4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism At least some human actions are independent and that freedom of choice is a genuine possibility, at least in certain circumstances whichever option you choose, there is the conviction that you could have chosen otherwise indeterminists leave open the possibility that undetermined actions are simply random, while libertarians are convinced that people are able to make genuinely free choices by exercising their free willsWe Live in a World of Possibilities: James William James the testimony of our direct, lived experience provides the most compelling grounds for free will, providing there are no sufficiently persuasive intellectual arguments to convince us otherwise the fact that most humans live their lives based on the assumption that personal freedom and responsibility are valid concepts is a compelling reason for believing in the reality of these concepts example: religion: most religions require that individuals have the ability to choose freely in determining their spiritual destiny. In the absence of freedom, religion becomes irrelevant. James' philosophical point: if free will genuinely exists, then the exercise of it is the strongest evidence for its existence. "I believe that I am able to make free choices." This primal affirmation is itself the ground for believing that your statement is true. The testimony of your direct, lived experience confirms its validity. Two ways of viewing the universe:1. Determinist view: a universe in which no other possibilities exist other than those that occur. If the events of the universe were a story, there is one way and one way only that this story could ever be told.2. Indeterminist view: a universe of possibilities in which no matter what events have occurred in the past, there are still multiple possibilities in the future. If the events of the universe were a story, the past has been written, but we will not be able to write the future until it occurs because we need to see which of the multitude of possibilities become actualities. How can we tell which is the real one? Facts won't help because facts can't tell us anything about possibilities. James wants us to fully appreciate the implications of a deterministic world, and he does this by analyzing our "judgments of regret." The desire that events might have occurred differently or might have had other, more desirable, outcomes. Determinism, James concludes, fails miserably in explaining the beliefs and convictions of our lived experience, and it is also a perspective that is ultimately self-contradictory and not rational in any meaningful human sense. We Create Ourselves Through Our Choices: Sartre considered as chief exponent of modern existentialism, a philosophical movement that emphasizes the challenge and responsibility of all people to create a meaningful existence through the free choices they make in seeking meaning, we cannot look outward to a supernatural creator or an intelligible universe: We must look inward, to our own resources and possibilities Sartre's view of freedom is extreme: We are "condemned" to be totally free, a radical view of freedom that makes us completely responsible for who we are. Humans are very different from "paper-cutter" (see example, page 172). When humans imagine existence as being the product of God's creation, Sartre believes they are mistakenly using the letter-opener metaphysics to understand human creation. All of these "essence precedes existence" views of human existence are, according to Sartre, irretrievably flawed and confused. For Sartre, an accurate view of human experience is based on the principle "existence preceded essence."

8.1 Your Moral CompassEthics and Values Ethics is the study of values that govern our moral character and our relationships with other people. Ethical concepts include right and wrong, good and bad, just and unjust, fair and unfair, responsible and irresponsible. Value is the general term we use to characterize anything that possess intrinsic worth, that we prize, esteem, and regard highly, based on clearly defined standards. Axiology: refers to the study of value or quality.

9.1 Expanding Your Knowledge of Moral PhilosophyCharacter: Virtue EthicsVirtue ethics: the ethical theory that focuses on the moral quality of individuals rather than their actions Aristotle: virtue ethics is the cultivation of a virtuous character that is the goal of ethics, to become a virtuous person. The assumption is that genuinely virtuous people will act in morally principled ways as natural expression of their moral goodness. And these moral actions will in turn strengthen their virtuous nature. Your moral character refers to the integrated totality of your moral traits and dispositions, the ways in which you habitually respond when confronted with moral choices. Your character typically displays consistency and coherence because it has been created gradually, inscribed over the totality of your life. This doesn't mean that you can't change. Aristotle believes we need to understand the true nature of human "happiness." Happiness for Aristotle, is expressed in the Greek word eudaemonia, which means "Actively exercising your soul's powers." It means that achieving happiness necessarily involves fulfilling your distinctive function as a human being, living your life in accordance with reason and virtue. "Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with complete or perfect virtue." Two categories of virtue:1. Intellectual: developed via teaching and practice over time. For example, that is the express purpose of your education, to stimulate and guide you to develop a basic framework of knowledge, as well as the sophisticated thinking and language abilities needed to communicate and use this knowledge in productive ways.2. Moral: include qualities such as being temperate, just, courageous, compassionate etc. Also develop over time, but mainly developed through consistent and ongoing practice. For Aristotle, a virtuous life -- the way we ought to live -- involves a balanced and harmonious integration of the various behaviors, values, emotions and attitudes, in accordance with the Golden Mean (the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency). But all virtues are not equal, according to Aristotle. The most virtuous life is one devoted to intellectual reflection and contemplation and it is this life that leads to the greatest possible human happiness.