

material related to the field), personal communication (discussion with

people who have some authority in the field), and reverse engineering

(analyzing the problem starting with the expected solution and paving the

ways to reach it). Manual and computerized literature search methods

will be utilized. It requires several visits to the library and very careful

analyzes of the available material.

1.6.2 Primary Investigation (Basic Research - Observation)

This is the second phase of the familiarization process. Definition and

observation of the system in question with minimal disturbance of its

natural environment is intended at this stage. It is carried in special

observation laboratories. Experiments are designed and data are

collected. Computerized data logging schemes can be implemented.


1.6.3 Objectives - Hypothesis

Formulation of a solution for the problem at hand is required using

analysis and classification of information gathered. It has two parts as the

analyses and synthesis. The problem is divided into manageable sub-

problems that are solved individually. This is called the analyses. Then, a

total solution is provided as combination of distinct units, which is called

the synthesis of the problem. Modeling and graphical presentation

techniques are used. Computer aided drafting, ORCAD, and similar

software packages are very beneficial at this stage.

1.6.4 Experimentation

Proving of the proposed solution in the laboratory is the basis of this

stage. Software testing techniques, SPICE, MULTISIM, etc will be used.

Prototyping techniques, bread boarding and printed circuit board (PCB)

construction in electrical engineering are widely used. Analyses and

evaluation of results are also required at this stage.

1.6.5 Application

Implementation of the proven solution as a commercial product must be

made available to the society. Engineering economics, cost analysis and

optimization are key elements. Reliability, safety and environmental

protection must be carefully considered. National and international

standards must be studied and a product certification process is involved

at this stage.

1.7 THE DESIGN NOTEBOOK

A design notebook is a diary of ALL activity relevant to your project. It

is used to record information acquired and ideas developed during the

design process. Below you are provided with some guidelines for

keeping a design notebook, including general recommendations of what

to include, as well as required items related to the format of your

notebook.


1.7.1 Why Keep a Design Notebook?

The design notebook documents your efforts on a project. It is the

principal evidence of your individual effort and is therefore an important

factor in your design experience. Design notebooks may be used in

patent and legal evaluations. It is a useful resource for preparing reports.

Since the project spans several semesters, the design notebook helps you

recall things from one semester to the next. It provides an introduction

for future project and prevents you in future from making the same

mistakes that you make on the project.

1.7.2 Contents of the Design Notebook

ALL work done on the project, including,

� Brainstorming

� Background research and literature searching (keep detailed

records of library and patent searches and relevant URLs resulting

from WWW searches)

� Sketches

� Calculations

� If documents are too big to insert, note what they contain and

where they can be found (for example, you may have a separate

folder or binder to keep supplementary information).

Record project meetings, including all team sessions (including subgroup

meetings). This also includes phone and e-mail conversations with your

client, partner, advisor, or anyone consulting with you on the project. Be

sure to include the following in your notes:

� Time and date of meeting; names of all involved individuals

� Items discussed

� Action items that result from the meeting

� Record relevant information and discussions from lectures.

� Include enough narrative to explain what is being done; make

entries readable by other engineers (including conclusions and

recommendations).


18. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.8.1 Further Reading

Dieter G. and Schmidt L.C., Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill, 4th ed. 2008.

Landis R.B., Studying Engineering: A Roadmap to a Rewarding Career, Discovery Press, 3rd ed.

2007.

Moaveni S., Engineering Fundamentals: An Introduction to Engineering, Cengage-Engineering,

3rd ed. 2007.

Fonte G., “Teaching and Training,” Nuts and Volts, p:85-90, May 2005.

Eggert R.J., Engineering Design, Prentice Hall, 2004.

McNeill, B.W., Bellamy L. and Burrows V.A., Introduction to Engineering Design: The

Workbook, King Abdulaziz University Edition, 2003.

Eide A.R. Jenison R. Northup L.L. and Mashaw L., Introduction To Engineering Design and

Problem Solving, McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed. 2001.

Pfatteicher, S K A, Teaching vs. preaching: EC2000 and the engineering ethics dilemma,

Journal of Engineering Education, Jan 2001.

Burghardt M.D., Introduction to Engineering Design & Problem Solving, McGraw-Hill, 1998.

1.8.2 Useful Websites

(last visited in July, 2008)

Definition of Technology;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

www.answers.com/topic/technology

http://tech-junction.blogspot.com/2007/11/definition-of-technology.html

www.ibm.com/developerworks/rational/library/3810.html

www.sapioinstitute.org/research/site98.htm


CHAPTER 2

THE CAPSTONE DESIGN PROJECT

■ PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

■ PROGRESS OF THE PROJECT WORK

■ PROJECT MANAGEMENT

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

23

THE CAPSTONE DESIGN PROJECT

2.1 PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

Technology reinvents itself every six to 12 months, and waits for no one.

Those who keep up and constantly seek to expand their horizons — in

whatever their field — will have the best chance of getting ahead,

working on their own, and switching careers whenever they choose. A

nation should produce well-educated, smart people, regardless of

academic disciplines. Industries are demanding that engineering

graduates must have certain skills. The engineering education must adapt

to the changing world and to the new forms of engineering. In this

respect, it doesn’t matter what you teach. Most course materials are likely

to be obsolete in few years, even before the students graduate from a

degree program. Rather, you should teach ‘smart” and provide students

with the necessary knowledge and skills to survive in the New

Knowledge-based Economy.

XE 499 – Senior Project course is a faculty requirement to

provide students with a major capstone design experience. It includes in-

depth design work on a practical engineering problem at a technical level

similar to that encountered in industry. It has a technical content that is

drawn from multiple areas of the engineering curricula. It provides the

students with experience in planning and managing projects, and further

experience in documenting and communicating engineering work.

Hence, the capstone design course helps a lot in preparing students for

the needs of the industry. However, the success in the project work

depends upon dedication project supervisors (advisors), keenness of

students, selecting of project topics, coaching and following-up of the

project work, training of project students, and efforts exerted in project

completion and presentation.

Starting from the spring semester of 2004, every design project in

the Faculty of Engineering at KAU should satisfy the minimum

requirements by ABET. Listing of these requirements is given in

Appendix-A. Every project team must make sure that they fulfill them.


24

2.2 PROGRESS OF THE PROJECT WORK

2.2.1 Working on a Team Project

Teamwork is essential for any serious effort that will lead to a

technological advancement. Current engineering design practices

advocated by ABET emphasizes the importance of the teamwork that

will tutor students on collaborative work. There are advantages and

disadvantages of the teamwork.

The advantages can be counted as availability of better financial,

material and personnel support, involvement in more complex design and

statistical procedures, learning from other members of the team who are

from other specialties, etc. The major disadvantages can be counted as

the student’s involvement may not be more than a clerk, work is not

totally allied with his interest and maturity gain at the end is very limited.

Therefore, it is highly recommended that large projects requiring more

than three students may be allowed if they are broken down into subparts.

A team of two can complete each part independently.

In the teamwork involving project students, the responsibility of

each student should be clearly specified possibly in the form of a semi-

independent activity. The students must also be trained to improve their

communication and collaboration skills prior to the project works. For a

successful teamwork, personality match within the team and with

supervisors must be taken into consideration.

2.2.2 Project Topics

Project topics may be suggested by students or by faculty members.

Students are encouraged to discuss potential topics with faculty prior to

preparing a proposal. Each team should produce at least one proposal. A

student willing to work individually may be considered as a one-man

team (not recommended). Certainly, project proposals by students may

be accepted, modified, or rejected.

Each team should progress to the project supervisor(s) each month

after the proposal has been meet with their supervisor(s) on a weekly

basis, at a prearranged time; normally once a week. The team must

submit 1 to 2 page summary of recent accepted.

The Capstone Design Project

25

2.2.3 Attending Lectures

The project continues for two successive academic terms. Lectures

(mandatory) on “Engineering Design Methodologies” are given in the

first term to train senior students in:

1. Formulating a product design to meet the requirements of XE

499,

2. Building the design,

3. Testing the design,

4. Social, ethical and safety considerations in design

5. Presenting the design in oral and written presentations.

Student’s progress in the project will be closely monitored in

lectures. Students are expected to develop the conceptual bases for

projects in the first term and the implementation and realization will be in

the second term. At the end of the first term, each team submits the

conceptual design report to the mentor of the lectures. They submit the

completed project report to their project supervisors after completion of

the project and they defend it orally in front of an examination

committee.

2.2.4 Expected Outcomes from the Senior Project

At the end of the two-semester sequence, students are expected to

demonstrate most of the following:

• An ability to complete a major, open-ended design project,

including conceptual design at a system level, development of

project level and block level specifications, detailed analysis and

synthesis, testing, and evaluation;

• An ability to plan and schedule a project;

• An ability to work successfully as part of a team;

• An ability to accurately and professionally document and report

design work;

• An understanding of social impact, ethical and economical

considerations involved in eng. work.


26

2.3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

2.3.1 Stages of the Project

Seven stages of engineering design that have been summarized in the

previous chapter can be illustrated graphically for the senior project work

as in Fig. 2.1. There are several feedbacks between stages whose details

are skipped in the figure.

Fig. 2.1 Stages of the senior project.

2.3.2 Project Planning and Monitoring

The project management involves deciding, scheduling, planning and

monitoring the course of actions from the problem definition to the final

presentation. A decision analysis helps in determining the most

appropriate course of action. A timing diagram (Gantt chart, after the

name of the developer) provides a timeline that shows how you will

proceed toward completing your project.


27

The timing diagram is generally a sufficient guidance in planning and

monitoring small projects like senior projects. For large programs however,

a more complex planning and program control is needed and the Program

Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method

(CPM) provide it. Fig. 2.2 shows a simplified algorithm for management of

a senior project. A detailed project guide is given in Appendix-B.

Fig. 2.2 A simplified algorithm for managing a senior project.

2.3.3 Decision Analysis(2)

The objective of decision analysis is to make the best decision. Points or

monetary equivalences are assigned to each outcome. In rare cases, these

outcomes can be established deterministically. Uncertainties are involved

in most decision-making. The best decision may mean different things to

different people and at different times. Several stochastic approaches are

available as to maximize the benefit and to minimize the risk.

The decision analysis should specifically contain some of the

following components:

(2)The proceeding discussion is briefed from: Ang AHS and Tang WH “Probability

Concepts in Engineering Planning and Design: Volume II – Decision, Risk, and

Reliability”, Wiley, 1984.

Decide

Plan and Schedule

Implement

Evaluate

Monitoring

Choose topic, evaluate topic, literature

survey, existing solutions, objectives and

goals, realistic constraints and impacts.

work plan for analysis, component design,

implementation, evaluation

Implement the work plan

Follow up and evaluate the progress of the

plan. Make necessary adjustments

start

end

* Societal needs

* Open-ened approach

* Iterative process

* Assessment of objectives and outcomes

* Assessment of final product

* Cost analysis

* Professional ethics

^ Sharing equal responsibilities

among team members

^ Presenting original work

^ Referecing contributions of others


28

1. A list of all feasible alternatives, including acquisition of additional

information, if appropriate.

2. A list of all possible outcomes associated with each alternative.

3. An estimation of probability associated with each possible outcome.

4. An evaluation of the consequences associated with each combination

of alternative and outcome.

5. The criterion for decision.

6. A systematic evaluation of all alternatives.

2.3.4 The Timing Diagrams (Gantt Charts)

A good project proposal includes a schedule (timeline) based on your

best estimate of what the essential tasks are, when you will do them and

how long they will take to be completed. Scheduling is an important part

of any design project in two different contexts. Firstly, the schedule lays

out expected progress in conducting the design itself. Secondly, it is used

for realizing the design and monitoring the progress. The timing diagram

(Gantt chart) is simply a list of all the tasks necessary to complete a

project arranged along a timeline.

There are four critical elements necessary for constructing a Gantt

chart for a design project:

� Identifying the tasks essential for completing the design,

� Estimating the time required for each task,

� Determining whether there is sequence in which the tasks must be

scheduled and tasks that can overlap along the timeline, and

� Identifying deadlines.

Most of the tasks on the list require some time to accomplish.

Estimating the amount of time needed requires experience. You can

discuss this matter with your colleagues who have passed through such

an experience and with your supervisors. In the absence of such an

experience, it is better to be on the conservative side but realistic.

Especially the time required for a practical work is generally much

beyond expectations. You must anticipate problems and plan

accordingly.

The chart is your monitoring guide to ensure that things develop on

schedule. Evidently, things change. When things do change, you can

update your schedule, but you should keep in mind that your deadlines


29

are usually fixed! As a task is started and finished, the open bar is filled

in and the actual start and finished dates are indicated next to the

proposed ones. Eventually, the chart also provides guidance in timing for

your next projects.

2.3.5 Program Evaluation

The Gantt chart is sufficient for simple projects as mentioned before.

However, a more complex project management scheme is desirable for

multifaceted projects that require teamwork with several tasks running in

parallel by different team members. The Gantt chart doesn’t show project

tasks as interrelated activities rather it displays them as independent

entities. The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and

Critical Path Method (CPM) are two well-known tools for managing

large projects. PERT/CPM helps you prioritize work and shows at a

glance what event comes first, next and concurrently. Thus, you can

recognize the critical consequences on schedule modifications. It also

helps you determine what tasks can be done in parallel and what should

be done sequentially. There are five basic steps for building a

PERT/CPM chart.

� Prepare a work breakdown structure as in the Gantt chart.

� Generate n activity network and identify the critical path.

� Determine the earliest start time for each activity.

� Calculate the latest possible start time for each activity.

� Calculate slack times. The slack time is the difference between

the earliest start time and the latest start time for a task. No

flexibility is possible on the tasks in the critical path but there is

some flexibility, hence slack time in events on the non-critical

paths.

The discussion of constructing and building a PERT/CPM chart will

be beyond the objective of the current text and it is left to the interested

reader to study it from the references in the bibliography section or from

any other relevant source.

2.3.6 A Sample Time Schedule for a Senior Project

The senior project requires two successive semesters to complete. Hence,

a careful study plan is needed for a successful completion. Students must


30

attend the lecture on engineering design methodologies and technical

presentation in the first semester and they have to submit many

assignments, mostly related to their projects, during these lectures.

Hence, guidance is given in the first semester. A timing diagram (Gantt

chart) provides a timeline that shows how to proceed toward completing

the project. Each student is advised to prepare such a diagram in

consultation with his supervisor. A sample diagram is shown in Table 2.1

below. Although it may differ for several students, a plan can be given

as:

Table 2.1 Tentative timetable (Gantt Chart) of activities for the Senior Project (dark areas

indicate intense activities and light areas show the warm-up, follow-up and

updating activities).

Activity / week 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Selecting the

problem and

supervisor

Defining the

problem

Literature

search

Observation

Analysis

Synthesis

Experimenting,

data collecting

and evaluation

Organizing and

writing

Submitting &

defending

Seminars

1. Deciding on a Project: 1st to 4

th week.

2. Literature Survey (Background): The 5th

to 8th

week.

3. Basic Research and Observations: 9th

to 10th

week.


31

4. Refinement of the Problem and First Seminar: 11th

week.

5. Analysis and Synthesis of the Problem: 12th

to 17th

week.

6. Experimentation and Data Collection: 18th

to 22nd

week.

7. Critical Evaluation of the Project and Second Seminar: 23rd

week.

8. Organizing and Writing of the Report: 24th to 29th week.

9. Submission and Defending of the Report: 30th and 31st week.

2.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Hyman B.I., Fundamentals of Engineering Design, Prentice Hall, 2nd ed. 2003.

Kerzner H., Project Management Case Studies, Wiley, 2nd ed. 2006.

Kerzner H., Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and

Controlling, Wiley, 9th ed. 2005.

Smith K.A. and Imbrie P.K., Teamwork and Project Management, McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed. 2005.

Dym C.L. and Little P., Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, Wiley, 2nd ed. 2003.



Capstone Senior Design Projects; http://colorado.edu/ASEN/SrProjects/Documents/

CDIO- Ghent-SP presentation.pdf

www.ece.mtu.edu/pages/senior_design/index.html

www.ece.mtu.edu/pages/senior_design/industry.html

http://fie.engrng.pitt.edu/fie2005/papers/1749.pdf

www.mines.edu/academic/epics/ProgramDescription.htm

http://widener.edu/SiteData/docs/sph/4e20a2f5ae89fd48ed4b4be062bc207c/sph.pdf


32

CHAPTER 3

SELECTING AND DEFINING THE DESIGN PROBLEM

■ THREE PHASES OF ALL EVENTS

■ SELECTING A DESIGN PROBLEM

■ DEFINING THE PROBLEM

■ THE PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION (PDS)

■ EXAMPLES

■ EXERCISES

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

35

3.1 THREE PHASES OF ALL EVENTS

All events that surround the life of an individual take place in three

phases: the inspiration, thinking and deciding, and accomplishment as

illustrated in Fig. 3.1. We are not responsible from the inspiration stage.

Good or evil may come to the mind. A well-trained individual with fear

of Allah will refrain from the evil and he will pursue to do the good. This

is the thinking and deciding stage in which we are responsible from our

intentions. For example, a person may be willing to own a car. Many

things trigger the idea: needs for a car, jealousy of a friend, desire to

show-off etc. Then, the individual strives to own a car by using

legitimate or illegitimate means. At the end, he will own a car if it is

predestined for him and at the predetermined time. This last point is the

accomplishment stage for which we are not responsible either.

As Muslims, we believe that all deeds are according to intentions.

The term intention involves thinking, judging and taking all necessary

measures to accomplish the anticipated action. The result may be fortune

or disaster and it will be in accordance with Allah’s willing. We can

illustrate this point with an example.

«Two people from a village were critically ill and were carried to the

town for treatment in the hospital. The first patient reached safely to the

town and a surgeon in the hospital performed a surgical operation. The

patient died during the surgery. A bunch of criminals stopped the group

carrying the second patient. During the quarrel between the two groups,

one of the gang stabbed the patient and he died as well. Eventually, both

patients were stabbed and died. The gang was chased by the security

forces and executed by hanging under a court ruling. Meanwhile, the

Inspiration Thinking and

Deciding Accomplishment

Fig. 3.1 Three phases in occurrence of all events.


surgeon claimed his salary although the patient didn’t survive the

operation. »

The problem lies in the decision and a framework for systematic

analysis is required. Design constraints listed in the introduction chapter

provide the boundary conditions necessary for the decision analysis.

3.2 SELECTING A DESIGN PROBLEM

3.2.1 Desirable criteria for topic selection

Meeting certain criteria at the topic selection stage is the precursor of a

successful graduation project:

� Requires use of electrical engineering prerequisites

� Can be built by students

� Requires use of other resources (faculty, library, computers,

software)

� Has more than two possible solutions

� Breaks into small subprojects

� Current designs can be observed and understood

� Industrial needs can be assessed

� Competitor designs exist to be evaluated by benchmarking

� Design criteria can be generated from industrial needs

� Multiple design priorities exist and can be assessed

� Interesting to students

3.2.2 Avoid Trivial Problems

For the senior project work, the supervisor generally specifies the

problem. Once a significant project topic has been identified, it requires

no more time and effort to carry out than a trivial project or one that

repeats work that has already been adequately done. The difference

between the trivial project and the significant project is not the amount of

time required to do it, but the amount of thought applied in selection

and definition of the problem.

There are many significant problems in science and technology for

which you require further knowledge. Hence, students should resist the

temptation to do research that is essentially trivial or that can contribute

nothing. A factor that should be considered by students in selecting a

Selecting and Defining the Design Problem 37

problem is that they will gain valuable knowledge and experience in a

problem area they select. Furthermore, if they perform a worthwhile

piece of research, they can submit it to a scientific conference or publish

it in a professional journal.

3.2.3. Specific Steps of the Scientific Method

Stages of a scientific work are summarized in the previous chapter. They

can be put into a working order and accordingly, any scientific work

requires the following steps to become a design and/or research

endeavor.

Step 0 : Study and discuss;

Step 1 : Identify the problem;

Step 2 : Gather data to resolve it;

Step 3 : Set hypothesis (objectives);

Step 4 : Experimentally test and evaluate hypothesis.

These steps need not to go in numerical order and there will be many

feedbacks. The first step is to identify broad problem areas most closely

related to your interest and professional goals. In this step:

� Write down in as much detail as possible the type of work you

wish to do upon completion of your work. Clarify your goals and

interests. You will see that goals are less clear in your mind than

you may think.

� When there are inconsistencies or gaps in knowledge,

information or opinions conflict, prevailing beliefs are

challenged, then you are very close to a good research problem.

� Once the problem emerges from study and discussion, it is a

wise idea to start with the assumption that the initial problem

statement is biased by limited perceptions and usually contains a

preconceived notion of what the solution should be. To remove

biases and isolate the real problem you should;

o Try writing down as questions. Generate hypothesis (or

objectives). Ask questions like

� What is specifically occurring?

� Who or what is disturbed by the situation to be dealt with?

� Where and when the problem is occurring?

� Can you quantify the influence of the problem?

o Look for as many different approaches as possible.


o Identify any underlying assumptions and challenge them.

o Visualize the problem and break it into parts.

o Brainstorm and seek outside random stimulations and chance

discoveries.

� You must always remember that design is more than

construction, observation and experimentation. A designer

interprets results and explains principles demonstrated in the

design project. Engineers, through design, attempts to help

humankind so that you can understand, predict and control natural

events, and eventually endure better lives.

3.3 DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Activities involved in defining the design problem are summarized in

Fig. 3.2. The problem is initiated with a need for a system or an

opportunity to introduce a product better than the existing ones. Once the

problem emerges:

� Meet with supervisor(s) and clients (people who will use the end

product and support you in the project work).

Establish need or

opportunity

Library Meet with

supervisors

Meet with client (user)

Constraints (Social, economical, technical,

safety, ethical)

Product design specifications

(PDS)

Fig. 3.2 Activities in problem definition.


� Visit the library resources to improve your knowledge on the

theoretical basis of the problem and be familiar with constrains.

� Then, evaluate the problem in the view of constrains and see

whether the topic yields a promising design problem or not.

� If the problem is promising, then develop the product design

specifications (PDS).

3.3.1 State the Problem as Clearly as Possible and Prepare a Work

Plan

After selecting a promising topic, you should clarify it. You should write

the description of the problem as detailed as possible. Let us reiterate the

fact that in order to establish a precise and specific problem statement,

you must first define the problem in the broader context in which it is

occurring. This context includes not only technical issues but also other

factors such as economic political and social conditions. This should lead

to a plausible solution and a study plan must be prepared to prove or

disprove the solution.

• The work plan serves several purposes before and during the

design process. It looks like the outline of the final report.

� At the start;

o It forces the investigator to state the ideas behind the

hypothesis and the relationships among the project's different

parts.

o It allows others to offer criticisms and suggestions that might

improve the project design.

� During the project's course; it guides the researcher's activities

and assures the researcher include all necessary procedures.

� Afterward; the plan provides a standard against which the

investigator can evaluate the project's completeness and validity.

• The tentative work plan should include:

� General introduction.

� Statement of objectives or hypothesis.

� Listing of possible measures to be used in the study.

� Description of the final product.

� Procedure to be followed.

� Plans for carrying out an evaluation of the results.


3.3.2 Hypothesis or Objectives

A hypothesis or objective is the statement of what the person intends to

accomplish or develop and it is the central focus of a study. When the

work is of an applied nature, an objective is usually used. When the

question is more discovery or analysis oriented, a hypothesis is

formulated. The hypothesis is an educated guess, a prediction, of the

results from a study.

Results of the experimentation and data gathering are then analyzed

to either prove or disprove the hypothesis. Most of the time, the

hypothesis is stated so that the desired outcome of the study is proving it

true. This is called the declarative form, but this is not always so.

Sometimes a statement known as null hypothesis is used. It is a statement

that the researcher wishes to prove invalid or incorrect.

A hypothesis should be:

� Based on known fact or theory.

� Testable.

� Brief, but clear.

3.3.3 Estimating the Feasibility of a Design Project

The problem at hand should be evaluated with regard to

� Area(s) of study

� Design problem (not research)

� Availability of data

� Academic qualification

� Data gathering.

If the project or its personnel fail in any of these categories, then it may

not be feasible and should not be undertaken.

3.4 THE PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION (PDS)

The PDS sets out in as much detail as possible the requirements that must

be met to achieve a successful product. It is the basic reference source

and should be used throughout the entire design process.


3.4.1 Preparation and Evolution of the PDS

The PDS is a comprehensive document, which contains all the facts

relating to the product outcome, and should contain all the realistic

constraints to be imposed upon the design by the client.

Items in the PDS should be as quantitative as possible. (e.g., the

device must weigh less than 0.5 kg.; the device must fit in a 0.5 m × 0.5

m × 0.2 m space), and ranked in order of importance.

The PDS is a dynamic document that should evolve as the project

scope develops. This is because at the start of a project it is not always

clear what is achievable and to what extent certain parameters are

essential.

3.4.2 Contents of PDS

Title: The PDS should have all team members names listed, as well as

the title of the project. It should also be dated, to avoid conflicts arising

from different versions.

Function (a general statement of what the device is supposed to do):

The PDS should begin with a brief, concise paragraph describing (in

words) the overall function of the device. In the initial stages, this will

be the problem statement, and will become more specific as you decide

on a final design.

Client requirements (itemize what you have learned from the client

about his / her needs): Briefly describe, in bullet form, the client needs

and responses to your questions.

Design requirements: This device description should be followed by a

list of all relevant constraints, with the following list serving as a

guideline. (Note: include only those relevant to your project):

1. Physical and Operational Characteristics

� Performance requirements: The performance demanded or likely

to be demanded should be fully defined. Examples of items to be

considered include: how often the device will be used; likely

loading patterns; etc.

� Safety: Understand any safety aspects, safety standards, and

legislation covering the product type. This includes the need for


labeling, safety warnings, etc. Consider various safety aspects

relating to mechanical, chemical, electrical, thermal, etc.

� Accuracy and Reliability: Establish limits for precision

(repeatability) and accuracy (how close to the "true" value) and

the range over which this is true of the device.

� Life in Service: Establish service requirements, including how

short, how long, and against what criteria? (i.e. hours, days of

operation, distance traveled, no. of revolutions, no. of cycles, etc.)

� Shelf Life: Establish environmental conditions while in storage,

shelf life of components such as batteries, etc.

� Operating Environment: Establish the conditions that the device

could be exposed to during operation (or at any other time, such

as storage or idle time), including temperature range, pressure

range, humidity, shock loading, dirt or dust, corrosion from

fluids, noise levels, insects, vibration, persons who will use or

handle, any unforeseen hazards, etc.

� Ergonomics: Establish restrictions on the interaction of the

product with man (animal), including heights, reach, forces,

acceptable operation torques, etc.

� Size: Establish restrictions on the size of the product, including

maximum size, portability, space available, access for

maintenance, etc.

� Weight: Establish restrictions on maximum, minimum, and/or

optimum weight; weight is important when it comes to handling

the product by the user, by the distributor, handling on the shop

floor, during installation, etc.

� Materials: Establish restrictions if certain materials should be

used and if certain materials should NOT be used (for example

ferrous materials in MRI machine).

� Aesthetics, Appearance, and Finish: Color, shape, form, and

texture of finish should be specified where possible (get opinions

from as many sources as possible).

2. Production Characteristics

� Quantity: number of units needed

� Target Product Cost: manufacturing costs; costs as compared to

existing or like products


3. Miscellaneous

� Standards and Specifications: international and /or national

standards, etc. (e.g., Is FDA approval required?)

� Customer: specific information on customer likes, dislikes,

preferences, and prejudices should be understood and written

down.

� Health-related concerns: If appropriate, consider issues which

may be specific to patients or research subjects, such as: Will the

device need to be sterilized between uses?; Is there any storage of

patient data which must be safeguarded for confidentiality?

� Competition: Are there similar items, which exist (perform

comprehensive literature search and patents search)?

3.5 EXAMPLES

3.5.1 Example for Situation Description

An engineer must consider realistic constrains such as economical,

safety, reliability, aesthetic, social impact, technical and feasibility

factors in his design. Assume that you want to buy a gift to “your 5-year

old son” for the Eid (a religious festival for Muslims). What are the

feasible alternatives? Which one appeals to you better and how you apply

the realistic design constraints to your selection?

Conditions:

a. The budget that I have for the toy is around 50 Saudi Riyals.

b. The toy must be safe to play.

c. It must be durable to harsh use by the kids.

d. It must contribute to the mental and social development of the

kids;

� Educate the kid in matching shapes, constructing useful items

from components etc.

� Suitable to play by a group of kids.

e. It must not cause disturbance to surrounding during the play.

f. It must have a minimal running cost.

g. Available in the local market.

Choices within the budget range:

a. A pocket knife


b. Color pens and a paint book

c. Puzzle

d. A remote controlled car

e. A mobile toy transceiver set

f. A model aircraft

g. A model robot

h. A LEGO kit

Out of 8 selections, “f” and “g” are not available locally. Choices “d” and

“e” require batteries to operate that contribute to the maintenance cost.

Choice “a” is not safe. Among the remaining three choices, the LEGO

kit appeals better in satisfying the condition “d” and it is the final choice.

Checklist for the example

Y = Yes (2 marks), M =Maybe (1 mark) N = No (0 mark) Y M N

1. Socio-economical and cultural status of the person is

analyzed.

2. Your constraints (financial, time and social) are stated.

3. Alternatives that fall into your allotted budget range

(feasible alternatives) are stated.

4. Alternatives are evaluated using realistic constraints such

as economical, safety, reliability, aesthetic, social impact,

technical and feasibility factors.

5. Decision is made taking care of all realistic constraints.

3.5.2 Case Study: Design of a System to Locate a Free-Ranging

Patient within the Hospital

Several design examples from reasonably good senior projects of recent

years are provided in the web page http://engg.kau.edu.sa/-

~bkaragoz/senior_projects. The following example is easy to understand

by all engineering students and it is taken here to illustrate some of the

previously principles described(3)

.

(3) Akili, I.A., A System to Locate Free-Ranging Patients within the Hospital, Senior

Project, Dept. of ECE, Faculty of Engineering, KAU, Fall 2002.


Definition of the Problem

In many hospital wards, patients are allowed to walk around the ward.

The vital physiological signals like the electrocardiogram signal (ECG),

the heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and oxygen saturation (O2%)

can be monitored via a patient telemetry and observed at the nurses'

station. The telemetry system grants the freedom of movement. They can

go to the bathroom, visit fellow patients, sit down in the launch to read

newspapers or receive visitors, etc. The nurse on duty must know where

the patient is at any given time, so that she can easily contact him for

administering a drug, replacing a loose ECG electrode, or in case of

emergency. The radio telemetry used for ambulatory monitoring fails to

provide such information. The patient locator is considered as an add-on

unit to provide the nursing station with information on whereabouts of

free ranging patients.

Constrains as Applied to the Patient Locator

There are several realistic constrains that you must consider in designing

a system to solve any technical problem. Some of the constraints were

briefed in the previous chapter. Some contain components specific to the

project and they are summarized below. Their implementations in

selecting the solution appear in the next section.

� Ethics: the device that you develop and its application on the

patient must conform to right principles of conduct as specified

and accepted by engineering and medicine professions. In a

predominantly Muslim society, you must care for the moral

values according to Islamic teachings and must not violate them

unless there is a decent medical reason and the application is in

line with the universally accepted medical ethics.

� Social impact: utilization of the product that you develop must

contribute to the well being of the society. It must help reducing

patient’s dependence on others and provide confidence to the

patient in his own resources. While doing all these, care must be

taken not to cause overcrowding already congested hospital

spaces and to increase the overhead for the nursing and other

allied medical staff.

� Feasibility and technical issues: the system must not include

components that are difficult to find, cost more than the budget


allocations, or require knowledge and time span beyond your

capacities.

Alternative Solutions

Alternative solutions are considered for locating the patient. Each one is

evaluated in terms of the afore-mentioned constraints. Viable alternatives

and summary of their evaluations appear below. Solutions can be broadly

categorized as

� Non-technical and

� Technical.

The non-technical solutions include

� Invigilating (follow-up of) the patient by a nurse, an attendant or

fellow patients,

� Logbook at patient’s desk or nurse station in which the patient

writes down where he is willing to go as he leaves his cubicle.

They appear simple and economical. However, both solutions are neither

feasible nor socially acceptable in the presence of the technical solution

that include

� Tracking the patient using security cameras and a TV monitor

� Placing detectors at the gates of the rooms and identifiers on the

patients (entry/exit detectors)

� A telemetry device employing radio frequency (RF) transmitter

and receiver, and

� A telemetry device employing infrared (IR) transmitter and

receiver.

Security cameras can be installed in physical locations where the

patient can visit (including the bathroom). The movement of the patient

can be followed from the TV monitor at the operator desk or by computer

via sophisticated imaging software. This solution is not acceptable due to

high installation and maintenance costs and violation of patient’s privacy

in certain areas.

Proximity detectors can be placed at the entrances of rooms and

cubicles. Identification of the patient as he enters and leaves the location

is an important factor. There are very simple techniques that can detect

entry and/or exit only. Patient identification requires sophisticated


techniques with a lot of signal processing. Furthermore, this approach

does not work with flexible partitioning usually used in hospitals.

The last two approaches stated above include a telemetric

transmission and detection techniques either involving radio frequency

(RF) or infrared (IR). Both techniques require a low-power transmitter

carried by the patient and receivers mounted in the locations where the

patient can stay. The RF technique, although it uses a low-power

transmitter, may cause interference to the main telemetry system that

monitors signals from the patient. Otherwise, both techniques involve

almost the same level of complexities in signal processing. The infrared

(IR) approach may end-up with a cheaper and easier solution than the RF

approach.

Objective of the Project

The problem taken for the project is to devise a system that facilitates

locating a free-ranging patient within the hospital floor. The patient

already carries a telemetry system for monitoring several physiological

signals. A number of techniques has been reviewed in the previous

section. Among the techniques, the most promising one is the infrared

telemetric approach. The objective of the project is to design a patient

locator based on the infrared telemetry. It will be an add-on unit to the

existing ambulatory monitoring system. The main objective can be

divided into following working objectives:

1. Design of a battery-operated infrared transmitter that will be

carried by the patient;

2. Design of infrared receivers that will be mounted to false-ceilings

in the rooms;

3. Design of a monitoring station that can identify and display the

location of the patient using signals from the infrared receivers;

4. The system must provide an indication of the last location of the

patient in case of a signal blackout;

5. It should be expandable to accommodate many patients.

3.6 EXERCISES

(1) Assume that you want to buy a present for the Eid to your father.

What would you consider and how you apply the factors mentioned

in the example to your consideration?


(2) An engineer must know the vision and mission, and the objective

of what he is doing. Write down:

a. The vision and mission of the Electrical and Computer

Engineering Department

b. The objective of the Department related to your specialization

(not more than 50 words)

(3) An engineer must be aware of the resources that he can access.

a. Identify 3 equipments that are common in all labs in the

Department

b. Identify 3 equipments that you think useful for your project or

lab work in one of the labs in your specialization. Write down

their specifications. Explain how each one contributes in

improving your knowledge. Write down names of the lab

supervisor and lab engineer for the respective lab.

Checklist for Lab Equipment Selection

Three equipments in a lab specific to the specialization of the student are

stated.

Physical characteristics of each equipment (weight, dimensions, casing,

colors, etc) are listed. You must generate your own lists. Attachments of

photocopies from manuals are not sufficient and they are not required.

Electrical characteristics of each equipment (operating voltage and frequency,

power requirement, etc) are listed.

Operational characteristics (spacing requirement, keys and control knobs,

display type and style, etc) are stated.

Manufacturer details, model and serial numbers.

Static electrical characteristics such as input and output ranges, accuracy and

precision are clearly stated.

All descriptions are clear to a lay sale person who can easily find them for you

in the market.

Description of experiments where these equipment can be used is given.

Utilization of each equipment in improving your knowledge is clearly

described.

Lab containing the equipment is described with the name of the lab, building

and floor where the lab is located, names of lab supervisor and engineer.

(4) An engineer must make careful observations about his environment

and assess the conditions necessary for success. In this respect, for

EE 360, write down the syllabus of a subject, semester you took the

course, the section you were in and full name of the instructor who

taught the course.


(5) Please answer the following True or False questions

Statement True False

1. A tentative research plan must have a statement of objectives

2. A tentative research plan must have a statement of your

recommendations for future researchers

3. A trivial problem is a problem whose solution is not available

4. A trivial problem is a problem whose solution is already

available

(6) Please choose and CICRLE the most appropriate statement in the

following questions:

1. Which of the following is not a part of a tentative research plan?

a. Statement of objectives

b. Description of the final product

c. Plans for carrying out evaluation of the results

d. Statements of your recommendations for future researchers

2. A trivial problem is

a. A problem that is easy to solve

b. A problem whose solution is already available

c. A problem requiring a lot of brain work

d. A research problem that needs investigation

3. An engineer is a person

a. Specialized in natural sciences

b. Who puts scientific knowledge into practical use

c. Who collects and analyzes data, and makes tables

d. Who fixes broken machines

(7) Answer the following question in detail:

Assume you have been assigned to one of the following projects in your

field of specialization. Prepare an outline of your project with timing

diagram including all major tasks that you are going to perform. Allow

overlap between stages.

1. Power:

a. Development of a method to study the efficiency of a power plant

b. Design and development of an over-current relay for protection.

2. Electronics:

a. Design and development of a phase-sensitive demodulator.


b. Design and development of a zero lock for telephone.

3. Computer:

a. Design and development of control of a robot arm via a PC.

b. Design and development of a WEB page.

4. Biomedical:

a. Design and development of an electrical safety analyzer for

hospitals.

b. Design and development of a blood pressure simulator.

3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Ferguson E.S., Engineering and the Mind's Eye, The MIT Press, 1994.

Pahl G. Beitz W. Feldhusen J. and Grote KH., Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach,

Springer, 3rd ed. 2007.

Eide A.R. Jenison R.D. Marshaw L.H. and Northup L.L., Engineering Fundamentals and

Problem Solving, Chapters 2 and 3, McGraw-Hill, 4th ed. 2002.



Engineering Design Process; www.iisme.org/etp/HS Engineering- Engineering.pdf

Design Problem Solving: A Task Analysis; www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~chandra/ai-mag-

design-ps.pdf

www.ivtconferences.com/IVTNews/templates/default.aspx?a=1445&z=18

Defining the Problem; www.personal.psu.edu/alc5144/definingtheproblem.htm

CHAPTER 4

THE BACKGROUND SEARCH

■ INTRODUCTION

■ REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

■ APPROACHES TO THE SEARCH

■ COMPLETING THE CARDS

■ ABSTRACTING

■ ORGANIZING THE SEARCH

■ WRITING THE ROUGH DRAFT

■ THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

■ EXAMPLE

■ EXERCISES

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

53

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.1.1 Essential Components in Decision Making

We take decisions and

perform actions accordingly

on the problems that we have

to solve. We need knowledge,

courage and power as three

essentials of any action. The

knowledge and the courage

are like two blades of a

scissor and success of any

scientific work relies on their

sharpness and proper alignment as illustrated in Fig. 4.1. Without the

power to operate, the blades have no use. Also, the three components

must come together in proper alignment so that they can work in

harmony. The binding force between the three essentials is the wisdom.

4.1.2 An Anecdote

The designer must acquire knowledge about the problem area, the

environment in which the problem occurs. He must be aware of his

resources and limitations. Then, he must have the courage to fulfill his

obligations and take risks. These points are illustrated in the following

anecdote.

Two villagers went to the forest to chop wood in a cold winter day.

They saw a hungry bear approaching. One of them started to run to the

village in panic. The second one was a smart and brave guy. He

immediately recalled his knowledge about the bears and estimated his

power. He understood that he could possibly outrun his friend but not the

Knowledge

Courage

Po

wer

Wisdom

Fig. 4.1 Essential components in decision-

making.


54

bear and eventually the bear would harm one of them. It was his

responsibility to protect himself and his friend.

The bear is a muscular animal with a strong fur shield. He could not

win a wrestle with him. The weapons he had were an axe and a knife.

However, it was not possible to hurt the bear by direct attack using either

one of them. He knew that the bear would attack with the mouth first. So,

he hided his body partially behind a tree, flexed his arm straight to the

approaching bear with the knife at hand. The hungry bear attempted to

bite the arm of the man. Eventually, the arm with knife at hand was

inside the animal. The bear wanted to bite the arm but he was hurt. The

man started to sprain the knife inside the bear and he killed him at the

end. He took the skin off and started to walk down the valley. Meanwhile

his friend arrived at the village and reported the incidence. The villagers

rushed up to the mountain to see the remains of the fellow. They were

shocked as they met him on the way with the skin of the bear at his back.

He told them that “it was simpler than dealing with a rabbit.”

4.1.3 Essentials of the Background Search

The background search involves collecting all information relevant to

your design problem before the onset of the technical design process. It

helps you to solidify your knowledge about the problem area so that you

can take healthy decisions. It involves

� Interviewing with experts including supervisors,

� Meeting with users and clients,

� Observing the problem in the field as it occurs in its natural way,

and

� Consulting relevant publications (literature) about the subject.

4.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

4.2.1 Phases of the Literature Review

You must do a literature search even if you are absolutely sure about the

originality and clarity of the problem. The literature search starts with the

onset of the study and continues till you submit the final report. It can be

divided into three phases.

The Background Search

55

� The first phase is before the problem definition and it helps you to

define the problem. If you are going to submit your proposal to a

committee, you must do a literature survey before you write the

proposal.

� Once you have chosen the problem area and set your design/

research objective, the second phase begins as an effort to search

literature for related information.

� The third phase starts with writing the literature review for the

second phase and continues till you submit the final report and

this is called the literature updating.

Throughout the second and third phases, you must always remember

your objective and try to find out relevant material. Too much

dependence on others works should not hamper your ability to develop

new insight. At first, you should read only enough to gain a general

understanding of the proposed design area and determine how that

understanding illuminates your area. Then, the project design and

preliminary writing should begin. As the problem proceeds, you will

discover the need to answer other related questions and you will return

back to the literature for answers.

4.2.2 Purpose of the Literature Review

You must always remember that the purpose of the literature search is to

find information that relates to your design/research problem. Hence, as

you are doing it, you must look for:

� Material that suggests that the problem has already been solved;

� Some aspects of the topic or related problems that have already

been solved;

� Within the problem area there are questions which need to be

answered;

� Hints that there might be some relatively specific questions

which are more important than others, perhaps questions whose

answers would suggest answers to still other questions;

� How to conduct research on that question you have in mind, the

design process;

� Instruments useful for data collection or observation;

� Statistical and analytical tools that you might use or adapt;


56

� Data on the problem you want to investigate;

� Names of other designers/researchers working on the same

problem or in the same area;

� Sources of additional information (mainly from bibliographies

of articles you read).

4.2.3 How to Begin a Search for Information

The first step is to locate information about the design topic. You might

use books, encyclopedias, research reviews, handbooks, guides and

"advances in..." and Internet. They contain generalized and simplified

information that is also two to three years old at least. However, this step

has a dual purpose as it instructs the designer about the topic, and let him

identify some preliminary authors (through footnotes and bibliographies)

and sources of information.

The next step is to locate as many reports as possible that are

likely to relate to your topic. You may use computer data bases and a

subject search in the library's card catalog. Using authors’ names and

report titles from the general information search, you go to indexes like

science citation, engineering, index medicus, etc. Then, you try to find

abstracts of the selected materials. Having located the significant

literature for a topic, you try to obtain a copy of each item that does not

appear at your local library.

4.2.4 Traditional Sources of Related Literature

The relevant literature can be found traditionally in libraries, laboratories

and private offices(4)

. Fortunately, many of these traditional sources of

information are now available on the Internet. You can easily reach them

in a useable form with a suitable Web browser and search engine. The

sources can be classified as:

� The primary sources that include;

� Periodicals – scientific publications that are printed at

(4) This part is adapted from the handout distributed to senior project students of SED

(School of Environmental Design) by Librarian Mr. Arsela Khan with his kind

permission.


57

regular intervals and contain contemporary design/research

papers

� Conference papers – research papers that are submitted

and read in a scientific conference

� Research monographs – descriptions or systematic

expositions of articles related to researches carried out in

one field

� Design/research reports – detailed reports containing all

relevant points related to a research activity (generally for

funded research)

� Patents – government protection to inventors, securing

them for a specific time the exclusive rights of

manufacturing, exploiting, using, and selling inventions

� Dissertations – formally written, extended and argumentive

thesis especially submitted for doctorate

� Manufacturers' literature.

� Secondary sources that include:

� Index types – indexes, bibliographies, indexing serials,

abstracting serials, express services

� Survey types – reviews, treaties, monographs

� Reference tools – encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks,

critical tables and data banks.

� Tertiary sources that include:

� Textbooks

� Directories – bibliographical directories, trade and product

directories, buyers guides, organization directories

� Literature guides – current and respective.

Libraries contain classified and cataloged information.

Librarians are very helpful people and never hesitate to ask their help

when necessary. They hold all three different sources of information.

Some libraries still use the Library of Congress System, but most

libraries have already switched to the Dewey Decimal System shown in

Table 4.1.


58

Table 4.1 Dewey decimal classification systems in the library.

000 General Works 500 Natural sciences

100 Philosophy 600 Useful Arts

200 Religion 700 Fine Arts

300 Sociology 800 Literature

400 Philology 900 History

In addition to the library, there are two other important places from

which you may obtain very useful information; laboratories and private

offices of academic staff. Laboratories hold reports of research,

manufacturers' literature, trade and product directories, buyer’s guides,

organization directories and several reference tools (encyclopedias,

handbooks, critical tables and data banks). Private offices of academic

staff accommodate reprints of scientific papers, text and reference books,

research reports and numerous reference tools and materials.

4.2.5 The Internet(5)

Easy and organized accessing to the resources on the Internet has

drastically reduced the time and effort required to conduct the search and

collect relevant data. However, it comes with an awful problem for a

novice designer; not everything on the Web has been tried, true, and

tested. Table 4.2 lists a number of questions that must be answered

before considering the information in a Web page. You should definitely

be able to answer "yes" to the two questions in boldface type in order for

the page to be considered credible. Having "yes" for answers to most of

the other questions may indicate that the source is of high quality.

(5) Adapted from Dominic PG et al, Tools and Tactics of Design, Wiley, 2001.


59

Table 4.2 Checklist for informational web page.

Source: Table 2.2 in page 30 of “Tools and Tactics of Design” who adapted it from Alexander J and Tate

MA, “Checklist for an informational Web Page”, Widener University, Chester, PA, USA, 1998.

Web page

criteria Related questions

Authority • Is it clear who is sponsoring the page?

• Is there a link to the page describing the purpose of the sponsoring

organization?

• Is there a way of verifying the legitimacy of the page’s sponsor

(e.g., a phone number or a postal address)? An e-mail address is

not enough.

• Is it clear who wrote the material and are the author’s qualifications

for writing on this topic clearly stated?

• If the material is protected by copyright, is the name of the copyright

holder given?

Accuracy • Are the sources for any factual information clearly listed so they can

be verified in another source?

• Is the information free of grammatical, spelling, and other

typographical errors? (These kinds of errors not only indicate a lack

of quality control but also can actually produce inaccuracies in

information.)

• Is it clear who has the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy of the

content of the material?

• If there are charts and/or graphs containing statistical data, are they

clearly labeled and easy to read?

Objectivity • Is the information provided as a public service?

• Is the information free of advertising

• If there is any advertising on the page, is it clearly differentiated from

the informational content?

Currency • Are the dates on the pages indicating when the page was written,

when the page was first placed on the Web, when the page was last

revised?

• Are there any other indications that the page is kept current?

• If the material contains graphs and/or charts, is it clearly stated when

the data were gathered?

• If the information is published in different editions, is it clearly

labeled what edition the page is from?

Coverage • Is there an indication that the page has been completed and is not still

under construction?

• If there is any print equivalent to the Web page, is there a clear

indication of whether the entire work is available on the Web?

• If the material is from a work whose copyright has expired, has there

been an effort made to update the material?


60

4.3 APPROACHES TO THE SEARCH

The purpose and importance of the literature review, and location of

relevant material were discussed in the previous section. It is now time to

discuss how to proceed with the search in an organized manner. The first

thing to do is to familiarize with the terminologies that you are going to

face. Then, you must build your own bibliography. You can take the

advantage of the computerized search techniques. The classical index

card approach will be introduced as a way of organization of the search.

4.3.1 Building a Working Bibliography

� The very first step:

� Go to a dictionary and look up terms that are used in your field,

especially topic of interest. Be sure that you understand their

meanings.

� Go to encyclopedias to find the most comprehensive and

concise presentation of materials related to your research area.

� You have now firm knowledge of terminology and you can go

to indexes.

� The next step is to build your own bibliography:

� You are going to consult many sources related to different

aspects of your project.

� At the end, you are going to write a literature review that

contains:

� The bases for your research and also;

� Indicate the importance of the work that you are going to

do.

� The first step of your research is:

� To put together a list of books, research reviews,

handbooks, journals, etc. you want to read.

� Your working bibliography is an organized listing of names of

sources.

4.3.2 Search Tools – Computerized Search, Index Cards and

Interviews

� You must explore the resources available in libraries close to

you. The Central Library has a computerized search facility. Why


61

not use it! There are two different facilities for searching books and

old journals, and some recent research publications.

� Firstly, the libraries of King Abdulaziz, King Saud and King

Fahad Universities have computerized databases.

� You can sit in front of any computer terminal in the

terminal room or in the library and walk through the

resources. You can find out books, periodicals (journals,

but up to 1987 mostly) and other publications available in

these libraries.

� If a book you want is not available here but available in

one the other two libraries, then the librarian can get it for

you through the inter-library loan facility.

� You can also access these databases from home or from

the laboratory with an internet connection.

� Secondly, there are several databases available on CD-ROM's

(compact disk read only memories) and subscription to many

scientific journals. They can be accessed either through

facilities in the CD room of the library or even remotely from

your laboratory through an internet connection. They contain

the most up to date information on research topics.

� You must identify some "keywords" related to your topic.

You can ask help from your supervisor, if necessary. You

narrow down your choices by combining the keywords at

the search.

� You can print or copy down to a diskette (download) the

title and abstract of any article. If you need the full article,

contact the CD section of the main library for a print out

provided that they have the CD containing the article.

� Any article that doesn't exist can be brought from King

Saud and King Fahad University libraries through inter-

library loan facility, if they have it. If it is not available in

the Kingdom at all, then the Central Library might order a

copy from outside of the Kingdom.

� Utilization of index cards is very effective in the organization of

the search. This is an optional but very useful tool if you want to

have a detailed literature search. You may skip this subsection and

next section for senior project applications.


62

� Take a stock of 8 × 13 cm index cards.

� When you meet a reference article or a book, pick one and

write any details that will help you to find it.

� Put only one resource on each card.

� While searching for reference articles,

� You must always keep your objective in mind. This will

help you in limiting your selection.

� However, you don't limit too much not to have only one

side of the story.

� There are two basic types of resources as primary and

secondary. Primary resources are probably more reliable.

Try to reach them if possible.

� At home,

� Copy your bibliography cards onto a single list as back

up.

� Start filling the cards as soon as you meet a reference. Fig.

4.2 shows samples of two cards, one for a book and one

for a journal article.

� Before doing anything else, you

� Send requests away for anything that is not available in your

libraries.

� Schedule interviews with experts.

� Make up a list of good questions before you meet them and

even you take a tape recorder to the interview.

� You must be prepared to stay long in the library.

� Take 5-6 cards at once and search related material.

� You may take note on a notebook.

� Rather, you prefer using note cards (similar to the index

cards).

� Photocopy pages from books, tables of data, complicated

formulas and figures that you might want for later use.

However,

� You should not copy research reports and articles.

� Rather, abstract material directly on your note cards.


63

4.4 COMPLETING THE CARDS

There are two types of cards that you are going to use. One of them is the

index card to keep track of the reference material. The second one is

similar to the first one in appearance but used for keeping notes as you

progress in the literature search.

4.4.1 Information that Goes to the Index Card

� You complete the index card including the following information

as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.

� For a book;

� Name(s) of the author(s)

� Title of the part of the book used (if the entire book

doesn't deal with your subject) in quotes

� Title of the book underlined

� Name of the editor, translator or compiler

� Edition used (if more than one edition has been published)

� Number of volume(s) used, if more than one

� Name of the series, if the book is part of one

� Place of publication, name of publisher and date of

publication

� If related information appears in a small portion of the

book, page numbers on which it appears

� Any other supplementary information that will help you

to identify the book exactly.

(1) 001.42Lee

Leedy, Paul, D.

How to Read Research and Understand It

(see esp. pp. 16 - 20)

Card Catalog

Engineering Library

(2) Periodical

Room

Stulen, F.B. and DeLuca C.J.

"Muscle fatigue Monitor: A Non-invasive

Device for Observing Localized Muscular

Fatigue"

IEEE Trans. on Biomed. Eng. 29(12),

1982; pp. 760-768

Fig. 4.2 Index cards for books and journal articles.


64

� For an article in a magazine or journal;

� Name(s) of the author(s)

� Title of the article in quotation marks

� Name of the periodical underlined

� Series number or name, if one is given

� Volume number

� Date of publication

� Page numbers on which the article appears

� Look for new resources and make bibliography cards for them:

� When you look up information in one reference,

� Look at the bibliography of the article and

� Make new index cards for potentially profitable ones that

you don't have in your index cards yet.

� Throw away unprofitable ones:

� If any source doesn't yield any useful information,

� Take the index card for that source from your stack and

� Put it into a separate location in case you may need it in

future.

4.4.2 Note Cards

� Fill out your notes by:

� Writing one thought, idea, quote or fact on each card.

� Writing in your own words.

� Putting quotation marks around any material copied.

� Add organizational details:

� Write down the number of the corresponding index card

(resource number) to the upper left-hand corner.

� Below the resource number, you write the page number(s) on

which the information appeared.

� Get out your preliminary outline and find out under which

outline topic the information seems to fit.

� Put an appropriate topic letter (A, B, C...) to the upper

right-hand corner.

� If you cannot decide about the topic now, you put an

asterisk (*).


65

� Next to the topic letter, you write down one or two words

headline that describes the information on the card.

� Put a check mark (_) to the index card as you have finished

taking notes from that particular resource.

� Add your personal notes:

� As you progress, if you develop some ideas, you put them

down on separate note cards and place them among the others.

4.5 ABSTRACTING

You are now ready to explore the literature related to the topic of your

interest. You have prepared the bibliography and index cards. Your note

cards are ready to write down any relevant information that you are going

to come across.

The bibliography contains a lot of addresses (titles). You need to call

at every address and the time you are going to stay at it depends upon the

significance of the information that is available there. Hence, a quick

look at each one will help you in sorting them in order of relevance and

you will save considerable time. This is called abstracting. In this section,

you will try to identify the significant parts of an article and learn how to

extract an abstract from them.

4.5.1 Relevant Parts of an Article

� A research report contains the following nine parts:

1. Title

2. Abstract or summary

3. Introduction

4. Statement of research goal

5. Related research

6. The method and design of research

7. Results

8. Discussion

9. Notes and references

� The relevant parts that you need to locate and describe in your own

terms are as follows:


66

� The problem.

� State the problem, as a question or as a hypothesis.

� Describe any context or setting that makes the problem

unique.

� The design.

� Describe it in standard terms and you add any description

that sets it aside from the standard.

� Record the method of sampling and sample size.

� Describe controls.

� Information regarding data collection and analysis.

� Findings and/or conclusions, justification or clarification.

� Unique design ideas and data handling.

� If you meet certain procedures altered from the standard,

you record them down to record the originator.

� Anything else that might be useful. Specific information on

certain subjects, records of other researchers, etc.

4.5.2 Guidelines for Reading any Report

� Guidelines may be stated briefly as:

� Read the title several times.

� Read the abstract or summary.

� Have a quick glance through the whole report and you look at

the outline.

� Go back to the beginning and you read the report carefully.

� Note the problem, which was researched, and the manner

in which data were collected and interpreted.

� Do not interpolate your thoughts, and you note exactly

what the researcher has written.

� Read the conclusion.

� Read the objective again and then the conclusions by

covering up the material in between.

� The conclusions should follow logically from the

statement of the problem.

� Graphs or charts – they are the most important forms of data

presentation. They indicate many points that can be observed at a

glance to a careful observer. When you meet a graph or chart:


67

� Look at the grid carefully.

� Study the configuration of the line. Events occur in four

principal ways:

� Growth or decay;

� Acceleration and then deceleration;

� Arrhythmic, unpredictable, irregular;

� Great imbalances, inequalities.

� Read the captions and legends carefully.

� Inspect carefully the intervals (scales) on each axis. Identify

variables presented, their domain and ranges covered.

� Study carefully the "peaks" and "valleys" of the curve.

� How to read a table? A table is a systematic presentation of data,

usually nominal or numerical in character, and arranged in grid

fashion.

� You read the caption of the table first.

� Inspect each column for gross abnormalities in the data.

� Rearrange the data within the table; you try the data in different

combinations.

4.6 ORGANIZING THE SEARCH

After having gone through the relevant literature, you are now in a

position to review and revise your objective. Then, you will sort your

bibliography according to the significance and decide about the order of

your final report.

� Review your thesis statement and revise it if necessary:

� The literature survey should narrow the design/research to a

single question that appears to you to be

� Important,

� Unsolved or solvable by new approaches,

� Of interest to you, and

� Solvable within the limits of your capabilities and

resources.

These are the criteria for a good design problem. The first two are

obtained from the literature survey, while the last two depend upon your

personal judgment.


68

� If at the end of the literature survey you still have two or three

questions,

� Avoid putting them together into your problem

description.

� Choose among them a single question to be examined.

� It is all right to have sub-problems if you are sure that

they are sub-problems to the major one, not related to

questions that you want to examine.

� Sort your cards and get all your note cards, then:

� Group together all cards that share the same outline topic (topic

letter).

� Put those different groups in order, according to your

temporary outline.

� Within each topic group, sort the cards further. Put together all

of the cards that share the same "head-line".

� Go through your miscellaneous topic (marked with *). Replace

the asterisks (*) with the proper letters if you can now fit them

into your existing topic groups. If not, you put the card at the

very back of your stack.

� Decide on the order of your report:

� After reviewing your note cards, you may consider different

organizational approaches for your paper (report). Some of

them are stated below. You may also use a mix and match (a

blend of more than one) approaches:

� Chronological – discuss events in the order in which they

happened

� Spatial – in geographical or physical order

� Cause/effect – one by one, discuss the effects of a series

of individual events or actions

� Problem/solution – present a series of problems and

possible solutions

� Compare/contrast – discuss similarities and differences

between things or events.

� Order of importance – order them from most to least

important.


69

� Resort your cards:

� If necessary, revise your general outline according to the

organizational decision you just made.

� Don't change the letters you assigned to the cards, but

place cards of the same category (stacks) above or below

each other according to your outline.

� If you have revised your outline, you reorder your note

cards so that they fall in the same order as your new

outline.

� Add any miscellaneous cards:

� Go over your miscellaneous stack once more.

� Try to fit them in your stack of cards.

� Don't force a note card in unless it really fits.

� Otherwise, you leave it in the leftover pile.

� Here is your detailed outline!

� Flip through your note cards from front to back. You will be

surprised to see that your detailed outline is ready.

4.7 WRITING THE ROUGH DRAFT

You are now ready to write down your draft for the literature survey

using the outline prepared above and the material collected. Some

guidelines are given here to direct the writing process.

� Take out your detailed outline that is supposed to be organized in

the form of sections and subsections now:

� You must find out how many individual elements (points,

ideas) you have in each subsection.

� You must try to organize your subsections in the form of

paragraphs. A paragraph is a mini-essay in itself. It contains a

topic sentence and the evidence to support it. This evidence can

come in different forms as;

� Quotes from experts

� Research statistics

� Examples from research or your own experience and

� Detailed descriptions and other background information.


70

� It also has statements that link it to the previous and following

paragraphs.

� When writing the literature review:

� You concentrate on the structure of the information being

presented and on the style in which it is stated.

� Use a simple everyday language and short statements.

� Write as if you are writing to a good friend telling him what

you have learned about your subject.

� Paraphrase where possible, and quote only where necessary.

� Summarize what was said.

� The summary should contain important facts and indicate

the significance of the review to the research problem.

� You should not edit and try to find fancy words to express your

ideas at this stage.

� If you can't work out one section;

� You skip it altogether at the moment and continue with

the next section.

� You return back to the sections you missed at the end.

4.8 THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

4.8.1 Necessity of the Observational Method

The literature review in the previous section yielded very important

information about the extent of the problem under investigation. It also

gave you hints about the places where the problem can be observed and

methods to tackle with the problem. The next stage in the research/design

is the primary investigation in which the designer must go to the sites

where the problem can be observed to make his investigation. The

process is mainly observation. He may make a lot of measurements and

collect data, and repeat this process until a statistically stable data

collection is achieved. You search for the problem in a broad perspective

involving the economical, social, environmental and political constrains

that governs it. Try to understand:

� What specifically is occurring,

� Who and what is being hit by the situation to be addressed,

� Where or when the problem is occurring and

� How can you quantify the impact of the problem?


71

At this stage, you may recall the literature review and even revise

the design objective several times. At the end, the problem becomes

crystal clear in your mind and you are now ready for the technical design

that contains analysis and synthesis of the problem.

4.8.2 Places of Observation

The observational method is carried out in observation laboratories that

may be very different from the design/research laboratories. It has three

distinct applications as:

� It is the standard procedure in areas like astronomy where the

object of investigation can't be reached;

� In experimental sciences, it contributes a lot to the researcher in

understanding the problem before he sets the hypothesis.

Accordingly, the researcher may return back to literature

survey and original problem definition for unclear aspects of

research.

� The experimental method is supplemented by the observational

method as shown in Fig. 4.3. After the investigator defines the

parameters and sets the experimental set-up, he returns to the

observational method.

Fig. 4.3 Relationship between observational and experimental methods.

4.8.3 Characteristics of the Observational Method

You observe the problem that you want to solve as it runs in its natural

way. You should not try to modify it. There are three important

parameters to notice:

Investigated

system

Selection of

objects

Detection Investigator

Manipulation

Th

e Observ

ationa

l Meth

od

The E

xperim

ental M

ethod


72

� Randomness of the sample;

� Repeatability of the experiment;

� Errors in the measurement.

4.9 AN EXAMPLE

Find out the meaning of “thermocouple” including its definition and

area(s) of application related to your specialization. Use 100 to 150

words in your description.

Thermocouple Type Temperature Sensors

The thermocouple is a temperature sensor made up of two strips or

wires of different metals and joined at one end. An electromotive force

(e.m.f) is induced between the other ends whose value is related to the

temperature of the junction. As temperature goes up, this output e.m.f of

the thermocouple rises, though not necessarily linearly. The figure below

illustrates a thermocouple and characteristics of various devices

commercially available

It is the most versatile temperature transducer. It can be

manufactured in different sizes and shapes that can even fit into the tip of

a hypodermic needle or catheter. It has low cost, fast response and

excellent long-term stability. However, measurement of temperature

using thermocouple requires compensation for non-linearity and

existence of a reliable reference junction. Thermocouples are widely used

in industry. In biomedical applications, thermistors are preferred due to

their high sensitivities in the medical temperature range 32ºC - 42ºC.

Metal A

Metal B

+

VAB

-

0

20

40

60

80

500 1000 1500 2000

E

J

K

RS

T

Temperature, °C

Mil

livolt

s

Type of Metals

+ - E Chromel vs Constantan

J Iron vs Constantan K Chromel vs Alumel

R Platinum vs Platinum

13% Rhodium S Platinum vs Platinum

10% Rhodium T Copper vs Constantan


73

Sources:

Milyani A, and Karag ِözoğlu B, “Basics of Electronic Instrumentation

and Measurement Techniques” Chapter 6, KAU, Faculty of

Engineering, 2001.

Peura RA and Webster JG, “Basic Sensors and Principles” Chapter 2 in

Webster JG (ed) “Medical Instrumentation: Application and

Design”, 3rd

ed, Wiley, 1998.


4.10 EXERCISES

True or False questions

Determine meanings of the following terms including their definitions

and area(s) of application:

1. Power: circuit breaker, power factor correction, relay, transient, diac

2. Electronics: telephone, modem, scrambling, phase-locked-loop,

coaxial cable

3. Computer: discrete-time signal, proxy server, token ring network,

icon, www

4. Biomedical: thermistor, macro shock, electrode, arrhythmia,

hypertension

Y = Yes (2 marks), M = Maybe (1 mark), N = No (0 mark) Y M N

1. A descriptive title is given

2. Literary meaning (as found in a dictionary or encyclopedia) of the

term is given

3. Description as a technical term is made at a sufficient length

4. Utilization of the term and its implications in the field of

specialization is given

5. References from where the information gathered are provided.


1. The observational method in engineering is applied in places

where the problem occurs

2. The observational method in engineering is applied in research

laboratories only

3. The abstract is a detailed explanation of the problem definition

and technical design

4. Caption of a table or figure is a title statement describing the

table or figure.


74

4.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Sullivan W.G. Lee P.M. Luxhoj J.T. and Thannirpalli R.V., A survey of engineering design

literature: methodology, education, economics, and management aspects, Engineering

Economist, V40(n1) Pp: p7(34), 1994.

Osif B.A. (Editor), Using the Engineering Literature, Routledge, 2006.

Conkling T.W. and Musser L.R. (editors), Engineering Libraries: Building Collections and

Delivering Services , Routledge, 2002.



www.csdb.org/blind/Homework%20Helps/Guide%20to%20Science%20Fair%20Project–

D11.pdf

www.eng.cam.ac.uk/~cipolla/phdguide.html

www.uic.edu/depts/spha/academic/division/chs_handbook2001/pdf/TipsB2001.pdf

www.lib.ncsu.edu/tutorials/biology/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=35

CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS OF THE PROBLEM

■ ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

■ THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

■ CASE STUDY: DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS FOR BODY

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

■ CRITICAL EVALUATION OF DESIGN

■ AN EXAMPLE ON EXPERIMENT DESIGN

■ EXERCISES

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

77

5.1 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

5.1.1 Analysis of the Problem

After the background search including the literature survey and the

observation, the designer should have a clear view of the problem he is

going to study. The analysis stage should involve the following activities:

� A working definition of the objective, and breaking the problem

into sub-problems;

� A general flow diagram showing the links between sub-sections;

� Identification of the tools and measuring instruments needed for

the development of the project and determination of their

characteristics;

� Design and development of electronic circuits and procurement

necessary components;

� Test and evaluation of individual parts under laboratory

conditions.

5.1.2 Synthesis of the Problem

The synthesis part involves combination of individual units and

formation of the complete system. Tests will be carried out in the

research laboratory under simulated conditions. The designer is strongly

advised to consider computer simulations where possible before the

laboratory experiments. Necessary modifications should be made in the

system components according to the test results. At the end, the system

should be ready for the real life experiments.

5.1.3 Case Study: Design of a System to Locate a Free-Ranging

Patient within the Hospital

Analysis of the Problem (The Basic Idea)

Infrared rays emitted to the space by infrared transmitters have spatial

distribution of light intensity that drops with the distance. Hence, a

receiver closer to the transmitter picks up a stronger illumination than a


78

distant one. Infrared rays are also reflected from surfaces covering the

physical location in which they travel. The reflected rays may add up

with the direct rays at the receiver, which will further strengthen the

signal at the closer receiver. This idea is considered in the current project

in locating a patient within a hospital floor portioned into various rooms,

cubicles, wards, etc. Each physical division houses an infrared receiver.

As the patient carrying a proper infrared transmitter steps in, the receiver

in that locality delivers stronger signal than the ones in the neighborhood.

The patient locator contains three main units as a transmitter unit,

number of receivers and a monitoring station as illustrated in Fig.5.1. Each

unit will be designed separately in this project and together they will form a

reception network, which has the functionality of locating patients. An Infra-

Red (IR) transmitter will be attached to the patient. It will transmit pulsed

infrared rays. An infrared receiver will be placed in each room. More than

one receiver may be placed in large rooms. The monitoring station will

collect signals from different receivers and feed them to a micro-controller

(MC), which will differentiate the magnitude coming from each line, and

indicate the number of the receiver, which receives the strongest signal

(highest amplitude). It will drive a display unit that indicates messages from

the micro-controller on a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.

The Infrared (IR) Transmitter

The infrared (IR) transmitter consists of an oscillator/pulse generator, a

current driver and a set of infrared emitters as shown in Fig. 5.2. Infrared

transmitters work better in pulsed mode rather than the continuous mode

of operation. Hence, we need to transmit a signal with fixed amplitude

and duration, that’s why an oscillator is needed. Using a pulse generator

based on the stable multi vibrator mode of operation of the LM 555 timer

Monitoring Station

Transmitter

Receiver (1)

Receiver (2)

Receiver (3)

Microcontroller

Display

Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of the patient locator.

Analysis and Synthesis of the Problem

79

IC is very convenient for the application. The circuit diagram of the timer

and related computations are available in the project report and they are

omitted here for minimalism.

There are varieties of infrared transmitters available in the market.

They are used in many remote control applications. Mostly used ones

emit low power in narrow angles. The reflection of the infrared rays from

surfaces let the transmitted beam reach to the receiver even if the

transmitter-receiver pair does not face each other. They require special

preamplifiers and a bit sophisticated signal processing to pick up the

transmitted signal. A high-power and wide-angle transmitter OD-100 is

used in the current design as explained below.

1. Using OD-100 as my IR Emitter, it can stand up to 10A according to

its data sheet. That would give high power transmission, which

requires high current. Our Emitter Diode will only start conducting

when 0.5A pass through it. For a start 0.5A is quite enough for power

saving and battery lifetime.

2. In order to get a high current from the supply (Dry Battery), we used a

1A transistor (High Current Transistor) to drive 0.5A from our battery

according to our design. The battery we are using is rechargeable

(sealed lead-acid) type that can provide 6V, 1.2Ah, which can last at

least 5 hours in continuous use in our application.

3. Saturating the transistor causes a small voltage drop across the C–E

junction. We need that to limit the voltage added to the IR emitter,

which usually operates at 1.65V.

4. This emitter was chosen for its wide beam angle (110˚) that would

cover a wide area, high power transmission up to 1300mW that would

cover a long distance, very uniform optical beam, and a wide current

range 0.5-10A. It emits light at 940 nm, which is in the infrared range

IR Transmitter

Oscillator Driver IR Emitter

Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA) Battery

Fig. 5.2 Block diagram of the infrared (IR) transmitter.


80

of the electromagnetic spectrum. Interested readers must check the

data sheet for OD-100.

5. The reason for putting 2 emitters in our design is for dissipating heat

from the high current passing through the circuit for exceeding the

emitter lifetime. As the transmitters placed at an angle of about 90˚

apart from each other, the whole 180˚ of transmission becomes

available.

The Infrared Receiver Design

A block diagram of the infrared receiving station is shown in Fig. 5.4. It

consists of an infrared sensor that detects the incoming infrared rays, a

notch filter to eliminate the 120 Hz radiation from the lights, an AC

coupled amplifier and a peak reader that produces a voltage output

related to the strength of the incoming radiation. The output of the peak

reader is connected to the receiving station. A 4-core shielded wire is

used between the receiving station and the monitoring station to provide

the supply to the receiving station and carry the output to the monitoring

station.

With the component values shown in Fig.5.3;

VD1 = VD2 = 1.65 V, Rc = 10Ω

Then nominal value of the collector current for

Vcc = 6 V is Ic = 6-2*1.65 – 0.2 = 0.35 A

Ic = 0.25 A for Vcc = 5 V (low battery

condition)

RB = 47Ω guarantees heavy saturation of the

transistor. Power taken by each diode (at max)

PD = VD * Ic = 1.65 * 0.35 = 0.578 W = 578

mW 0 0

VCC

R110

R2

47

Q1

TIP120

D1

OD-100

1

2

D2

OD-100

1

2

V1

Fig. 5.3 The IR transmitter.

IR Sensor Notch Filter

(120 Hz)

Amplifier with DC

cancellation

Gain = 560

Peak

Reader

Monitor

station

Fig. 5.4 Block diagram of the infrared receiving station.


81

The Infrared Receiver

The infrared receiver must be spectrally matching with the transmitter.

The PBX38 IR transistor receiver is selected for the project. The

transistor is biased so that the collector is in the center of the active

dynamic range. This yields the maximum sensitivity of the receiver. The

infrared transmitter (emitter) emits radiation at 940 nm. The receiver

however, has a band-pass characteristic with selectivity peaking around

940 nm. Hence, strong radiation at ambient light is also received. The

above mentioned pulse operation guarantees the elimination of radiation

from stationary sources. The lighting fixtures in hospitals contain

fluorescent lamps that cause flickering radiation at 120 Hz, which is only

one decade below the pulse frequency. They cause waveform wander on

the received pulses and affect the amplitude detection. Filters are

considered to reduce the 120-Hz interference.

The receivers are covered by an optical filter (Kodak gelatin filter),

which reduces the contribution of the ambient light. It improved the

signal quality and reduced the interference, but couldn’t eliminate it. A

notch filter is designed with notch frequency at 120 Hz and it is placed

between the detector and amplifier. The notch filter, amplifier and the

peak detector circuits are omitted here for simplicity.

The Monitoring Station

The Monitoring Station is the interface between the patient locator and

the user. It identifies the location of the patient at a given time and

displays the information at the nurse’s desk. It gives warning and

indicates the last location of the patient in case of a signal cut-out.

The station is designed around a micro controller as indicated in Fig.

5.5. Alternative might be to consider a personal computer instead of the

micro controller. However, as a stand-alone unit, the micro controller is

preferred. The PIC type is selected among several devices available in

the market due to its low cost and adaptability to the application easily.

The display is a liquid crystal display (LCD). Warning indicators are a

light emitting diode and a buzzer. Three receivers are used in the current

design and the number can be increased up to eight without difficulty.

The signal processing includes filtering, amplification and peak reading

and it is currently incorporated inside the receiver chambers. However, as


82

the number of receiving channels increases, it would be more appropriate

to have the signal processing circuits inside the housing of the monitoring

station as indicated in the figure.

5.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

5.2.1 Need for the Experiment

A well-planned, thoughtfully conducted, carefully analyzed and

intuitively interpreted experiment is a must for a successful design

process. Experiments are carried out in various phases of the project for

various reasons including:

� To be familiar with test equipment, experimental set-up and

procedures; i.e. to gain hands-on experience.

� To verify data available in literature.

� To obtain information that is not otherwise available.

� To test the proposed solution in the laboratory by controlling the

experimental factors.

� To test the proposed solution in the field under naturally

determined conditions.

However, the experimental programs are costly and time-consuming, and

require a lot of data processing during and after the experiments.

Interpretation of the results obtained is a skill in itself. Hence, before you

decide for experiments you have to double think on the reason for doing

them. If you are absolutely sure that you need them, then you have to

make a lot of preparations before you attempt.

Several experimental conditions must be satisfied before you decide

for the experiment including:

� The system to be studied must be physically available to the

designer/researcher;

Fig. 5.5 Schematic diagram of the monitoring station.

The monitoring station

Receiving

stations

Signal

Processor

Micro

controller

LCD

Warning

signs


83

� The problem to be studied should be possible to formulate with

quantitative concepts that can be accurately formulated;

� There should be no political or social constraints to carry the

experiments.

In an experimental work, firstly, you establish the need for the

experiment and define the objectives for the experiments. Secondly, you

identify the important variables (both independent variables and

responses) and decide about the responses you want to measure. Then,

the stages for the experiment design come. The last stage is the reporting

of the results of the experiment.

5.2.2 Design of the Experiment

An experiment is a series of trials that enable you to gather the required

information. Careful planning is essential to obtain most of the

information with least effort and cost. An experimental protocol is very

helpful in this respect. The protocol contains a list of equipments, devices

and components to be used in the experiment, an experimental procedure

that records the sequence of events during the experiment, and an

indication of types of experimental errors and ways to avoid them. The

next step is performing the experiment and collecting the data. Repetition

is essential for reliability of the results and statistical analysis. This point

will be dealt with in a later section. The processing of data collection,

error analysis and presenting the results is the subject of the next chapter.

5.2.3 Basic Steps in an Experiment

Example: A cart (vehicle) is moving in the horizontal direction as shown

in the Fig. 5.6. Time needed to travel a certain distance is required.

Fig. 5.6 A cart moving in horizontal track.


84

Most important steps:

Step 1: Determining relevant factors. Time, distance, gasoline

consumption, wind speed and direction etc. Keep all factors

constant except the first two (do the experiment in a still day

with maximum gasoline consumption).

Step 2: Performing an experiment with two variables. Results are shown

on the table and displayed on Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7 Distance versus time.

Step 3: Analyzing primary data; d ≠ (const.)*t.

Step 4: Analyzing treated data; d = (const.)*t2 Treated data and plot

using the treated data appears in Fig. 5.8.

Step 5: Treating unusual points; air resistance is related to the velocity

and it becomes effective at high speeds. Hence, the air resistance

probably affects the last point.

Distance (m) 0 10.00±0.01 20.01±0.02 30.00±0.01 40.01±0.01 50.00±0.01

Time (s) 0 2.0±0.2 2.8±0.1 3.5±0.1 4.1±0.3 4.8±0.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 2 4 6

Time (s)

Dis

tan

ce (

m)

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 5 10 15 20 25

Time square (s2)

Dis

tan

ce (

m)

Fig. 5.8 Distance versus time2.


85

Step 6: Testing the straight-line finding.

Step 7: Experimenting with remaining variables. Repeat steps 2 to 6 at

different gasoline consumption levels.

Step 8: Relating the experimental results to a model. d=(1/2)at2 is the

famous Newton's model where "a" is the acceleration.

The above model represents a mathematical relationship between the

two variables after keeping all other parameters constant. The next stage

is to vary one of the parameter into a new value and repeat steps 2-8. The

whole process may yield too many experiments to be carried out with a

lot of data recording and processing as the number of factors affecting

the result (output) increases. Hence, as the complexity of an engineering

system increases, the required analytical model may become extremely

difficult to formulate. In this case, gross idealization and simplifications

are used yielding a huge drawback for the model. Probabilistic

(stochastic) approaches offer better and quicker solutions under these

circumstances than the deterministic ones.

In case of probabilistic approaches, random variables are assigned to

each parameter. Expected values and variations (probability

distributions) of these variables and their effects on the outcome are used.

Numerical (Monte Carlo) simulations can be performed to obtain a

specific measure of performance or response with a prescribed set of

values of the system parameters (or design variables) that are randomly

selected. Interested readers are referred to the bibliography.

5.2.4 Differences between Exercise and Design

The purpose of an exercise is to make the students familiar with test

equipment and experimentation techniques. The design however, is an

attempt to utilize the experience, knowledge and wisdom to shed light on

the problem concerned. The table 5.1 below summarizes some of the

differences between the two undertakings.

Distance

(m)

0 10.00±0.01 20.01±0.02 30.00±0.01 40.01±0.01 50.00±0.01

Time2 (s2) 0 4.0±0.8 7.8±0.6 12.3±0.7 16.8±2.6 20.3±2.0


86

Table 5.1 Differences between laboratory exercise and design.

Subject Exercise Design / Research

Scale of

experiment

Small Large scale with a lot of test runs at the

beginning

Test equipment Prepared by a technician

and ready

A lot of time spent in obtaining and

setting them to work

Repetition of

experiment

Not repeated normally Repetition of as many times as the

resources allow is the key issue

Accuracy and

precision

No one expects the student

to produce high precision

data

Data must be collected with the highest

accuracy and precision possible

Factors affecting Controlled and specified Uncontrolled and sometimes difficult to

determine

Time taken Must be done in time

allocated

Long research/design hours with

frustration

Results Tabulated data and graphs

drawn as instructed

Designer must decide how to present the

results in the best appealing way

Conclusion Routine comparison to what

is shown in the sheet

Involves new findings, novel solutions

and applications

5.2.5 Experimental Design and Optimization

Experimental design has two meanings:

1. To plan an experiment and build possible equipment;

2. To deal with assigning the most suitable combination of factors under

which the observation should be made.

The first one involves specialized measuring and statistical analysis

techniques. It is partly dealt with throughout this work and there is a vast

amount of literature about it. The second one requires optimization. It is

exemplified by the following figure that shows a patient undergoing

examination by radioisotopes. There are three essential factors to

consider as:

1. The cost factor, C;

C= k1T (1)

where k1 is a constant and T is the time the instrument in use.

2. Accuracy, (1/∆) expressed in the uncertainty or error ∆:

[ ] 1

2−

=Δ nR


87

where R is a constant of a particular instrument. R ≈ 4r, where r is the

standard deviation and R is the range of measured variable in case of

random variables. Hence, it can be rewritten as

n

k2=Δ (2)

with k2 a constant. n can be related to the time as

n=n0T (3)

where n0 is a constant related to the original number of radioactive

isotopes.

Therefore,

Tn

k

n

k

0

22 ==Δ (4)

3. Damage factor, b

Gamma rays penetrating through the tissue may cause damage to the

tissue. The damage is proportional to the total number of detected gamma

particles. Thus:

b=k3n (5)

where k3 is a constant.

Combining (2) and (5) and eliminating n yields:

32

2kkb =Δ (6)

Safety is the most important aspect and b ≤ b0. In this case, (6) can be

rewritten as:

32

02

1kk

b=

Δ

The cost of the experiment in (1) can be related to the accuracy with the

help of (4). It becomes

( )22

1

01

1Δ⎟

⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛==

k

knTkC (7)


88

5.2.6 Important Reminder

Preferably use a hardbound notebook. Write down all you plan and you

do. Never erase anything or discard a page by tearing it off. Rather, cross

out what you don't want. Then, write down the steps you will follow in

an experiment and even prepare a protocol. Remember that, an hour of

hard work at the desk saves hours of frustrations in the laboratory. Also,

hours of carefully planned experiments save the whole of the design from

disasters.

Before you use any instrument, make sure that it is in working order,

well calibrated and ready to use with all of its peripherals. If you are not

very well-informed with any equipment or device, run a familiarization

tests that yield known results before you attempt to use them in real

experiments.

5.3 CASE STUDY: DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS FOR BODY

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

5.3.1 Purpose and Types of Experiments

Laboratory tests are planned and performed to see the reliability of the

system in measuring the body impedance and showing the amount of

changes on it during different stimuli. The tests are carried out on some

students of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department.

Tests are divided into two parts. In part-1, the subject of the test is

asked to answer a set of questions involving simple mathematical

operations and solving some electronic circuit problems within 8

minutes, while the observer takes a reading of the skin resistance at each

minute. Part-2 involves measurement of the internal body impedance of

each individual.

5.3.2 Experimental Protocols

Equipment and supplies needed:

1. A pair of stainless steel electrodes developed for this purpose.

2. Electrode paste and adhesive tapes to fix the electrodes.

3. A stabilized electrical power supply with ±15 V / 0.5 A capacity.

4. A three and a half digit digital voltmeter with connecting leads.


89

5. A dual channel storage oscilloscope with two X1 probes and a single

differential amplifier module.

6. A stopwatch.

7. A micrometer to measure the thickness of the skin.

Part 1: DC Measurement.

1. Connect two dry stainless steel electrodes on both sides of the wrist

(about 2cm from the thumb), and make sure they have good contact

with the skin.

2. Wait for 5 minutes for the resistance to settle before taking a

reading.

3. Give the question paper to the subject and ask him to answer it in 8

minutes.

4. By using a voltmeter, take a reading of the voltage drop Vo1 every

minute, and find the skin resistance.

5. Measure the thickness of the wrist and the skin layer in the hand by

using a micrometer, and record them for each individual.

6. Plot the values of skin resistance against time.

7. See how skin resistance varies with different individuals, and write

comments about your observation.

Part 2: AC Measurement

1. Connect two silver-silver chloride electrodes between two points on

the arm (use paste in this case).

2. Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage drop Vo1, and find the

body impedance.

3. Try to see the blood pulsation waveform after the AM demodulation

stage on the oscilloscope.

5.4 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF DESIGN

Critical evaluation of the design involves measurement; data analysis and

model testing that are interrelated to each other as shown in the Fig. 5.9.

Measurements provide data for analysis. Statistical methods are usually

involved in data analysis. Systematic errors must be diminished before

any further step.


90

The designer then is impatient to see whether his findings agree with

the model, if one does exist. If no model exists, then the measurement is

compared with the previous ones in terms of accuracy. If there is no

agreement with the model, then this is called the crisis and it is the most

interesting, yet frustrating position.

5.5 AN EXAMPLE ON EXPERIMENT DESIGN

Assume that you want to determine the characteristics of a

“thermocouple.” Write down an experimental protocol for the task

including name of the lab in which you are going to do the experiment,

detailed listing of the equipment you need, experimental procedures that

you will follow, analyzes and presentation of the data, and interpretation

of the results. Also, prepare a timing diagram (Gantt chart) indicating all

your activities.

Measurements

Data analysis

Systematic errors?

Does model exist?

Is measurement more

accurate than the previous one?

Agreement Model measurement to

desired accuracy?

Improve

measurements

Improve

measurements End of investigation

Improve model

Crisis

Yes

No

No

No Yes Yes

Yes

No

Fig. 5.9 Block diagram of activities in critical evaluation of the design.


91

Important characteristics of the thermocouple that need to be determined

experimentally: sensitivity (output voltage against temperature) and

response time (how long it takes for the thermocouple output to settle as

you place the device into the measuring medium).

5.5.1 Measurement Constraints

The thermocouple requires two junctions for the measurement as the

measuring and reference junctions. The measured voltage is the

difference of voltages generated by these two junctions. The reference

junction normally kept at 0°C. However, it is difficult to keep the

reference junction at 0°C unless you have special devices for that. Such a

device is not available easily. The lab is air-conditioned and the room

temperature is expected to be fairly constant during the experiment.

Therefore, in determining the sensitivity, the reference junction will be

kept at the room temperature (that is also monitored) and the measured

data is modified to obtain the actual characteristic. The parameters that

affect the sensitivity are accuracy, repeatability, resolution and precision

of the measurement.

Equipment and Supplies Needed

An electric kettle to obtain hot water, a cool-box with ice, a beaker to

mix ice and water, a laboratory power supply with ±15 V output, a

breadboard to build the circuit, a 741-type or similar op-amp with a

bunch of resistors, an oscilloscope with storage facility, a digital

voltmeter or panel meter and two thermometers.

Safety Precaution

The kettle must be kept away from the experiment bench. Hot-water

resistant cups are used to carry hot water. The hot water is immediately

emptied into the beaker with no leftover in the cup. No water spill on the

bench or on the floor. Keep a tissue cloth and wipe it out immediately in

case of any spill.

Activities

Reading literature on thermocouples, designing and building the test

circuit, connecting test equipment, performing experiments according to

procedures below, forming data table in EXCEL, modifying the data,


92

preparing graphs for the sensitivity, comparing the characteristics

obtained against those in literature.

Location

Experiments will be carried out in the Biomedical Engineering Lab. All

necessary equipment is available in the lab except the kettle and ice.

They will be borrowed from Dr. Baha’s office. The lab is free on

Tuesday afternoon. An appointment is made with Dr. Baha to borrow his

kettle and use ice from his refrigerator during the experiments. Ice cups

in the refrigerator will be filled two days prior the experiments.

5.5.2 Experimental Procedure

1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. ex.5.5.1.

2. Adjust the power supply to ±15 V for the op-amp.

3. Connect the output to a dc-coupled oscilloscope and set SEC/DIV to

some large value (e.g. 200 ms/div). You would like to be able to have

the complete time response on one screen. Set the oscilloscope into

storage mode and use the single sweep facility.

4. Pour some hot water into the beaker provided from the kettle.

5. Put the thermocouple and one of the mercury thermometers into the

beaker and press the “reset” button to start the sweep. Observe the

time response on the oscilloscope. Measure the time constant (when

the change in voltage is 63% of the way to the top). Record the

Vo

1 k

Measuring

junction

Reference

junction (at

room temp)

Fig. Ex 5.5.1 Circuit for measuring thermocouple characteristics.


93

reading from the thermometer at an interval of every 10 seconds for 5

minutes. Estimate the time-constant of the thermometer.

6. Press the reset button again and remove the thermocouple and

thermometer from the water. Capture the time response going from

water to air. Measure the time constants.

7. Calculate the settling times (approximately 4 time constants) for both

the thermocouple and thermometer. Wait between readings long

enough according to the larger of the two in the rest of the

experiments below.

8. Bundle the thermocouples with the thermometers metal tips. Use ice/

tap water/ hot water combinations to obtain a range of measurement

between 0°C and 70°C. Place one pair into the water. Keep the other

pair on the bench to measure the room temperature. At every step,

record the room temperature as well.

9. Set the temperature to above 70°C. While the water cools down, take

measurements of temperature (from mercury thermometer) and

voltage from the thermocouple circuit at 5°C intervals. Be sure to

keep the thermocouple’s leads out of the water. Take measurements

from 70°C to 20°C. You may find it helpful to add ice into the beaker

to facilitate cooling. Make sure that you stir the beaker well.

10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 five times.

5.5.3 Presentation of Data and Results

1. Type the data for output voltage and ambient and measuring

temperatures into an EXCEL or similar spreadsheet for all 5 readings.

2. Generate two new voltage columns for the average reading and

magnitude of error in the readings.

3. Divide the data in columns you generated in the previous step by the

gain of the amplifier and write the results into new columns.

4. Determine the average value and deviation for the ambient

temperature.

5. Subtract the ambient temperature from the measured temperature and

generate a new column for the temperature data.

6. Plot the generated voltage data against the temperature data as

sensitivity of the thermocouple.

7. Compare the characteristics obtained against those in literature and

present the report


94

Table ex 5.1 Timing diagram (Gantt chart) for a work of 1 hour per day for 7 days.


5.6 EXERCISES

5.6.1 True-False Questions

Please answer the following True or False questions.

Activity / day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Read to learn about thermocouples

Design and build test circuit

Fill up ice boxes

Collect & connect test equipment

Perform experiments

Data tables in EXCEL

Submitting report & defending

Legend for activities Heavy work Light work

Y = Yes (2 marks), M = Maybe (1 mark), N = No (0 mark) Y M N

1. A description of characteristics to be measured and measurement

constraints are given.

2. Safety aspects are mentioned and procedures for their implementation are

listed.

3. A lab in the E&CE Department or in the Faculty of Engineering is chosen

(named) for the experiments. Lab and lab engineer’s timetables are studied.

Available time slots are identified for the experiments.

4. Equipment needed for the experiments are identified. List of equipments

with short specifications are given. Their availability in the lab is verified.

If an equipment is available in another lab, then provisions are made to

borrow it.

5. An experimental procedure is set for preparation of the experimental set-up

and data collection, preparation of tables for raw and treated data.

6. Decisions are made for presentation and interpretation of results.

7. Timing diagram (Gantt chart) indicating all important events.


95


1. The observational method in engineering is applied in places

where the problem occurs

2. The observational method in engineering is applied in research

laboratories only

3. A characteristic of the synthesis of a problem is breaking the

problem into sub-problems

4. A characteristic of the synthesis of a problem is combination of

individual units that form the complete system

5. Test and evaluation of individual parts is a characteristic of the

analysis of a problem

6. Breaking the problem into manageable sub-problems is a

characteristic of the analysis of a problem

7. The main purpose experiments in a research is to learn the

principle of operation of measuring instruments

8. The main purpose experiments in a research is to evaluate the

proposed solution in the laboratory

5.6.2 Multiple-Choice Questions

Please choose and CICRLE the most appropriate statement in the

following questions

(1) The observational method in engineering is applied

a. In research laboratories only

b. In places where the problem occurs

c. Only in studying areas where the researchers can not reach the

object of investigation

d. In no place since engineering is an applied science

(2) Which one of the following is a characteristic of the synthesis of a

problem?

a. Breaking the problem into manageable sub-problems

b. Combination of individual units that form the complete system

c. Test and evaluation of individual parts

d. Selection of measuring equipment

(3) Which one of the following is not a characteristic of the analysis of a

problem?

a. Breaking the problem into manageable sub-problems

b. Combination of individual units that form the complete system

c. Test and evaluation of individual parts

d. Selection of measuring equipment


96

(4) The main purpose experiments in a research is

a. To learn the principle of operation of measuring instruments

b. To evaluate the proposed solution in the laboratory

c. To do them as many times as your supervisor asks you to do

d. To collect sufficient data to draw tables and graphs

(5) Which one of the following is a characteristic of the synthesis of a

problem?

a. Test and evaluation of individual parts

b. Breaking the problem into manageable sub-problems

c. Selection of measuring equipment

d. Combination of individual units that form the complete system

5.6.3 General Questions

Assume you have been assigned to one of the following projects in your

field of specialization. You have finished your project design and you

want to evaluate it. Prepare an experimental protocol for the evaluation

including the list of equipment and supplies you need to perform the

experiments, experimental procedures you are planning to follow and

ways of evaluating the data you collected.

(1) Power:

a. Development of a method to study the efficiency of a power

plant;

b. Design and development of an over-current relay for protection.

(2) Electronics: design and development of

a. A phase-sensitive demodulator;

b. A zero lock for telephone.

(3) Computer: design and development of

a. Control of a robot arm via a PC;

b. A WEB page.

(4) Biomedical: design and development of

a. An electrical safety analyzer for hospitals;

b. A blood pressure simulator.


97

5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Anderson D.M., Design for Manufacturability & Concurrent Engineering; How to Design for

Low Cost, Design in High Quality, Design for Lean Manufacture, and Design Quickly for

Fast Production, C I M Pr, 2008.

Dym C.L., Engineering Design: A Synthesis of Views, Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Montgomery D.C., Design and Analysis of Experiments, Wiley, 6th ed. 2004.

Cobb G.W., Introduction to Design and Analysis of Experiments, Key College, 2nd printing ed.

2002.

Seider W.D. Seader J.D. and Lewin D.R., Product and Process Design Principles: Synthesis,

Analysis, and Evaluation, Wiley, 2nd ed. 2003.

Chakrabarti A. (Editor), Engineering Design Synthesis: Understanding, Approaches and Tools,

Springer, 2002.

Carr, J.J., The Art of Science: A Practical Guide to Experiments, Observations, and Data

Handling, HighText, San Diego, 1992.


98

CHAPTER 6

MEASUREMENT, DATA ANALYSIS AND MODELS

■ ERRORS AND SAMPLE PARAMETERS OF A

MEASUREMENT

■ RANDOM ERRORS AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

■ SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

■ MODELS AND SIMULATIONS

■ EXERCISES

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

101

The designer has to make a lot of measurements, collect and analyze data

and make decisions about the validity of his approaches and procedures.

His expectations have already been stated in the design/research

objectives. Hence, he must have a clear idea about the results he is going

to obtain. In this respect, he may develop models of his expectations and

compare the outcomes from the experiments to those from the model.

6.1 ERRORS AND SAMPLE PARAMETERS OF A

MEASUREMENT

6.1.1 Accuracy, Resolution and Precision

Accuracy: The indicator of total error in the measurement immaterial of

the sources of errors.

Resolution: The smallest incremental quantity that can be measured. It is

sometimes represented as the number of distinguishable alternatives.

Precision: a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements; i.e.,

given fixed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree to

which successive measurements differ from one another.

The target-shooting example shown in Fig. 6.1 illustrates the

difference between accuracy and precision. The high accuracy, poor

Poor accuracy

High precision High accuracy

High precision Average accuracy

Poor precision

Poor accuracy

Poor precision

Fig. 6.1 An illustration of accuracy and precision.


102

precision situation occurs when the person hits all the bullets on a target

plate on the outer circle and misses the bull’s eye. In the second case, all

bullets hit the bull’s eye and spaced closely enough leading to high

accuracy and high precision. The bullet hits are placed symmetrically

with respect to the bull’s eye in the third case but spaced apart yielding

average accuracy but poor precision. In the last example, the bullets hit in

a random manner, hence poor accuracy and poor precision.

Significant digits: Number of digits used to represent a

measurement. It is determined by the required accuracy and resolution.

The last digit is the doubtful one and it indicates the amount of error if

the error is not stated otherwise.

Figure 6.2 illustrates the importance of significant figures with an

example. If a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 Ω, its

resistance should be closer to 68 Ω than to 67 Ω or 69 Ω. If the value of

the resistor is described as 68.0 Ω, it means that its resistance is closer to

68.0 Ω than it is to 67.9 Ω or 68.1 Ω. In 68 Ω there are two significant

figures; in 68.0 Ω there are three. The latter, with more significant

figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the former.

6.1.2 Sources of Errors

Error or uncertainty in a measurement can come from three sources:

1. Gross errors. This is the human error due to the ignorance or

negligence of the person who does the measurement. Proper training can

prevent it.

2. Systematic errors. These are mainly due to the shortcoming of the

instrument. They can be minimized by proper care, maintenance and

calibration of the instrument.

68 70 66

68.0 68.2 67.8

Fig. 6.2 An illustration of significant figures.

Measurement, Data Analysis and Model

103

3. Random errors. No source can be attributed or relationship between

the sources and the resultant error is very complicated and difficult to

control. For natural phenomena, these errors follow a normal (Gaussian)

distribution according to the central limit theorem. Statistical techniques

are used for their analyses.

6.2 RANDOM ERRORS AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

A normal (Gaussian) random variable x has a probability distribution

function f(x) defined as eV2

1=f(x) 2V

)-(x-

2µ

π

It is characterized by the mean value μ and variance V or standard

deviation that is Vr = . Fig. 6.3 displays f(x) with μ = 5 and r =1.

If an experiment is repeated n times, then the mean value

[ ]n

nxxxx

)(...)2()1( +++=

is an estimate of the true value μ .The sample variance can be found

as1-n

]x-[x(i) = r = V = Variance

2n

1=i

2 ∑ and standard deviation Vr ==

Fig. 6.3 Probability distribution curve for normal errors.

0 2 4 6 8 10

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Observations

f(x)


104

The probability of finding x within two standard deviations and four

standard deviations around μ is about 68% and 95% respectively. Hence,

the range R of the random variable x can be roughly taken as R ≈ 4r.

If Δ is the error in the measurement, then the number of samples

required to achieve the desired: 2

2

2

2

4Δ=

Δ= Rrn Therefore Δ±= xµ

6.3 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

There are two basic types of systematic errors as; constant in time and

variable in time. The first type is illustrated in Fig. 6.4. An experiment is

carried out by 7 different instruments and sample mean and standard

deviations are shown on the table. I indicates the instrument number,

)(ix is the sample mean and r is the standard deviation. As it is clear from

the figure, the second instrument is affected by a systematic error and it

requires special care and maintenance. There are many possible sources

for these errors. Some common ones are

1. Problems with instrumentation: Due to shortcomings of instruments

as stated before. They can be due to many reasons including worn-out

parts, improper zero adjustment and calibration, instrument loading

etc. They can be minimized by proper maintenance and calibration.

2. Use of contaminated material and other impurities in the

experiments.

3. Use of data from other experiments afflicted with systematic errors.

Fig. 6.4 Sample mean versus instrument number for temperature measurement using

instruments.

i )(ix

r

1 0.1 0.83

2 2.15 0.76

3 -0.15 1.17

4 -0.28 0.577

5 0.23 0.74

6 -0.12 0.45

7 0.06 0.67 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

0 2 4 6 8

Instrument #, i

Xav(i)


105

6.3.1 Systematic Errors Variable in Time

In many instances, there will be drifts in voltages measured by an

instrument due to the effect of temperature or other environmental factor.

This is illustrated by the graph shown in Fig. 6.5. The data is

measurement of temperature of a material that is supposed to be constant,

by the same equipment in nine successive steps. "i" represents the

observation number and x(i) is the corresponding temperature value.

Hence, estimation of the mean value and standard deviation from the

samples will be misleading.

Fig. 6.5 Temperature values versus observation number.

The regression equation shows the drift at the measured voltage and

it can be written as

y(i) = a + b(i-1)

with i standing for the time factor. The corrected temperature reading

xc(i) is given by

xc(i) = x(i) - y(i)

shown as the third column in the new table in Fig. 6.6. The data is re-

plotted and the randomness of the distribution is clear in the figure.

i x(i)

1 0.68

2 1.55

3 1.25

4 2.22

5 0.86

6 0.22

7 2.21

8 3.11

9 3.81

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

0 2 4 6 8 10

Instrument #, i

x(i)

-2.00

-1.50

-1.00

-0.50

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

0 2 4 6 8 10

Instrument #, i

Xc(i)

i x(i) xc(i)

1 0.68 0.05

2 1.55 0.63

3 1.25 0.04

4 2.22 0.72

5 0.86 -0.93

6 0.22 -1.86

7 2.21 -0.16

8 3.11 0.45

9 3.81 0.86

Fig. 6.6 Temperature versus observation number for the corrected readings.


106

Systematic errors can sometimes be corrected as shown if a trend

can be found. This is not always possible, however. The measurement

must be repeated with different instruments if feasible.

6.3.2 Propagation of Errors

The errors in measured quantities are also used in computing new

quantities. The time reading in illustration shown in the experimental

method is a raw data. It is squared and used in finding the distance

according to

d = kt2

with k being constant. The error in d, which is

[ ] [ ]( )tttkd Δ±Δ=Δ±0

2

2

If [ ] [ ]ttt Δ<<Δ0

2

2 then [ ]2tΔ can be neglected yielding the final

expression

( )tktd Δ±=Δ±0

2

This is the propagation of the error.

Sometimes, the propagation of the absolute error appeals better.

Then, it becomes

( ) ( )( )

( )0

2

0

0

0

0

0

222

t

t

kt

tkt

d

tkt

dd Δ

±=Δ

±=Δ

±=Δ±

6.4 MODELS AND SIMULATIONS

6.4.1 Definitions and Classification of Models

Most of the scientific research may fall into two categories as to design

and build some kind of a system, or measurement of some property of a

system. Hence, the designer, at some stage, has to work with models of

systems.


107

� A system is a group of elements functioning as a unit and regulated

by interactions between different elements.

� A process is a special case of a system in which the elements are

organized in a series of operations taken to obtain desired results.

� A model is a representation of a real system that describes the

essential parts of it. In general a model is only an approximate

representation of the real world, which may be very complex and

impossible to describe in all its details. There are several types of

models, some of which are listed below:

1. Descriptive model;

a. System is represented by block diagrams and graphs or

simply by words.

b. Various responses of the system are described in a qualitative

manner.

2. Mathematical model; system is represented by mathematical

equations. More precise than the descriptive model provided that

correct equations are used.

3. Empirical model; only variables directly observable are

considered.

4. Theoretical model; all variables, directly observable and non-

observable are used.

5. Computer model; mathematical models translated into a

computer language.

6. Physical model; a scaled copy of the real system.

6.4.2 Model Testing

Figure 6.7 shows the scheme of model testing. First, variables of interest

are established. Then, relevant data for these variables are determined in

experiments. Model predictions are calculated. Finally, the results of two

methods are compared and evaluated.

Fig. 6.7 Block diagram of model testing.

Input

Variables

Real world Data

Model Calculations

Comparison


108

6.4.3 Computer Simulations

Descriptive models can describe many technical and scientific problems.

Due to the complexity of the problem, it may be difficult to convert the

descriptive model into a mathematical model. If a mathematical model is

available, then it can be translated into a computer model and used in

system analysis.

In places where the mathematical model is not possible or very

complicated, the descriptive model is transformed something other than a

mathematical model that may allow quantitative predictions. The

computer can store, manipulate and generate numbers. Enormous increase

in memory capacity and speed of computers in recent years allowed the

users to simulate real life problems with the help of computers.

Special simulation languages are continuously emerging in the

market and they handle complicated conditions that would be otherwise

very difficult to program using general purpose programming languages

such as BASIC, PASCAL and C. The user just provides the descriptive

model and possibly the boundary values for certain variables. The

computer then produces a prediction of the output and displays it in a

manner that appeals easily to the user. Examples of such programs

involve the flight simulator and SPICE that simulates electrical circuits.

6.5 EXERCISES




Systematic errors can be eliminated by recalibrating the equipment Systematic errors can be eliminated by making multiple measurements Accuracy of a measurement is an indication of how close the reading is

to the average value

Accuracy of a measurement is an indication of total errors in the

measurement

The smallest incremental quantity that can be measured is the resolution

The precision is an indicator of consistency in a set of measurements

The result of 10.5+ 1.267 (with significant figures only) is 11.8

Gross (human) errors can be treated mathematically

The current in a 10-Ω resistor is measured as 0.25 A ±1%. The power

dissipated by the resistor is 625 ± 12.5 mW.


109

6.5.2 Multiple-Choice Questions

Please choose and CICRLE the most appropriate statement in the

following questions

(1) Gross (human) errors

a. Are due to equipment failures

b. Can be minimized by making multiple measurements

c. Cannot be treated mathematically

d. Do not affect the accuracy of the measurement

(2) Resolution is

a. An indicator of how close the reading is to the true value

b. The smallest incremental quantity that you can identify

c. The difference between the minimum and maximum values of

the measurement

d. The total error in the measurement

(3) Systematic errors

a. Cannot be treated mathematically

b. Can be eliminated by making multiple measurements

c. Indicate the accuracy of the measurement

d. Are due to environmental factors upsetting the user and the

equipment

(4) Accuracy of a measurement is an indication of

a. How far the reading is away from the average value

b. How many digits you use to display the data

c. How close the reading is to the conventional true value

d. The smallest incremental quantity that you can identify

(5) Precision is

a. An indicator of how close the reading is to the true value

b. The total error in the measurement

c. An indicator of how close the reading is to the average value

d. The smallest incremental quantity that you can identify

(6) What is the result of 1.264+ 10.5 (use significant figures only)

a. 12

b. 11.8

c. 11.7

d. 11.764

(7) Mathematical treatment of errors is possible for

a. Systematic and random errors


110

b. Human and systematic errors

c. Human and random errors

d. Errors that are small


(1) There are 1500 chickens in a poultry farm. 15 chickens are

randomly selected and weighted. The average value is 950 grams

and the standard deviation is 60 grams.

a. How much is the error expected in the average value?

b. How many chickens you will have weighing between 890

grams and 1010 grams?

c. How many chickens must be weighted to reduce the error in

the average value down to 5 grams?

(2) Assume that you are the responsible engineer in a radio receiver

assembly plant. The receiver has the following main parts namely:

the case, antenna, electronic circuit board (ECB), power supply

(PW), control knobs and potentiometers. Unit cost of each item (in

Saudi riyals) and its variation in months of the year are given in the

table below.

a. Draw the schematic diagram and indicate the direction of

signal flow for the electronic circuit board (ECB) that contains

the RF amplifier, local oscillator, mixer, IF amplifier,

demodulator, AF amplifier and speaker.

b. Show graphically the contribution of power supply (PW) to the

total cost in the 5th month.

Month of the year Name of item

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Case 5 5.5 6 6 5.5 5.5 5 5.5 5 5.5 6 5.5

Antenna 2 2.2 2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.9 2 2 2.1 2 2

ECB 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 11 11 10 10 9.5

PW 8 7.5 7.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 8.5 8 8 7.5 7.5

Knobs 4 3.5 4 3.5 3.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 4 4

Total 34 33 34 32 31 31 31 31 30 29 30 29


111

c. Show graphically the contribution of power supply (PW) to the

total cost in the 5th

month.

d. Show graphically the trend for the price of the electronic

circuit board (ECB)

6.5.4 Active Learning on Graphs and Plots

Team No. : …………………………………………………………. Date

Table 1. Statistical data for the total number of students and

graduates from four academic groups of the Electrical and Computer

Engineering Department between 1995 and 2000.

Table 2. Statistical data for distribution of new students into four

academic groups of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

between 1999 and 2003.

Comp. no. Name Comp. no. Name

Group Power Electronics Computer Biomedical Total

Year Student Grad Student Grad Student Grad Student Grad Student Grad

1995 65 12 72 8 91 17 16 3 245 41

1996 60 21 82 16 76 27 23 1 241 64

1997 53 10 74 26 49 22 18 1 193 60

1998 64 14 78 21 59 7 21 5 222 47

1999 77 25 112 22 94 14 26 2 315 63

2000 90 22 155 28 113 15 40 5 396 70

2001 12 29 17 6 64

2002 19 29 22 4 74

2003 25 24 18 2 69

2004 32 57 34 10 135

2005 41 50 23 22 136

2006 55 33 26 13 127


112

Assignments

Member 1: Draw an accumulated trend graph for the graduates from the

Biomedical Engineering and Computer Specialties based on the data in

Table 1.

Member 2: Draw a trend graph of students in the Power and Electronic

Specialties based on the data in Table 1.

Member 3: Draw a bar graph indicating the number of students enrolled

in 4 academic groups based on data in Table 2.

Member 4: Draw a pie chart indicating the distribution of students into

specialties in the year 2000 emphasizing your specialty.

Each member will work alone on his assignment. Then, the team will

unite and members are going to present their drawings to the team.

Assessments of the drawings will be made based on the checklist by the

team. Results will be submitted to the evaluator.

Checklist for Assessment of Plots

Power Electronics Computer Biomedical Total Group

Year

1999-2000 30 31 32 12 105

2000-2001 30 32 35 22 119

2001-2002 36 39 38 15 128

2002-2003 35 35 33 21 124

2003-2004 34 36 32 19 121

2004-2005 34 32 33 22 121

2005-2006 32 32 30 19 113

2006-2007 34 38 37 21 130

Yes No Expected Features

General Graphics Issues

1. Is there an appropriate, complete, descriptive title?

2. Are all variables shown on the graph defined?

3. If the graphics were reproduced, would they still be readable?


113

Contd.

6.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Buede D.M., The Engineering Design of Systems: Models and Methods, Wiley, 1999.

Leaver R.H. and Thomas T.R., Analysis and Presentation of Experimental Results, McMillan

Press, 1974.

Van Aken D.C. and Hosford W., Reporting Results: A Practical Guide for Engineers and

Scientists, Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Eide A.R. Jenison R.D. Marshaw L.H. and Northup L.L., Engineering Fundamentals and

Problem Solving, Chapters 5 and 8, McGraw-Hill, 4th ed. 2002.



www.mdt.tu-berlin.de/forschung/projekte/fahrzeugmessdaten/ciisp07-posterA4.pdf

http://my.execpc.com/~helberg/pitfalls/

http://tigger.uic.edu/~georgek/HomePage/EdMeasurement.htm

www.cis.fiu.edu/hurricaneloss/publications/Engineering/copasm.doc

Yes No Expected Features

4. If you found the graphics in the middle of the street, would you

understand it? (Does the graphics make sense to someone who should

understand it?)

General Plot Issues

5. Do both axes have descriptive titles (N.B. not a single letter), which

include units?

6. Are there labeled divisions (text or numbers) on the axes?

7. Are the “values” for the axes at the origin of the chart clear?

8. Is the dependent variable (item measured or predicted) on the vertical

axis?

9. If the variables are presented in the chart’s title, is the dependent variable

mentioned first?

10. If there is more than one chart line, is there a descriptive legend?

11. Are the data points shown represent experimental or measured data?


114

CHAPTER 7

DOCUMENTING THE DESIGN

■ STYLE, FORMAT, AND READABILITY

■ USING GRAPHS AND CHARTS

■ PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES

■ SELF-CRITIC OF THE REPORT

■ EXAMPLE OF A SHORT ESSAY

■ EXERCISES

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

117

An undocumented work is equivalent to the work not properly finished.

After carrying out the design project, it is indispensable to submit a

report. Formats are skeleton outlines that provide some guidelines for

organizing the thing that must be said. There is no single format for a

technical report. A poorly presented work may be undermined by the

reader and ignored. There are some important aspects that are observed

by most designers/researchers. This chapter is intended to provide a

guideline for a reasonable technical writing. It starts with a brief

description of the primary ingredients of technical writing. Different

formats data displays are introduced. Content and organization of the

report are discussed. Finally, some guidelines for evaluation and

improvement of the report are provided.

7.1 STYLE, FORMAT, AND READABILITY

7.7.1 Basic Requirements

Simple format covering all bases of a technical writing can be briefed as:

� Describe what you did.

� Inform why you did.

� Report results of what you did.

� Explain what results mean to you.

Primary ingredients of an acceptable technical report can be stipulated as:

� Clarity including use of language, sentence construction, and

grammar.

� Conciseness.

� Organization including format.

� Language skills. Avoid wordy and lengthy statements, excessive use

of jargon, acronyms, and unfamiliar abbreviations.

� Accuracy.


118

� Preparation for writing, which includes thinking, planning, and

outlining.

� Pertinent documentation.

� Grammar including spelling and punctuation.

� Lack of bias.

� A definite desire to communicate.

� Selective use of information.

7.1.2 Technical Details and Stylistic Matters

� Provide strong emphasis on important points with accurate, clear

and precisely written statements.

� Try to express your ideas with the least number of words.

� Present the ideas in paragraphs that are logically and consistently

arranged.

� Concentrate on facts and try to exclude your personal ideas.

� Use passive voice and third person in writing. Use short statements.

� Make your report more readable using

� Advance organizers, like statements bridging different sections.

� Overview that give the reader a quick glance at the subject of

writing.

� Prompting clues like italics, boldface and underlining. Don’t

use them too often.

� Graphical aid as lists, diagrams, graphs, charts and flow sheets.

� Try to balance the distribution of equations, figures and tables on

the page.

� Present the most important points at the beginning of the page.

7.1.3 Display of Data

Data is the organized information used for analysis, or as the basis for

reasoning, discussion and calculation.

� They are normally tabulated in tables.

� Graphics can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of a report.

As it is said: “One picture is worth a thousand words”.

� The striking points are highlighted in graphs and charts to generate

impacts.

� Some examples of tables and graphs presented earlier.

Documenting the Design

119

� The scatter graphs in previous section have a lot of variations as

normal scatter graph, one with error bars and a statistical model.

� Textual descriptions of major features must accompany each

diagram, chart or table.

7.2 USING GRAPHS AND CHARTS

Different types of graphs and charts are used for effectiveness of the

report. The selection depends upon the type of data, the audience, the

report and points that you want to stress. Among these, the mostly used

ones are:

� Line graphs

� Bar or column charts

� Pie charts

� Flow and organization charts.

7.2.1 Line Graphs

They are composed of a vertical axis, a horizontal axis and a plotted line

or lines. With proper axis labels, titles and legends, it is very easy to

follow the trend. Hence, the line graphs are most useful in presenting:

� Trends or changes over time;

� The relationship between the distribution or occurrence of two

quantities of variables, for example south and north winds;

� The comparison of both trends and relationships.

Line graphs can be classified as:

� Trend graphs

� Cumulative graphs

Table 7.1 shows an example of monthly expenditure of a student who has

a monthly income of 1000 SR. He spends money for clothing, books and

photocopying, his car, and food. He saves the remaining. Fig. 7.1 shows

the trend graph of his spending on books throughout the academic year.

Figure 7.2 illustrates accumulated graph of his spending on books in the

same year.


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Table 7.1 Monthly expenditure of a university student.

Month Food Books Car Cloth Total

1 150 500 300 50

2 220 300 150 150

3 250 250 200 200

4 190 200 150 150

5 200 30 200 200

6 110 450 450 50

7 180 250 200 150

8 210 200 150 180

9 260 250 150 130

10 220 200 100 120

11 100 30 300 500

12 80 0 600 50

Fig. 7.1 Trend graph of spending on books.


121

7.2.2 Bar or Column Charts

The bar or column charts (graphs) are the easiest to prepare. A horizontal

bar or a vertical column with length proportional to the variable is used to

display the data. More than one set of bars can be used to show different

aspects of the variables. Fig. 7.3 illustrates the number of children and

adults affected by influenza and their variations throughout the year.

Fig. 7.3 Effects of influenza on adults and children.

Fig. 7.2 Accumulated graph of spending on books.


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� It can immediately be seen from the chart that

� The disease is most effective in winter months of December

and January.

� Children are more susceptible to the disease than the adults.

� Bar charts are most effective for illustrating quantitative information

to be emphasized in a report.

� They provide a convincing way to show comparisons between two

or more items.

Fig. 7.4 shows a bar graph of monthly saving based on the data presented

in Table 7.1.

7.2.3 Pie Charts

A pie chart is composed of a circle divided into segments. The circle

represents the total or whole amount. Each segment represents the

portion that a particular element covers in proportion to the total amount.

� It is most useful in reports intended to help the reader to understand

and remember proportions and general relationships. Fig.7.5 shows

distribution of the lab budgets into four categories.

Fig. 7.4 Monthly saving of the student based on data in Table 7.1.


123

� Pie charts may be used to present quantitative information either in

percentage or in absolute numbers.

� A section can be expanded to add further stress.

� Number of segments used should be limited to 6 to 8 in order

not to overcrowd the picture.

� If more elements are involved, then they have to be grouped.

� It is less accurate than other forms of charts.

7.2.4 Flow (Organization) Charts

They are graphic forms that show how series of activities, procedures,

events, ideas and other things are related to each other. Fig.7.6 shows the

administrative structure of the Department of Electrical and Computer

Fig. 7.5 A four-segment pie chart illustrating distribution of lab budget.

Fig.7.6 Administrative structure of the Department.

Chairman

Departmental

Committees

Academic Groups

Electrical Power &

Machines Engineering

Electronics & Communications

Engineering

Computer Engineering

Biomedical Engineering

Lab Development

Curriculum Development

Academic Affairs

Graduate Studies

Scientific Research &

Society Service

Social Activities &

General Relations

Social Activities &

General Relations

ABET Coordination Committee


124

Engineering as an example. It is called organization chart when it shows

the hierarchy in a company. It is also named as the block diagram as it

indicates the links between different parts of an electronic circuit. It is

most useful for describing qualitative information rather than quantitative

relationships. It may be used to stress major activities or ideas and their

sequential relationships. You must keep the flow charts as simple as

possible without attempting to display everything on a single chart. You

may group parts and highlight major activities.

7.2.5 Diagrams

Diagrams are used to show how variables are related to one another.

They may consist of a plan, sketch, or drawing that is designed to

demonstrate, explain, or illustrate the relationship between parts and

variables. Fig. 7.7 shows the circuit diagram of an electronic circuit that

serves as a differential amplifier with DC cancellation. In many

instances, symbols are substituted for the object they represent. Each

branch of science has its own schematic symbols to represent different

objects used.

7.2.6 Design (Assembly) Drawings(6)

You are expected to turn in a set of drawings of your design with your

final report. Usually this includes an assembly drawing and various detail

drawings. Depending on the project, it is not necessary to have a

Fig. 7.7 Circuit diagram of a differential amplifier with DC cancellation.

A 1 8 k

V 2

3 9 0 k

1 .0 k

A 1 C 1 0 k

A 2

1 .5 n F

A 3

V 1

B

D

1 8 0 k

1 0 n F

1 8 k

1 8 0 k

V 0

(6)Excerpted from the Web site for “BME Course Design” by J.G. Webster.


125

complete set of detail drawings. Make certain that you discuss with your

primary advisor which detail drawings are required.

1. OBJECT is to communicate to others all information necessary to

complete the project and build or purchase necessary parts. It also serves

as a basis for management judgment concerning feasibility and prototype

manufacture.

2. SCOPE should encompass all decisions and details pertinent to the

design, including accurate scale drawings, parts lists, specific materials,

heat treatment, finishes, etc. Completeness is highly desirable. The

design should be communicated unambiguously.

3. SCALE is ideally full to allow size judgments; however, auxiliary

views or details can be enlarged if necessary.

4. VIEWS must be sufficient to show all geometry. Although usual

relations of orthographic projections are usual, these can be altered to fit

the sheet. The number of views is arbitrary.

5. DIMENSIONS are limited to only those which are critical, mainly fits

and center distances, with tolerances indicated. Reference dimensions

can be shown exactly, without tolerance.

6. GENERAL Practices vary, but as a rule:

(a) Use full cross sections

(b) Omit hidden lines in assembly drawings

(c) Provide complete instruction notes on the assembly drawings

(d) Include title, name, date and scale on each drawing. Each drawing

should have a unique identifying name and number. Fig. 7.8

shows an example of an assembly drawing.

Connection diagram for proximity switches C onnector details

Fig. 7.8. An example of an assembly drawing for proximity switches.


126

7. PARTS LIST should be on the assembly drawing but can be on

separate sheets. Identify every part or assembly by a number and leader

whether it is to be purchased or constructed.

7.3 PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES(7)

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and

are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that

is longer than a few sentences should be organized into paragraphs. This

is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay

begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay

and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A

paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long

illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or

process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more

things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects.

Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share

certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic

sentence.

7.3.1 Topic Sentences

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling

idea, which is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic

sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an

essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs

the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be

discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look

to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and

perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic

sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however,

it’s more effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—

for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one,

or one providing background information.

(7)Downloaded and adapted from http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/wts/resources.html.


127

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a

few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For

example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a paragraph that

narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an idea

that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or

if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps

indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority of your paragraphs,

however, should have a topic sentence.

7.3.2 Paragraph Structure

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction,

body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether

they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing

information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in

communicating your meaning to your reader.

� Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include

the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of

the paragraph that give background information or provide a

transition.

� Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea,

using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other

information.

� Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections

between the information discussed in the body of the

paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

� The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In

this paragraph the topic sentence and concluding sentence

(CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main

point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF

SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they

put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it

see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through a small

pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and

magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of

which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see

distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously wasted

electromagnetic waves to carry television images, which they re-create as


128

light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or

they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion

pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force

light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see into the

center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the

information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it

back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST

EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET

DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT

IN SOME WAY.

George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”

7.3.3. Coherence

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic

sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a

paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next

without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the

ties between old information and new information to make the structure

of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence

may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long

paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example, you

should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where

the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other

hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps),

you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or

combine it with another paragraph.

A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence

in paragraphs are described below.

� Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in

which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be

consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition

will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand

your definition or description.

� Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by

constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the

same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech.


129

By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer

and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of

consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections

between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the

sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph

have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures

(which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the

paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general

statement.

� Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.

Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle

but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more

personal “you” to the impersonal “one,” from past to present

tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your

paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse

your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

� Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between

paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships

between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought

or see connections that they might otherwise miss or

misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully

chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly

from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied

“stegosaurus” houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective,

BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST

OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small

animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals

(all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we

move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to

Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN

OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have

low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about

two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large

animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must

conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as

smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to

underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in

particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”


130

� Some Useful Transitions: (Modified from Diana Hacker, A

Writer’s Reference)

� To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important,

first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first

place, moreover, next, too

� To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact,

specifically, that is, to illustrate

� To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

� To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite,

even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on

the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

� To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other

words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to

sum up

� To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at

last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately,

later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then,

thereafter, until, when, while

� To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close,

elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north,

etc.)

� To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result,

because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise,

since, so, then, therefore, thus.

7.4 SELF-CRITIC OF THE REPORT

7.4.1 Self-Critic

After you finish with the draft copy of the report you should sit down in

a quiet place and read the whole report from the title page till the end of

appendices. You should regard as if you were reading somebody else’s

report and you were asked to comment on it. You must make sure that

the report contains information that you want to convey to other people

about the work that you have carried out. You must be ready to defend

each and every statement that you make.

You must carefully evaluate for writing problems. Ten common

writing problems stand out, in this order:


131

� A lack of clarity. Clarity includes use of language, sentence

construction, and grammar.

� Poor organization.

� Verbosity (containing a wearisome and needless number of words)

and unnecessary length.

� Excessive use of jargon, acronyms, and unfamiliar abbreviations.

� Problems with spelling and punctuation.

� Dull, impersonal writing styles.

� Lack of preparation, which includes thinking, planning, and

outlining.

� Excessive editorializing.

� Lack of accuracy.

� Lack of substance.

7.4.2 General Suggestions for Improving Written Reports

� Define all abbreviations before using them, even if they seem

obvious.

� Reference all figures, tables, and appendices in the body of your

report.

� All figures should have a figure number and a caption (the same

applies to tables).

� Reference the source of figures when they are not your own. That is,

if you did not take or draw the picture yourself, it needs to be

referenced. This includes modifying an existing figure.

� Put an appropriate scale on all figures to show relative size when

there are no obvious clues to the reader.

� In general, avoid long narrative sections in a formal report.

� Maintain gender neutrality (e.g., “his” should be “his/hers”).

� Number each page of the report.

� Should always be some sort of conclusion

� PROOFREAD!

7.5 EXAMPLE OF A SHORT ESSAY

Prepare a short essay (around two pages) on “real-time EMG analysis.”

Include technical presentation tools such as diagrams, charts and plots in

your report.


132

EMG ANALYSIS IN REAL TIME(8)

Introduction

The electromyogram (EMG) is a biopotential activity generated during the

muscular work. The detection of it from the body is performed by a pair of

electrodes either submerged subcutaneously into or placed over the surface of

the skin above the muscle of interest. The energy of the signal is a function

of the amount of muscular activity and electrode placement. A lot has been

done to analyze the EMG to find out a reliable indicator of the muscular

activity and understand physiological status of different muscles. The results

are used in studying neuromuscular diseases, control of artificial organs and

determining the level of muscular fatigue.

The EMG analyses mainly involve statistical techniques that determine

variations either in the average power or in the frequency spectrum of the

signal. Root mean square (RMS) measurement provides indication of the

average signal power. The median frequency that divides the power

spectrum into two halves is used as a good indicator of this shift that provides

an early evidence of the muscular fatigue.

The paper presents an electronic system to study the EMG. It detects

and amplifies the signal first. It briefs different approaches for analyzes in

real time.

Detection and Amplification

Figure Ex 7.5.1 shows the block diagram presentation of the preparation set-

up. The electromyogram is detected from the body by three biopotential

electrodes. Two of them are placed over the hump of the muscle of interest.

The third one is placed into a silent location and it behaves as the reference

electrode. The amplitude range of the detected signal is from 0.1 to 1

millivolt while its frequency ranges from 20 to 500 Hz. The signal is

amplified via a specially built EMG amplifier that is composed of

preamplifier, modulator, signal isolator, DC-to-DC converter, band-pass filter

and amplifier sections.

Fig. Ex 7.5.1 Block diagram of the EMG preparation set-up.

(8) Extracted from: B Karag ِözoğlu, Development of an Electronic System to Study

Muscular Activity, JKAU Eng. Sci. Special Issue, pp. 135 – 141, 1999.


133

The amplitude of the signal is raised to 1-volt level from the input range

of 0.1mV to 1mV with the bandwidth of 20 Hz to 800 Hz (-3dB). EMG

studies are carried out using conventional laboratory equipment most of

which are not intended for use in vivo. So, the patient isolation is essential.

This requires, of course, the isolation of the signal and the power supply.

The band-pass filter is used to limit the bandwidth of the total system to the

EMG spectrum. The signal is further amplified after the isolation stage to

provide the required gain.

The DC-to-DC converter carries out the power supply isolation. It is

composed of an oscillator running off the main power supply, an isolation

transformer and a full wave rectifier and filter. The oscillator runs at 27 KHz

and the transformer output is tuned to it. The efficiency of the transformer to

60 Hz line frequency is almost null. Hence, the required isolation is

achieved.

A similar isolation transformer tuned to 27 KHz carries out the signal

isolation. The EMG signal is frequency translated by amplitude modulation.

The output of the isolation transformer in the DC-to-DC converter is taken

before the rectification and used as the carrier in the modulator. An

amplitude demodulator reconstructs the original EMG signal.

Analysis

The analysis consists of five different approaches as illustrated in Fig. Ex

7.5.2. The first three start with the rectification of the signal. Then

information about its amplitude is extracted. The simplest way for it is to

smooth the rectified signal by analog (low pass filtering) and digital

(averaging) means. Integration is the most commonly used data reduction

technique. It generates an output, which is the indicator of the total activity.

The root mean square (RMS) value contains information about the

power of the signal. It provides more information than the before-mentioned

parameters. It is recently applied to EMG signal analysis.

The number of zero crossings is also counted as another parameter for

the EMG analysis. It is a relatively easy technique and used for clinical

Fig. Ex 7.5.2 Approaches for real-time EMG analysis.


134

applications. However, it is not recommended for studying the behavior of

the signal as a function of time and force. The zero crossing detection is also

used in determining the muscle fiber conduction velocity, which behaves as

an indicator of the muscular fatigue. Here, the zero crossing detector

identifies the onset of an action potential. The slope of the input signal is

used as a criterion to separate it from the noise.

Discussion and Conclusion

Time domain techniques provide very useful information about the muscular

activity of the patients. Simple low-pass filtering or integration yields the

strength of the muscular activity. Root mean square (RMS) gives the power

of the signal. The frequency domain techniques reveal more information

hidden in the EMG signal. However, most of the techniques for this approach

cannot be managed in real-time. Among the frequency domain approaches

the only one that suits the real-time application is the median frequency,

which is a technique, based on the root mean square (RMS) approach and it

is used for early detection of the muscular fatigue.


7.6 EXERCISES



Statement T or F

1. Caption of a table or figure is a title statement describing the table or figure.

2. The line graphs are most useful in presenting trends or changes over time; the

relationship between the distribution or occurrence of two quantities of variables,

and comparison of both trends and relationships.

3. A bar graph is a horizontal bar or a vertical column with length proportional to the

variable is used to display the data. More than one set of bars can be used to show

different aspects of the variables

4. Bar charts are most effective for illustrating quantitative information to be

emphasized in a report

Y = Yes (2 marks), M = Maybe (1 mark),

N = No (0 mark) Y M N

1. It has a descriptive title.

2. An introduction of the topic is made.

3. The topic is developed at sufficient length.

4. Clear and easily understandable drawings, charts and diagrams

support the written material.

5. A discussion section with concluding remarks is available.

6. References are given in proper format.


135

Contd.


Consider the following paragraph.

I think a good choice for the Eid occasion to my friend is to buy him a

mobile phone with an original speaker (300 riyal card). He no longer

needs to go to a market to make a call. Now, he knows that he can talk a

duration corresponding to the300 riyal card offer (so try to accommodate

with that my friend). Using the speaker will reduce the amount and

strength of the electromagnetic waves that may cause some diseases

(Allah forbidding). We (me and other friends) can catch him anywhere

and him any MSG immediately. He doesn’t have to use others’ mobiles

(he has his own). For any problem with the mobile you can check the

customer service in the Saudi Telecommunications Company.

1. Determine the topic sentence

2. Determine 3 spelling, punctuation and grammatical mistakes and

underline them (if you can).

7.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Hacker D., A Pocket Style Manual, Bedford/St. Martin's 4th ed. 1999.

Statement T or F

5. A pie chart is composed of a circle divided into segments. The circle represents

the total or whole amount and each segment represents the portion that a

particular element covers in proportion to the total amount.

6. A pie chart is most useful in reports intended to help the reader to understand

and remember proportions and general relationships

7. Flow or organization charts are graphic forms that show how series of

activities, procedures, events, ideas and other things are related to each other

8. A flow or organization chart is most useful for describing qualitative

information rather than quantitative relationships. It may be used to stress

major activities or ideas and their sequential relationships.

9. The summary or abstract is a detailed explanation of the problem definition and

technical design

10. The summary (abstract) should contain statements related to the objective of

the project, the design, development and methodology and conclusions reached

at.

11. Acknowledgement is the place where the author expresses his appreciation to

the contributors.


136

Bertoline G.R., Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, 4th ed.

2008.

Eisenberg A., A Beginner's Guide to Technical Communication, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

Ostram J., Better Paragraphs, Harper & Row, 4th ed. 1978.

Weaver C. and Bush J., Grammar to Enrich and Enhance Writing, Heinemann, 2008.

Pellegrino V.C., A Writer's Guide to Powerful Paragraphs, Maui Arthoughts Company, 2002.

CHAPTER 8

WRITING THE PROJECT REPORT

■ PREAMBLE

■ PRELIMINARY MATERIALS

■ BODY OF THE REPORT

■ REFERENCE MATERIALS

■ FORMAT OF THE REPORT

■ QUESTIONS

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

139

8.1 PREAMBLE

When preparing your project reports, keep in mind the purposes of these

reports. Certainly the reports serve to inform the reader of the specific

facts dealing with the projects, i.e. the problem being addressed, the

proposed solution that was pursued, and the results of the activity.

In addition to a straightforward, clear, presentation of these facts,

however, the project report should provide the reader with some

additional insight into your thinking on the project. For example, it is

most likely important for the reader to know what critical decisions you

had to make along the way and the reasons for choosing the directions

that you pursued. Certainly, literally hundreds of decisions had to be

made when developing your designs. Some of these decisions were

relatively trivial and had no major bearing on the outcome of the project.

Other decisions, however, were of much greater importance and had very

significant effects on the result of your effort. It is important for you to

identify these critical decisions and discuss the basis for the decisions

that you made. Furthermore, it is likely that, as the project proceeded to a

conclusion, you gained additional information and insight (as a result of

the design process) that would lead you along a different path if you were

to tackle the same problem again. It is certainly important for you to

make this clear to the reader.

As a result of your work, you hopefully have also gained new insight

into and knowledge about the particular problem that you have been

dealing with. This insight and knowledge would most likely be useful to

someone who was interested in following up your work. It is important

for you to convey this in your report.

In addition to the knowledge and insight that you have gained with

respect to your particular project, you have also hopefully developed

your design skills. Evidence of your understanding of the fundamentals

of the design process as well as your growth along these lines should also

be present in the report.


140

Finally, the preceding comments should be seen as guidelines, and

not a set of rules. Since you have done the work, you are in the best

position to provide a full and reliable accounting of this work. Certainly

you should keep in mind the ever-present norms of good taste and high

quality that are expected of engineers throughout your preparation of the

report, but you should also exhibit the creativity in your writing that you

expect in your work.

Typical organization of a report is illustrated by several figures in

Appendix C. Brief explanations are provided in this section. The project

report is composed of three main sections as exemplified in Table 8.1:

� Preliminary materials,

� Body of the report, and

� Reference materials.

Table 8.1 Organization of a report.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preliminary Materials

TITLE PAGE

SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………….............. 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………………………… ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………………………… iii

LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………… v

Body of the Report

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………… 1

1.1. FOREWORD ……………………………………………………………………………. 1

1.2. DETECTION OF THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ……………………………………….. 2

1.2.1. Detection Using Biological Signals …………………………………………………… 2

1.2.1.1. Electromyogram …………………………………………………………………….. 3

1.2.1.2. Electrocardiogram and the Heart Rate ………………………………………………. 3

1.2.1.3. The Respiratory Rate ……………………………………………………..…………. 4

1.2.2. Detection of Physical Activity Using Mechanical Switches ………………………….. 5

1.3. PROCESSING AND DISPLAY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY …………………………. 5

1.3.1. EMG Integrators ……………………………………………………………………….. 6

1.3.2. Rate Meters …………………………………………………………………………….. 6

1.4. CONTROLLING THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ……………………………….............. 7

1.5. PURPOSE …………………………………………………………………………………7

Writing the Project Report

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Table 8.1 Contd.

8.2 PRELIMINARY MATERIALS

In preparing the preliminary material, you must conform to a format

accepted by the Faculty Engineering Library. This part of the report

contains:

8.2.1 The Title (Cover) Page

The title should be brief while giving a specific description of what the

study is about as illustrated in the first figure in Appendix C. The student

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM ……………………………………… 8

2.1. GLOBAL DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM………………………………………………… 8

2.2. DETECTION AND PROCESSING OF THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ……………….. 9

2.2.1. Mechanical Switch and the Monostable Multivibrator ……………………………….. 9

2.2.2. The Integrator ………………………………………………………………………... 10

2.3. DISPLAY OF THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY …………………………………………. 12

2.3.1. The Bar Graph Display Driver ……………………………………………….…….... 14

2.3.2. Evaluation of The Bar Graph Display Driver ……………………………….……… 14

2.4. THE ACTIVITY RATE CONTROLLER ……………………………………………. 16

2.4.1. The Astable Multivibrator ……………………………………………………………. 16

2.4.2. The Buzzer …………………………………………………………………………… 17

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………… 18

3.1. DISCUSSIONS………………………………………………………………………… 18

3.1.1. Detection and Presentation of the Physical Activity ………………………………… 18

3.1.2. The Activity Rate Controller ………………………………………………………… 18

3.1.3. Evaluation of the System …………………………………………………………….. 18

3.2. CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………………….. 19

3.2.1. Results Achieved Compared to Original Objectives …………………………………. 19

3.2.2. Suggestions for Further Work ………………………………………….……………. 19

Reference Materials

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………….. 20

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………… 21

A – MULTIVIBRATORS …………………………………………………………………. 21

A.1. The Bistable ………………………………………………………………………..…. 21

A.2. The Monostable Multivibrator …………………………………………………...…… 21

A.3. The Astable Multivibrator …………………………………………………………….. 22

B – SEMICONDUCTOR LIGHT SOURCES ……………………………….…………….. 23


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can design this page according to his wish. However, the following items

are its essential ingredients. A san-serif style font (i.e. Arial) should be

preferred and underlining or italic should be avoided. The page should be

centered with 5 cm top margin. Other margins should be 3 cm for left,

2.5 cm for the right and bottom.

� Institutional details: it is printed in 14-16 points font size and

capital letter either at the bottom or top of the page (XXX represents

the name of the department)

o DEPARTMENT OF XXX ENGINEERING

o FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

o KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY

o JEDDAH – SAUDI ARABIA

� Title of the project: 16-24 points font size single-spaced, bold and

all CAPITAL LETTERS. No abbreviation is used in the title. It

should be descriptive of the report but limited to 15 words (100

characters or less)

� Student(s) name(s): 14-18 points font size and bold

� Supervisor’s name: 14-18 points font size and bold

� Advisory committee (optional): Names and addresses of the

advisors (if available) in 14-16 points font size and capital letter

� Customer – client (optional): Name and address of the customer

for whom the project is developed (if available) in 14-16 points font

size and capital letter

� Month and year: in Hijri and Gregorian without commas in 14-16

points font size and bold.

� The cover backbone ( must contain the following in ( ا��آ��

order: KAU, XE, Title of the project, Hijri and Gregorian year.

8.2.2 Approval Page

This page contains:

� Title of the project: same as the title page, it is printed in 16 points

font size single-spaced, bold and all CAPITAL LETTERS.

� Student name: 14-18 points font size and bold

� A statement of the purpose of the report, 14-16 points font size and

bold. Example:


143

A senior project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

In

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (Biomedical Engineering)

� Supervisor’s name: 14-18 points font size and bold

� Names and signatures of report examiners: Names left justified, 14-

16 points font size and bold

� Institutional details: Same as the cover page

8.2.3 Remembrance and Dedication Page

It is a common practice for every Muslim engineer to start any act with

statements containing in the name of Allah, thanking to Allah Almighty

and praising the last of the prophets Muhammed sallallahu alaihi wa

sallam (peace and blessings be upon him).

� A statement of dedication below the remembrance section (optional,

if used).

� The remembrance section may be centralized in the page if

dedication is not used.

8.2.4 Project Summary or Abstract

The summary is about 1 page document, preferably in Arabic and in

English. It should contain statements related to the objective of the

project, the design, development and methodology and conclusions

reached at. This is the mostly read part by other persons. Hence, you

should make every effort to make it clear and concise while covering all

main features of the study. As a summary of the entire report, it should

contain all major points and the following organization is suggested:

� Foreword

o Give the problem statement including the organizational

problem, (the purpose of capstone projects, the context of your

particular project) and the general technical problem (the type of

project you are doing (software prototype, hardware prototype,

simulation, application program for a client, etc.)).


144

o Write down a concise statement of the design problem. Give a

more specific assignment statement – specifically what the

writer(s) of the report was asked to do (an overview of the

project goals), the technical questions, task, and perhaps the

hypothesis or solution.

o State your design solution and the overall purpose of the report.

� Summary

o Provide the objective and background (how the problem was

approached, what were the results) including objective or

hypothesis, methodology or experimental procedure and results.

o Give overall conclusions about the project including

recommendations for improvements and their implications,

subsequent action, and cost and benefits.

The recommended format:

� Starting on a separate page

� Margins: left 3.5cm, top 2.5 cm, right and bottom 2.0cm

� Typeface and size: preferably Times Roman, size 12

� No underlining, boldface or italics

� The word ABSTRACT in boldface, 16 point size, centered and

above the title

� The title of the project in boldface, 16 point size, must be centered

� Spacing (1.5 lines)

� Length: 350 words, maximum one page

� No citations or references

� Abstract in Arabic ( ا�� ): This is an Arabic translation of the

Abstract. It should be on a separate page. The same rules as the

Abstract Page apply to this page.

8.2.5 Acknowledgement

It is the place where the author expresses his appreciation to the

contributors. A professional tone must be maintained. A similar format as

in the abstract is preferred.

8.2.6 Lists and Tables

� Table of contents

It introduces the text to the reader, indicating its contents, organization,


145

and progression. It should make access easy, not overwhelm the reader

with detailed contents. Necessary elements can be listed as

� Starting on a separate page

� Margins: left 3.5cm, top 2.5cm, and right and bottom 2.0cm

� Typeface and size: preferably Arial, size 12

� No underlining or italics

� Entries must be consistent, in both style and substance, with

headings as they appear in the text (wording, capitalization,

style of numerals, etc.)

� Length: may run more than one page; do not type ‘’continued’’

at the end of the page or at the beginning of the next page.

� Each entry should have tab leaders and corresponding page

reference numbers must be aligned correctly.

� List of Tables and List of Figures (if available): a similar format as

in the Table of Contents is used.

� Pagination

Small Roman numeral (ii, iii, iv, etc.) is used. The title and approval

pages are assigned the first and second small roman numerals

respectively, but those numbers do not actually appear on pages. The

page numbers begin with iii, assigned to the Remembrance and

Dedication if one is used otherwise to the Table of Contents. Page

numbers are placed in the bottom center of the pages.

8.3 BODY OF THE REPORT

Body of the report contains an introduction, review of the literature

(background), methodology, results and discussions, conclusions and

recommendations. For a senior project, the introduction and literature can

be combined in one chapter titled the introduction.

8.3.1 The Introduction

It starts with a general statement of the problem with the aim to orient the

reader. Describe the problem in a way as you might describe your house

to an outsider. It continues with definition of terms and literature review.

A well-organized literature review followed by wise interpretation has a

great value to the reader and provides great help to the reviewer to

develop his own understanding about the status of the field. It must be


146

o Written in your own language;

o Containing quotations from references when they are absolutely

necessary;

o Supported by facts and findings of reliable researchers, your own

previous research and observations.

Introduction

The introductory part of the introduction takes about 1-2 pages. It

includes a clear explanation of goals of the project, the significance of

studying the problem. It should orient the reader to the topic of the report

by including the following:

• A concise statement of the design problem – explain the

particular problem that is addressed in the report.

• The objective – state the assignment (what your project needs to

accomplish to solve the problem) and your proposed design

solution.

• The method of the report – describe the organization and

structure of the report. The introduction concludes with the

significance of studying the problem and statement of objectives

of the project.

Background (3-6 pages)

Discuss the context and history of this general topic and describe what

has been done in the past. Include literature search results for the

OVERALL problem and context rather than the options for component

parts here; i.e. a summary of the information you have gathered

concerning the design problem. Refer to sources of information (people,

books, web, other). Include pros and cons of the existing solutions and

motivate need for a new solution. Try to answer the question: What are

the most important issues for this topic in terms of the goals of the

project and the effects on society? You write about at least 5 of the

following issues:

� Economic: effect of this topic on the economy in the past, possible

cost of project development, cost of materials, target cost if the

project is marketed.

� Environmental: influence on the environment in the past, possible

effects for future developments


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� Sustainability: product life cycle, future markets

� Manufacturability: material availability, use of off the shelf versus

custom components, special needs for hostile environments

� Ethical: uses that could cause harm to society, ethical issues that

someone working on this topic might encounter

� Health and safety: positive or negative impacts on the health and

safety of individuals or society for past or future applications in this

topic

� Social: relationship of this topic to social aspects of society such as

education, culture, communication, entertainment

� Political: relationship of this topic to political issues

8.3.2 Methodology

This chapter usually starts with general layout of the design and

development. You may use statements linking the projected solution to

the background. You discuss how the basic design was applied in your

study in enough detail that another worker reading the report could set-up

an identical investigation. It continues with the analysis of the problem.

In this part you should illustrate how you have broken the main problem

into workable sub-problems. You must treat each sub-problem separately

and discuss the design and evaluation of sub-sections. It contains a

section that deals with integration of individually developed sections to

obtain synthesis of the problem (system). Here, you should explain

difficulties related to integration and necessary rectifications of parts

developed in the previous section. The chapter concludes with a section

on description of the procedures implemented. You identify the

experimental design employed. You review steps taken to prepare the

experiment, construct the system and collect the data.

Specific elements in the methodology chapter are: alternative

approaches to reach the goal, analysis of the problem and design of

subsystems, test and evaluation of the designed components, and

synthesis of the components to build the project. The chapter presents a

work plan for project phases (analysis, design, implementation and

evaluation) and cost analysis in terms of expected effort and material. It

can be considered in three major sections as the design requirements,

feasibility discussion and final implementation.


148

Design Requirements (3 to 6 pages)

� Specifications and requirements for the project: Specify technical

and non-technical characteristics. Give the detailed specifications

that served as the basis for the project (interpretation of rules of a

contest, interpretation of customer requirements, and interpretation

of desired features; how they determine or constrain size, velocity,

response time, cost, weight, etc.) Consider aspects such as potential

users, cost, safety, user-friendliness, performance, compatibility with

other things, functionality, acceptance, convenience, capacity,

misuses, legal issues, standards or codes, availability, materials,

productivity enhancement, entertainment, technology, and design

methods.

� Selection of design criterion: Based on your specification, specify

goals for performance, reliability, cost, code size, manufacturability,

safety, societal factors (human interface, environmental factors, etc)

and any other criteria relevant to the project.

� Alternative solutions: Explore alternative solutions; a description of

alternative solutions to the problem that you have developed based

on your creative thinking. Evaluate alternative solutions based on

situation description and design constraints. These should include

ideas that involve different basic principles and concepts, rather than

variations of a single principle or concept. You include a sketch of

each of your ideas and a brief explanation of how the device or

system would operate.

� A preliminary evaluation of each of your ideas, keeping in mind the

requirements and specifications. This should be more than just a

listing of the advantages and disadvantages of each option. The

evaluation should take into account the relative importance of the

different evaluation criteria.

� Select the proposed solution with justifications. Provide an overall

architecture of the solution.

� Functional decomposition of the project: Explain the major functions

required by your design. Figures and tables should be used to

supplement discussion.

� A discussion of the most important design constraints, with the full

PDS included as an appendix.


149

Feasibility Discussion (2-5 pages)

� Results of literature search: Provide the options and justification for

overall approach (hardware, software, choices of methods).

� Analysis: Describe behavior of the system, data and requirements.

� Options and justification for each functional part: Provide the

options and justification of design approach and components or

methods used in each functional part. Be sure to cite all of the

literature used in your discussion.

Final Implementation (5-15 pages)

� Presentation of final implementation:

o Describe the project and its functions (include diagrams, code

examples, and other figures in the body of the text and refer to

any large engineering drawings, listings, etc. in the appendices in

the body of the text).

o You might present the implementation by functional groups.

Discuss and present the calculations used in the design of the

project in the relevant subsections.

o Summarize repetitive calculations in tables.

� Also, describe tools used, the way of implementing the solution and

solution requirements.

8.3.3 Results, Discussions and Conclusions

This is the final chapter of the project that deals with results, discussions,

conclusions and recommendations. In large projects it can be divided into

two chapters as “Results and Discussions”, and “Conclusions and

Recommendations”. It takes care of findings, contributions and

drawbacks of the designer and methods implemented.

After a brief introduction, the first objective that appeared in the first

chapter is repeated. The analytical techniques used are discussed at the

beginning. You design experiments to evaluate the system in laboratory

environment and in real life situations. Usually results are presented in

tabular form first. If the tables contain an enormous amount of data, you

give only summary information in this chapter and move the rest to an

appendix. You make statistical evaluation of results and prepare graphs

and charts from the raw and treated data. Then, you formulate an


150

interpretive discussion of the results and thoughtful evaluation of the

design methodology adopted.

The most important part of the chapter is the section related to the

discussion of the results and lessons learned. A result with statistical

significance supports or does not support a particular objective. A

thoughtful interpretation of the results is needed. There are three

important aspects of the discussion.

o You write down sentences carefully in describing each result and

hypothesis (objective) it supports.

o You may find out that you need more experiments or analytical

analysis that you didn’t originally consider. You state any

additional experiment or analytical analysis that may be needed

to obtain further evidences.

o Sometimes, you might be surprised to find important results that

are unrelated to your original objectives. You present them with

evidences and provide reasoning if you can.

The final section (it may be a separate chapter in large projects) is

conclusions and recommendations. It is mostly read by other persons.

Hence, you should make every effort to make it clear and concise. The

conclusions part usually includes:

o A brief statement of the problem;

o A description of the main features of the method omitting most

of the details concerning subjects and measures;

o A listing of main findings, and;

o Your conclusions based on these findings.

Suggestions for further work (or recommendations) part includes

o Your interpretations, speculations and ideas that would be out of

place in the conclusions;

o Possible applications of findings in the respective fields of

science and technology and other related fields;

o Implications of what you should do and how you should continue

if you had available time and opportunities.

The following guidelines may help the senior project students in

organizing this chapter.


151

Performance Estimates and Results (2-5 pages)

� Present the estimated performance of the project (and how they were

derived) based on the preliminary design (estimates to include speed,

cost, power consumption, noise-immunity, ease of use, etc;

depending on the project).

� Present the actual performance results. Discuss the results, compare

with estimated performance and explain discrepancies. Evaluate

performance with respect to legal, illegal, boundary and known

cases.

� Compare results with those of other existing solutions.

� Include suggestions for design changes that would improve the

performance of the project. Use graphs or other figures to show

relationships when appropriate.

Production Schedule (1-2 pages)

You discuss the phases of the design and implementation of your project

(Pert charts may be appropriate in the discussion) and recommend any

improvements that could have been made in the scheduling and planning.

Cost Analysis (1-2 pages)

You tabulate component costs and compare to estimated cost and market

cost where appropriate.

User’s Manual (1-3 pages)

You provide a user’s manual for the operation and maintenance of the

system designed in the project.

Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations (2-4 pages)

It includes:

� A restatement of the problem that gave rise to the report.

� A brief statement of the problem, a description of the main features

of the method omitting most of the details concerning subjects and

measures; the solution and a summary of your reasons for making

this choice.


152

� A concise presentation of the details of your chosen design – this

should include items such as dimensions, materials, cost estimates,

etc. Assembly and detail drawings should be included (these can be

attached as an appendix or as additional files). Also, if you have built

a prototype, you should include photographs

� A listing of main findings, and conclusions based on these findings.

� A summary of the design performance.

� Conclusion – this must include a section describing the ethical issues

surrounding your project.

� Recommendations, explaining subsequent action or posing specific

questions for investigation. Also you include suggestions for future

development of your design; you may indicate as suggestions for

further work, implications of what you would do and how you would

continue if you had available time and opportunities.

8.4 REFERENCE MATERIALS

Reference materials contain the bibliography (references) and

appendices. They are paginated consecutively from the last page of the

text. They must meet the same format requirements (margins, fonts,

spacing, etc.) as the rest of the report. Any work used, which is not the

actual work of the student, must be cited, and referenced. The citations in

the body of the report maybe by numbers inside square brackets “[2]” or

by the last name of the author(s) and year of publication as: “… Akili

(2002) utilized an infrared telemetry system …”. In the first case,

references will be listed according to their order of appearance in the text.

In the second case, they are ordered alphabetically according to the

surname of the first author of the work cited.

8.4.1 Listing the References

References appear in six different forms as the whole book, part of a

book, a journal article, data sheets and other reference material without a

known author, a Web cite, and personal communication with authorities

in the field. The following list illustrates an example of each.

[1] Sklar B, Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications,

2nd

ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., 2001.


153

[2] Neuman MR, “Biopotential Electrodes”, chapter 5 in Webster JG

(ed), Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, 3rd

ed.

Wiley, 1997.

[3] Karagözoğlu B, “Analysis of Electromagnetic Signals by a

Microcomputer”, Bull. Tech. Univ. Istanbul, 48(2) pp. 197-212,

1995.

[4] Anonymous, “Dual Switched Capacitor filter IC”, RS Data Sheet

4850, March 1983.

[5] http://www.microsoft.com/updates (visited on February 15, 2004).

[6] Gülüt YK, “Interfacing Analog Signals to a Microcomputer Using

Game Port”, Personal communication, KAU, Faculty of Eng. Dept.

of E&CE, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Sept. 1994.

8.4.2 Appendices

Materials that may be of interest or importance to some readers but are not

sufficiently relevant to be included in the body of the report go to

appendices. There may be many appendices supplementing the report.

Some material, such as computer printouts, may be so lengthy that placing

it in the text would disrupt the reader’s attention. There may be an appendix

including your latest Product Design Specification. Students must discuss

with their advisor(s) the need for appendices, carefully considering the

value of the material they propose to include. Appendices must be

designated with a letter (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) each starting on a

fresh page, and a title. Each appendix must be listed in the Table of

Contents. All appendices must meet the usual margin requirements.

8.5 FORMAT OF THE REPORT

8.5.1 Margins, Headings and Justification

� You must maintain margins of 3.5cm on the left, 2.5cm on the top,

and 2.0cm on the right and bottom of the page.

� Main headings within the text should be consistent with the Table of

Contents. Headings should not be underlined. They should be bold,

numbered and same size as text. No heading should end with colons

(:) and no page should end with a heading.

� All text must be left or full justified.


154

8.5.2 Paragraphs, Indentation, Spacing and Font Size

� The first paragraph following a heading should have no indentation.

Subsequent paragraphs should be separated either by additional

spaces between paragraphs or should start at the first TAB stop.

� All text must be 1.5 line spaced. Materials in tables, appendices, and

block quotations, individual footnotes should be single-spaced.

� Times Roman typeface with 12 point size should be used throughout

the text.

8.5.3 Pagination

The text, beginning with the Introduction should be numbered

consecutively with Arabic numerals, like 1,2,3,4… and so on. Page

numbers must be placed at the bottom center of each page.

8.5.4 Tables, Figures and Equations

� Tables and figures must serve the reader and support the text. The

titles must be consistent with the List of Tables, List of Figures.

Numbering of Tables and Figures must be done sequentially,

including the Chapter number in which it is placed (for example,

figures in chapter 2 are numbered as Figure 2.1, 2.2, etc.). Technical

reports only contain Figures and Tables. Refer to graphs as figures,

photos as figures, small code segments as figures, etc.

� Figures and tables should NOT be hand sketched.

� Figures and tables should be used to supplement the discussion.

Always introduce a figure or table in the text and never place a

figure or table in the text that is not discussed. Discuss the meaning

and significance of the table or figure. Be sure to highlight the fine

points and structure.

� Figures and tables should be located in the body of the text, AFTER

they are introduced in the text.

� It is often appropriate to pull out small segments of code from a

main program or to write pseudocode to describe an algorithm or a

major point of the project. This is considered a figure and should be

titled and numbered as such.

� If a group of figures or a long table or code listing takes up too much

space, locate them in an appendix.


155

� Figures and tables can be located at the end of the text but it is less

convenient for the reader.

� Every figure must have a descriptive title (caption) located

immediately below the figure and centered.

� Every table must have a descriptive caption located above the table

and begin at the same margin of the table.

� Each equation must be written using a proper, standard scientific

notation. Equation Editor of Microsoft Office should be used. Each

equation must be tabbed centered a separate line of text and

numbered on the right, using Chapter number and equation number,

separated by a dot, as in the following example:

)12)(15(

)5.0()(

2+++

+=

sss

sssH (1.2)

� In-line equations, or expressions may also be used, as follows:

“… realizing that 2 21x y+ = , it can be concluded that …..”

� References to Tables, Figures and Equations: while referencing a

table, figure or an equation or a series of these within the text, use,

for example, figure 2.1, table 3.2, equation (2.1), equations 3.5-3.7

and 3.9, etc.

8.5.5 Chapter, Section, and Subsection Headings

Chapter, Section and subsection headings must all be typewritten in bold,

with the following rules:

� Chapter headings should start at a new page, starting at 5 cm below

the top of the page and centered. Chapter number must be in Arabic

numerals, like 1, 2, 3… and so on, followed by Chapter Title both in

capital letters, and with Arial, size 16.

� Section headings may start anywhere within the text, after a triple

space of the text of the previous section. Section titles contain

Chapter and Section numbers separated by a dot, followed by the

Section Title in small letters, the first letters of main words being

capital. Section headings should be in bold, 12 point size.

� Subsection headings should be written similarly as section headings

and contain Chapter number, Section number and Subsection

number, separated by dots.


156

8.6 QUESTIONS

(1) Which of the following is NOT a part of the body of the report

a. Introduction

b. Acknowledgement

c. Review of the literature (background)

d. Methodology

(2) Which part of the report has page numbers in lower-case Roman

a. Preliminary materials

b. Body of the report

c. Appendices

d. References

(3) Write down a half-a-page report related to experiment design that

would appear in the results and discussions, conclusions and

recommendations chapter.

(4) Name three work places where the professional ethics needs to be

addressed.

(5) Explain differences between appearances of the problem definition

in the abstract (summary) and in the introduction chapters of the

report.

(6) Explain differences between appearances of the alternative solutions

in the introduction and in the methodology chapters of the report.

8.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Beer D.F. and McMurrey D., A Guide to Writing as an Engineer , Wiley; 2nd ed. 2004.

Forsyth P., How to Write Reports and Proposals, Kogan Page, India 2006.

Glendinning E. and Mantell H., Writing Ideas: Intermediate Course in Writing Skills, Longman,

1983.



www.csub.edu/PAD/theater/files/Guidelines_for_Senior_Project.doc

www.maa.org/saum/cases/dennis1105-saum.pdf

www.calpoly.edu/~jdmello/SeniorProjects.htm

www.unb.ca/ME/undergrad/outlines/ME4853.pdf

www.engr.newpaltz.edu/SeniorDesign/SRDesignfomat.html

CHAPTER 9

ORAL PRESENTATION

■ ESSENTIALS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

■ PLANNING AND PREPARING FOR ORAL PRESENTATION

■ PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION TO AN AUDIENCE

■ FORMATION AND UTILIZATION OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

■ HANDLING QUESTIONS COMING FROM THE AUDIENCE

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

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9.1 ESSENTIALS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

9.1.1 Essentials

Communication is an exchange of ideas and information. An idea or

information that is not conveyed or used is an unnecessary burden for the

mind. The value of information is equivalent to its exchange rate.

Communication skills are vital to success in today’s fast-paced work

environment. You need them every day when you contribute in team

meetings, motivate teams and individuals, persuade others to take an

action, work with customers and suppliers, etc. You have three basic

types of communications: oral, written and visual.

Oral presentation is one of the most efficient ways of

communication. When presenting a technical paper you are giving a

display of your knowledge, ability to apply it and personality. Hence, it is

important, not only to you but also to your company and associates that

you make an able presentation. There are three essentials of a successful

oral presentation as: trying to defeat the stage fright, remembering that it

takes two to communicate and using visual aids. Hence, four important

ingredients of the oral presentation are: the speaker, audience, the

material and audio-visual aids.

You have already prepared written documents related to your

projects. You base your talks on the written material. However, there

are major differences between a successful written presentation and an

oral presentation. The most important element in the oral presentation is

the speaker himself. Concentrate your discussion in this chapter on the

4P principle: plan, prepare, practice and present. You also provide tips on

what is expected of a speaker and how to handle questions.

Excellence in oral presentation and quality of the speaker can be

judged according to preparedness, personal control (poise), delivery

conviction and clarity, and ability of the speaker to hold the audience.


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Preparedness is an essential of the delivery quality that includes absence

of lengthy pauses, presentation length and effective use of aids.

9.1.2 Personal Control (Poise)

Do you give your audience the impression that you are comfortable when

speaking to the group? You’ve all seen one of those presentations that

give you a queasy feeling in the pit of your stomachs—watching

someone who is uncomfortable in front of a group is equally

uncomfortable for members of the audience! The irony is that talking in

front of a group is hard, and most people feel at least somewhat

uncomfortable doing it, but you need to try to look like you are not,

because the message of a fidgeting, stuttering, foot-tapping speaker is

going to be lost on his or her audience.

A second dimension of poise is the speaker’s ability to connect with

the audience. A really engaging speaker makes eye contact, may invite

audience participation or at least audience questions, and the like. The

better you can connect with your audience, the better your chances of

communicating your point.

9.1.3 Delivery Quality

Presentation quality is affected by conviction, forcefulness of the

delivery. Talks have an informal narrative style and are dramatic rather

than detailed or completely informative. You must speak it from the

memory, rather than reading your “speech.” Clarity (ease of

understanding) also has two dimensions. First, do you speak like you have

a mouthful of moldy oatmeal, or do you pronounce words carefully so that

everyone can hear you? Second, are you using words that clearly express

what you mean, or are you muddling your message with distractions or

unnecessarily big words? If the answer is “yes” to either of these

questions, you need to work on clarity. If people can’t hear you, they

won’t understand what you are trying to tell them, and they’ll tune out.

Hence, the volume of the sound is an important contributor to the clarity.

Another factor that effects the quality of presentation is the impact;

ability of the speaker to hold audience. You must be very selective of

what you can say in a short time. Most short speeches can barely carry

one main idea plus its support. Resist the temptation to tell everything

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you know or every thought you have about it: only the most interesting

and important things can be said. Post-talk discussions in the question

period are also indispensable elements of the presentation.

Use visual aids (overhead transparencies or slides but not both) if

they help. In visuals, you must make it simple, clear and obvious. You

should not clutter slides with irrelevancies. Slides must be readable; print

large. One word can abbreviate whole phrases. If you have lots of results

to show, then you may use many slides, not one cluttered slide.

9.2 PLANNING AND PREPARING FOR ORAL PRESENTATION

9.2.1 Differences between Oral and Written Communications

Written and oral communications require different methods to be

effective. Hence, an oral presentation should be prepared with oral

communication always in mind, and never with an eye to eventual

publication. Frequent references to the major theme is recommended for

an oral presentation but it is undesirable in a published article. Simple

sentence construction, unpretentious phraseology, and frequent use of

first person in the active voice are even more desirable in oral

presentation than in written communication.

Information that you are going to present must be selected very

carefully. Do you have something useful to say? Are you providing

enough details to support your key point? Are you clouding your key

points with too many unnecessary details? Do you need guidelines on

making these kinds of decisions? Do you look at the guidelines for

evaluating written work; principles used for a written presentation apply

to an oral presentation as well. You must always keep in mind, however

that you will need to limit the number of details you include more than

you might in a piece of writing so as not to overwhelm your audience.

It is advised to avoid charts and graphs as an easy way to get through

a speech. It is recommended not to use copies from books or blueprints

since they are too complex for screen projection. Illustrations that look

good on paper may be confusing on a screen. You must decide what

information is absolutely necessary and show only that. You must edit

statements and data for slides to be sure that you are using the minimum

information to support your verbal message.


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9.2.2 Planning Oral Presentation

The very first thing to do is to describe your audience in terms of:

knowledge, experience, needs and goals. You must define your purpose:

is it to inform, or to persuade, or to motivate to action, or to sell, or to

teach, or to train? Then, you must think positively by valuing your

message, by visualizing yourself succeeding and by visualizing your

audience responding. You must remind yourself of the four fundamentals

of oral presentation:

� Make it short: It takes twice as long to listen as to read; stick to

a few main points, write them out but do not memorize, practice

it aloud, and time it one minute short.

� Make the organization obvious: Remember the famous

presentation sandwich; acknowledge the introduction and the

audience, tell ‘em what you’re gonna tell ‘em, tell ‘em, and tell

‘em what you told ‘em.

� Make ideas simple and vivid: Put your ideas in verbal pictures,

explain your strategy, before the details, explain scientific ideas

in physical terms, explain ideas in English before mathematics,

illustrate the application, and use Rhetorical Questions to keep

attention.

� Summarize and be prepared for questions: Repeat the main

points in conclusion, repeat each question for the benefit of the

audience, reword clumsy questions, and wait until after the

speech to pass things out.

9.2.3 Preparing for Oral Presentation

Before beginning to prepare a talk, the speaker should ascertain the size,

character, and range of interest of the expected audience. The

presentation should be prepared – or revised, if previously presented to a

different audience – so as to be readily understood by most of the

audience. It is strongly recommended to prepare a written version of your

presentation. The script should be an abstract covering a clear statement

of the problem with which you are dealing, a description of your method

of attacking the problem, and a forceful view of your conclusions.

You must read the written version you have prepared several times

so that you will know it from the memory and not have to read it at the

session. Some speakers prepare small cards on which are written just a

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few words in large handwriting as a reminder, and glance at them during

the talk. These cards should be organized to give proper continuity to the

presentation. Preferably, notes should consist of a list of different items

to be discussed rather than a series of complete sentences. They should

present a graphic picture to the speaker around which he can build his

story. Where the speaker must move about the platform to refer to charts

or other illustrations, it is convenient to have notes or small cards that

may be held in the palm of the hand.

You must overview slides at the beginning. If you want to have

them, you make them somewhat specific. Listeners know that you are

going to have an introduction, design, and conclusion. The material

presented should be clearly summarized in a few sentences at the end.

The summary should contain an interpretation of the meaning,

significance, and limitations of the experiments or mathematical

derivations in the specialized field or in a wider context.

You must build your confidence before the presentation. You may

start answering the following questions:

� Why you earn the right to deliver this talk?

� Why you are excited about the subject?

� Why you are eager to share it with your audience?

They want you to succeed! This is a strong confidence building

statement. Then, you

� Prepare an attention-getting opening.

� Illustrate and support key points with evidences and visuals.

� Connect key ideas.

� Prepare a memorable close.

9.2.4 Visual Aids

Well-conceived and skillfully prepared visual aids are a must. Many

excellent technical presentations fail to reach the audience due to poor

slides. Slides deserve at least the same careful planning and preparation

that went to your manuscript. Preparation of visual aids will be discussed

in detail later. However, it should be remembered at this stage that, slides

are to be viewed for only a short time and are accompanied by an oral

explanation by the speaker. Hence, it is neither desirable nor necessary


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that they are complete within themselves. The audience loses interest in

the presentation if they are required to digest detailed slides or more

information that can be assimilated in the brief showing time allowed.

The objective is to clarify, emphasize, organize, and enhance your

presentation. Technical details should be left to the printed-paper.

You put up a slide only a moment before you want to refer to it. You

must give the audience time to read it or you read it to them. You remove

the slide when you want the audience to attend fully to you again.

9.3 PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION TO AN AUDIENCE

9.3.1 Organization

A narrative style is preferable in talks. Research is done to tell a story,

going from problem, goal, plan through actions (observations) to

outcomes, resolution, and a moral (conclusion). You must avoid a written

journal-style organization.

The placement of the statement in the speech is one factor in audience

retention. It appears that audiences are most likely to remember what you

say first and what you say last. Hence, you plan your introduction and your

conclusion carefully to take full advantage of these two vital areas of the

speech. Audience attention is probably highest at the very beginning of the

speech; it tapers off toward the middle and then picks up again when the

audience senses that you are concluding. The points at which you have the

greatest attention are the times to make your significant statements. In

short, the audience is most interested in the introductory and concluding

remarks. Hence, you must make absolutely sure beforehand about what

you are going to say at the beginning and at the end.

The introduction should make clear the purpose of the talk. You

prepare your first two sentences like they were a large street

advertisement for your talk and you. You must grab the audience in these

first sentences. If time permits and circumstances are appropriate, you

should place the topic in a context of a larger field of inquiry. However,

you must avoid spending too much time on the introduction. You state

your purpose directly and briefly.

You must be sure to allow sufficient time for proper presentation of

conclusions. This is usually the part in which the audience is most

interested. You should not let your story run down at the end.

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A detailed methods section may not be appropriate. In the interest of

ready comprehension, you may wish to omit all but essential technical

details, and even technical data, from both methods and results. When

doing this, you should inform the audience of such omissions and should

state how the data may be obtained, if desired. If a within-trial procedure

is complicated, you show a concrete illustration of it in visual. If the

series of events in an experiment is long or complicated you show a

diagram of it.

In contrast to usual practice in written articles, results should never

be separated from their discussion. You should give the rationale, the

conclusions to be drawn, and the bearing of these conclusions on the

theme of the talk for each experiment, observation, or calculation before

you begin to describe the next experiment or procedure. In narrative

talks, descriptive and inferential statistics should be suppressed. You

speak “eyeball-effects” rather than F-values. You state the problem being

investigated in concrete, specific terms. You must help the audience

understand specifics first before moving to generalities (if you ever do).

The paper should be prepared and the slides and other visual aids

planned in such a way that the talk can be easily delivered within the

time allotted. Sufficient time for discussion and questions should be

allowed. If no time period has been specified, the length of the

presentation should be kept within the limits of the capacity of the

audience to absorb the information given. It is better to check the meeting

room ahead of time. You must have your slides arranged in proper

sequence, as well as marked, to assure correct showing position. You

must give your slides to the projectionist in advance of the start of the

complete session.

9.3.2 Emphasis

There are important skills as the repetition, the pointer phrase and

oratorical emphasis that will draw attention of the audience and provide

emphasis to the presentation when used carefully.

The repetition appears to be the most effective mode of emphasis.

Studies indicate that a statement repeated three to five times in a speech

is generally remembered. Repetition may be either concentrated or

distributed. If you use concentrated repetition you may repeat your


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statement in different words or you may restate it in exactly the same

words, perhaps with different inflection. If you distribute your repetition

at different points in the speech, the impact is greater if you restate it in

the same words, with strong vocal emphasis.

The pointer phrase is an exceedingly effective way to emphasize. It

is simply to announce that you are about to make an important statement

preferably including the reason following the statement. You must make

sure that the statement you are pointing to is truly significant, and is

stated in such a way that it can be remembered easily.

Speaker (oratorical) emphasis: The methods we have discussed so

far apply to written statements as well as to spoken ones. However, there

are some modes of emphasis that are available only to a speaker. As a

speaker you have access not only to verbal communication, but to all the

methods of nonverbal communication as well. They include such things

as dramatic pauses, changes in vocal inflection and volume, movement

and gestures. Employing them purposely does not make them less

legitimate as a means of communications as long as your purpose itself is

a legitimate one. If you accept the contention that people can believe a

falsehood as easily as they can believe a truth, it follows that the message

they receive depends to a large extent on the skill of the speaker. Truth

and justice are not self-evident. The only way they can prevail is if they

are advocated by honest and just men who are effective in their

communication.

9.3.3 Presentation and Drawing Attention of the Audience

You talk informally as though you were telling your friend what you did

and why. Complexity of expression is uncorrelated with wisdom,

intelligence, and originality; it's perfectly correlated with audience

puzzlement and boredom.

You must keep up the interest (and voice) until you come to the

finish – then stop! You must speak to the audience, not to your paper.

Hence, you must try not to read your abstract. This impersonal approach

to the presentation of your efforts is the surest way to lose your

audience's attention.

You must speak loudly enough for everyone to hear you. If you have

a friend with you, have him sit well back in the audience, talk to him, and

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if you drop your voice, he can cup his ear as a signal. If you turn away to

work at the blackboard or projection slide, you must raise your voice.

You must not overrun your time. It is advisable to watch the time,

and arrange to eliminate certain cards or items if you are taking too much

time. A way to estimate the length of a talk: One can usually present

2000 words, or about eight double spaced typewritten pages in 20

minutes (about two minutes per page).

9.4 FORMATION AND UTILIZATION OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

9.4.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids

There are two types of visual aids that can be used by a speaker; the

classical and electronic presentation. The classical ones are the slides,

overhead projector transparencies, flip charts, chalkboards and movies,

and the speaker himself. In large rooms a mike accompanied by a sound

system can be used as the audio aid. Flip charts and chalkboards should

be used only with small audiences. They are especially helpful in

audience participation presentations. Overhead projectors can be used

with large audiences and are helpful when dimming the lights is not

possible or desirable. Overhead projectors have two shortcomings: They

are manually operated and must be close to the screen. The slides can be

used to present any information. They require lights to be dimmed. In

general a dark background with white or colored lines works best. The

speaker can control them remotely and without turning his face from the

audience. In showing movie, you must make certain the quality of the

movie is consistent with other visuals. You must limit the movie to 2 to 3

minute segments. In this way, you control the timing of the presentation,

not the movie.

Electronic presentation aids are: on-screen show, data-show and data

projector. The table below lists and compares both types of aids.

Audience Classical Electronic

Small Flip-Charts On-screen

Medium Over-head projector Data-Show

Large 35 mm Slides Data Projector


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9.4.2 The Speaker

The most important visual aid is the speaker. When addressing an

audience, you should pause for several seconds before you start to speak

and look directly at your listeners. You must stand erect with your head

up. Hence you must look, feel and be sharp. You must speak clearly,

distinctly and slowly. You keep your smile, be and appear friendly and

glad to be there. You must dress up sharp. You must speak loud enough

articulate clearly. Some body movement makes a speech dynamic.

However, if they are periodic or spastic, they are distracting. You must

avoid using slang and imprecise terms (i.e., “all that stuff”).

You must use a limited number of visual aids. You should pause a

few seconds to allow the audience to read the slide. You should not talk

to the slide and should not read the slide. You must orient listeners to the

slide before discussing (i.e., “You are looking at an x-ray of the knee,

from a side view”), even if it seems obvious to you.

You should not distract the audience with equipment that is not

working properly. Handouts should be distributed before or after, not

during, a presentation. During a presentation, handouts divert attention

from the speaker. You should keep assistance from associates to a

minimum. A remote control for slides is preferable if possible. If not, you

set up a signal with the operator without saying, “next slide.”

9.4.3 Using the Mike

When a public address system with a fixed mike is used, you must keep a

constant distance from it. You must avoid turning your head or walking

away. To point to something on the screen or blackboard, you do so, but

you must return to the mike before you start to speak again. If the mike is

portable, you must move it with you when you leave the rostrum. A lapel

mike (the one attached to the collar of the jacket or shirt) allows you

considerable freedom in your position, but you should at all times avoid

turning your back on the audience.

9.4.4 Legibility of Slides

The key to effective slide lectures is legibility. Slides and visual aids

should be planned and constructed so that the image is legible at a

distance and intelligible at a glance. In general, each slide should make

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a single major point. If possible, the talk should be planned so that the

slides will be shown in groups rather than scattered throughout the talk,

because continuous examination of projected illustrations is tiring for the

audience. The number of slides used should be far fewer than the number

that is physically possible to show in the time allotted. Although five to

six slides can be shown in a minute to illustrate an idea, it should rarely

be more than one per minute under normal circumstances.

Detailed attention is paid to such matters as size and type of

lettering, how lettering is prepared, and maximum allowable information

per slide. Typed lettering is discouraged because it is rarely readable

when projected on a screen. All upper case (capital) letters are more

visible to the audience than upper and lower case (small) letters. To be

legible, letters and symbols must have a certain minimum size on the

screen. Use of large letters is strongly recommended: The larger, the

better. Size depends upon distance from the screen to the most distant

viewer in the audience. A rule of thumb: for typical viewing, the

maximum viewing distance is about six times the width of the screen

image. The readability of a printed table 12 cm is determined from a

distance of 70 cm. In other words, if it is readable from that distance, it is

suitable for copying and projection. Another example: if a wall chart 1.5

m wide is readable from 9 m, it is acceptable as a projected image. Use of

color in art, as well as background, improves the communication impact

on the audience. In charts, you must reduce the number of grid lines.

Slide titles should be avoided; they cut down on the amount of space

available for the slide material. The speaker repeats the slide title

anyway. Titles on tables and footnotes should also be avoided.

The surest way to put your audience to sleep is to cram your slides

with data. Therefore, you must use one main idea per slide and restrict

each slide to a maximum of 15 to 20 words or 25 to 30 items of tabular

material. Maximum results for tables can be obtained with maximum of

five rows across (columns) and ten rows down. You leave out data you

do not plan to discuss. You may use several slides to cover a detailed

topic that cannot be logically included in one slide. In short, slides should

have bullets that remind you what to talk about rather than paragraph

messages or crib notes at the lecture. You use the slides to remember

what you want to say.

Most kinds of data can be best represented in graph form rather than

in tabular form. You must not use complex graphs and mathematical


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tables. You must keep graphs simple, with no more than two or three

curves. If you refer to one slide on several occasions, you better use

duplicate instead of trying to return to the original.

9.5 HANDLING QUESTIONS COMING FROM THE AUDIENCE

9.5.1 The Question Period

Most speeches will be followed by questions and the question period is

an important part of a presentation(9)

. This can be the most challenging

aspect of a speech, and perhaps the most fruitful in terms of

communication. It is also the best way for you to find out how your

audience reacted to what you had to say. In the first attempts at the oral

presentation, you have to concentrate on what you are saying to your

audience without having to worry about what they are going to say to

you. Also, it is better not to allow questions during the presentation

unless there is one related to some immediate corrections. Rather, you

should handle the questions at the end of the speech.

As you gain experience and become more confident in yourself, you

can start giving some thought to the message from your audience. In

some cases you may be able to make spontaneous adjustments to them as

you observe their reaction. You must be careful, however, about going

off on the tangent that you had not planned. You can easily go down in

unnecessary detail that is not relevant to your topic. Unplanned speaking

is based on accumulation of experience, and effective spontaneous

adjustments require a certain amount of forethought. Therefore, when

possible, the speaker should arrange for one or more rehearsals (drills,

exercises and repetitions) complete with visual aids, before critical

colleagues.

9.5.2 Guidelines for Handling Questions

Just as there are guidelines for making your prepared message effective,

so there are guidelines for handling a question period:

(9)Most of the material related to this section is adapted from J. Hasling: "The Audience,

The Message, The Speaker", McGraw-Hill, 1976.

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� Be sure there is no break in your relationship with the audience. You

should be aware that the question period is just as much a part of your

speech as the prepared portion. Hence, you should not deliver your

speech with polished formality and then take the attitude during the

question period that now you can relax and really talk to your

audience. This is what you are supposed to do all along.

� Be sure you are armed with plenty of information on your subject. It

is at this time that your audience will not only have a chance to

clarify any points of confusion, but will also be able to find out if you

really know what you are talking about. You should organize and

phrase your answer in such a way that it will be to the benefit of the

whole audience. You should be able to add new information and use

different examples in your replies, so that you aren’t just rehashing

what you have already said.

� Anticipate as many of the question as you can. If you are well

prepared there should be few questions that take you by surprise. It is

especially important in a speech to convince the audience that you are

prepared for questions and objections based on the opposing view.

You should not give the implication to the audience that you are

caught by a challenging question. Rather, you should let them feel

that you welcome the opportunity to clarify your point.

� Direct your answers to the whole audience. You should not address

your response only to the person who asked the question. You must

remember that the question period is part of your speech, and you are

speaking to the whole audience. First of all, you must make sure

everyone has heard the question; if you have any doubt about this,

you should better repeat the question so that they can hear it (and

have the questioner confirm your paraphrase). Then you should

answer so that everyone can hear. This problem arises most

frequently when the questioner is sitting in the front row – and the

people in the front row are the ones most likely to ask questions.

� Be brief. This applies just as much to your response to a question as

to the prepared portion of your speech. A long-winded dissertation in

reply to one question is uncalled for and inappropriate. It has the

effect of discouraging others from asking questions.

� Get lots of people involved. The question period should be dynamic;

it should move rapidly and involve as many people as there is time

for. There are always people in the audience who will want to make


172

questions of their own, or will ask you one question after another.

You must never allow this to happen. You may even have to interrupt

once you get the essence of a question. Answer it and then move on

to someone else. If you get caught in a dialog with one person, you

will lose the rest.

� Stay on top of the situation. The question period is a part of the

public-speaking situation, not a group discussion. You should get lots

of people involved, but be sure they don’t take over the situation and

start addressing questions to each other rather than to you. This can

easily happen if you allow long questions or fail to reply to each

question. If you notice private exchanges beginning to develop

between members of the audience, this is the time to make a strong

point as emphatically as you can to regain their attention. If it doesn’t

work, you might as well sit down! In case of long and irrelevant

questions, you may ask the permission of the audience to discuss

them in another occasion or in the tea break. You don’t have to give

instant answers for everything. If you don’t understand a questioner,

you ask him to rephrase it so that you can understand. If he asks three

questions, you answer any one of them and move on.

� Know when to stop. Since the question period is an important part of

your speech, you must make sure that you allow enough time for it.

The length of a question period depends entirely on the

circumstances. Often there are time limitations; other speakers may

be scheduled or your audience may be on their lunch hour. If your

time is not restricted, you will have to judge how long to allow

questions to continue. As long as the whole audience seems

interested, you can keep going. However, you should not allow one

or two questioners drag things on until the rest get bored. You should

try to get in the last word yourself . It is a good idea to save some

closing remark as an exit line.

9.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Goldstein E.B., Sensation and Perception, Wadsworth Publishing, 7th ed. 2006.

Baumann K. and Thomas B., User Interface Design of Electronic Appliances, CRC, 2001.

Matlin M.W. and Foley H.J., Sensation and Perception, Allyn & Bacon, 4th ed. 1996.

Anholt R.R.H., Dazzle ‘Em With Style : The Art of Oral Scientific Presentation, Academic Press,

2nd ed. 2005.

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173

Gurak L.J. and Dragga S., Oral Presentations for Technical Communication, Longman, 1999.

Cox M.R., What Every Student Should Know About Preparing Effective Oral Presentations,

Allyn & Bacon, 2006.



http://ezinearticles.com/?Essentials-of-Oral-Presentations&id=566834

www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/resources/oral_presentations/content_op_planning.html

www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/oral.html

www.utsydney.cn/elssa/programs/EDUHSSworkshops/Ros2006/Handout-

OralPresentations.pdf

www.utsydney.cn/elssa/programs/EDUHSSworkshops/Ros2006/Handout-

OralPresentations.pdf

www.d220.org/writershandbook/oralpresentation.htm

CHAPTER 10

SAFETY

■ INTRODUCTION ■ GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ■ PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ■ ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS AND EQUIPMENT ■ MACHINERY ■ FIRE PREVENTION ■ QUESTIONS ■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

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10.1 INTRODUCTION

Purpose of safety: to provide a safe and healthy work environment for all

students, engineers, academic and office staff, employees, visitors, and

human study participants.

Scope of safety: an effort to prevent injuries, illnesses, and death

from work-related causes and to minimize losses of material resources

and interruptions from accidental occurrences. It is directed toward the

control of all types of hazards encountered in the performance of official

duties.

Safety is a dynamic activity that requires a continuing program for

providing safety information to personnel and managing safety

inspections. You all share in the responsibility for the health and safety of

students, staff and other employees, and visitors. This chapter is an

extract from “The Safety Manual” for the Electrical and Computer

Engineering Department. It contains six topics as the introduction,

general health and safety, safety administration and responsibilities,

electrical installation and equipment, machinery, and fire prevention.

It is the responsibility of engineers to establish safety rules and

instructions for the establishment in which they work, and to make sure

of the conformity of all activities within the organization to safety

standards. The information and requirements given in this chapter are

applicable to all branches of engineering and represent only general

minimum standards. They do not substitute for special operation manuals

used in certain buildings or laboratories to meet specific situations.


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10.2 GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

10.2.1 Health Hazards

In the regular conduct of his responsibilities, an engineer is exposed to

health hazards of both electrical and non-electrical in nature. Even

though professional rules of conduct provide a certain layer of protection

from these dangers, an engineer or technician is in significantly greater

possibility of a health hazard than those of many other professionals.

Health hazards that can hit any person working in an office, workshop or

laboratory can be briefed as follows:

• Disabling accidents as the result of falls, strains and overexertion,

falling objects, striking against objects, and being caught in or

between objects.

• Fire is frequently caused by short circuits, overheating equipment

and failure of current limiters, thermal sensors, and other safety

devices. Explosions may occur when flammable liquids, gases, and

dusts are exposed to ignition sources generated by electrical

equipment.

• Hazardous chemical and biological materials, such as poisonous

chemicals, biologically contaminated materials, etc.

• Various airborne hazards, e.g., organic vapors, particulates, fume,

etc., that personnel may encounter and respiratory protection may be

required.

• Burns due to electricity, fire, chemicals and radiant light

• Electrocution of personnel from contacting electrically energized

systems

• Heat stroke due to exposure to high temperatures

• Potential energy due to

o Masses stored at elevated places

o Filled cylinders (liquid and/or gas)

o Loaded springs

o Charged capacitors

• Radiation from exposure to ionizing radiations such as X-ray,

nuclear radiation, ultraviolet and laser sources, or non-ionizing

radiation such as microwaves and ultrasound waves.

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10.2.2 Prevention and Control of Workplace Hazards

An engineering design requires that all students, staff and employees be

provided with a safe and healthful place of study and employment.

Identification of hazardous conditions may be accomplished at the

planning and design stage, as a result of workplace inspections, or by

employee reports. All recognized safety and health hazards should be

eliminated or controlled as quickly as possible, subject to priorities based

upon the degree of risk posed by the hazards. The preferred method of

hazard abatement shall be through application of engineering controls or

substitution of less hazardous processes or materials. Total reliance on

personal protective equipment is acceptable only when all other methods

are proven to be technically and/or economically infeasible.

10.2.3 Principles of Hazard Control

Substitution. The risk of injury or illness may be reduced by

replacement of an existing process, material, or equipment with a similar

item having more limited hazard potential Some examples include: brush

painting instead of spray painting to reduce inhalation hazards, welding

instead of riveting to reduce noise levels, use of safety cans instead of

bottles to store flammable liquids, etc. Care must be exercised in any

substitution to ensure that the substitute materials are technically

acceptable and to avoid introducing new or unforeseen hazards.

Isolation. Hazards are controlled by isolation whenever an appropriate

barrier or limiter is placed between the hazard and an individual who

may be affected by the hazard. This isolation can be in the form of

physical barriers, time separation, or distance. Examples include:

machine guards, electrical insulation, glove boxes, acoustical

containment, and remote controlled equipment.

Ventilation. The control of a potentially hazardous airborne substance by

ventilation can be accomplished by one or two methods: diluting the

concentration of the substance by mixing with uncontaminated air or

capturing and removing the substance at its source or point of generation.

Local exhaust ventilation is generally the preferred and more economical

method of hazard control. However, dilution ventilation can be very

effective for the removal of large volumes of heated air or for the


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removal of low concentrations of non-toxic or low toxicity contaminants

from minor and decentralized sources.

Administrative Control. This method of hazard mitigation depends on

effective operating practices that reduce the exposure of individuals to

chemical or physical hazards. These practices may take the form of

limited access to high hazard areas, preventive maintenance programs to

reduce the potential for leakage of hazardous substances, or adjusted

work schedules, which involve a regimen of work in high hazard and low

hazard areas. Adjusted work schedules are appropriate only when the

hazard is recognized as having a limit below which nearly all workers

may be repeatedly exposed without adverse effect.

Personal Protective Equipment. This method of hazard control is least

preferred because personal protective devices may reduce a worker's

productivity, while affording less effective protection against the

recognized hazard than other methods of control. Nevertheless, there are

instances where adequate levels of risk reduction cannot be achieved

through other methods, and personal protective devices must be used,

either alone or in conjunction with other protective measures.

10.2.4 Application of Hazard Control Principles

Hazardous conditions in the workplace may be prevented through

appropriate actions when facilities are designed, when operating

procedures are developed, and when equipment is purchased.

Notwithstanding these preventive measures, hazards will arise as a result

of the dynamics of the workplace environment. Once hazards are

identified, whether through inspection or complaint, immediate action

shall be taken to avoid unreasonable danger.

Safety and occupational health issues shall be considered, designed,

and engineered into all facilities. A Safety Committee or at least a Safety

Officer should be available in all organizations to ensure that appropriate

hazard control techniques are applied. The Safety Committee shall

participate in the review of plans and specifications for construction and

renovation projects. Recommendations shall be submitted in writing.

Projects that involve potential health hazards such as toxic material,

radiation, noise, or other health hazard shall be designed in accordance

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with established principles of good safety and industrial hygiene

engineering.

Engineering control methods are the preferred method of hazard

control, followed by administrative control and personal protective

equipment. Feasible engineering controls shall be used to reduce

hazardous exposure, even when only partial reduction of exposure is

possible through engineering methods. Two criteria may be applied to

determine whether engineering controls are feasible. First, a control is

technologically feasible if it is available "off the shelf" or if technology

exists which can be adapted to the hazard in question. Second, a control

is economically feasible if it can be shown that the cost of the control is

justified by the benefit it produces. On the other hand, if the expected

reduction of the hazard through implementation of engineering control is

insignificant in terms of increased protection, and the cost of

implementing the control is great, then the control is economically

infeasible.

10.2.5 Development of Hazard Control Recommendations

The following possible actions will be considered when

recommendations are developed for prevention or reduction of hazards:

1. Avoiding, eliminating, or reducing deficiencies by engineering

design, material selection or substitution;

2. Isolating hazardous substances, components, and operations from

other activities, areas, personnel, and incompatible materials;

3. Incorporating "fail-safe" principles where failures would disable

the system or cause a catastrophe through injury to personnel,

damage to the equipment, or inadvertent operation of critical

equipment;

4. Relocating equipment/components so that personnel access

during operation, maintenance, repair or adjustment shall not

result in exposure to hazards such as chemical burns, electrical

shock, electromagnetic radiation, cutting edges, sharp points, or

toxic atmospheres;

5. Providing suitable warning and notes of caution concerning

required personnel protection in operation, assembly,

maintenance, and repair instructions;


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6. Providing distinctive markings on hazardous components,

equipment, or facilities;

7. Requiring use of personal protective equipment when other

controls do not reduce the hazard to an acceptable level;

8. Monitoring exposure to insure that engineering controls

effectively reduce the hazard; and

9. Training employees to recognize hazards and take appropriate

precautionary measures.

10.2.6 Hazard Reporting

Identification and reporting of potentially unsafe or unhealthful working

conditions is the responsibility of all lab supervisors, engineers and

employees. All students and employees are encouraged to report “unsafe

or unhealthful” working conditions to their immediate supervisor who

will promptly investigate the situation and take appropriate corrective

actions. Supervisors will contact the Safety Committee for assistance as

necessary. Supervisors will keep the reporting person informed of all

actions taken. Any student (or lab engineer) may submit a written report

of an unsafe or unhealthful working condition directly to the Safety

Committee.

The Safety Committee will investigate all reports of hazards brought

to its attention. It will provide an interim or complete response in writing

to the originator of the report of hazard. If the investigation validates the

reported hazard, the complete response shall include a summary of the

action taken for abatement. If no significant hazard is found to exist, the

reply shall include the basis for that determination. If the originator of the

report of a hazardous condition is dissatisfied with the assessment of the

alleged hazard made by the Safety Committee or with actions taken to

abate a confirmed hazard, he shall be encouraged to confer with the

Safety Committee to discuss the matter further.

10.2.7 First Aid

First aid is the most crucial and critical job that must be performed in

case of a hazard. All labs must have first-aid kits and lab engineers must

be trained to do the job.

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10.2.8 Safety and Health Signs and Tags

Signs and tags are not intended as substitutes for preferred abatement

methods such as engineering controls, substitution, isolation, or safe

work practices. Rather, they are additional safety guidance and increase

the employee's awareness of potentially hazardous situations.

Tags are temporary means of warning all concerned of a hazardous

condition, defective equipment, etc. Tags are not to be considered as a

complete warning method, but should only be used until a positive means

can be employed to eliminate the hazard; for example, a "Do Not Start"

tag is affixed to a machine and is used only until the machine can be

locked out, de-energized, or inactivated.

Any engineer, student, staff or employee who becomes aware of an

unsafe condition will immediately advise the work area supervisor of that

condition. The supervisor will determine whether a tag or sign is needed

and, if so, that the appropriate sign or tag is posted or attached as

required. They will coordinate the placement of tags, with the Safety

Officer. If the responsible supervisor is not available, the employee will

phone the Safety Officer or the Secretary of the Department and request

assistance.

The supervisor will evaluate the situation and initiate appropriate

corrective action. The supervisor, in coordination with the Safety Officer,

is responsible for removing the sign or tag only after the unsafe condition

has been corrected.

10.2.9 Housekeeping

All places of employment including outside areas should be kept as clean

as the nature of the work allows but must be kept free and clear of debris,

trash, scrap, spills or other extraneous materials, which could create a

health hazard or cause an accident. Proper layout, spacing and

arrangement of equipment, facilities, and machinery are essential to good

housekeeping, allowing orderly operation and avoiding congestion.

Maintain the floor of every work area so far as practicable, in a dry

condition. Where wet processes are used, maintain drainage and provide

removable false floors, platforms, mats, or other dry standing places.

When necessary or appropriate, provide waterproof footgear.


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To facilitate cleaning, every floor, working place, and passageway

will be as smooth as feasible but allowing for the need to provide non-

skid flooring where appropriate. Floors will not be cleaned with

flammable materials or materials creating significant toxic hazards.

10.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

10.3.1 Use of Tools

Incidents at the lab/job site involving hand tools are usually the result of

misuse. Hand tools are precision tools capable of performing many jobs

when used properly. Prevention of incidents involving hand tools on the

job site becomes a matter of good instruction, adequate training, and

proper use.

� Hand tool safety requires that the tools be of good quality and

adequate for the job. All tools shall be kept in good repair and

maintained by qualified personnel.

� Racks, shelves, or toolboxes shall be provided for storing tools,

which are not in use.

� When personnel use hand tools while they are working on

ladders, scaffolds, platforms, or work stands, they shall use

carrying bags for tools, which are not in use. Workers shall not

drop tools.

10.3.2 Engineer and Student Training

Engineering controls shall be the primary methods used to eliminate or

minimize hazard exposure in the workplace. When such controls are not

practical or applicable, personal protective equipment shall be employed

to reduce or eliminate personnel exposure to hazards.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) will be provided, used, and

maintained when it has been determined that its use is required and that

such use will lessen the likelihood of occupational injuries and/or

illnesses. The Safety Committee will recommend and/or provide

necessary protective equipment where there is a reasonable probability

that the use of the equipment will prevent or reduce the severity of

injuries or illness.

Engineers and students shall be thoroughly trained in the use of

protective equipment, guards, and safeguards for chemicals and safe

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operation of equipment, machines, and tools they use or operate. Only

students who have been trained and those undergoing supervised on-the-

job training (OJT) shall be allowed to use shop equipment, machines, and

tools.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is not a substitute for

engineering controls or feasible work or administrative procedures. While

these controls are being implemented, or if it has been determined that

control methods are not feasible, personal protective equipment is

required whenever there are hazards that can do bodily harm through

absorption, inhalation, or physical contact. This equipment includes

respiratory and hearing protective devices, special clothing, and

protective devices for the eyes, face, head, and extremities. All PPE shall

be of a safe design and constructed for the work to be performed and

shall be maintained in a sanitary and reliable condition.

10.3.3 Eye Protection

Eye protection is required when there is a possibility of injury from

chemicals or flying particles. Examples of operation requiring the use of

eye protection include, but are not limited to:

� Chipping, grinding, and impact drilling.

� Breaking concrete, brick, and plaster.

� Welding or helping in welding of any type.

� Cleaning with compressed air.

� Tinning or soldering lugs or large joints.

� Riveting, grinding, or burning metals.

� Handling chemicals, acids, or caustics.

Face shields shall be thoroughly washed with soap and water before

being worn by another person.

10.3.4 Hearing Protection

Appropriate hearing protection shall be used where employees are in

designated hazardous noise areas with operating noise sources, or using

tools or equipment, which are labeled as hazardous noise producers.


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10.3.5 Hand and Foot Protection

Personnel working with batteries or where acids, alkalis, organic

solvents, and other harmful chemicals are handled shall wear rubber

protective gloves. Electrical worker's gloves are designed and shall be

used to insulate electrical workers from shock, burns, and other electrical

hazards. These gloves shall NOT be the only protection provided and will

never be used with voltages higher than the insulation rating of the

gloves.

Multi-use gloves shall be worn to protect the hands from injuries

caused by handling sharp or jagged objects, wood, or similar hazard-

producing materials. These gloves are usually made of cloth material

with chrome leather palms and fingers or synthetic coating. All-leather

gloves are also acceptable. Non-skid shoes shall be worn where floors

may be wet or greasy. Where there is reasonable probability of foot or toe

injury from impact and compression forces, safety footwear shall be

worn.

10.3.6 Respiratory Protection

There are various airborne hazards, e.g., organic vapors, particulates,

fume, etc., that personnel may encounter and respiratory protection may

be required.

10.3.7 Head and Body Protection

All personnel working below other workers and in areas where sharp

projections or other head hazards exist shall wear hard hats. Personnel

handling irritating or corrosive substances shall wear natural or synthetic

rubber or acid-resisting rubberized cloth aprons. Aprons shall normally

be worn with acid sleeves and gloves for greater body protection against

skin injuries.

Insulating matting shall be used by students and workers for

additional resistance to shock where potential shock hazards exist in

areas such as floor resistance is lowered due to dampness, high voltages

(above 600 volts) may be encountered and electrical repair or test

benches.

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10.3.8 Other

Lab supervisors shall ensure that lab personnel and students use the

protective clothing and equipment that will protect them from hazards of

the work they perform. It is the responsibility of students to keep their

PPE in a clean, sanitary state of repair and use the equipment when

required.

Students shall keep their hands and face clean, change clothes when

they are contaminated with solvents, lubricants, or fuels, and keep their

hands and soiled objects out of their mouth. No food or drink shall be

brought into or consumed in areas exposed to toxic materials, chemicals,

or shop contaminants. Students shall wash their hands before eating or

smoking after exposure to any contaminant.

Students shall not wear rings, earrings, bracelets, wristwatches, or

necklaces in the vicinity of operating machinery and power tools.

Additionally, long full beards, unrestrained long hair, and loose clothing

can become caught in tools or machinery and cause serious personal

injury. Highly combustible garments or coverall s made of material such

as nylon shall not be worn in or around high temperature equipment or

operations such as boiler operations, welding, and any other work with

open flame devices.

10.4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS AND EQUIPMENT

10.4.1 Electrical Safety

Today, man is surrounded by electrical and electronic equipment. Some

of them are simple, some of them complicated, some are considered

essential, and some convenience, they are all intended to serve you. At

times, however, you observe that they harm you. One of the ways that

electrical equipment could cause physical harm is the electrical shock.

The extreme hazard of electrical equipment is the potential for

personnel electrocution from contacting energized systems. Electrical

equipment can also cause catastrophic property damage because of its

potential as an ignition source for causing fire or explosion. Fire is

frequently caused by short circuits, overheating equipment and failure of

current limiters, thermal sensors, and other safety devices. Explosions

may occur when flammable liquids, gases, and dusts are exposed to

ignition sources generated by electrical equipment.


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Electrical safety is containment or limitation of hazards due to

electric shock people in the form of macroshock (both contacts are

external to the body) or microshock (cardiac shock – one of the contact is

inside of the body), explosions that may result from electrical contact

sparks that ignite variety of explosive gases, such as ether, or

cyclopropane anesthetics. It also includes fire and damage to equipment

and buildings. Hazards can be minimized but not eliminated. They are

not static phenomena; rather it is a matter of dynamic and continuous

course of action involving hazard detection and correction. The scope of

electrical safety includes any electrically operated equipment used in

laboratories and public utilization areas. Safety is provided via power

distribution and equipment design. Preventive maintenance procedures

involving frequent equipment inspections and safety checks, uncovering

early degradation of parts and replacements are needed for safe operation

of equipment in the laboratories. Education and training of the lab

engineers, students and employees are essential ingredients of the safety

measures.

10.4.2 The Electrical Shock

Electrical shock is defined as the undesirable biological damaging effect

of an electrical current passing through the body. Electrical current could

affect the body in three basic ways: resistive heating, electrical

stimulation of nerves and muscles, and electrochemical burns (especially

for DC current). As a result it causes uncontrollable muscle contraction

or unconsciousness, ventricular fibrillation, and injury to tissues in the

form of electrical burns, chemical burns (for dc currents), muscular

paralysis, injuries, pain and fatigue, and breaking the bones and tendons.

It has secondary (side) effects as falling of the ladder or spilling hot oil,

etc. Electrical current flows through the body due to direct contact with

power lines, power line leakage in equipment to chassis, leakage to the

body from diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, and uncontrolled

electricity in the body during medical practices. The severity of these

effects depends on point of contact and the density, frequency, and

duration of the current passing through the body.

A current level below 0.5 milliampere at 60 Hz frequency will not be

felt if the person grips the conductor. However, if the conductor makes a

point contact, as low as 0.2 milliampere may be sensed. At low levels, it

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gives a tingling sensation and the victim can run away from further

dangers of the electricity.

As a rough guide, a current more than 10 milliamperes at 60 Hz

frequency, for a duration of a few tenths of a second entering the body

from one arm and leaving from the other arm or from the leg could be

lethal. At current levels lower than 10 milliamperes, anywhere from just

a tingling sensation to involuntary muscle contractions could result

depending on the individual, raising the possibility of secondary physical

injuries, such as falling from a ladder.

At current levels progressively higher than 10 milliamperes, the

ventricular fibrillation, a certain failure of the heart, is the major cause of

death due to electric shock. The sensitivity of the individual varies.

Women are more susceptible than men. There is statistical variation in

the level current to cause certain effects.

The amount of current required to cause a dangerous electric shock

increases at frequencies below about 10 Hz, and above about 1000 Hz.

This means that the 50 and 60 Hz frequency used for the mains supply is

among the most dangerous, although technically and economically the

most appropriate. If the duration of the current passing through the body

is less than about 0.1 second, even higher levels of current will not do

any harm. The biological effects of electricity depend directly on the

amount of current passing through the body, but not directly on the

potential difference (voltage) applied to the body.

10.4.3 How to Prevent Electrical Shocks

At present, the potential causes of electric shock are well understood and

comprehensive safety measures have been standardized. In many

countries, these standards are obligatory and they are strictly enforced in

the manufacturing and operation of all electrical equipment. However,

even if rare, equipment not conforming to such safety standards might be

available in the market. Also, properly manufactured equipment might

lose its safety after some use or abuse. Therefore, the educated buyer or

the user of electrical equipment should have an idea of the essential

techniques of preventing the electric shock hazard both as built-in

features of equipment and in the course of its utilization.


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Electrical safety or protection from electric shocks can be achieved

at three levels, namely at the power distribution level, at the equipment

design level, and at the utilization level.

10.4.4 Electrical Safety in Power Distribution

The present state of the electrical engineering science dealing with the

distribution of electrical power dictates that one of the wires carrying the

mains power be grounded (earthed). This grounding or earthing is done

before it reaches the utilization point, usually at the transformer feeding a

building. The grounded wire is called the "neutral". The other wires are

called "phase", or "line", or "live", or "hot". The requirement of

grounding one of the power wires brings together the possibility that

even if a person touches just a single wire, he could get an electric shock.

The following safety measures are called in the distribution of electrical

power in buildings.

• Circuit breakers and switches to interrupt power, or to turn

equipment on and off should be placed on the "hot" wire (phase),

but not on the neutral wire. If a neutral wire going to equipment is

interrupted, the equipment will not work, although the phase wire

will still carry the dangerous mains voltage with respect to the

earth.

• From the power distribution point of view, it is permissible to

isolate the two mains wires from the ground in limited areas.

This technique is called the "isolated power system", and utilized

in wet areas and in operating rooms of hospitals. The transformer

employed in this system is called an isolation transformer. Its

secondary winding is electrically insulated from the primary, and

has some other special construction features. "Auto-

transformers" commonly available in the market do not have an

insulated secondary and they cannot be used for this purpose.

• If an undesirable electrical connection occurs between the phase

wire and the chassis of equipment, anybody touching the chassis

will have an electrical current going through his body to the

ground. In such a situation, instead of all of the current leaving

the phase wire passing through the neutral, some is diverted to

the ground. This is called a ground fault or earth leakage. This

condition can be detected by monitoring the difference between

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the currents in the phase and neutral wires. They will be equal

unless there is a ground fault. Simple and low cost devices are

available in the market to continuously measure the difference

and if a significant difference occurs, break the circuit

immediately. These protection devices, called Ground Fault

Circuit Interrupters (GFCI), or Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers

(ELCB) are highly recommended for domestic use, and they are

a must in the distribution of any wet area or outdoor

installations. GFCI's are also available as an adapter to existing

wall outlets.

Any exposed conducting surface of electrical equipment should be

connected to the ground in order to discharge any current leaking to it.

For this purpose, a local grounding electrode system is required to be

established for each installation (i.e., building). This is the responsibility

of the owner of the building, not the power company. In many countries

the owner will be obliged to provide a grounding system in accordance

with the applicable standards. The ground electrode connection should

be brought to the central distribution board for the building, and from

there on the ground wire will be carried along with the power lines in the

distribution system inside. In this way, chassis grounding is conveniently

done by the use of a three-way plug and socket pair. The use of the

neutral wire as the only way of grounding equipment is never

permissible. Any failure of the neutral connection within the building

could cause the phase voltage to appear on the chassis of equipment

resulting in unexpected electrical shock accidents. A direct connection to

a metal water pipe buried under the ground could serve the purpose of

grounding if certain conditions are satisfied. You have to be careful in

using the water pipe as a grounding point in Jeddah, since the pipe does

not go to the ground; rather it goes to the tank in the roof. Such a case

will electrify the whole building in case of a serious leakage.

10.4.5 Electrical Safety in Equipment Design

Any metallic or otherwise conducting surface exposed on electrical

equipment should be connected to the ground in order to discharge any

current leaking to it. Continuity of the safety ground wire and receptacle

must be tested periodically. This important safety requirement is relieved

only if given equipment does not have any exposed metallic surfaces, or

such surfaces are insulated from the current carrying conductors by a


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double layer of insulation. Such equipment is called "double insulated".

However, since water entering this type of equipment could provide a

leakage path to the outside, they cannot be employed in wet areas and

outdoor applications safely.

Whenever the power requirements of equipment permit, it should be

designed to operate from a low enough voltage to limit the current, which

could pass in an accident. A voltage level below 30 volts (rms) could be

considered safe in many applications. The low voltage should be

obtained from batteries, or from an isolation type transformer feeding

from the mains. An isolation transformer has its secondary winding

electrically insulated from the primary and some other special

construction features. If equipment has signal connections to outside,

such as existing in audio and video equipment, these should be

electrically isolated from the mains voltage.

10.4.6 Electrical Safety in Utilization

The first obligation of the buyer and user of electrical equipment is to

make sure that it is conforming to the electrical safety guidelines stated

above. If any significant deviations from these are suspected, either the

equipment should be rejected or a specialist in the field should be

consulted. It should be made sure that the electrical power distribution

system at hand is satisfying the safety requirements. If equipment has a

grounded, three-terminal plug, it should not be "adapted" to a mains

outlet, which does not have a grounding terminal.

A fuse in the power distribution circuit or inside equipment not only

protects against possible fire or extensive damage to the equipment, but

also provides a line of defense against electrical shocks. In case a short

circuit provides a current path from a phase wire to the grounded chassis

in equipment, the excessive amount of current drawn will trip the fuse

and immediately remove power from the equipment. If a fuse is over-

rated or simply replaced by a thick wire this protection obviously fails.

10.4.7 Controls of Hazardous Energy (Lock-Out/Tag-Out)

The procedures specified in this section comply with the requirements for

the isolation or control of hazardous energy sources. The accidental

release of energy during maintenance work can and frequently does cause

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severe injuries, amputations, and death. Energy can be present in the

form of electricity, potential energy (due to gravity) stored in elevated

masses, chemical corrosivity, chemical toxicity, or pressure.

10.5 MACHINERY

All mechanical motion is potentially hazardous. Motion hazards, such as

rotating devices, cutting or shearing blades, in-running nip points,

reciprocating parts, linear moving belts and pulleys, meshing gears, and

uncontrolled movement of failing parts, are examples of motion and

peculiar to any one machine or job operation. Personnel working within

areas where they are exposed to machinery or equipment hazards must be

aware of the potential for accidents. Machine operators and others are

exposed to moving parts and can get clothing or body parts caught in the

machinery.

10.5.1 Personnel Training

Personnel should be trained to safely operate each machine they will be

required to use; to recognize potential accident producing situations; and

to know what to do when hazards are discovered. Only personnel who

have been thoroughly trained, or those who are undergoing supervised

on-the-job training on the equipment, will be permitted to operate

machinery.

10.5.2 Guards

Many accidents are caused by machinery that is improperly guarded or

not guarded at all. Important factor that must be kept in mind relative to

machinery guarding is that no mechanical motion that threatens a

worker's safety should be left without a safeguard.

The following areas of machinery will be provided with barriers

and/or enclosures that will effectively prevent personnel from coming in

contact with moving components:

• Point of operation exposures such as blades, knives and cutting

heads.

• Power transmission exposures such as belts, pulleys, shaft, gears,

etc.


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• Top, bottom and backside exposures, such as the underside of

table saws and the wheels on band saws.

• When a point-of-operation guard cannot be used because of

unusual shapes or cuts, jigs or fixtures, which will provide equal

safety for the operator, will be used. Upon completion of an

unusual operation, the guard will be immediately replaced.

• Whenever a guard is removed for other than an operational

requirement, the machine will be shut down and the control

switch(es) locked and tagged in the "OFF" position.

• Guards will be affixed to the machine. Where possible, they will

be of the hinged type to enhance maintenance or adjustments.

10.5.3 Material Storage

All unnecessary accumulation of materials and supplies in the lab area

shall be avoided. The presence of unnecessary material in the lab could

cause such incidents as tripping, falling, or slipping. This could be

especially hazardous around equipment that is in operation. The only

material in the lab area shall be that actually in work. The only place that

materials should accumulate in quantity is in storerooms and material

holding areas.

10.6 FIRE PREVENTION

All engineering services personnel shall receive fire prevention training

as part of their general training. Supervisors in charge of operations

where fuels, solvents, or other flammable liquids are used shall be

constantly alert for hazards and unsafe acts. Fuels such as gasoline shall

never be used to clean floors or clothing, and open solvent or gasoline

containers shall not be kept near electrical equipment. The use of low

flashpoint petroleum solvents shall be avoided whenever possible. Open

flames, open element heaters, equipment not properly grounded, and

nonexplosion-proof electrical equipment used in the presence of

flammable or combustible liquids shall be avoided.

Fire extinguishers of at least 20°C or greater rating shall be installed

in lab areas. The number of extinguishers depends upon the size and

layout of the facility. Supervisors shall ensure that employees remove

construction debris and rubbish from the job site upon completion of the

job, or daily if extended beyond one day. Hazardous materials shall not

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be left in the labs unless properly stored. Work being performed on labs

shall not endanger building occupants (e.g., exits blocked, fire alarm

devices disconnected, etc.).

10.7 QUESTIONS

(1) Select one of the labs in your specialization. For the lab you have

selected:

a. Read the safety manual and identify three places where the

information in it is applicable;

b. Write down 3 unsafe practices;

c. Discuss how you can improve the unsafe practices and

provide a safe working environment.

(2) Answer the following True or False questions related to safety (T for

“true” and F for “false”).

Statement T or F

Once you guarantee that the place you are working in is “safe”, you don’t have to

worry about it forever

You can discharge used engine oil to the ground since it is a petroleum product that

comes from the earth

A double-insulated electrically operated equipment is electrically safe even if the

electrical power is supplied by two wires

You can use the water pipe at home in Jeddah for grounding since it is easily

accessible

Large currents passing through conductors overheat and may cause fire Filled cylinders are dangerous due to stored potential energy Dangers of rotating shaft of a motor can be eliminated by putting barriers around

the shaft

Personal Protective Equipment must be used when using machine tools Ground fault circuit interrupter is used to provide grounding connection for an

ungrounded equipment

The safety engineer is responsible for identification of hazardous conditions in

work places

10.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Banerjee S., Industrial Hazards and Plant Safety, CRC, 2002.

Tweedy J.T., Healthcare Hazard Control and Safety Management, CRC; 2nd ed. 2005.

Collins L.R. and Schneid T.D., Physical Hazards of the Workplace, CRC, 2001.

II Ericson C.A., Hazard Analysis Techniques for System Safety, Wiley-Interscience, 2005.

Anonymous, Hazards of Electricity and Static Electricity, Bp Safety Group, 2nd ed., 2006.


196

Dalton A., Safety, Health and Environmental Hazards at the Workplace, Cengage Lrng Business

Press, 1998.

Anonymous, The Safety Manual of Office of Health and Safety, Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road N.E., Mail Stop F05 Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA, Last

Modified: 6/26/2001



www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/safetyhealth/comp3.html

www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention

www.pattinsonbrewer.co.uk/site/library/librarynews/tuc_guidance_on_workplace_hazards.

html

www.hazardcontrol.com/coreprinciples.html

www.unido.org/userfiles/cracknej/fgfs3.pdf

CHAPTER 11

ETHICS FOR A MUSLIM ENGINEER

■ NEEDS FOR STUDYING ETHICS ■ THE MUSLIM ATTITUDE ■ CODES OF ETHICS ■ THE MUSLIM ENGINEER (A POEM) ■ QUESTIONS ■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

199

Morals

Etiquette

Morals

Etiquette

Several aspects related to practices of a Muslim engineer have been

integrated into the text in previous chapters. Some light will be thrown

onto the ethics in engineering practices from a Muslim stand.

11.1 NEEDS FOR STUDYING ETHICS

11.1.1 Etiquette and Morality

Rules of interaction can be listed as: the etiquette (good

manner), the law, morals and ethics. The etiquette

contains codes of acceptable personal behavior and

courtesy. The law is a system of rules established by

authority. Morals are accepted standards of right and

wrong. And ethics is a code or system of rules defining moral behavior

for a particular society. Obeying the law is also a good manner and

breaking the law causes punishment. Ethics is considered within the

general framework of morals.

Every deed has two faces as the etiquette and the morals. The

etiquette is the visible (material) side and the moral is the invisible

(spiritual) side. They are like two faces of a coin. If one of the faces is

ruined then the coin can be sold only at the value of its nickel. The

morals side is the sincerity and devotion of the person in his deed and it

affects the fidelity of the act. Eventually he will be rewarded for his deed

according to his devotion.

11.1.2 Engineering Ethics

Science and technology tell us how to do things without differentiating

right or wrong. What you ought to do in your profession is the domain of

ethics. Thus, ethics is the study of the characteristics of morals, and it

involves the moral choices made by individuals as they interact with

other persons.


200

Engineering is an important and learned profession that has a direct

and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the

services provided by engineers require honesty, integrity, impartiality,

fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public

health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of

professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of

ethical conduct. Consequently engineers need to be aware of ethics as

they make choices during their professional practice of engineering.

Engineering ethics will be defined as the rules and standards governing

the conduct of engineers in their roles as professionals(10)

. They specify

rights and responsibilities and fairly standard across institutions/societies.

Such codes have been adopted by several authorities as state boards of

registration, professional engineering societies, and even by some private

industries.

Professions are based on a large knowledge foundation requiring

extensive teaching, training, preaching and exemplifying. Professional

skills are important to the well-being of society. Professions are usually

self-regulating, in that they control the training and evaluation processes.

Guidelines for ethical decisions are important indeed in determining the

truth and falsehood. However, an engineer in real life faces a lot of

challenges where the situation is blurred and the case falls into a gray

area. Eventually, professionals have autonomy in the workplace; they are

expected to utilize their independent judgment in carrying out their

professional responsibilities(11)

. The decision may be critical for other

people but the engineer may not be sued for his verdict. The upbringing

of the person and his character play an important role in reaching into a

healthy conclusion.

11.1.3 Teaching Ethics

Study of engineering ethics can guide us in resolving moral dilemmas

you might encounter. Being responsible is what a professional is all

about and our goal must be to become morally autonomous in the

(10)Fleddermann, C.B., “Engineering Ethics,” Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle

River, NJ, 2004. (11)

Harris, C.E., M.S. Pritchard, & M.J. Rabins, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases,

Copyright © 1995 by Wadsworth Publishing Company, pp 27-28.

Ethics for A Muslim Engineer

201

performance of our duties. In an engineering work, design decisions and

ethical decisions are not two different kinds of decisions; rather they are

two different aspects of the same decisions. In 1998, the ABET Board of

Directors approved the present version of the new accreditation criteria

known as Engineering Criteria 2000 (EC2000). Criterion 3 (f) requires

institutions to demonstrate that their graduates have "an understanding of

professional and ethical responsibility." Many universities have

integrated courses, lectures and seminars on engineering ethics as a part

of their curricula(12)

.

11.2 THE MUSLIM ATTITUDE

11.2.1 The Purpose of Life

Muslim believes that the universe with all what it contains are created by

Allah Almighty. The human being is the only creation responsible for his

deeds in this world. The purpose of the human being on earth is to act as

the vicegerent (khalifah) of the Creator. The Creator provides guidance

for him in his acts on earth through messengers and prophets who were

given holy books. Islam is the only way of life on earth that will be

accepted by the Creator and it was brought by the last of the prophets

Muhammed (peace and blessings be upon him). He taught his

companions and showed them how to practice it. Muslim believes in

Allah (the Creator), His angels, His holy books, His Messengers, and the

day of resurrection.

No doubt, human mind is capable, within certain limits, of

distinguishing right from wrong, and every individual has been endowed

with it in some degree. Similarly the knowledge of good and evil is, to

some extent, intuitive because human conscience intrinsically feels

uneasy in the presence of evil. Islam can provide us with the commonly

agreed and objectively accepted standard, which has been eluding us.

The fact that Allah Almighty taught man shows that he has the

Divine gift of learning and thinking. Man employs these qualities to

enable him to carry out his duties and responsibilities in a manner that

(12) Herkert, J.R. (1999), "ABET’’s Engineering Criteria 2000 and Engineering Ethics:

Where Do We Go From Here?," http:// onlineethics.org/text/essays/herkert2.html.


202

between good and evil, through his will. He is the Almighty's vicegerent

or deputy on earth. His actions on earth will not go unaccounted. Rather,

two responsible angels continuously register all good and bad deeds and

the record book will be given to the person at the day of resurrection.

Content of the book will be judged and even parts of the human body

will provide witness to the actions. Eventually, either he will be granted a

way to paradise or he will be thrown into the hellfire.

Worshipping is compulsory in Islam, and it has been included in the

basic pillars of faith. But the Islamic forms of worship are not the same

sort of mystic exercises that link men with some unknown, mysterious

being, and which subject men to perform useless acts and meaningless

movements. All the Islamic compulsory forms of worships are designed

as exercises and training to enable people to acquire correct morals and

habits and to live righteously, and to adhere to these virtues till the end,

whatever are the changes in their circumstances. The Muslim, within the

limited sphere of his existence, is the absolute master of his conduct.

Hence there is individual responsibility. Worshipping improves the

Muslim spiritually so that his actions, motives and conscience could

reach a stage of development in which feeling of remorse overtakes him

in the doing of unrighteous deeds and he becomes keen to perform good

deeds.

11.2.2 Ethics and Morality

Ethics deals with what is right and wrong in matters of conduct. The

judgment for right and wrong is made based on the decisions of

lawmakers and ethical philosophers in non-religious societies. In a

Muslim society governed by Islamic law (Sharia) however, it is believed

that the Creator grants the truth, and people try to understand and

implement it in judging the right and the wrong. Islam should have

influence on ethics in non-Muslim societies as well simply because it has

included the truth provided by ethical philosophers, in their attempts to

justify moral principles.

Harmony between the home, the school and society at large requires

that the moral values of the individual are to be the same as those of his

society. Justice and stability usually depend upon the nature of the moral,

social, political and economic institutions of the society.


203

Morality means a law, which controls and regulates the entire life of

man; the entire behavior of the Muslims in all walks of life. Moral

goodness is nothing other than absolute and willing submission to the law

of Allah Almighty. Morality provides reasons and arguments to

distinguish between good and bad actions and inherently includes the

framework of ethical principles needed for actions of a Muslim engineer.

The moral judgments of Islam are not suggestions, proposals or requests

put forward to Muslims. They are commands, which the Muslims are

supposed to execute. Our beloved Prophet (peace be upon him) has stated

the foremost purpose of his being sent down as:

“I have been sent only for the purpose of perfecting good morals”(13)

Faith is such a power that it keeps man away from low attributes and

mean acts, and encourages him to achieve high attributes and clean

morals. Allah’s Messenger has nicely explained it that when faith is firm

and belief is strong, then strong and lasting moral will be developed. And

if the moral character is low then faith is accordingly weak.

11.2.3 Responsibilities in the Society

We must live in harmony with all creatures of Allah Almighty and

progress toward the ultimate goal of life: to gain the pleasure of

Almighty. In this respect, we must look for continuous improvement

while being extremely careful about our personal conducts. We must

always remember that we are the followers of a Prophet (peace be upon

him) who said,

“He who deceives us is not from us”(12).

We must state the truth even if it is against our personal desires

because a Muslim can’t tell a lie since lying is stated as a big crime for

us. It is crucial to publicize the goodness and conceal the wickedness. If

good and evil meets at an act, we prefer abstention from the evil to

fulfilling the good.

(13)Abdulbagi, M.F., Sahih Muslim, Muslim Ibn Haccac Al-Quraishi An-Nashaburi, Tahkik,

1/99, Daru'l Hadis Al-Kahira, Cairo, (1412H, 1992) (in Arabic).


204

Fig. 11.1 Responsibilities of a muslim engineer.

Humanity

Fellow Muslims

Fellow country

Citizens

Neighbors

Family

Self

Humanity

Fellow Muslims

Fellow country

Citizens

Neighbors

Family

Self

Humanity

Fellow Muslims

Fellow country

Citizens

Neighbors

Family

Self

Every individual living in the civilized world must shoulder several

duties to fulfill his personal interest and to contribute to the interests of

his family, his fellow citizens, and humanity at large. The Muslim

engineer uses all his resources for the benefit of the people at six levels

as illustrated in Fig.11.1. He will be like a light source that illuminates

its neighborhood. He will

benefit himself first. He must

do his best to reach and retain

the highest possible level of

physical and spiritual maturity.

Hence, he must develop a

strong character. Al-Ghazali

states that: “Disposition or

character is an established state

of the soul from which actions

flow easily and smoothly.”

The levels of responsibility

cover, in decreasing order, the

family and first-degree relatives, the close and distant neighbors, the

fellow citizens, the fellow country, the fellow Muslims and finally the

whole humanity. If there is any non-Muslim in the previous levels, he

will be treated among the humanity in the last level. In benefiting people,

these levels must be observed. In harming people however, all levels are

equal and a Muslim can’t harm anybody unless there is a legal reason for

it.

11.2.4 The Muslim Attitude Concerning Continuous Improvement

Rules of the Sharia (Islamic law) are unchangeable but not rigid. Some

rules do not change with changing circumstances because they deal with

the regulation of human impulses and inclinations, which are the same

everywhere and at all times. Stealing, dishonesty, envy, greed and telling

lies are bad everywhere, for everybody, all the time, and do not change.

But there are social, economic and political principles, which are

formulated in such a way as to allow for exceptions and modifications in

order to meet the complexity of the future. As far as the social, economic

and political systems are concerned Islam has provided us with general

rules and principles, leaving the application in detail of most of these to

the process of time and the emergence of individual problems. We are


205

recommended to respect the science (al-ilm) and always to consult

people; consultation between those who are entitled to have a voice is the

order of our beloved Prophet (peace be upon him).

Exceptions are allowed for, but not by individuals who might be

influenced by their own interests. They are based on what the Qur’an has

clearly stated. “Necessity renders the forbidden permissible.”

In case of novel situations, they can be dealt with in the most

progressive manner, with the spirit of the main sources of Islam. A

Muslim must seek continuous progress. The first verse revealed to

Prophet (peace be upon him) is “read”. Following hadiths from our

beloved Prophet (peace be upon him) yields the striking importance

given to continuous improvement in all aspects of life for a Muslim(12)

.

“Seek knowledge even if it is in China.”

“Seek knowledge from cradle to death.”

“Wisdom is the lost property of a Muslim; he takes it wherever he

finds it.”

“He who has two successive days alike is a looser.”

We can conclude that if we educate a Muslim engineer with the spirit

of Islam and train him in practicing his religion correctly, then we don’t

have to worry about the ethics since their moral values covers them in

full. The whole earth is the prayer hall (masjid) for a Muslim. Allah

Almighty states in Al-Qur’an that nobody but Muslims can construct the

prayer halls for His sake. We don’t need to have several levels of

watchdog organizations to monitor him because he is absolutely sure that

all his actions are very carefully recorded into his divine book. However,

to understand Islam, one must have uncorrupt and unbiased mind. At the

same time, continuous education and training are essential to improve

him materially, mentally and spiritually so that he can cope with the

continually changing state of affairs.

11.3 CODES OF ETHICS

Codes of ethics have been established by various professional

engineering societies, such as the National Society of Professional

Engineers (NSPE), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

(ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),


206

etc. These codes serve as a framework for ethical judgment for a

professional engineer. The codes also express the rights, duties, and

obligations of the members of the profession. Obviously, the codes of

ethics are not comprehensive enough to cover all possible ethical

dilemmas that an engineer might encounter in his or her career. The

codes serve as starting points for making ethical decisions(14)

. It is

important to note what a code of ethics does not represent:

• A code of ethics is not a legal document, so a professional cannot

be arrested for violating its provisions

• Although violating the code of ethics may result in expulsion

from a professional society (such as NSPE or ASME), expulsion

from a society generally will not result in an inability to practice

engineering

• A code of ethics does not create new moral and ethical principles;

these principles are rooted in centuries of societal and human

interactions.

Codes of ethics for engineers were developed along with their respective

professional societies, which began formal organization in the late 19th

century. Initially, codes of ethics involved standard business practices.

As the professional societies matured over the years, their codes of ethics

were updated and modified. For example, clauses for public safety,

public service, and environmental protection are more recent

amendments to the various codes of ethics. While each society’s code of

ethics exhibit similar themes, they have different formats. The NSPE

Code of Ethics is very specific and detailed, and it is reproduced in

sections below.

Many corporations have developed their own codes of ethics for

their employees. In many cases, these codes of conduct can be found on

the websites of various large corporations. Companies often provide

periodic ethical training sessions for their employees in order to

explicitly express their accepted policies on business practices,

relationships with vendors and government agencies, compliances with

government regulations, health and safety issues, environmental issues,

equal employment opportunities, and diversity in the work place.

Corporate codes are often very detailed and explicit, and they hold much

more weight than professional society codes, since employment can be

(14)http://ethics.tamu.edu/ethicscasestudies.htm.


207

terminated if compliance is not met. By comparison, the professional

codes have diminished power since the majority of professional

engineers are not members of professional societies.

11.3.1 Fundamental Canons of Ethics

First, let us look at the Fundamental Canons of the NSPE Code of Ethics:

• Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of

the public

• Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their

competence

• Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and

truthful manner

• Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents

or trustees

• Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts

• Engineers shall conduct themselves honorably, responsibly,

ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and

usefulness of the profession.

11.3.2 Rules of Practice

(1) Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the

public.

a. If engineers' judgment is overruled under circumstances that

endanger life or property, they shall notify their employer or client

and such other authority as may be appropriate.

b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that

are in conformity with applicable standards.

c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the

prior consent of the client or employer except as authorized or

required by law or this Code.

d. Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in

business ventures with any person or firm that they believe are

engaged in fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.

e. Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of

engineering by a person or firm.

f. Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code

shall report thereon to appropriate professional bodies and, when


208

relevant, also to public authorities, and cooperate with the proper

authorities in furnishing such information or assistance as may be

required.

(2) Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their

competence.

a. Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by

education or experience in the specific technical fields involved.

b. Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or

documents dealing with subject matter in which they lack

competence, nor to any plan or document not prepared under their

direction and control.

c. Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for

coordination of an entire project and sign and seal the engineering

documents for the entire project, provided that each technical

segment is signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers who

prepared the segment.

(3) Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and

truthful manner.

a. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports,

statements, or testimony. They shall include all relevant and

pertinent information in such reports, statements, or testimony,

which should bear the date indicating when it was current.

b. Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are

founded upon knowledge of the facts and competence in the

subject matter.

c. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on

technical matters that are inspired or paid for by interested parties,

unless they have prefaced their comments by explicitly identifying

the interested parties on whose behalf they are speaking, and by

revealing the existence of any interest the engineers may have in

the matters.

(4) Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or

trustees.

a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of

interest that could influence or appear to influence their judgment

or the quality of their services.


209

b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise,

from more than one party for services on the same project, or for

services pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances

are fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties.

c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable

consideration, directly or indirectly, from outside agents in

connection with the work for which they are responsible.

d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees

of a governmental or quasi-governmental body or department

shall not participate in decisions with respect to services solicited

or provided by them or their organizations in private or public

engineering practice.

e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a

governmental body on which a principal or officer of their

organization serves as a member.

(5) Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

a. Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit

misrepresentation of their or their associates' qualifications. They

shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility in or for

the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other

presentations incident to the solicitation of employment shall not

misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees,

associates, joint ventures, or past accomplishments.

b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit or receive, either directly or

indirectly, any contribution to influence the award of a contract by

public authority, or which may be reasonably construed by the

public as having the effect of intent to influencing the awarding of

a contract. They shall not offer any gift or other valuable

consideration in order to secure work. They shall not pay a

commission, percentage, or brokerage fee in order to secure work,

except to a bona fide employee or bona fide established

commercial or marketing agencies retained by them.

11.3.3 Professional Obligations

(1) Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest

standards of honesty and integrity.

a. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or

alter the facts.


210

b. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they

believe a project will not be successful.

c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of

their regular work or interest. Before accepting any outside

engineering employment they will notify their employers.

d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another

employer by false or misleading pretenses.

e. Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of

the dignity and integrity of the profession.

(2) Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.

a. Engineers shall seek opportunities to participate in civic affairs;

career guidance for youths; and work for the advancement of the

safety, health, and well-being of their community.

b. Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal plans and/or

specifications that are not in conformity with applicable

engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on such

unprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities

and withdraw from further service on the project.

c. Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge and

appreciation of engineering and its achievements.

(3) Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.

d. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material

misrepresentation of fact or omitting a material fact.

e. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may advertise for

recruitment of personnel.

f. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may prepare articles for

the lay or technical press, but such articles shall not imply credit

to the author for work performed by others.

(4) Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential

information concerning the business affairs or technical processes of

any present or former client or employer, or public body on which

they serve.

a. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties,

promote or arrange for new employment or practice in connection

with a specific project for which the engineer has gained

particular and specialized knowledge.


211

b. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties,

participate in or represent an adversary interest in connection with

a specific project or proceeding in which the engineer has gained

particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former client or

employer.

(5) Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by

conflicting interests.

a. Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations,

including free engineering designs, from material or equipment

suppliers for specifying their product.

b. Engineers shall not accept commissions or allowances, directly or

indirectly, from contractors or other parties dealing with clients or

employers of the engineer in connection with work for which the

engineer is responsible.

(6) Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or

professional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers,

or by other improper or questionable methods.

a. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a commission on a

contingent basis under circumstances in which their judgment

may be compromised.

b. Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering

work only to the extent consistent with policies of the employer

and in accordance with ethical considerations.

c. Engineers shall not, without consent, use equipment, supplies,

laboratory, or office facilities of an employer to carry on outside

private practice.

(7) Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly

or indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice, or

employment of other engineers. Engineers who believe others are

guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such information

to the proper authority for action.

a. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another

engineer for the same client, except with the knowledge of such

engineer, or unless the connection of such engineer with the work

has been terminated.


212

b. Engineers in governmental, industrial, or educational employ are

entitled to review and evaluate the work of other engineers when

so required by their employment duties.

c. Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitled to make

engineering comparisons of represented products with products of

other suppliers.

(8) Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional

activities, provided, however, that engineers may seek

indemnification for services arising out of their practice for other

than gross negligence, where the engineer's interests cannot

otherwise be protected.

a. Engineers shall conform with state registration laws in the

practice of engineering.

b. Engineers shall not use association with a non-engineer, a

corporation, or partnership as a "cloak" for unethical acts.

(9) Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom

credit is due, and will recognize the proprietary interests of others.

a. Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons

who may be individually responsible for designs, inventions,

writings, or other accomplishments.

b. Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the

designs remain the property of the client and may not be

duplicated by the engineer for others without express permission.

c. Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with

which the engineer may make improvements, plans, designs,

inventions, or other records that may justify copyrights or patents,

should enter into a positive agreement regarding ownership.

d. Engineers' designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively

to an employer's work are the employer's property. The employer

should indemnify the engineer for use of the information for any

purpose other than the original purpose.

e. Engineers shall continue their professional development

throughout their careers and should keep current in their specialty

fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in

continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature,

and attending professional meetings and seminars.


213

11.4 THE MUSLIM ENGINEER – (A POEM)

Dr. Abdulhay Yousef of the Electrical and Computer Engineering

Department wrote the following poem in English and kindly agreed to

append it to this chapter.

I am the Muslim Engineer

Qur’an is my Book

Sunnah is my Manual

I perform my duties

Whether daily or annual.

Allah has guided me

To be a Muslim Engineer

My message is clear

Just to “repair” the world,

And that is why I’m here.

I’m to Glorify My Lord,

With everyway and mode,

Through a machine or a keyboard,

Through data transmission with very high baud,

I know the right way to pave my road,

With such a view, wide and broad,

I’m the Muslim Engineer.

I’m to spread Islam on a plane or in a bus,

Through an interface or a data bus,

My message is clear with no fuss.

I’m to draw on every face a nice smile

I’m to reshape the world in a new profile.

Allah is My Lord

Muhammad is His Messenger

I’m working at full load,

I’m the Muslim Challenger.


214

11.5 QUESTIONS

Please answer the following True or False questions related to ethics.

11.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Karag ِözoğlu, B., "Educating the Ethical Dimension of Engineering to a Muslim Engineer",

JKAU Eng. Sci. Vol. 18 No. 2, pp: 3-16, 2007.

Khalifa, O.O., Hrairi M. and Albagul A., “Ethics in Computer and Information Engineering

Education: Case Study,” Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Engineering

Education & Training, Kuwait City, Kuwait, 9-11 April, 2007.

AlMadany, M.M., “On Engineering Education in the New Century,” Proceedings of the 2nd

International Conference on Engineering Education & Training, Kuwait City, Kuwait, 9-

11 April, 2007.

Fleddermann, C.B., Engineering Ethics, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Felder, R.M. and Brent, R., “Designing and Teaching Courses to satisfy the ABET Engineering

Criteria,” Journal of Engineering Education, 92(1), p:7-25 2003.

Helweq, O.J., “Teaching Values in Engineering Ethics,” Proceedings of 4th Christian

Engineering Conference, The Presbyterian College, Montreal, Canada, 19-21 June, p:37-

41, 2002.

Statement T or F

You are alone in the exam room. The books are close to you. Yet, you don’t look at

the solutions in the book since it is a closed-book exam.

You are an engineer working for a company. Your boss is asking you to sign an

acceptance paper for new and expensive equipment. You are not satisfied with the

equipment but you sign the paper not to lose your job.

Your friend prepared nicely the homework and word-processed it. You can take an

electronic copy from your friend, change the name, reprint the homework and

submit as your own copy.

You are a member of a project team. Your teammates are working very hard to

complete the project. However, you are too busy with other courses and you cannot

contribute. Yet, you are very happy with your friends when they include your name

in the project report.

You redraw a figure from a book and use it in your report. There is a need to

mention the name of the book although the figure is not used in its original form.

You are the executive manager for an engineering project. A technician

demonstrated an outstanding performance that lead to the success of the project.

There is no harm in reporting this achievement as if it were your personal

contribution to the project.

Your company is working on a research project. There is no harm to discuss it with

one of your friend in a rival company.

Your company produces a substandard product that definitely harms the public. You

file a complaint to the governor.

You support professional societies in your area of specialization provided that you

achieve a clear personal benefit.

In making a critical engineering decision, you consult national and international

code of conduct before you make your personal judgment.


215

Seebauer, E. G., and Barry, R. L., Fundamentals of Ethics for Scientists and Engineers, Oxford,

2001.

Tucker M. E. and Grim J. A., Worldviews and Ecology: Religion, Philosophy and the

Environment, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York, 5th Printing, 2000.

Schwartz, AJ., “It's Not Too Late to Teach College Students About Values,” Chronicle of Higher

Education, June 9, p:A68, 2000.

Schinzinger R. and Martin M., Introduction to Engineering Ethics, McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Denise, TC., Peterfreund, SP. and White, NP., Great Traditions in Ethics, 9th ed. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth 1999.

Self, D.J. and Ellison, E.M., “Teaching Engineering Ethics: Assessment of its Effects on Moral

Reasoning Skills”, Journal of Engineering Education 87(1), p:29-34, 1998.

Harris, C.E., Pritchard, M.S. and Rabins, M.J., Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases

Lynch, W.T., “Teaching Engineering Ethics in the United States,” IEEE Technology and

Society Magazine, (Winter), p:27-36, 1997.

Abraham, S., et al., “Experiences in Discussing Ethics with Undergraduate Engineers,” Journal

of Engineering Education, 86(4), p:305-307, 1997.

Martin, M. W., and Schinzinger, R., Ethics in Engineering, 3d. Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1996.

Petroski, H., Design Paradigms: Case Histories of Error and Judgment in Engineering,

Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Abdullah, A.S., Educational Theory: A Qur’anic Outlook, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah

Al-Mukarramah, 1982.

Hajaltom, B.M.O., Islamic Moral Education: An Introduction, Umm Al-Qura University,

Makkah Al-Mukarramah, 1982.



Rabins, M.J., Harris C.E., Pritchard M.S. and Lowery L.L. Jr., Engineering Ethics,

http://ethics.tamu.edu.

Velasquez, M., Andre, C., Shanks, TçS.J. and Meyer, M. J., "Ethics and Virtue", Decision

Making, http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html.

Pritchard M.S., http://ethics.tamu.edu/pritchar/an-intro.htm

http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/iportals/aboutus/ethics/code.html

www.nspe.org/ethics

www.mtengineers.org/pd/NSPECodeofEthics.pdf

CHAPTER 12

SELF-PRESENTATION SKILLS

■ INTRODUCTION

■ PREPARING A CV RÉSUMÉ

■ COMPONENTS OF A CV RÉSUMÉ

■ ACHIEVEMENTS AND SKILLS

■ COVER LETTERS AND APPLICATION FORMS

■ JOB INTERVIEWS

■ CONCLUSION

■ BIBLIOGRAPHY

219

SELF-PRESENTATION SKILLS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.1.1 Essentials of Self-Presentation

The university life prepares you for the adult years in which you are

going to earn your living. You are expected to

• Think and act scientifically, professionally and ethically

• Communicate effectively

• Work collaboratively

There are two distinct IQ’s as intelligence and intellectual quality. The

first type makes you scientist, helps you in gaining your university

degree and may secure you a job. The second one lets you succeed in the

real life and keep your job. Hence, while you are presenting yourself, you

must reflect on both qualities.

You are probably now standing in the doorway of adult life. Choices

you make now will affect your whole future. Here are some questions to

consider:

• How can I choose the best career for my life?

• What are the best ways of making choices and decisions?

• What is the real purpose of my life, and what do I want to

achieve?

• Do I have the inner resources to handle these things?

You will be selling your qualifications in the business marketplace to

get a job. The businessman will not give money unless he guarantees that

he will be earning through you more than what he pays you. The

employer wants to make sure that you can fit into the job and work

environment comfortably before he offers the job. Hence, you must

carefully present your qualifications, attributes and skills to him. In this

chapter, you will introduce documenting your qualifications, recognizing

and stating your achievements and managing an interview.


220

12.1.2 Stating Qualifications

The doorway to a job, hence to the future life, is an interview. A key to

an interview is a short document about you that may come under

different names as a résumé, a curriculum vitae (CV, Latin for “life

story”), vita, and CV resume. A CV resume is quite simply an ‘advert’ to

sell yourself to an employer. An employer may have several hundred

enquiries about a single job; he will only choose a few people who

appear suitable for interview. Therefore, your CV must be as good as you can make it.

12.2 PREPARING A CV RÉSUMÉ

12.2.1 Differences Between Résumé and CV

A resume is a one or two pages summary of your skills, experience and

education. A Curriculum Vitas (sometimes called C.V. or Vita) is a

longer (at least two pages, typically 8-10 pages and at most 20 pages) and

more detailed synopsis. A Curriculum Vitas includes a summary of your

educational and academic backgrounds as well as teaching and research

experience, publications, presentations, awards, honors, affiliations and

other details. In Europe, the Middle East, Africa, or Asia, employers

expect to receive a curriculum vitae. In the United States, a curriculum

vitae is used primarily when applying for academic, education, scientific

or research positions. It is also applicable when applying for fellowships

or grants.

12.2.2 General Advice

Employers do not want to see CVs which are all written in exactly the

same way. Therefore, you should not just copy standard CV samples!

Your CV should be your own, personal, and a little bit different. You

better write your CV after you have conducted your research into the

company and the position, thereby ensuring it is accurately targeted. A

CV should be constructed on a word-processor (or at least typed), well

laid out and printed on a good quality printer. You use a computer or

word-processor that makes the customization of your CV easy, and you

may change the layout and the way you write your CV for different

employers. You should picture yourself to be a busy manager in the

employer's office. He (or she) may have to read through 100 CVs in half

Self-Presentation Skills

221

an hour, and will have two piles – 'possible' and 'waste-bin'. So yours must be easy to read, short and attractive. There are two communication principles to remember:

• *'KISS' – 'keep it simple, stupid'.

• *'If they didn't hear it, you didn't say it'.

So, when you have written a first attempt at your CV, you better get

someone else (friends, tutors or teachers, counselor, family friends in

business) to look at it, and tell you how to make it better. What you have written may seem simple and obvious to you, but not to an employer! You must go through it again and again with a red pen, making it shorter,

more readable, and more understandable! Some general advices may be:

• Do use bold and/or underline print for headings.

• Do not use lots of different font types and sizes. You are not

designing a magazine cover!

• Do use plenty of white space, and a good border round the page.

• Do use the spell-check on your computer! (Or check that the

spelling is correct in some way)

• Consider using 'bullets' to start sub-sections or lists.

12.2.3 Before You Start

You sit down with a piece of paper and look at the job(s) that you are

applying for. You consider how your skills, education, and experience

compare with the skills that the job requires. How much information do

you have about the job description? Sometimes employers do not give

enough information. You must ask for more details if needed. You spend

time researching details about the job(s) that interest you and information

about the employer – their structure, products, successes, and approach –

from:

• Their own publicity, reports and publications

• A library (business reports, trade papers)

• College career (training) office

• Newspaper reports

• The Internet


222

12.3 COMPONENTS OF A CV RÉSUMÉ

12.3.1 Personal Details

• Name, home address, college address, phone number, e-mail

address, date of birth.

• Do you have your own web homepage? Include it (if it's good!).

• If the name does not obviously show the gender (male or female),

you include this!

12.3.2 Education

• Give places of education where you have studied – most recent

education first. You include subject options taken in each year of

your course. You include any special project, thesis, or

dissertation work and any notable achievements.

• Pre-college courses (high school, etc.) should then be included,

including grades. Subjects taken and passed just before college

will be of most interest. Earlier courses, taken at say age 15-16,

may not need much detail.

12.3.3 Work Experience

• List the most recent experience first. Each job detail should

include this basic information

– Name of organization (your employer)

– Title of position (job title)

– Length you held the post

– Responsibilities (what you actually did and achieved in that

job)

• List any work you have done

– Part-time work,

– Internships, job shadowing and summer jobs

– Volunteer works.

12.3.4 Interests

Any activities that you do in your free time which can be related to your

job, shall be quoted.


223

• Having diverse range of interests shows the employer that you are

an active person.

• Leave out any activities related to politics, religion or

controversial topics. alienating the reader

• If you have been involved in any type of volunteer work, you do

give details.

12.3.5 Interests that Draw Employer’s Attention

• If you worked in the school paper it shows initiative and you are

willing to make sacrifices in order to further your career.

• Stress activities where you have leadership or responsibility, or

which involve you in relating to others in a team. Participating in

student activities, professional associations or enthusiast clubs

shows leadership qualities.

• If you have published any articles, jointly or by yourself, give

details.

12.3.6 Skills

Skill is defined as the ability to do something well, especially as a result

of experience. You must describe them and give examples providing

your level of expertise. You express different skills that you have

separately if necessary, e.g. Leadership and Language skills. Remember:

One of the skills may get you a job!

Examples

Abilities in :

• Other languages (spoken/written/understood),

• Computing experience and skills (include title of software

package and proficiency level),

• Possession of a driving license

• Research Skills and other skills that are not in the rest of your CV

should be included.

12.3.7 References

Only include references if specifically asked by the employer.

• Always have a list available at interviews.


224

• Some people to consider as a reference are teachers, coaches,

scout leaders, etc.

Usually you give two names, one from your place of study, and one from

any work situation you have had. Or if this does not apply, then an older

family friend who has known you for some time may be included in the

list. You must make sure that referees are willing to give you a reference.

It is preferable to give their day and evening phone numbers.

12.3.8 Length

Maybe all you need to say will fit onto one sheet of A4 for a CV résumé.

But you must care not to crowd it; you will probably need two sheets.

You do not normally go longer than this. You put page numbers at the

bottom of the pages with a little detail that may impress.

12.3.9 Style

There are two main styles of CV, with variations within them.

• Chronological: Information is included under general headings –

education, work experience, etc., with the most recent events first.

• Skills based: you think through the necessary skills needed for

the job you are applying for. Then you list all your personal

details under these skill headings. This is called 'targeting your

CV', and is becoming more common, at least in UK, but it is

harder to do. So you may take advice on whether it is OK in your

country and culture, and how to do it best.

12.3.10 Optional Extras

It is good to start with a Personal Profile/Objective statement that is a

concise and focused description of areas of interest. This is a two or three

sentence overview of your skills, qualities, hopes, and plans. It should

encourage the employer to read the rest.

Adding a photo of yourself – either scanned in by computer, or stuck

on may impress provided that it is a good one. You may get a friend (or a

working photographer) to take a good portrait. The pictures that come

out from automatic photo-machines usually make you look ill, like a

prisoner, or a little "devil" or all of them!


225

12.3.11 Presentation

You may vary the style according to the type of job, and what is accepted

in your country and culture. So a big company would normally expect a

formal CV on white paper. You consider using a two column table to list

your educational qualifications and courses taken. Example of a good

resume and explanations of its fields are given in Appendix D.

12.4 ACHIEVEMENTS AND SKILLS

Skills will help but achievements are proof you can implement your skills

in practice. An achievement means that a particular objective has been

reached. Achievements are quantifiable and make businesses more

profitable either directly or indirectly. Employers are attracted to

achievements because they want the applicant to repeat them in their own

business.

12.4.1 General Business Objectives

People in business all have the same general objectives;

– profit,

– enlarged market shares,

– beat the competition,

– develop their business,

– create new products.

They will look for candidates that have achieved objectives in these

particular areas.

12.4.2 Defining an Achievement

Achievements are defined by:

• Describing what was used to reach the objective.

• What objective was reached.

Example: Used new sales channels to increase market share beyond the

state borders. The result was a 25% increase in turnover for the company.

• What does the above statement say?

• Skill Used: creativity, sales channels, initiative.


226

12.4.3 Stating Achievements

An achievement statement must impress, "increase turnover" will not get

you anywhere unless you define the results, preferably with actual

figures. Vague adjectives are to be avoided since they do not give a clear

indication of your results. When employers read impressive achievement

statements they will want to discuss this further and analyze if you can

implement these achievements in their business. Securing an interview is

not an easy business; you have to provide the right reasons for potential

employers to want to speak to you!

Achievements are reflected in a CV differently for different applications

as:

• To apply for a job within the same field

• To apply for a job within a different field

• To summarize your life achievements

• To apply for a particular job vacancy.

12.4.4 Achievements in a CV

Successfully applying for a job means showing your employer that you

are more suitable than the other candidates. Job application numbers for a

particular vacancy may vary from tens to hundreds. You will usually

need to be short-listed among the first few in order to be offered an

interview. Only CVs that have impressed the employer will make it to

this stage. When recruiting people, employers reduce the CV list to a

manageable number for the interview. The difference between the chosen

candidates and the others is a well presented CV and cover letter.

12.5 COVER LETTERS AND APPLICATION FORMS

12.5.1 Covering letter – Purpose

When sending in a CV or job application form, you must include a

covering letter. The purpose of the letter is:

• To make sure that the CV arrives on the desk of the correct

person. You shall take the trouble to telephone, and find the name

of the person who will be dealing with applications or CVs, and

address your letter, and envelope, to that person by name.

– In a small company, it may be the managing director.


227

– In a medium size company, it may be the head of

section/department.

– Only in a large company will there be a Personnel or Human

Resource Department.

• To persuade the person to read your CV: so it must be relevant to

the company, interesting, and well produced.

• To say clearly what job you are interested in. If you are sending in

a 'speculative' CV hoping that they may have work for you, you

explain what sort of work you are interested in. You do not say, 'I

would be interested in working for Al-Harbi Ltd', but you say 'I

believe my skills equip me to work in the product development

department / accounts office / whatever'. When sending a

speculative CV, you may try telephoning later to push your

enquiry further.

• To say why you want that particular job with that particular

employer

• To draw attention to one or two key points in the CV which you

feel make you suited to that particular job with that particular

employer.

12.5.2 Covering letter – Style

You start your letter with an underline heading giving the job title you

are interested in (if you saw the job advertised, you say where you saw

it). You use the style and pattern of a business letter suited to your culture

and country and you may ask for advice about this. You try to find

sample business letters so that you can follow style and layout. The letter

should only be on one side of A4 paper. It must be polite and easy to

read. You also mention when you are available for an interview. Ending

your letter with a request for specific extra information may give a

positive response.

12.5.3 Application Forms – Use

To apply for some jobs, the employer will send you an application form.

You should still use a covering letter, and send your CV also unless told

not to. Application forms need as much care to write as CVs. Some short

guidelines:


228

• Plan everything you will say on a separate piece of paper. Or

make a photocopy of the form, and practice completing it first.

• Only complete the real form when you are exactly sure what is

the best thing to say.

• It must be very neat and clear, and in black pen so that it can be

easily photocopied.

• You should 'angle' your answers to the company, in the same way

as explained for your CV.

• You do not say in answer to any question - 'see my CV'. They do

not want to try to read both at the same time.

• You take a photocopy to keep, so that you can remember exactly

what you said. If you are called to interview, take this copy with

you into the interview.

12.6 JOB INTERVIEWS

12.6.1 Preparing for an Interview

Libraries and some internet sites may have a sheet or booklet on

interview technique. It is better to

• Take as much advice as you can.

• Try and 'practice' an interview.

• Ask a friend, or college teacher, to pretend to interview you.

• Make notes of achievements and study the way you talk about

them by practicing.

12.6.2 Some General Job Interview Tips

• Do not smoke, chew gum, or eat garlic beforehand.

• Wear suitable interview clothes.

• Take copies of your CV with you.

• Arrive on time for your job interview.

• Any applications handed before the interview begins, are to be

filled in as accurately as possible, making sure they match the

information in your CV and Cover Letter.

General Tips – At Start

• Be positive, and confident (if you can!) but not over-confident.


229

• Be well-informed about the company, its record and

achievements, about the job and why you want it.

• Always greet the interviewer by his/her last name and try to

pronounce it correctly.

• Have a good firm handshake.

• Look alert and interested. Scan the room once and then keep your

eyes on the interviewer.

• Wait until you are offered a chair before you sit down.

Ice Breakers

Your answers to the initial opening statements in the job interview are

important, these are called "ice breakers". Sometimes the interviewer will

ask whether you had difficulty finding the company premises. The

answer should be brief and polite. The interviewer is merely being polite

– if you had problems in finding the premises he/she doesn't need to

know that.

12.6.3 Various Kinds of Interviews

• One to One Job Interview

• Panel Job Interview

• Group Job Interview

• Phone Job Interview

• Lunch Job interview

12.6.4 Tricky Interview Questions

• Why should you hire you?

• Why do you want to work here?

• What are your greatest weaknesses?

• Why did you leave your last job?

• Describe a problem situation and how you solved it

• What accomplishment are you most proud of?

• Tell me about yourself.

12.6.5 Other Points

• Keep copies of

– all letters,

– applications forms, and


230

– CVs sent, and

• Records of

– telephone calls and

– names of those you spoke to.

12.7 CONCLUSION

When presenting yourself personally or in a technical paper, you must

display your knowledge, ability to apply it and personality. A good

presentation is important not only to you but also to your company and

associates. In any presentation, you must demonstrate that

• You know what you do.

• You know why you do.

• You know how to do.

• You do it well.

• You can prove it.

• You receive input and feedback.

• You have a process to make continuous improvements.

12.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY


Beatty R.H., The Resume Kit, Wiley, 5th ed. 2003.

Criscito P., How to Write Better Resumes and Cover Letters, Barrons Educational Series, 2nd ed.

2008.

Greene J.O. and Burleson B.R. (editors), Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction

Skills, Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003.

Atwood C.G., Presentation Skills Training, ASTD Press; Pap/Cdr edition, 2008.

Bradbury A., Successful Presentation Skills, Kogan Page, 3rd ed. 2006.



www.adelaide.edu.au/graduatecentre/rep/student

http://www.cvtips.com

http://www.it-careernet.com

http://www.allinterview.com

http://www.cv-consultancy.co.uk

http://www.cv-service.org

www.csun.edu/~sp29558/dis/present.html

231

REFERENCES

233

Abdullah, A.S., Educational Theory: A Qur’anic Outlook, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah

Al-Mukarramah, 1982.

Algahazali, M., Muslim’s Character, International Islamic Federation of Student Organization,

Riyadh, 1997.

Ang, A.H.S. and Tang, W.H., Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning and Design:

Volume II – Decision, Risk, and Reliability, Wiley, 1984.

Beach, D.P. and Algaver, T.K.E., Handbook for Scientific and Technical Research, Prentice-

Hall, New Jersey, 1992.

Beer, D. and McMurrey, D., A Guide to Writing as an Engineer, Wiley, 1997

Carr, J.J., The Art of Science: A Practical Guide to Experiments, Observations, and Data

Handling, HighText, San Diego, 1992.

Dominick, P.G. et al, Tools and Tactics of Design, Wiley, 2001.

Eken, I., Kulluk, Fatih Matbaacilik, Istanbul, 1988.

Ertas, A. and Jones, J.C., The Engineering Design Process, Wiley, 1993.

Fogler, H.S. and LeBlanc, S.E.M., Strategies for Creative Problem Solving, Prentice-Hall, 1995.

Hajaltom, B.M.O., Islamic Moral Education: An Introduction, Umm Al-Qura University,

Makkah Al-Mukarramah, 1982.

Hasling, J., The Audience, The Message, The Speaker, McGraw-Hill, 1976.

Hathout, H., Reading the Muslim Mind, American Trust Publications, 1995. http://www.

indiana.edu/~wts/wts/resources.html (last visited in April, 2008).

Karag ِözoğlu, B., Development of an Electronic System to Study Muscular Activity, JKAU Eng.

Sci. Special Issue, pp: 135-141, 1999.

McNeill, B.W., L. Bellamy and Burrows, V.A.,Introduction to Engineering Design: The

Workbook, King Abdulaziz University Edition, 2003.

Milyani, A. and Karag ِözoğlu, B., Basics of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement

Techniques, Faculty of Engineering, KAAU, 2001.

Webster, J.G. and Pallas-Areny, R., Design for Biomedical Engineers, www.engr.

wisc.edu/bme/faculty/webster_john/Design.pdf.

Wheeler, A.J. and Ganji, A.R., Introduction to Engineering Experimentation, Prentice-Hall,

New Jersey, 1996

234

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Minimum requirements for senior design projects

Appendix B: Planning and monitoring guide

Appendix C: Illustrations for an XE 499 project report

Appendix D: A good sample résumé

237

APPENDIX A

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF SENIOR

DESIGN PROJECT

The Faculty of Engineering has been accredited by the Accreditation

Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) in November 2003. The

Faculty of Engineering would like to maintain this achievement and

accomplish more goals. As part of our self-evaluation, recommendations

of ABET and our preparation for the next evaluation in few years using

the new Engineering criteria (EC-2000), the school is focusing on

improving the quality of senior engineering projects. Starting from the

spring semester of 2004, every design project shall satisfy the following

minimum requirements. The students, supervisors and examiners will

complete senior project checklists. Departments will provide blank

copies of the checklists. Appendix C contains a sample checklist.

Real Life Problem: The project should reflect a real life problem related

to the industry.

Advisory Committee: Each project should have at least one advisor

from the academia and one advisor from the industry.

Situation Description: A situation should be clearly described by the

advisor(s).

Problem Definition: The design problem should be defined by the

student(s) and should involve some coaching from the advisor(s).

Open-Ended: The project should involve a problem that has no single

solution.

Alternative Solutions: At least two different solutions should be

discussed by the student(s) for a situation. A comparison should be

performed between the alternatives

Specifications & Regulations: Adopted design specifications and

regulations should be clarified in each design project.

Aesthetics: It is beauty and appearance and hence the roadmap of

thinking and the rational of the selected design solution. It should be

clarified.


Statistics & Reliability: An engineer usually uses database(s) or

engineering model(s) to solve a specific problem. Statistical analysis

should be performed for the used database(s). Design reliability should

be assessed. In some cases, risk assessment may be performed.

Team Work: Advisor(s) should emphasize teamwork among students, as

applicable.

Professional Ethics: All work should be original and not copied from

others. In the case of project-team, work should be divided evenly

between all members. Grade should be given on individual basis and

based on the effort and performance of a student. All referenced

materials should be documented. Professional ethics should be

implemented and enforced by the advisor(s) and students.

Environmental Impact Statement: Each project should include a

section to assess the impact of such a project on the environment

including, but not limited to, air, water, soil, etc.

Culture & Social Assessment: The final product in some projects might

have a direct or indirect short, medium or long term impact on some

sector(s) from the local, national and/or international society. In this

case, the project report should assess the acceptability of the proposed

design by the neighboring and/or end-user society.

Marketing & Financial Analysis: Each project should include a cost

estimate of the design and its implementation including time and

material. Each project should address the marketability of the end

product, which could be a manufactured product or service product.

Final Product

A report should be written in clear English. A multimedia presentation is

recommended. As a minimum, a power point presentation should be

prepared. A one sheet summary should be prepared including the

problem statement, design approach, important findings and one or more

illustrations.

Also, student(s) and advisor(s) should prepare a one sheet

summarizing the curriculum sources contributed to the accumulated

knowledge used to address the design project problem.

Appendix A: Minimum Requirements of Senior Design Projects 239

Rubric for Minimum Requirements

Requirement Exemplary (5) Proficient (3) Novice (1)

Real life problem:

related to the

industry

Title clearly indicate

Clarified in problem

description

References to industry

in the main text

Title

Clarified in problem

description

In the title only

Advisory

committee: one

advisor from the

academia and one

advisor from the

industry

The cover page

Acknowledgement

Indication of their

contributions

In the cover page

Acknowledgement

In the cover page

only

Situation

description:

Situation analyzed

Problem areas

described

By students

Situation analyzed

Problem areas

described

By advisors

Vague description

only

Problem definition

Problem defined

At least five constraints

in the problem domain

analyzed

Problem defined

A few constraints in

the problem domain

analyzed

Only problem

defined

Open-ended design

problem

Problem has many

solutions (indicated)

Only two solutions

Alternative

solutions

At least two solutions

Analyzes of solutions

Selection using criteria

At least two solutions

Selection using

criteria

At least two

solutions

Aesthetics

Beauty and appearance

Acceptability

Preferences

Beauty and

appearance

Acceptability

Acceptability

Preferences

Rationale of the

Project

Road map of thinking

Rationale of selected

solution

Curriculum sources

contributed

Rationale of selected

solution

Curriculum sources

contributed

Curriculum

sources

contributed

Specifications and

regulations

Product design

specifications: size

weight, power etc

Regulations and

standards

Product design

specifications: size

weight, power etc

Poor product

design

specifications

Statistics and

reliability

Database established

Statistical analysis

performed

Design reliability

assessed (maybe with

risk assessment)

Database established

Statistical analysis

performed

Database

established


Contd.

Requirement Exemplary (5) Proficient (3) Novice (1)

Teamwork

Names in the cover

Distribution of

responsibilities

Indication of

contributions

Names in the cover

Distribution of

responsibilities

Names in the cover

Professional ethics

Acknowledgement

References in text

List of references

Even division of

responsibilities

Acknowledgement

List of references

Division of

responsibilities

Acknowledgement

List of references

Environmental

impact statement

Assessment of impact

of project on the

environment including,

but not limited to, air,

water, soil, etc

Cultural and social

assessment

Short, medium or long

term impact on society

Contribution to

neighborhood

Technology transfer

Contribution to

neighborhood

Technology transfer

Technology

transfer

Financial analysis

and marketing

Cost estimate

Actual cost

Marketability

Cost estimate

Actual cost

Actual cost

Final product

Report in English

Working prototype

User manual

Report in English

Prototype

Report in English

241

APPENDIX B

PLANNING AND MONITORING GUIDE

KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Planning and Monitoring Senior Projects

Project topic:

Project team:

Objective of the project:

Supervisor(s):

Customer (if any):

Industrial consultant (if any):

Starting date: Date of submission (tentative):

Stage (expected

time) Major activities

Tentative

deadline Date of

fulfillment Check

1. Get started

(4 weeks)

• Get motivated, visit the

project coordinator of

your specialization

• Visit staff and look for

project topics and

problem areas

• Identify the problem

area of your interest

• Agree with a staff

interested in the

problem area (in

agreement with project

coordinator)

• Establish project team

• Choose topics in the

problem area

• Determine your limits

• Prepare Gantt chart

4th week


242

Contd.

Stage (expected


Tentative

deadline Date of

fulfillment Check

2.

Situation

description –

problem

selection

(6 weeks)

• Evaluate topics

• Do a literature survey

on problem area and

topics

• Determine existing

solutions

• Set your objectives and

goals

• Identify realistic design

constraints

6th week

3.

Problem

definition

(3 weeks)

• Select a single problem

and state it clearly

• Analyze impacts of

problem and its

solutions on society

• Prepare product design

specifications (PDS)

• Clarify your objectives

7th week

4.

Generating

solutions

(2 weeks)

• Brainstorm alternative

solutions

• Compare solutions to

PDS

• Generate trial solutions

8th week

5.

Selecting best

solution

(2 weeks)

• Set selection criteria

• Evaluate feasibility of

trial solutions

• Select the proposed

solution with

justifications

• 1st seminar

10th week

6.

Implementing

solution

(10 weeks)

• Make a functional

decomposition of the

project

• Set a work plan for

analysis

• Distribute

responsibilities to team

members

• Prepare the component

design

• Procure components

needed

• Simulate your design

• Implement your design

22nd week

Appendix B: Planning and Monitoring Guide 243

Contd.

Stage (expected


Tentative

deadline Date of

fulfillment Check

• Bread boarding

• Prototyping

• Test your prototype in

the lab

7.

Evaluating

solution

(4 weeks)

• Design of experiments

• Evaluate data

statistically

• Establish an interpretive

discussion of results

• Discuss of the lessons

learned

• Evaluate actual versus

estimated performance

• Compare results with

those of other existing

solutions

• Set a production

schedule

• Make cost analysis

• Prepare a user’s manual

• 2nd seminar

24th week

8.

Writing the

report

(8 weeks)

• Strictly follow XE 499

report writing

guidelines

• Complete ABET

checklists

1st phase –

10th week

2nd phase –

28th week

9.

Presenting and

defending the

report

(2 weeks)

• Prepare power point

slides

• Set a live demo of the

project

• Make necessary

corrections after the oral

presentation

30th week

245

APPENDIX C

ILLUSTRATIONS FOR AN XE 499 PROJECT REPORT

The Cover Page

4

DESIGN OF A N ELECTRONIC DEVICE FOR

SURVEILLA NCE OF DRY-EYE PROBLEM IN

SCREEN A DDICTS

By

M OHAM M ED W AGIALLAH BASIM AHM ED Com p. No. 9950270 Com p. No. 9950729 AHM AD AL-SHOM AR ALA’A ABDUL JABBARCom p. No. 0052131 Com p. No. 0051591

Supervised by

DR. BAHATTIN KARAGŐZOĞLU

Advisory com m ittee

DR. M . SHAFIQUE KHAN COMPUTER ENG, KAAU ENG . M ALIK M UTABBAG ANI CEO O F PHO TO N Co. Ltd ENG. ENIS ILKER TEKDEM IR E&COMM . ENG, KAAU

Custom er

DR. BAHATTIN KARAG ŐZOĞLU, ECE DEPT. KAAU

ELECTRICAL AND COM PUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTM ENT FACULTY O F ENG INEERING

KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY JEDDAH - SAUDI ARABIA

FALL 1423/1424 H - 2002/2003 G

Left margin

3 cm

Top margin

5 cm

Right margin

2.5 cm

Bottom margin

2.5 cm

Title of the project: it is printed in 16-

24 points font size single-spaced,

bold and all CAPITAL LETTERS.

Student(s) name(s): 14-18 points

font size and bold

Supervisor’s name: 14-18 points

font size and bold

Month and year: in Hijri and

Gregorian without commas in 14-

16 points font size and bold

Paper size: A4; height 29.7 cm, width 21 cm

Institutional details: 14-16 points

font size and bold

Advisory

committee

(if

available)

Customer

(if

available)

The Cover Backbone

5

EE

KAAU

DE

SIG

N O

F A

N E

LE

CT

RO

NIC

DE

VIC

E F

OR

SU

RV

EIL

LA

NC

E

OF

DR

Y-E

YE

PR

OB

LE

M IN

SC

RE

EN

AD

DIC

TS

1425H/

2004G

5

EE

KAAU

DE

SIG

N O

F A

N E

LE

CT

RO

NIC

DE

VIC

E F

OR

SU

RV

EIL

LA

NC

E

OF

DR

Y-E

YE

PR

OB

LE

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SC

RE

EN

AD

DIC

TS

1425H/

2004G


246

6

DEVELOPMENT OF A PC-BASED UNIVERSAL DISPLAY

FOR BIOLOGICAL SIGNALS

BY

TAMER MOHAMMED BAHAUDEEN COM P. #: 9752270

A senior project report submit ted in partial fulfillment

of the requ ir ements for the degr ee of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

in

E LECTRICAL ENGINEE RING (B iom edical Engineering)

Supervised by:


Approv ed by:

Dr. R.A. Taşaltın .....................................................

Dr. A .F. Al-K hateeb .....................................................

ELECTRICA L A ND COM PUTER ENGINEERING DE PARTMENT FA CULTY OF ENGINEERING

K ING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY

JEDDAH - S AUDI ARA BIA

FALL 1423/1424 H - 2002/2003 G

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin

2.5 cm

Bottom margin

2 cm

Right margin

2 cm

Statement of the purpose: Arial 14 pts,

bold

Names and signatures

of examiners: Arial 14 pts, bold. Names left

justified

6

DEVELOPMENT OF A PC-BASED UNIVERSAL DISPLAY

FOR BIOLOGICAL SIGNALS

BY

TAMER MOHAMMED BAHAUDEEN COM P. #: 9752270

A senior project report submit ted in partial fulfillment

of the requ ir ements for the degr ee of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

in

E LECTRICAL ENGINEE RING (B iom edical Engineering)

Supervised by:


Approv ed by:

Dr. R.A. Taşaltın .....................................................

Dr. A .F. Al-K hateeb .....................................................

ELECTRICA L A ND COM PUTER ENGINEERING DE PARTMENT FA CULTY OF ENGINEERING

K ING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY

JEDDAH - S AUDI ARA BIA

FALL 1423/1424 H - 2002/2003 G

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin

2.5 cm

Bottom margin

2 cm

Right margin

2 cm

Statement of the purpose: Arial 14 pts,

bold

Names and signatures

of examiners: Arial 14 pts, bold. Names left

justified

7

ا�ـ�ــ�ـــ�� ربّ ا�ــــ��ـ�ـ�ــــ��

وا��ة وا��م �� أ��ف ا�� ء وا��

� أ�� ! و�� و" ��!��

To the memorial of my late fathe r Mohammed Bahaudee n (may

Allah Almighty bless him)

ii i

Left margin3.5 cm

Top margin2.5 cm

Bottom margin2 cm

Right margin2 cm

Dedication (optional, if used)

Remembrance

Remembrance section can centralize the page if dedication is not used

7

ا�ـ�ــ�ـــ�� ربّ ا�ــــ��ـ�ـ�ــــ��

وا��ة وا��م �� أ��ف ا�� ء وا��

� أ�� ! و�� و" ��!��

To the memorial of my late fathe r Mohammed Bahaudee n (may

Allah Almighty bless him)

ii i

Left margin3.5 cm

Top margin2.5 cm

Bottom margin2 cm

Right margin2 cm

Dedication (optional, if used)

Remembrance

Remembrance section can centralize the page if dedication is not used

The Approval Page

Remembrance and Dedication

Appendix C: Illustrations for an XE 499 Project Report 247

10

TA BLE OF CONTENT

Abstra ct . ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. . i

Acknowl edgem ent ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. i i

Ta bl e of Conte nt ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... . ii i

Li st of Figures .. .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. v

CHAP TER - 1 INT RODUC TION . .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 1

1 .1 INTR ODUCT ION .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 1

1 .2 PHYSIOLOGIC AL P ARAM E TER S FOR MONIT OR ING ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.1 Prefe re nce of Physic ia ns . ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.2 Import anc e of Bi opot enti al Si gna ls .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.3 C ha rac te ri st ic s of B iol ogi ca l Signal s ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 3

1 .3 MEANS OF PAT IE NT MON IT ORING .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 4

1 .3.1 Si gni fi ca nce of Porta bl e and R em ot e Moni tors ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 5

1 .3.2 Types of Porta bl e Pat ie nt Monit ors .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 5

1 .3.3 C ha rac te ri st ic s of Pa ti ent Moni t ors. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 6

1 .3.4 C ont ributi on of Comput ers t o Pat i ent Moni toring . ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 8

1 .4 PR OBL EM DE FINIT ION AND DE SIGN C ONSTR AINTS .. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 9

1 .4.1 Probl em De fi nit ion.. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 9

1 .4.2 Ec onomi ca l and Soci al Issue s. .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 10

1 .4.3 Li te rac y in T ec hni ca l Subjec ts .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 10

1 .4.4 Obje ct ive of the Proje ct .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 11

CHAP TER - 2 HAR DWAR E DESIGN. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .1 GENE RAL OUTL INE OF THE SYST EM. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2.1.1 Ge neral B l oc k Dia gra m . .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .1.2 Working Obje ct ives ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .2 INTER FAC ING ANAL OG SIGNALS TO T HE C OMPUT ER ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 13

2 .2.1 B asi c Re qui reme nts ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 13

2 .2.2 Spec ifi cat i ons of the Anal og t o Di gi t al C onvert ers (ADC ) ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 14

2 .2.3 ADC Types ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 16

2 .2.4 The ADC 0809. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 17

2 .2.5 Ti mi ng Ci rcuit s .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 19

2 .2.6 Input R anging a nd Leve l Shi fti ng... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3 INTER FAC E THR OUGH T HE PAR ALL EL POR T . .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3.1 Pa ra ll el Port B ackground ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3.2 The Para ll el Port -- an O ve rvi ew . ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 22

2 .3.3 IEE E 1284 Dat a Transfer Mode s. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 23

2 .3.4 Te sti ng the Pa ra ll el Port .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 24

2 .3.5 R ea di ng A Whole B y te From A Para ll el Port ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 25

CHAP TER - 3 SOFTWAR E DESIGN .. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 27

3 .1 PR EFAC E .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 27

3 .2 DESIGN STEPS ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 28

3 .2.1 Port Control ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 28

3 .2.2 C ha rac te ri st ic s of C omputers Used. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 29

3 .2.3 C onversi on C ont rol . ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 29

3 .2.4 Graphing .. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 30

3 .2.5 R ea l T im e Signal Graphing . ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3 SIMULAT ION OF A P ATIENT M ONITOR .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3.1 Si mula ti ng a Mul ti -Cha nnel Di spla y ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3.2 Acquiri ng the Pat i ent Dat a. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 33

vi

Entries must be consistent, in both style and substance, with headings as they appear in the text (wording, capitalization, style of numerals, etc.)

Each entry should have tab leaders and corresponding page reference numbers must be aligned correctly

List of Tables and List of

Figures (if available): a

similar format as in the

Table of Contents is used10

TA BLE OF CONTENT

Abstra ct . ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. . i

Acknowl edgem ent ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. i i

Ta bl e of Conte nt ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... . ii i

Li st of Figures .. .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. v

CHAP TER - 1 INT RODUC TION . .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 1

1 .1 INTR ODUCT ION .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 1

1 .2 PHYSIOLOGIC AL P ARAM E TER S FOR MONIT OR ING ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.1 Prefe re nce of Physic ia ns . ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.2 Import anc e of Bi opot enti al Si gna ls .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 2

1 .2.3 C ha rac te ri st ic s of B iol ogi ca l Signal s ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 3

1 .3 MEANS OF PAT IE NT MON IT ORING .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 4

1 .3.1 Si gni fi ca nce of Porta bl e and R em ot e Moni tors ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 5

1 .3.2 Types of Porta bl e Pat ie nt M onit ors .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 5

1 .3.3 C ha rac te ri st ic s of Pa ti ent M oni t ors. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 6

1 .3.4 C ont ributi on of Comput ers t o Pat i ent Moni toring . ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 8

1 .4 PR OBL EM DE FINIT ION AND DE SIGN C ONSTR AINTS .. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 9

1 .4.1 Probl em De fi nit ion.. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. 9

1 .4.2 Ec onomi ca l and Soci al Issue s. .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 10

1 .4.3 Li te rac y in T ec hni ca l Subjec ts .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 10

1 .4.4 Obje ct ive of the Proje ct .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 11

CHAP TER - 2 HAR DWAR E DESIGN. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .1 GENE RAL OUTL INE OF THE SYST EM . ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2.1.1 Ge neral B l oc k Dia gra m . .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .1.2 Working Obje ct ives ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 12

2 .2 INTER FAC ING ANAL OG SIGNALS TO T HE C OM PUT ER ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 13

2 .2.1 B asi c Re qui reme nts ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 13

2 .2.2 Spec ifi cat i ons of the Anal og t o Di gi t al C onvert ers (ADC ) ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 14

2 .2.3 ADC Types ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 16

2 .2.4 The ADC 0809. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 17

2 .2.5 Ti mi ng Ci rcuit s .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 19

2 .2.6 Input R anging a nd Leve l Shi fti ng... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3 INTER FAC E THR OUGH T HE PAR ALL EL POR T . .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3.1 Pa ra ll el Port B ackground ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 21

2 .3.2 The Para ll el Port -- an O ve rvi ew . ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 22

2 .3.3 IEE E 1284 Dat a Transfer M ode s. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 23

2 .3.4 Te sti ng the Pa ra ll el Port .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 24

2 .3.5 R ea di ng A Whole B y te From A Para ll el Port ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 25

CHAP TER - 3 SOFTWAR E DESIGN .. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 27

3 .1 PR EFAC E .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 27

3 .2 DESIGN STEPS ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 28

3 .2.1 Port Control ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 28

3 .2.2 C ha rac te ri st ic s of C omputers Used. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 29

3 .2.3 C onversi on C ont rol . ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 29

3 .2.4 Graphing .. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 30

3 .2.5 R ea l T im e Signal Graphing . ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3 SIM ULAT ION OF A P ATIENT MONITOR .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3.1 Si mula ti ng a Mul ti -Cha nnel Di spla y ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 32

3 .3.2 Acquiri ng the Pat i ent Dat a. .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... 33

vi

Entries must be consistent, in both style and substance, with headings as they appear in the text (wording, capitalization, style of numerals, etc.)

Each entry should have tab leaders and corresponding page reference numbers must be aligned correctly

List of Tables and List of

Figures (if available): a

similar format as in the

Table of Contents is used

Abstract (Project Summary)

Table of Contents

8

ABSTRA CT

D evelopme nt of PC-Base U nive rsal D ispl ay for Biologic al Signals

Monitoring biological s ignals from the human body requires proper sensors, dedicated amplifiers,

signal processors and display units. Hence, monitoring systems interact with doctors through a visual

display screen that presents different information collected from the body. However, they are

expensive because of the dedicated complex hardware. Signal amplification and processing stages

for biological s ignals can be developed rather easily if a proper display unit is available since these

signals can not be displayed effectively using s tandard laboratory oscilloscope type displays.

For my senior project, I intended to develop an economical display system for biological

signals such as the signal generated due to the electrical activity of the heart. The system accepts a

signal amplified and has an amplitude level from 0 to 5 volts, with the frequency range of 125 Hz.

This range clearly covers most biological s ignals such as the electrooculogram (EOG),

electroencephalogram (EEG), and electrocardiogram (ECG), but not the electromyogram (EMG), or

the axon action potential (APP).

In addition it can be used to monitor temperature and blood

pressure, because they have frequency much less than 1 Hz.

The input signal is converted from analog form to a sequence of digital pulses by the analog

to digital converter (ADC). Then, it travels through buffers and inverters to the parallel port of a

personal computer (PC). The PC accepts the readings from both s tatus and control groups, and

combines them under the command of specially developed software. The readings are drawn on

computer screen as the real-time display of the acquired signal.

The program also saves a copy of the read data into a text file. Saving data to a text file is

much faster than saving them directly to an EXCEL file. After the data acquisition finished, a second

program converts the text file into MS EXCEL file format. A third program is developed to display

readings saved in the EXCEL file for off-line analysis of the signal. Eventually, the system

developed assists the medical professionals in interpreting biological signals via both on-line and

off-line displaying, and s toring them.

iv

Boldface, 16 pts, centered

and above

the title

Bold, 16 pts,

centered

Spacing (1.5

lines)

Length: 350

words,

maximum one

page

Typeface and size: preferably

Times Roman,

size 12

Foreword

Summary

Objective and

background

Methodology

Overall

conclusions

All text must be left

or full justified

8

ABSTRA CT

D evelopme nt of PC-Base U nive rsal D ispl ay for Biologic al Signals

Monitoring biological s ignals from the human body requires proper sensors, dedicated amplifiers,

signal processors and display units. Hence, monitoring systems interact with doctors through a visual

display screen that presents different information collected from the body. However, they are

expensive because of the dedicated complex hardware. Signal amplification and processing stages

for biological s ignals can be developed rather easily if a proper display unit is available since these

signals can not be displayed effectively using s tandard laboratory oscilloscope type displays.

For my senior project, I intended to develop an economical display system for biological

signals such as the signal generated due to the electrical activity of the heart. The system accepts a

signal amplified and has an amplitude level from 0 to 5 volts, with the frequency range of 125 Hz.

This range clearly covers most biological s ignals such as the electrooculogram (EOG),

electroencephalogram (EEG), and electrocardiogram (ECG), but not the electromyogram (EMG), or

the axon action potential (APP).

In addition it can be used to monitor temperature and blood

pressure, because they have frequency much less than 1 Hz.

The input signal is converted from analog form to a sequence of digital pulses by the analog

to digital converter (ADC). Then, it travels through buffers and inverters to the parallel port of a

personal computer (PC). The PC accepts the readings from both s tatus and control groups, and

combines them under the command of specially developed software. The readings are drawn on

computer screen as the real-time display of the acquired signal.

The program also saves a copy of the read data into a text file. Saving data to a text file is

much faster than saving them directly to an EXCEL file. After the data acquisition finished, a second

program converts the text file into MS EXCEL file format. A third program is developed to display

readings saved in the EXCEL file for off-line analysis of the signal. Eventually, the system

developed assists the medical professionals in interpreting biological signals via both on-line and

off-line displaying, and s toring them.

iv

Boldface, 16 pts, centered

and above

the title

Bold, 16 pts,

centered

Spacing (1.5

lines)

Length: 350

words,

maximum one

page

Typeface and size: preferably

Times Roman,

size 12

Foreword

Summary

Objective and

background

Methodology

Overall

conclusions

All text must be left

or full justified

All text must be left or full justified


248

Chapter, Section and Subsection Headings

22

CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Pe ople ca n be divide d into thre e groups. One group co nta ins people who are suspicious,

imaginat ive, or lonely. Members of this group a re a tt ra c ted to hea lth c ente rs even when

they are hea lthy. T his type of people lean to waste the time and money o f hea lth fa c ili ties

tha t some one with rea l s ickne ss c ould ha ve ut ilize d. Se cond group conta ins people who are

ignora nt , or unconcerned. Me mbe rs of this group te nd to hide the ir i llnes s, ca using the ir

hea lth to devastate . Third group comprise s of rea l s ick people with sic kne ss a wa reness

inc luding pa tients recovering from ope ra t ion, or pe ople with a nc ie nt i llne sses. Me mbers of

a ny group could m ake use of simple s ystem that doe s prel imina ry he al th c he ck before

going to a hospita l, or hea lth center. These init ia l checks can be in the form of temperature

c hec k, or blood pre ssure. Such a system might e ve n be a va ilable in s hopp ing malls, or

supe rmarkets. Me mbe rs of the third group require cont inuous he al th c hec k tha t c a n’t be

done al l the t ime in ma lls and supe rmarkets. Monitoring s ystems a re require d to indicate if

the ir hea lth condit ions a re get t ing da nge rous.

Moni toring biologica l signals from the huma n body requires proper se nsors,

dedic ate d amplifie rs, s igna l processo rs and displa y uni ts. Hence, monitor ing syste ms

interac t with doctors through a vis ua l displa y sc ree n that pre se nts diffe rent informa tion

c ollec te d from the body. Howe ve r, they are expe nsive beca use of the de dic ate d comple x

hardwa re. Signa l a mpl ific at ion and processing stages for c an be biologica l signa ls

developed ra ther e as ily i f a prope r displa y uni t is a va ilable s ince these signa ls c an not be

displa ye d effec tive ly using standa rd la boratory osc illos cope type displa ys.

E ve ntua lly, monitoring of pat ie nts ins ide a nd outside of the hospi ta l environme nt

bec ome s a n e sse nc e of biomedica l e ngine ering contrib ut ion to the hea lth-c are system. A

distributed monitoring sys te m contribute s to the re duct ion in cost of pa tie nt-c are a nd

improve s the e ffic iency of servic es in hospita ls. The proje ct is about deve lopme nt of a

1

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin

5 cm

Right margin

2 cm

Bottom margin

2 cm

Chapter headings should

start at a new page, at 5cm

below the top of the page and centered. Chapter number

must be in Arabic numerals,

like 1, 2, 3… and so on,

followed by Chapter Title both

in capital letters, and with Arial, size16

No

indentation

Times Roman 12, 1.5 spaced

(single space in tables,

appendices and footnotes)

Arabic numerals, like

1,2,3,4… and so on at the

bottom center of each

page

1 TAB stop

22

CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Pe ople ca n be divide d into thre e groups. One group co nta ins people who are suspicious,

imaginat ive, or lonely. Members of this group a re a tt ra c ted to hea lth c ente rs even when

they are hea lthy. T his type of people lean to waste the time and money o f hea lth fa c ili ties

tha t some one with rea l s ickne ss c ould ha ve ut ilize d. Se cond group conta ins people who are

ignora nt , or unconcerned. Me mbe rs of this group te nd to hide the ir i llnes s, ca using the ir

hea lth to devastate . Third group comprise s of rea l s ick people with sic kne ss a wa reness

inc luding pa tients recovering from ope ra t ion, or pe ople with a nc ie nt i llne sses. Me mbers of

a ny group could m ake use of simple s ystem that doe s prel imina ry he al th c he ck before

going to a hospita l, or hea lth center. These init ia l checks can be in the form of temperature

c hec k, or blood pre ssure. Such a system might e ve n be a va ilable in s hopp ing malls, or

supe rmarkets. Me mbe rs of the third group require cont inuous he al th c hec k tha t c a n’t be

done al l the t ime in ma lls and supe rmarkets. Monitoring s ystems a re require d to indicate if

the ir hea lth condit ions a re get t ing da nge rous.

Moni toring biologica l signals from the huma n body requires proper se nsors,

dedic ate d amplifie rs, s igna l processo rs and displa y uni ts. Hence, monitor ing syste ms

interac t with doctors through a vis ua l displa y sc ree n that pre se nts diffe rent informa tion

c ollec te d from the body. Howe ve r, they are expe nsive beca use of the de dic ate d comple x

hardwa re. Signa l a mpl ific at ion and processing stages for c an be biologica l signa ls

developed ra ther e as ily i f a prope r displa y uni t is a va ilable s ince these signa ls c an not be

displa ye d effec tive ly using standa rd la boratory osc illos cope type displa ys.

E ve ntua lly, monitoring of pat ie nts ins ide a nd outside of the hospi ta l environme nt

bec ome s a n e sse nc e of biomedica l e ngine ering contrib ut ion to the hea lth-c are system. A

distributed monitoring sys te m contribute s to the re duct ion in cost of pa tie nt-c are a nd

improve s the e ffic iency of servic es in hospita ls. The proje ct is about deve lopme nt of a

1

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin

5 cm

Right margin

2 cm

Bottom margin

2 cm

Chapter headings should

start at a new page, at 5cm

below the top of the page and centered. Chapter number

must be in Arabic numerals,

like 1, 2, 3… and so on,

followed by Chapter Title both

in capital letters, and with Arial, size16

No

indentation

Times Roman 12, 1.5 spaced

(single space in tables,

appendices and footnotes)

Arabic numerals, like

1,2,3,4… and so on at the

bottom center of each

page

1 TAB stop

23

1.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING

1.1.1 Preference of Physicians

The human body is co mposed of many systems each of which has its own location in the

body and serves an independent function. Every system has an input from another system

and gives an o utput that is used by some other systems. The coordinated and functional

operation of all systems leads to the health condition of human being. The physician wants

to measure certain parameters related to the operation of the systems of the body and uses

them to evaluate the health status.

One of the primary measurements a physician would like to acquire is the

concentration of O2 and other nutrients in the cells. But such quantities are normally so

difficult to measure in vivo (from the body directly). Hence, the p hysician is forced to

accept a second-class measurement, which is the b lood flow and changes in blood volume

that correlated with concentration of nutrients. If b lood flow is difficult to measure the

physician may settle for the third-class measurement that is the b lood pressure, which

correlates to blood flow. However, direct measurement of blood pressure involves invasive

techniques (i.e. puncturing the protective sk in layer and inserting devices into the body)

that can be implemented only limited applications. Thus, if blood pressure is hard to

measure then the physician falls back to the fourth-class measurement that is the recording

of the ECG. ECG is generated by the electr ical activity of the heart that is the source of the

blood p ressure [1]

. Any of the previo us measurement will give physician an insight of what

is happening inside and the real health cond ition of the body.

1.1.2 Importance of Biopo tential Signals

Several organs of the human body generate their own monitoring signals during their

natural operation. It is the responsib ility of biomedical engineers to pick up these signals,

analyze them and present them to the physicians for interpretatio ns. Signals that occur due

to ionic activities generated during the work ing of organs, pick-up by sensors called

electrodes comprise the group of biological signals called the biopotentials. Eventually,

biopotential signals carry a lo t of informatio n on a person current health condition and how

his organs are functioning. That is why patients in hospitals have monitoring systems

connected to them, especially patients who have just gone through a med ical operation. 2

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin2.5 cm Right margin

2 cm

Bottom margin2 cm

Section headings may start anywhere within the text, after a triple space of the text of the previous section. Section titles contain Chapter and Section numbers separated

by a dot, followed by the Section Title in small letters, the first letters of main words being capital. Section headings should be in bold, 12 point size.

Subsection headings should be written similarly as section headings and contain

Chapter number, Section number and Subsection number, separated by dots

Reference

23

1.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING

1.1.1 Preference of Physicians

The human body is co mposed of many systems each of which has its own location in the

body and serves an independent function. Every system has an input from another system

and gives an o utput that is used by some other systems. The coordinated and functional

operation of all systems leads to the health condition of human being. The physician wants

to measure certain parameters related to the operation of the systems of the body and uses

them to evaluate the health status.

One of the primary measurements a physician would like to acquire is the

concentration of O2 and other nutrients in the cells. But such quantities are normally so

difficult to measure in vivo (from the body directly). Hence, the p hysician is forced to

accept a second-class measurement, which is the b lood flow and changes in blood volume

that correlated with concentration of nutrients. If b lood flow is difficult to measure the

physician may settle for the third-class measurement that is the b lood pressure, which

correlates to blood flow. However, direct measurement of blood pressure involves invasive

techniques (i.e. puncturing the protective sk in layer and inserting devices into the body)

that can be implemented only limited applications. Thus, if blood pressure is hard to

measure then the physician falls back to the fourth-class measurement that is the recording

of the ECG. ECG is generated by the electr ical activity of the heart that is the source of the

blood p ressure [1]

. Any of the previo us measurement will give physician an insight of what

is happening inside and the real health cond ition of the body.

1.1.2 Importance of Biopo tential Signals

Several organs of the human body generate their own monitoring signals during their

natural operation. It is the responsib ility of biomedical engineers to pick up these signals,

analyze them and present them to the physicians for interpretatio ns. Signals that occur due

to ionic activities generated during the work ing of organs, pick-up by sensors called

electrodes comprise the group of biological signals called the biopotentials. Eventually,

biopotential signals carry a lo t of informatio n on a person current health condition and how

his organs are functioning. That is why patients in hospitals have monitoring systems

connected to them, especially patients who have just gone through a med ical operation. 2

Left margin

3.5 cm

Top margin2.5 cm Right margin

2 cm

Bottom margin2 cm

Section headings may start anywhere within the text, after a triple space of the text of the previous section. Section titles contain Chapter and Section numbers separated

by a dot, followed by the Section Title in small letters, the first letters of main words being capital. Section headings should be in bold, 12 point size.

Subsection headings should be written similarly as section headings and contain

Chapter number, Section number and Subsection number, separated by dots

Reference

Appendix C: Illustrations for an XE 499 Project Report 249

Figures

Any time

Any

va

lue

0000

1000

0100

1100

1111 Dynamic range

Any

val

ue

Discrete time Discrete time

Dis

cret

e va

lue

Continuous-time signal Discrete-time signal Quantized signal

Fig. 1.3 Principle of operatio n of the analog to digital co nvers ion [2]

Figure caption (title)Reference

Any time

Any

va

lue

0000

1000

0100

1100

1111 Dynamic range

Any

val

ue

Discrete time Discrete time

Dis

cret

e va

lue

Continuous-time signal Discrete-time signal Quantized signal

Fig. 1.3 Principle of operatio n of the analog to digital co nvers ion [2]

Figure caption (title)Reference

Equations

Ea ch eq uation m us t b e w r itten us ing a p rope r, s tanda rd scientific n otation. Equ atio n

Ed itor of M icros of t O ffice sh ould b e u sed. Each equ atio n mus t b e tabb ed centered a

s epara te line of text and n umb er ed on the righ t, u sing C hapter n umb er an d equ atio n

n umb er, s epar ated b y a dot, as in th e f ollow in g e xample:

)12)(15(

)5.0()(

2+++

+

=

sss

sssH (1.2

In -line e quation s, or expr ess ions m ay als o be us ed, as fo llo w s: “… realizing that

122=+ yx , it can b e co nclu ded that …..”

St and -al on e eq ua ti on

In-l i ne equ ati o n

Tables

1

Inverted

16

Non Inverted

17

GND

15

Non In verted

13

12

Non Inverted

10

Non Inverted

11 Inverted

Non Inverted

Table 2.1 Conditions of pins of the parallel port

Inverted

14

Pin # Pin name ConnectionTable caption


250

A Sample Checklist for Minimum Requirements by ABET

KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Advisory Committee Chairman (Supervisor):…………………………………………………………………..…..

Project Title:……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………….....

Student Name(s):……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

SENIOR DESIGN PROJECT CHECKLIST

Item* Implemented

Yes No Indicate page(s) in the report for yes,

cite reason(s) for no

Real life problem

One from industry

Ad

vis

ory

com

mit

t e

From other

specializations

Situation description

Problem definition

Open-ended

Alternative solutions

Aesthetics

Specifications and regulations

Statistics and reliability

Teamwork

Professional ethics

Environmental impact statement

Cultural and social assessment

Financial analysis and marketing

Final product

251

APPENDIX D

A GOOD SAMPLE RÉSUMÉ

JAYNE WYATT 503 Center Street San Francisco, CA 91234 " (415)555-0123 " [email protected]

Experienced Executive Assistant with over eight years of demonstrated

ability in supporting all levels of Management

SUMMARY OF QUALIFICATIONS

• Extremely professional, positive attitude and a strong work ethic

• Strong verbal and written communication skills and interpersonal skills

• Excellent project management, meticulous attention to detail and good time management

• Ability to work independently with little or no supervision

• Superior ability in multi-tasking, adaptive to fast-paced and changing environment

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

Netriton Corporation, San Francisco, CA 6/99 - Present Senior Executive Assistant

• Provides direct support to CEO, CFO and CIO

• Managed front desk staff, created a procedures manual which saved $5000 annually

• Handles details with a high degree of confidentiality

• Interfaces with senior level executives, customers and vendors

• Prepare and execute presentations for management using Powerpoint

• Coordinated logistics of conferences and meetings

• Performed ad-hoc reporting and analysis on special projects


• Maintained executives schedules, appointments, meetings and travel arrangements

Gillian and Associates, San Francisco, CA 10/95 - 6/99 Executive Assistant

• Directly supported the President of Company • Handled all calendar requests, meeting arrangements, travel and

appointments • Designed and executed Powerpoint presentations for monthly

meetings • Prepared reports using Excel to present to clients • Draft business correspondence, proposals, contracts and special

reports

Innotrate Incorporated, San Francisco, CA 4/91 - 10/95 Executive Assistant

• Supported three Senior Vice Presidents • Managed the calendars, travel arrangements and meeting

schedules • Prepared reports for Sr. VP's in both Excel and Powerpoint

formats • Handled logistics for off-site departmental meetings and

conferences • Drafted all correspondence, proposals and contracts to meet

specifications • Provided general administrative support on a daily basis

EDUCATION BS, Business Administration, Stanford University, Stanford, CA

COMPUTER SKILLS Microsoft Word, Excel, Powerpoint, Access, Outlook, Internet

It is vital that information about how to contact you is current and accurate so that a potential employer can reach you easily. If you have e-mail and/or a cell phone, it is a good idea to list the e-mail address and/or phone number in addition to your home number.

Appendix D: A Good Sample Résumé 253

Objectives that are too general or flowery tend to lose the reader’s attention. It is recommended that you do not use a generic, non-specific phrase. Instead, state what it is you do or a particular area of expertise. A brief, but specific statement will tend to stand out and focus more attention on your résumé.

The “Summary of Qualifications” or “Highlights” section is a great opportunity to briefly summarize your qualifications for a potential employer. Typically, recruiters will scan at a resume very quickly to search for someone who has the skills, background, experience, and education that they want.

The “Experience” section of this example is in the chronological format preferred by most employers. It is easy to read and quickly find information an employer needs. Using bullet points in addition to action words to begin statements will make a stronger impact on the reader. The experience section allows you to showcase the responsibilities and accomplishments associated with each job you have held.

Dates of employment should include the month and year you were employed at the company. Often, when only the years are listed it is a red flag to recruiters that the candidate may be trying to mask gaps in employment.

In this example, the candidate listed the last ten years of her employment history. Usually, it is appropriate to list only ten to fifteen years of history; however, if you held a job more than ten years ago that is relevant to the one to which you are applying now, you should list it as part of your work experience.

Education is an important part of your resume. Remember to list degrees earned, majors and minors i.e., Business Administration, and the name and location of the institution that awarded you your degree. It is not necessary to include the date you received your degree if it was more than ten years ago.

Highlighting your skills will create a strong resume. Remember to list all of your computer skills and any other skills that may be relevant to the position for which you are applying.

From http://www.nelsonjobs.com/CareerCenter/ResumeGood.aspx

254

1

INDEX

2

257

A

ABET, 5, 6, 11, 24

Accuracy, 101

Achievements, 225

Acknowledgement, 144

Aesthetics, 12

Affective domain, 8

Alternative solutions, 46, 148

Analysis, 77

Appendices, 153

Assembly drawing, 124

B

Background, 146

Bar or column charts, 121

Block diagram, 124

C

Chapter headings, 155

Codes of ethics, 205

Cognitive Domain, 9

Coherent paragraph, 128

Communication skills, 159

Curriculum vitae, 220

D

Decision making, 53

Defining the design problem, 38

Design, 12

Design notebook, 17

Diagrams, 124

E

Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers,

191

Economic factors, 12

Education, 7

Electrical safety, 188

Electrical shock, 188

Emphasis, 165

Engineer, 10

Engineering, 4, 200

Engineering design, 3, 14, 19

Engineering education, 29

Engineering ethics, 268

Essentials of background search,

54

Ethic, 5

Ethics, 12, 202

Etiquette, 199

Evaluation of the design, 89

Experimental conditions, 82

Experimental design, 86

Experimental programs, 82

Experimental protocol, 83

Experiments, 82

Eye protection, 185

F

Fire extinguishers, 194

Fire prevention, 194

First aid, 182

Fuse, 192

G

Gantt chart, 26, 28

Gross errors, 102

Ground Fault Circuit

Interrupters, 191

Grounding, 190


H

Health hazard, 178

Hearing protection, 185

Hypothesis, 40

I

Ice breakers, 229

Internet, 58

Introduction, 145

Islamic law, 204

Isolation transformer, 190

K

Knowledge, 3, 4, 7

Levels of responsibility, 204

L

Line graphs, 119

Literature search, 54

M

Macroshock, 188

Microshock, 188

Model

Definition, 107

Testing, 107

Morality, 203

Morals, 199

Motion hazards, 193

Muslim engineer, 5, 199

O

Observation laboratories, 16

Observational method, 70

Oral presentation, 159

Organization chart, 123

Organization of a report, 140

P

Pagination, 145

Paragraph, 69, 126

Paragraph structure, 127

Personal protective equipment,

184

Pie chart, 122

Pointer phrase, 166

Precision, 101

Preliminary material, 141

Product Design Specification, 13

Product design specifications,

39, 41

Project management, 26

Propagation of errors, 106

Prophet Muhammad, 3

Q

Question period, 170

R

Random errors, 102

Realistic constrains, 45

Regression equation, 105

Reliability, 12

Research, 14

Resolution, 101

S

Safety, 12

Safety and occupational health,

180

Index 259

Science, 4

Scientific work, 16

Scope of safety, 177

Section headings, 155

Significant digits, 102

Skills, 225

Social impact, 12

Speaker, 162

Stages of a scientific work, 37

Substantial equivalency, 6

Summary, 143

Synthesis, 77

Systematic errors, 102, 104

T

Teamwork, 24

Timing diagram, 26

Title, 141

Topic selection, 36

Topic sentence, 126

Trivial project, 36

V

Visual aids, 163, 167

W

Web page, 58

Work plan, 39

260