INDIA’S HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HINDUISM By Arthur H ...202.203.193.2/userfiles/Indian History, Philosophy and Hinduism.pdf · INDIA’S HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HINDUISM By Arthur

INDIA’S HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HINDUISM

By Arthur H Tafero

SUMMARY: An overview of Indian History and Culture from ancient times to

present

Areas covered will include: origins of Indian religions and philosophies.

Economic

development, social development, Indus Valley civilizations and modern India.

Also

covered will be trade and religious exchange between India and China.

TEXTS:

PRIMARY

ï‚· History of India - Thapar

ï‚· Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization - Kenoyer

SECONDARY

ï‚· Ancient India and Ancient China - Liu

ï‚· India Modern - Ypma

Lesson 1 - THE GEOGRAPHIC AND

ECOLOGICAL SETTING OF INDIA

A. India is named for the Indus River that spawned a great urban civilization

more

than four thousand years ago.

B. The subcontinent of South Asia encompasses an area of more than one and a

half

million square miles, from the Hindu Kush and Baluchi Hills on the west and

the

Great Himalayas on the north, to the Burmese mountains on the east and the

Indian Ocean on the south.

C. Geographically, the subcontinent may most simply be divided into three

major

horizontal zones; the northern mountain belt; its neighboring offspring of

Indo-

Gangetic alluvial plains; and the peninsular massif of the south, which may

originally have been part of Africa.

D. The earliest traces of human habitation in South Asia survive as flakes of

stone

found scattered around the valley of the Soan River in what is now the

northern

part of Pakistan.

E. Denied the north's bounty of perennially snow-fed streams, South India has

always depended on rain for its water.

F. The winds that annually bring revitalizing rain to the south also probably

brought

the first humans to peninsular India by sea from East Africa, possibly at

about the

time East Asian migrants first wandered into the northern Soan River valley.

G. Dravidian, the linguistic family still dominant in South India, is a

unique mode of

communication, quite distinct from the Indo-European, Indo-Aryan languages of

North India.

H. In Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia, India's western neigbors made the

transition

from primitive hunting and food gathering to crop raising; a transition that

marks

the dawn of the New Stone Age and the advent of civilization, between the

ninth

and fifth Millenia B

I. That Neolithic revolution seems to have occurred in South Asia only after

4000

BC, the approximate date of the earliest Neolithic settlements found thus far

in

the hills of Baluchistan on the northwest frontier.

J. The tough, monsoon-nourished Sal forests of the Yamuna-Ganga plain east of

the

Rajaasthan desert, however, poised more formidable barriers to human

settlement;

not to be overcome until iron ploughs drawn by oxen were developed well after

1000 BC.

Critical Questions

1. How would you describe India geographically?

2. Why are India's rivers important to its history?

3. Why are monsoons important to India?

4. Why is the transition from hunting and gathering to cultivation important

to all

ancient cultures?

5. How did the glacial age affect India?

6. Why are nature's barriers an impediment to culture development?

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

A. Why do many cultures throughout the world differ according to their

physical

locations?

B. Why do many cultures have animistic and shamanistic practices in common?

C. Why do most river-valley civilizations have much in common?

Additional Internet Research Links For This Lesson:

Indian Film

http://www.askmrmovies.com

Indian Geography

http://www.encyclopedia.com/searchpool.asp?

Monsoons

http://www.usda.gov/oce/waob/jawf/profiles/specials/monsoon/monsoon.htm

Lesson 2 - THE INDUS CULTURE

A. The monumental excavations of the ancient Punjab city of Harappa (Hara is

one

B. of Shiva's names), begun in 1921, and other excavations occurred at its

reflection

south along the Indus at Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead) a year later.

C. The dig at Mohenjo-daro yielded a much clearer map of that ancient city on

the

west bank of the Indus, 250 miles north of the Arabian Sea.

D. There were, in fact, no fewer than ten cities, constructed one on top of

the other

over a period of many centuries.

E. Wheel-made pottery, much of it redware or buffware painted black, at times

designed with animal as well as geometric motifs, has been found in profusion

in

all major Indus sites.

F. The heavy brick walls and unadorned streets of Mohnjo-daro, Harappa, and

the

more recently discovered Indus sites of Kot Diji, Lothal and Kalibaqngan

leave an

overall impression of ponderous utilitarianism.

G. Indus ciivilzation, now represented by no fewer than seventy unearthed

sites,

extended over almost half a million square miles of the Punjab and Sind, from

the borderlands of Baluchistan to the desert wastes of Rajasthan, from the

Himalayan foothills to the tip of Gujarat, probing the limits of its

ecosystem during

the millenium of its mature survival.

H. By this time (2000 BC), the Indus people had begun to spin cotton into

yarn and

weave it into cloth, dyed fragment of which has been found in Mohnjo-daro.

I. By the time of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, the nomadic hunting, food-

gathering

and fishing subsistence economy of later Stone Age peoples and the marginal

small-village agricultural economy of the Baluchi Hills had been clearly

displaced by a sophisticated inundation-and-irrigation agricultural and

commercial

economy capable of supporting a large surplus urban population.

J. Sometime shortly after 1750 BC, a number of factors began to transform the

character of Harappan civilization; impairing its quality of life and

disrupting its

hitherto orderly urban environment to the extent that streets no longer

followed any

careful grid pattern, homes diminished in size, and pottery as well as

drainage

deteriorated or disappeared.

K. The Jhukar people's use of faience beads may, as Piggot suggests, be

explained by

the "conscription" of "local craftsmen" who learned the art at Chanhu-daro

and

were forced by their "new rulers" to continue producing their ware; or it

might

simply reflect the fragmented and disjointed continuity of tradition

maintained

by a remnant of the earlier urban culture who had somehow escaped natural

catastrophe.

L. The chaos that characterized the last days of Mohenjo-daro apparently

spread to

M. Harappa in the north and may have reverberated as far as Lothal in the

south as

well, though evidence from these sites is less clearly defined and Lothal at

least

seems to have prospered long after the core of Indus civilization decayed.

Critical Questions

1. Why was the excavation at Harappa in 1921 important?

2. Why is radio-carbon dating important in establishing the existence of a

culture?

3. How did the dig at Mohenjo-daro affect Indian research?

4. How do we know that ancient Indians were artistic?

5. Why is Shiva significant?

6. Discuss the scope of Indus civilization.

7. Why was the invention of cotton important to India?

8. How did the Harappan civilization change after 1750 BC?

9. Why were the Jhukar important?

Supplemental Material

A. What are some reasons that one culture falls and another arises?

B. How do digs contribute to historical research?

C. How can influences of new cultures on old ones be good or bad?



Harrappa

http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Thread/184045

Mohenjo-daro

http://www.mrdowling.com/612-mohenjodaro.html

Lesson 3 - THE ARYAN AGE (1500 BC â€“

1000 BC)

A. By 1500 BC the Aryans had advanced east over the Hindu Kush Mountains into

India.

B. There is no archeological evidence for the first centuries of India's

Aryan age

(1500 - 1000BC, but The Book of Knowledge or Vedas were preserved through

oral tradition; particularly the Rig Veda (Verses of Knowledge). Also the

Aryans

lived in tribal villages with their migrant herds unlike the pre-Aryan

peoples of

Harrapa.

C. The Rig Veda was not written down before 600 BC, but Vedic hymns had been

composed as early as 1500 BC.

D. Each Aryan tribe was ruled by an autocratic male raja and each family was

controlled by the father whose dominant role over his wife and children was

to

become the standard pattern for subsequent Indian familial relationships, in

which

male supremacy and hierarchy dictated by age were to remain the rule.

E. The simple tribal structure grew more complex during this period as

warfare and

conquest brought new peoples and problems under the ruling rajas, who

required

assistance from noble "warriors" (kshatriyas) and the advice of "councils"

(sabha and samiti) of household elders to govern their burgeoning tribes.

F. By the time the Rig Veda was written, the Aryans had made the transition

from a

nomadic pastoral economy to a combined agricultural and pastoral one, for

they

reaped some variety of "grain" (yava) which must have been barely or wheat.

G. The game of dice, like chess, was invented in India and many dice carved

of nuts

were found at Mohenjo-daro; proof that Aryans were avid gamblers.

H. The Sanskrit word that came to mean "class" (varna) and that is still used

with the

modifiers brahman, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra to identify the four

broadest

categories of Hindu caste society originally meant "covering" as in skin

covering

of various colors. Each varna had a distinguishing color: white for brahmans,

red

for kshatriyas, brown for vaishnas and black for shudras.

I. After Indra's victory, Varuna, The King of Universal Order came forward to

take

the central position of Aryan religious authority.

J. The seeming simplicity of the Aryan nature-worshipping religion was soon

obscured by the Vedic quest for an understanding of cosmic origins and

control

over cosmic forces.

K. The Rig Veda, when completed, resembled a monotheistic model more than a

pantheistic one.

Critical Questions

1. How did the Aryan Civilization change India?

2. How did the Aryans differ from the Harrappa?

3. Why is the Rig Veda crucial to understanding Indian History?

4. Why would Aryan rule be classified as patriarchal?

5. How was the warrior class formed during the Aryan age?

6. How did the Aryan economy evolve?

7. How did gambling evolve in India?

8. How is the Hindu caste system divided?

9. How did Aryan religion evolve?

Supplemental Material

A. How can one civilization's rise cause revisionism in the civilization that

is falling?

B. How are the Aryan cultural developments in India similar to other cultures

overtaking a native culture?


Indian Film


Aryan Civilization

http://www.atributetohinduism.com/articles_hinduism/13.htm

Rig Veda

http://www.indiansaga.info/languages/vedas_lang.html

Lesson 4 - NORTH INDIAN CONQUEST

and UNIFICATION (1000-450BC)

A. The Aryan conquest of North India was a process of gradual institutional

assimilation and sociocultural integration between invading barbaric hordes

and their more civilized pre-Aryan slaves

B. The Mahabharata, whose epic core probably reflects Indian life at around

1000

BC, starts with King Santanu's love for the beautiful goddess Ganga, whom he

marries. This symbolizes the Aryan advance east of the Doab into the Gangetic

plain.

C. Several elaborate sacrifices, designed to consecrate royalty, appear in

Bramana

commentaries on the Vedas, composed from about 1000 BC to 700 BC, attested

to the growth of significance for kingship.

D. The Satapatha Brahman allegorically relates the eastward expansion of the

Aryans

as the spread of Agni's divine fire.

E. Religious law called dharma dictated proper behavior for all within the

kingdom.

F. The entire Ramayana may be read as an allegory of Aryan and pre-Aryan

conflict,

culminating in the conquest of the south.

G. Such a process of expansion, settled agricultural production and

pluralistic

integration of new peoples led to the development of India's uniquely complex

system of social organization, which was labeled the caste system by the

Portuguese.

H. Plough and irrigation agriculture greatly increased the food supply

available to

Aryan settlers, permitting rapid expansion of India's population as a whole

and the

growth of extended family units within villages as well as towns.

I. Upanishadic mystics, masters of revealed Vedic scripture, represented the

orthodox intellectual revolt against brahmanism that emerged in the eastern

Gangetic plain in the 8th century BC. Upanishads( which means "to sit down in

front of") had a three-fold quest; (1) From the unreal lead me to the real,

(2) From

darkness lead me to light, (3) From death lead me to immortality.

J. Upanishads may be ancient links to Taoist beliefs practiced in Mesopotamia.

K. Their belief system includes references to the cosmic soul equating with

the

individual soul. This is identical to the Taoist belief system and one of the

few,

if any major belief systems that mirror the Taoist system. Also the concept

of

controlling ourselves through understanding these cosmic forces is also very

Taoist.

L. In a deer park at Sarnath, on the outskirts of Kasi, the Buddha was

believed to

have set his "wheel of the law" (dharma) in motion in 527 BC by preaching his

first sermon (which included the four noble truths)`` after achieving

enlightenment.

M. The Buddha spent the next 45 years of his life teaching these four noble

truths to

disciples who gathered around him in such numbers he was able to establish a

monastic "order" (sangha).

N. Members of the sangha pursued a rigorous course of "right discipline"

(sila),

yogic concentration and thoughtful study in their search for nirvana.

O. The various sects of the sangha would lead to schisms within Buddhism that

are

prevalent to this day.

P. Buddha's final message was to be yourself and trust yourself. He did not

set up

his sangha to be "official" priests to distribute "canon law" or to assemble

in

"official temples". This is an obvious rebuff to later institutionalization

of

Buddhism and more in line with the Taoist model of the individual having to

find

his own way without being told what to do.

Critical Questions

1. Why did the Sangha inevitably have schisms within its ranks?

2. How did the Upanishads contribute to the Aryan period?

3. How are Upanishadic and Taoist belief systems similar?

4. How are Buddha's final preachings similar to Taoism?

5. How did agriculture advance during the Aryan period?

6. How did the caste system develop?

7. Why was dharma important?

8. How did kings develop during this period?

9. How is the Mahabharata an allegory for Aryan conquest?

10. How did the Aryans conquer Northern India?


A. WOULD YOU DESCRIBE BUDDHA AS A TAOIST OR A BUDDHIST?

B. WHY DID BUDDHISM SPLIT INTO SO MANY SECTS AFTER THE

BUDDHA'S DEATH?



Sangha

http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/India/Society

Upanishads

http://www.indianchild.com/great___indian_epics.htm

Lesson 5 - India's First Imperial

Unification (326-184BC)

A. By the sixth century BC, Magadha had emerged as first among many competing

kingdoms within the Gangetic plain, but it took two centuries to gain control

over India.

B. At this time Alexander the great made his entrance into India.

C. The Maurya became India's first imperial family.

D. The army, spies, soldiers and civil bureaucrats of the Maurya totaled over

one

million men. This required the monarchy to assess a tax of 1/2 of all crops

raised

for maintenance.

E. The Mauryan Empire was divided into janapada (districts) which reflected

earlier

tribal boundries and were administered by the emperor's closest relatives

and/or

most trusted generals.

F. The "Arthashastra" expounded India's classic mandala (circle) theory of

foreign

policy. The king was at the center of the circle surrounded by 12 concentric

circles around him. Anything outside the circles was "the enemy".

G. The greatest of the Mauryan rulers was Ashoka.

H. Although ruthless in his initial conquest, Ashoka preached compassion for

all his

subjects later in his rule and after his death.

I. Ashoka contributed greatly to the institutionalization of Buddhism by

building

over 80000 temples or stupas dedicated to Buddha. After his death, Mauryan

rule

lost its vitality and went into spiritual and economic decline.

Critical Questions

1. How did Ashoka''s association with Buddhism affect India?

2. How did Ashoka's reign affect India?

3. How was the Mauryan Empire divided into janapada?

4. How did the Mauryan bureaucracy function?

5. Why is the Arthashastra text important in this period?

6. How did Alexander the Great influence this time period?

7. How did "The Persian Wars" by Herodotus shed light on this time period in

India?

SUPPLEMENTAL QUESTIONS

A. How does the principle of separation of Church and State fit into this

period of

Indian History?

B. Why is Ashoka considered one of the greatest Indian leaders of all time?



Ashoka

http://www.indianchild.com/great___indian_epics.htm

Mauryan Empire

http://www.archaeolink.com/ancient_indus

Lesson 6 - Political Fragmentation and Economic

and Cultural Enrichment (184BC-320AD)

A. The period of 184 BC to 320 AD was politically fragmented until the rise

of the

imperial Guptas.

B. Eucratides dominated the region of Gandhara for more than a century.

C. The Bacatrian bridge between east and west, erected and maintained during

the

crucial centuries prior to the dawn of the Christian eera, may have been a

vital

catalyst in the emergence of Christianity.

D. Hermaeus, last of the Greco-Bactrian kings, sought in vain to defend his

land from

a two-pronged attack; Scythian invaders moving down from the north and

Parthians moving in from the west.

E. The Kushan invasions of India began about the middle of the first century

of the

Christian era, when the last of the Pahlava kings was defeated by these more

powerful Central Asian nomads, while the Shakas were driven deeper into India,

settling in the region of Malwa around Ujjain.

F. A scroll found in 78 AD mentions "Maharaja Rajatriaja Devaputra Kushana",

which indicated the Kushan kings modeled themselves after the Chinese model

of "son of heaven".

G. At the hub of trade routes linking India, China and the West, Kanishka's

Kushan

Empire prospered.

H. Wave after wave of Central Asian and Persian invasions dismantled India's

northwest from indigenous control.

I. South of the Andhras and Kalingas were three ancient Tamil "kingdoms", the

Cheras in the west, the Pandyas in the center and the Cholas in the east.

J. The increased use of coins and the growth of commerce and wealth led to

the

emergence of Indian bankers and financiers, who helped support failing guilds

as well as lesser monarchs and minor landowners.

K. The obscure Vedic rain god Rudra emerged now as the Lord Shiva, Hinduism's

L. "Great God" (Maheshvara), no less exalted in the primacy of his divine

status

by sectarian followers than was Vishnu by his devotees.

Critical Questions

1. How did India's culture flourish during the fragmented period?

2. How did Christianity affect India?

3. Why is Lord Shiva important to Hindus?

4. Why is Krishna important in India?

5. How did coins affect the growth of commerce in India?

6. Discuss the Tamil kingdoms.

7. What factors contributed to continued fragmentation in India?

8. How were trade routes established in India and why were they important?

9. How did the Greeks influence India?


A. HOW DID THE GREEK INFLUENCE HELP TO FRAGMENT INDIA

DURING THIS AGE?

B. HOW DID RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AFFECT INDIA'S POLITICAL

STRUCTURE DURING THIS PERIOD?



Shiva

http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/india/india53.html

Krishna

http://www.aryabhatt.com/fast_fair_festival/Festivals/Krishha%20Janmashtami.h

tm

Lesson 7 - The Classical Age (320-700AD)

A. The reunification of North India under the imperial Guptas in 320 AD and

the

reign of Harsha Vardana of Kanauj may be studied as classical prototypes of

the Hindu state and comprised India's classical age.

B. The Guptas, like the Mauryas, established thier base of imperial power in

Magadha, where they controlled rich veins of iron form the Barabar Hills.

C. The peak of Guptan power and cultural glory was attained during the reign

of

Samudra's son and successor, Chandra Gupta II (375-415AD).

D. Numismatic evidnece attests to the final defeat of the Shakas by the

Guptas in 409,

after which Chandras's Gupta's empire had direct control over the ports of

the

Arabian Sea and the riches of Western trade.

E. "Shakuntala" was a major literary work created at this time by Kalidasa.

F. During the Gupta era, royal support was lavished on Hindu, Buddhist and

Jain

faiths. The Hindu temple was considered the classical Indian architecture.

G. The Guptan era also marked the apogee of cave art and sculpture.

H. Commerce as well as Buddhism stimulated Indian intercourse with China and

Southeast Asia at this time.

I. The Guptan Empire, like every other Indian empire, was supported primarily

by

the land revenue "share" (tax) that India's peasant villages provided from

every

harvest to the royal treasury.

J. For a half a centur following the collapse of the Guptan Empire, North

India

reverted to the political fragmentation before the Guptas.

K. Yoga was the only one of the six schools of classical Hindu philosophy

that

emerged in this era that continue to be studied throughout India to this day.

L. The political system of South India should not be thought of as a group of

M. competing, centrally developed bureaucratic states, as was the case in the

north.

Critical Questions

1. How did the northern and southern Indian political systems differ during

the

Gupta period?

2. Why was Yoga prominent in Hindu Philosophy?

3. How did India fare after the fall of the Guptan Empire?

4. How was the Guptan Empire supported financially?

5. How did the Guptas treat various religious groups?

6. Why was "Shakuntala" important to Indian literature?

7. How did the Guptas control India economically?

8. How was India reunified during the Classical age?


A. HOW DID GUPTAN INDIA DIFFER FROM PRE-GUPTAN INDIA?

B. WHAT USUALLY CAUSES THE DOWNFALL OF MOST KINGDOMS?


Gupta Period

http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/india/india16.html

Shakuntala

http://www.edunetconnect.com/TimeMachine/india-1500.php

Lesson 8 - The Impact of Islam (711-1556AD)

A. The birth of Islam in the sands of Saudi Arabia in the year 622 was

destined to

divert the course of Indian history in the most fundamental way.

B. By the tenth century, Islam had changed in many ways, transformed since

the

founding of the Abbasid caliphate in the mid-eighth century, when it was

ruled

from Baghdad rather than Damascus or Medina, into an empire embellished by

Persian civilization, protected by Turkish armed slaves.

C. Mahmud of Ghazni began his raids in 997 AD, smashing countless Hindu

temple

idols, which he viewed as abominations to Allah while looting India's cities

of

jewels, spices and lower on the scale of importance; women.

D. Ali Baba and the forty thieves was actually a king and his advisors in

Delhi during

this period.

E. Harihara I, founder of Vijayanagar, had converted to Islam in order to

save the

Tughluqs as a governor in his southern homeland, but he reconverted to

Hinduism

and quickly became an overlord of the southern Deccan.

F. Bengal declared its independence from Delhi in 1338.

G. By the dawn of the 16th century, India was thus not only fragmented

politically,

but divided spiritually into many religious and philosophic camps.

Critical Questions

1. How fragmented did India become by the 16th century?

2. How did some Hindus resist Islamic control?

3. Why do we have the wrong impression in the West of Ali Baba and the 40

thieves?

4. Why was Mahmud called the Sword of Islam?

5. How did Islam develop during the 10th century within India?

6. How did Islamic and Hindu cultures clash?


A. IS RELIGIOUS TOLERENCE OR RELIGIOUS SUPPRESSION A WISER

POLICY FOR RULING A COUNTRY?

B. WHAT MODERN COUNTRIES PRACTICE RELIGIOUS INTOLERENCE


Indian Film


Mahmud

http://28.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHMUD_OF_GHAZNI.htm

Ali Baba and the 40 thieves

http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/oldarchives/alibaba.html

Lesson 9 - Mughal Imperial Unification

(1556-1605)

A. For the first five years of his reign, Akbar remained subservient to

Bayram Khan,

until the regent was deposed at the instigation of Akbar's nurse, who hoped

to run

the empire herself.

B. The picture of Akbar preserved by a number of contemporary historians is

that of

an energetic and powerful, yet singularly sensitive, melancholy man whose

fits of

depression were as prolonged and profound as his flights of manic celebration

were frequent.

C. The mansabdari (officeholders) system of administration developed by Akbar

divided the higher echelons of Mughal officialdom into thirty-three ranks

(similar

to the US civil service GS system).

D. Akbar's empire was divided into twelve provinces (subas) and subdivided

into

districts (sarkars) which were further broken down into subdistricts

(parganas).

E. Not only did Akbar's efficient administrative system help stimulate and

expand

India's economic development and trade, but it also resurrected Ashoka's

imperial

idea of bringing the entire subcontinent under a single "white umbrella".

F. Orthodox Muslim leaders like the Mulla of Jaunpur came to fear that the

emperor

had abandoned Islam entirely and called upon their congregations of the

faithful

to rise in revolt (jihad).

G. The importance of Persian cultural influence on the Mughal Empire and

court can

hardly be exaggerate

H. It was found in Akbar's Sufism and in the reintroduction of Persian as the

official

language of the Mughal administration and law.

I. Akbar's era reflected a blend of Perso-Islamic and Raiput-Hindu

architecture and

painting.

Critical Questions

1. How did Akbar's reign come to a tragic end?

2. How did Akbar's reign affect Indian architecture?

3. How did Islam react to Akbar?

4. How did Akbar's efficient administration unite India?

5. How was Indian bureaucracy organized under Akbar?

6. How did Akbar come to rule India?

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

A. HOW DID AKBAR CHANGE INDIA?

B. HOW DID HINDUISM AND ISLAM COEXIST DURING AKBAR'S REIGN?



Akbar

http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/tajmahal/mughal.html

Indian Islam

http://www.hvk.org/articles/0100/23.html

Lesson 10 - Western Europe's Vanguard

(1498-1669)

A. The transition from the initial "fleet" to the more permanent and

potentially

profitable "factory" stage of Western European enterprise in India proved

disastrous, and the era of friendly Indo-Portuguese collaboration was

followed

by a longer period of bitter conflict and hatred.

B. Dom Affonso d'Alburquerque, vicetroy of Portugal in the East from 1509 to

1515,

was master architect of Portugal's Indian empire; a strategist of no mean

vision

and a religious fanatic whose hatred of Islam was almost as great as his

knowledge of the Indian Ocean.

C. As Portugal's wealth and power in Asia grew, however, Jesuits back home

feared

that the mire of "Eastern sin" might undermine the empire built in such great

measure by the zealous spirit of Christian crusading.

D. After 1588, when the Spanish Armada fought its way to the bottom of the

English

Channel, there was less risk involved in the trip to India by all other

foreign

investors.

E. The British gained the upper hand in India for the first time when Admiral

Best

bested the Portuguese fleet in the Indian Ocean and effectively neutralized

the

influence of the Portuguese Jesuits at Agra's court.

F. From ports in southeastern India, British merchants soon sought more

immediate

access to the mainstream of produce flowing down from the Gangetic plain to

the Bay of Bengal.

G. Under Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth, the East India company finally

received the national support it had earlier sought in vain to do business in

India.

Critical Questions

1. How did England's East India Company get national support in England?

2. How did the English merchants take advantage of English naval superiority?

3. How did the English take power from the Portuguese in India?

4. Why were the English and the Dutch able to make inroads to India after

1588?

5. How did Portugal's trade supremacy affect Christianity's stance toward

India?

6. How did European trade shift in India by 1500?

7. How did Portuguese exploration affect India?


A. HOW DID EUROPE MAKE INROADS INTO INDIA DURING THE 16TH AND

17TH CENTURIES?

B. HOW DID EUROPEAN INTERVENTION INTO INDIA AFFECT BOTH

ENGLISH AND INDIAN CULTURE?


Indian Film


East India Company

http://www.gwhs.phila.k12.pa.us

European Intercourse in India

http://www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/containment/ahmed/ahmed.html

Lesson 11 - Great Mughal Glory (1605-1707)

A. The Great Mughals, whose reigns span the entire 17th century, have with

good

reason become universal symbols of power and affluence, of tenderness and

cruelty, of ferocity and sensitivity and many other emotional extremes

characteristic of the Indian life-style known as Mughlai. (Some researchers

feel this type of behavior was initiated by Akbar and became a "traditional"

type of behavior for rulers to emulate).

B. Akbar had hoped to win control over all of India by his enlightened policy

of

"love" - forging a multi-religious alliance, reducing taxes, and encouraging

tolerance for all sects and ideas.

C. Since the founding of the Sikh faith by its saintly guru, Nanak, in the

early 16th

century, this popular new liberal community flourished in the Punjab, drawing

its recruits mostly from hard-working peasantry of Hindu as well as Muslim

birth.

D. In Maharashtra a fierce Hindu opposition to Mughal rule emerged under the

leadership of Shivaji Bhonsle, who was hailed by his followers as the

founding

father of the Maratha "nation" but reviled by the Mughals as a Deccan

(mountain rat).

E. Shivaji clearly used an intimate knowledge of his homeland to considerable

martial advantage and is highly deserving to be called one of the founding

fathers

of modern guerrilla warfare, a method he learned in part from his father.

F. Although the mughals conquered the Deccan, it cost them 26 years and was a

Pyrrhic victory, costing about 100,000 lives a year in which Maratha

fortresses

would be taken one week and lost the next with the cycle being endlessly

repeated until the fall of the mughals.

Critical Questions

1. How were the Hindus able to resist Mughal domination?

2. Why was Shivaji 's resistance important to India's history?

3. Why did the Hindus clash with Mughal rule?

4. How did the Sikh faith emerge and affect India?

5. How did Akbar plan to administer India?

6. How did the Mughals impact on Indian history?


A. HOW DID THE SIKHS CHANGE THE BALANCE OF POWER WITHIN

INDIA?

B. HOW DID THE SIKHS BECOME ISOLATED IN INDIA?


Indian Film


Mughal


Shivaji

http://www.aryabhatt.com/fast_fair_festival/Festivals

Lesson 12 - Twilight of the Mughal

Empire - (1707-1764)

A. The last decades of Alamgir's reign imposed too heavy a drain upon

imperial

Mughal resources to permit the dynasty to continue after its master's demise.

B. The four sons of the last effective Mughal did not bury their father for a

month

because they were scurrying around trying to consolidate power.

C. While south India emerged independent of Mughal power, the Safadid dynasty

was attacked by Afghan invaders.

D. While India's Great Mughal unity was thus destroyed by a combination of

interregional religious wars, court incompetence, greedy factionalism and

traditional invasions in the northwest for plunder, European commercial

enterprise quietly prospered on the fringes of the subcontinent.

E. The French under Dupleix were able to make inroads to Indian trade because

after living on the subcontinent for two decades, Dupleix was able to

understand

Indian attitudes and politics better than any other contemporary European.

F. Dupleix's advantage diminished as the British navy became more dominant in

India and paved the way for the East India Company.

G. Clive took control of the East India Company and overcame Dupleix through

England's superior military forces.

H. When Clive returned to govern Bengal in 1765, he wisely recognized that

though

his company might have the power to conquer India immediately, it would not

reap the financial benefits of a "peaceful" takeover of the economy.

Critical Questions

1. How was Clive wise in administering the East India Co. in India?

2. How did Clive impact on India?

3. Why were the French eventually unsuccessful in their attempts to penetrate

India?

4. How did the French try to make inroads to India?

5. How did the Europeans take advantage of Mughal decline?

6. How did south India react to Mughal decline?

7. Why did infighting contribute to Mughal decline?

8. Why did the Mughal empire decline?


A. HOW DO MOST DYNASTIES IN MOST CULTURES DECLINE?

B. HOW CAN A PRIVATE ENTERPRISE LIKE THE EAST INDIA COMPANY

DOMINATE A COUNTRY?



Clive

http://www.aryabhatt.com/fast_fair_festival/Festivals

Mughal Empire


Lesson 13 - Midterm Exam

Areas of Concern

1. Discuss the early development of India.

2. Discuss the early religious development of India.

3. Discuss European involvement in India?

Lesson 14 â€“ E John Company Raj - (1765

- 1793)

A. After 1765 John Company sought to establish it raj (rule) over Bengal,

Bihar and

Orissa on as sound and permanent a basis as possible.

B. The aggressive and greedy Clive was replaced by Hastings who was more

academic and low-key and also provide the company with a greater profit.

C. Hastings redesigned the revenue-collecting system of Bengal so that more

money

actually reached the coffers of the company rather than sticking to the

fingers of

its Indian agents and their English supervisors, who robbed peasant and

company

alike with equal impunity.

D. Hastings supported Oudh with British arms and undermined Maratha power.

The

stunning defeat suffered by the Maratha at Panipat dashed their hopes of

continued native Indian imperial power.

E. The Treaty of Salbai brought the English 20 years of time to undermine

Maratha

power and give superiority to the enterprise efforts within the country by

the British.

F. William Pitt was able to brilliantly gain power within India with a

minimum of

armed intervention under the guise of free enterprise.

G. Cornwallis replaced Hastings when Pitt felt that a man with military as

well as

business experience would be best for leading Britain's exploits within India

H. Before leaving India, Cornwallis implemented his Code of 48 regulations,

which

became known as the Cornwallis Code which affected India for many years to

come.

Critical Questions

1. Why was John Company dominant in India?

2. How did the John Company change direction after Clive?

3. How did Maratha power decline during the John Company's raj?

4. How did William Pitt affect Indian policy in Britain?

5. How did Cornwallis impact on Indian relations?

6. What was Cornwallis' legacy in India?


A. WHY DID THE JOHN COMPANY SUCCEED IN INDIA?

B. HOW DID CORNWALLIS ESTABLISH ENGLAND AS A PERMANENT

POWER IN INDIA?



John Company

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_East_India_Company

William Pitt

http://www.britannia.com/gov/primes/prime5.html

Lesson 15 - The New Mughals (1793-1848)

A. Wellesley became the first English Mughal

B. Cornwallis had left the mechanism for complete British control with his

code.

C. Assisted by his younger brother, the Iron Duke of Wellington, Wellesley

added

more territory directly to British India and brought more princely real

estate

under the "protection" of Britain.

D. Wellesley continued to increase England's domination of India while the

Maratha faction continued to diminish in power.

E. With the New Mughals, other Englishmen flocked to India; not as officials

or

merchants in the service of companies or the crown, but as missionary

reformers

seeking the salvation of heathen souls.

F. The struggle between British officials, whose primary concern was survival

through stability, and British preachers or lay reformers, who were

preoccupied

with salvation through conversion or reform, was to be a source of tension in

the superstructure of the new ray for the 19th century.

G. Ram Mohun Roy was considered the father of Hindu Renaissance made an

interesting impact on Indian society. He was trained by the English and

completely

ingested Western culture while still remaining an Indian Brahman. This led

native

Indians to believe that they too could become part of the new superstructure

of

British rule.

H. The Indians studied the English and the English embarked upon studying

"orientals".

I. England used India's fear of Russia and Russian borders to place more of a

military presence in India.

J. The revolt of the Sikhs at the edges of the British influence also allowed

the

British to bring in more of a military presence in India.

K. After the revolt was put down, the armies remained as a deterrent to any

other

uprising.

Critical Questions

1. How did the English maintain dominance in India after the departure of

Cornwallis?

2. How did Wellesley add to England's empire in India?

3. Who was Wellesley's main competition in India?

4. How did British dominance in India open the door to Christianity in India?

5. Why were the English military and the missionary population at odds with

each

other?

6. Why was Ram Mohan Roy considered a tremendous influence on Indian culture?

7. How did Englishmen and Indians exchange cultural backgrounds?

8. How did India's phobia of Russia allow England to have a greater military

presence in India?

9. How did Afghans affect English policy in India?

10. Why did the Sikhs and the English have conflicts in India?


A. HOW DID SIKHS AND AFGHANS UNDERMINE BRITISH AUTHORITY

IN INDIA?

B. HOW DID MISSIONARIES MAKE THE MILITARY'S JOB MORE

DIFFICULT IN INDIA?



Wellesley

http://www.malaysia.net/lists/sangkancil/2000-03/msg00159.html

Ram Mohun Roy

http://www.mkgandhi.org/edugandhi/education.htm

Lesson 16 - Unification, Modernization

and Revolt - (1848-1858)

A. The policy of government in India, pursued under Dalhousie's direction

from 1848

to 1856, was primarily one of internal unification and modernization.

B. Dalhousie"s more significant contribution to the government's coffers,

however

came not as a result of costly martial conquest, but rather through the

direct

annexation of lands still owned by the company's princely allies who were

stripped one by one of the their possessions.

C. Commercially, the railroad was perceived as a way to facilitate

distribution and

sale of British-made imports to India's still "unopened" interior and to

bring

back from that interior, on the reverse run, such raw materials as coal and

cotton.

D. India's first electric telegraph line was laid by 1856.

E. Calcutta, Agra, Lahore. Bombay and Madras were linked by wire.

F. The British sowed the seeds of Hindu revolt themselves by stupidly

smearing

the cartridges of their new breech loading rifle with animal fat and lard

thereby

infuriating the religious beliefs of the Hindus.

G. The rifle incident led to mass mutinies among Hindus in the British forces

and

this in turn led to other mutinies throughout India.

H. The mutinies lasted for 10 years until 1858 until peace was declared.

Critical Questions

1. How did India progress under Dalhousie?

2. How did England treat her princely allies?

3. What were the commercial effects of trains in India?

4. How did the telegraph affect India?

5. Why did Indian soldiers mutiny over a rifle?

6. What was the effect of the Indian soldier mutinies?.

7. How did the mutinies end?


A. HOW CAN A LACK OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT A CULTURE HAVE

DISASTROUS REPERCUSSIONS?

B. HOW DO MODERN INVENTIONS IMPACT ON TRADITIONAL

CULTURES?


Indian Film

Http://www.askmrmovies.com

Dalhousie

http://www.dalhousie.net/

Sepoy Rebellion

http://www.regiments.org/milhist/wars/19thcent/57india.htm

Lesson 17 - Crown Rule and a New Order

(1858-1877)

A. The legacy of the mutiny was a fundamental and far-reaching import to

British

Indies. In 1858 the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act

transferring "all rights" that the company had in India directly to the crown.

B. Fears concerning "native" sensitivities to social and religious changes of

any sort

inaugurated an era of socio-religious laissez faire that put an end to

further reform

legislation in India for more than three decades.

C. The one institution in which dramatic positive reforms were made after

1858 was

the army. The company's presidential armies were reorganized as a martially

coordinated royal machine destined to prevent any recurrence of rebellion.

D. Railroad construction advanced so rapidly that track laid by 1859

increased by

tenfold by the 1870's and by the end of the century increased to 25000 miles

of

track.

E. The most pervasive impact of the mutiny was the psychological wall of

racial

distrust it raised between Britain's "white" and India's native "black"

populations.

F. By 1877 Britain was firmly in control in India and convinced Queen

Victoria to

add India to her regalia.

Critical Questions

1. How did the "New Order" mark the beginning of the end of British rule in

India?

2. How did the mutiny affect race relations during this period.

3. How was the railroad affected by the mutiny?

4. How was the British army affected by the mutiny?

5. How were missionaries affected by the mutiny?

6. What was the effect of the mutiny on the John Company and England?

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

A. HOW DID THE MUTINY MARK THE BEGINNING OF THE END OF

BRITISH RULE IN INDIA?

B. WHY WAS BRITISH RULE IN INDIA DESTINED TO FAIL AT SOME

POINT?


Http://www.askmrmovies.com

British Missionaries in India

http://www.indianchild.com/british_empire_in_india.htm

British Railroad in India

http://www.lib.lsu.edu/special/williams/abstracts

Lesson - 18 - Indian Nationalism - The

First Movement (1885-1905)

A. Indian nationalism has always been a theme scored with religious, class,

caste

and regional variations.

B. The clearest indicator of the ambivalent role played by British rule in

the growth

of India's first nationalist movement was that all fo the major leaders of

that

movement had received some English education.

C. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Ranade's foremost disciple, sought with the same

forbearance of his mentor to win the hearts and minds of British governors,

vicetroys, secretaries of state and other cabinet members on behalf of

India's

many appeals for political justice and economic equity.

D. It soon became painfully clear to more and more middle-class Indians that

no

matter how well-intentioned or powerful individual Englishmen like Ripon

might

be, the system they served was fundamentally unresponsive and hostile to many

basic Indian needs, aspirations and desires; it was cold, imperious, paternal

and

foreign.

E. Most of the first Congress representatives were high-caste Hindus and

Parsi, all of

whom spoke English and had attended college, mostly to study law, though some

were journalists, teachers and businessmen.

F. The Arya Samaj, founded by Daynanda Sarawati in Bombay proved an important

stimulus to the development of nationalist political activism in the Punjab

after

1905, but was initially created as a society for Hindu revival and Vedic

proselytizing.

Critical Questions

1. How is Indian nationalism defined?

2. How did the English play a role in the Indian nationalist movement?

3. How was Gopal Krishna Gokhale involved with the Indian nationalist

movement?

4. How was British rule perceived by native Indians?

5. Who composed India's elite?

6. How did Arya Samaj help Indian nationalism?


A. HOW DO MANY COUNTRIES WITH COLONIES HAVE MUCH IN

COMMON?

B. HOW DO THE COLONIZED VIEW THEIR PLACE IN SOCIETY AS

OPPOSED TO THE COLONIZERS?



Gopal Krishna Gokhale

http://www.indiannationalcongress.com/history/

Arya Samaj

http://www.aryasamaj.com/intro.htm

Lesson - 19 - The Machine Solidifies; Faces

Revolt, Repression and Reform (1885-1912)

A. George Nathaniel Curzon, Baron of Kedleston, was a colossal failure in

India

and showed the inherent impossibility of sustaining British rule for too much

longer.

B. In foreign policy, Curzon viewed India as the spear point of British

dominance

over all of Asia.

C. Curzon added Tibet to Britain's sphere of influence, claiming that the

Dalai Lama

was seeking Russian military support, thereby justifying his unprovoked

invasion

of that peaceful hermit kingdom beyond the Himalayas.

D. Curzon's final year in India was also marked by the first eruptions of an

earthquake of nationalist protest generated by the 1905 partition of Bengal.

E. The first partition of Bengal inaugurated a half decade of intense

revolutionary

nationalist activity.

F. The boycott of British goods, especially cotton, proved so successful that

by 1908

imports were down by more than 25%.

G. As anti-partition passions grew bolder and svadeshi sales boomed in the

wake of

the boycott, the government attempted to crack the movement with wholesale

prosecutions against its advocated and through instructions to educational

institutions to prevent students from being politically active or they would

lose

their grants-in-aid or assistance.

H. While Bengal's partition served at once to catapult Congress to a new

plateau of

national popularity and internal division, it also proved a catalyst for

separatist

Muslim political consciousness and demands.

I. Impassioned youth now turned to the cult of terrorism seeking to win by

terror

that which had been denied them.

J. Morley's parliamentary undersecretary of state during his last year at the

India

Office was Edwin Samuel Montagu who tried to pilot the next great Act of

Reform, but in the end in would not be enough to maintain British rule.

Critical Questions

1. Why was the failure of Curzon a precursor to British demise.

2. How did Curzon view India in relation to foreign policy?

3. Why did Britain invade Tibet?

4. Why did the partition of Bengal hasten British demise in India?

5. What were the results of the partition of Bengal?

6. How did native Indians use boycotts as a weapon against the British?

7. How did the British react to the boycotts?

8. How was the Muslim population affected by the partition?

9. Why did the Muslim population use terrorism against the British?

10. Why was Montagu important to Indian reform?


A. How did the British machine solidify in India during this period?

B. How did Indians revolt during this period?



Curzon

http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Nathaniel_Curzon

Bengal

http://www.mbeaw.org/resources/countries/indiabengal.html

Lesson 20 - The Impact of World War

One (1914-1919)

A. Council reforms and the reunification of Bengal gave heart to the moderate

leadership of the old Congress and to most Bengal Hindus, but jolted the

Muslim

League from its moderate loyalist stand.

B. When Britain declared war against Germany, India was immediately notified

by

Lord Hardinge that she too, was at war.

C. Disillusion set in early. As soon as the first casualties were returning

from the

western front, it became apparent to India that the war would bring death in

distant lands for many of her sons long before fulfilling and dreams of

freedom.

D. An even greater source of wartime disillusionment and growing tension

between

India and Britain was the Ottoman's Empire's decision to join the Central

Powers.

Muslims were much closer to the Ottoman Empire culturally than England.

E. Gandhi's victory over the Indigo planters of Champaran in 1917 brought him

F. popular acclaim as the champion of India's peasants.

G. Immediately after he returned home in 1918, Montagu hammered out his

"Report on Indian Constitutional Reform" which embodied the principles of

"complete popular control" as much as possible in India.

H. The Armistice did not bring peace to India.

I. It brought continued repression and a catastrophic epidemic.

J. Millions of less famous Indians turned at this time from loyal supporters

of the

British raj to nationalists who were no longer content to follow its orders

or to

trust in the "fair play" of its officials.

Critical Questions

1. How did the reunification of Bengal affect Hindus and Muslims?

2. How did Britain's involvement in WW 1 affect India?

3. How quickly did the Indians become disillusioned with WW 1?

4. How did WW 1 affect Muslim loyalties?

5. How did Gandhi become recognized in India?

6. How did Montague progress with Indian constitutional reform?

7. How did the Armistice affect India?

8. What was the result of British martial law?


A. HOW DID WW1 IMPACT ON INDIA?

B. WHY WAS THE ISLAMIC POPULATION OF INDIA CONTINUALLY

DISENFRANCHISED?



India during WW 1

http://www.ku.edu/carrie/archives/wwi-l/2000/05/msg00307.html

Gandhi

http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/India/Society_and_Culture/

Lesson 21 - Toward Independence (1920-1939)

A. The aftermath of WW 1 brought such widespread disillusionment to India

that Congress abandoned its policy of cooperation with the British Raj to

follow Gandhi's revolutionary call for nonviolent non-cooperation.

B. As a true Mahatma, Gandhi sought to pit his yogic powers of self-control,

abstinence, suffering and meditation against the awesome might of the world's

greatest empire.

C. Young men like Subhas Chandra Bose of Bengal were so excited by Gandhi's

revolutionary call that they gave up possible careers in the coveted ICS to

devote full time to the national struggle.

D. The non-cooperation movement gathered momentum throughout the early 20's

and the British attempt to immobilize it failed.

E. When repression mounted, Gandhi consoled his followers by redefining

svaraj as "abandonment of the fear of death" and was the most inspirational

message the Indian masses had ever taken to heart in their history.

F. Under Lord Reading, India's only Jewish vicetroy, the government pursued a

policy of trying to win middle-class Indian support by granting many of the

liberal reforms Congress had demanded from its inception, but Gandhi and

masses of Indians read this simply as a faltering English position.

G. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, an untouchable leader of the Mahars of

Maharashtra, had just returned from abroad from Columbia U. to help form the

Depressed Classes Institute in the Deccan.

H. Nehru proposed a "commonwealth of India" with all powers to be derived

"from the people" and with all the freedoms enjoyed by other dominions of the

empire, within which it was to remain.

I. Gandhi led the salt revolt in India.

J. The Muslim League, under Muhammad Iqbal, proposed the formation of a

consolidated Northwest Indian-Muslim state in 1930.

K. Gandhi began to use fasting as a nonviolent method of non-cooperation.

L. Jinnah, Gandhi, Nehru, Iqbal and Bose began to attempt to unify for an

Indian state in 1938.

Critical Questions

1. What was the aftermath of WW1 in India?

2. What yogic powers did Gandhi use against the English?

3. How did Bose differ from Gandhi?

4. How did Indians illustrate their non-cooperation movement?

5. Why was the principle of svaras important?

6. How did Lord Reading try to placate the Indians?

7. How did untouchables progress in India during this period?

8. How did Nehru affect Indian statehood?

9. How did Iqbal lead the Muslim community?

10. Why was salt an issue in India?

11. How was fasting used by Gandhi?

12. Why was the temporary dialogue between Gandhi, Jinnah, Bose, Nehru and

Iqbal so crucial to India's future?


A. WHAT DID GANDHI, JINNAH, BOSE, NEHRU AND IQBAL HAVE IN COMMON?

B. WHY IS IT NECESSARY FOR DIFFERENT FACTIONS WITHIN A COUNTRY TO UNITE FOR A

SHORT PERIOD OF TIME?



Svaras

http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no13795.htm

Iqbal

http://www.muslim.org/allegs/iqbal2.html

Lesson 22 - The Impact of WW 2 - (1939-1946)

A. Gandhi was deeply affected by the Lahore Resolution, denouncing it as a

"vivisection of India".

B. Throughout the war, Jinnah proved to be superior to either Gandhi or Nehru

in dealing with the British.

C. Despite widespread opposition to British rule and to the war, most Indians

supported the British in WW 2.

D. In the spring of 1943, Bose went on a submarine voyage from Hamburg to

Singapore and around the Cape of Good Hope and initiated an armed revolt

against England.

E. Captured soldiers from Bose's revolt became national heroes as did Bose

after his death.

F. In 1947, the House of Commons proclaimed that "two independent dominions"

would be established in India " to be known as India and Pakistan".

G. At midnight on August 14, 1947, Nehru proclaimed India a free country.

Critical Questions

1. How did Gandhi and the Muslim minority disagree?

2. Why was Jinnah an important Indian leader during WW 2?

3. Why was the Indian Independence movement difficult to succeed during WW 2?

4. How did Bose use WW 2 to further Indian independence?

5. How did Bose and his followers become heroes in India?

6. How was the issue of Hinduism and Islam finally resolved in India?


A. HOW DID WW 2 PREVENT INDIA FROM GAINING INDEPENDENCE?

B. WHY IS BOSE SUCH AN IMPORTANT FIGURE IN INDIAN HISTORY?



Jinnah

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573455/Jinnah_Mohammed_Ali.html

Bose

http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Bose.html

Lesson 23 - The Nehru Era (1947- 1964)

A. Nehru was the architect of India's foreign policy and its five-year plans.

B. Kashmir posed a different sort of problem because 3/4 of its population

was Muslim, but its political leader was Hindu.

C. Jinnah threatened to send the Pakistanian army into Kashmir.

D. Gandhi protested poor treatment of Muslims in Delhi by fasting and then

was assassinate

E. India voted to partition Bengal.

F. The central government was charged with defense, atomic energy, foreign

affairs, railways, airways, shipping, communications, currency and many

lesser items.

G. Most of India's budget went to feeding its population.

H. India made some progress with their third five-year-plan (1961-1966) with

a large increase in industrialization.

I. India officially ended its neutrality by becoming aligned with the United

States in 1962.

J. Women's rights in India continued to lag under Nehru.

K. Hindi was made the official language of India in the early 60's

Critical Questions

1. What were some of Nehru's accomplishments?

2. Why was Kashmir a problem for Nehru?

3. How did the British keep the Pakistinians out of Kashmir?

4. How did Gandhi react to Indian-Pakistinian problems?

5. How did India model its federal structure?

6. What duties did the central government have during this period?

7. What were some of India's problems under Nehru?

8. What problems did the farmers of India have during this time?

9. Why did India go from neutrality to armed support from the United States?

10. Why is Sati important?

11. How does an official language affect political power?

SUPPLEMENATAL MATERIAL

A. HOW DID BRITAIN CONTINUE TO INFLUENCE INDIA AFTER IT LEFT?

B. HOW DID OTHER DIFFERENCES BESIDE RELIGION SPLIT HINDUS AND MUSLIMS?



Nehru

http://www.cncw.com/india/nehru.htm

Sati

http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/hindu/sati.htm

Lesson 24 - From Collective Leadership to Indira Raj - (1964-1977)

A. Indira Gandhi (no relation to the Mahatma) became Premier of India in 1964.

B. For Pakistan, the first decade and a half of freedom had been turbulent

and unstable.

C. The Indian-Pakistani war drew attention away from India's domestic

problems.

D. In June, 1966 Gandhi announced the devaluation of the Indian rupee by

almost 75%.

E. Fortunately for India and Gandhi, India made great agricultural

breakthroughs while the rupee was devalued, thereby softening the economic

blow.

F. Gandhi increased government controls using the agricultural success as a

rationale.

G. Gandhi tried to induce economic reforms unsuccessfully and then imposed a

national emergency and martial law.v

H. Gandhi then banned political opposition.

I. Despite all the mechanisms to prevent opposition, Gandhi was ousted in

1977.

Critical Questions

1. How did Indira Gandhi emerge in India?

2. Why did Pakistan continue to have discord in Kashmir?

3. How did Gandhi's success against Pakistan affect domestic policy?

4. How did the United States affect Indian economy?

5. How did India make agricultural gains under Indira Gandhi?

6. How did India's victory in Bangladesh shift the balance of power to India

in the Asian subcontinent?

7. How did Indira Gandhi try to alleviate poverty?

8. How did inflation almost end the reign of Gandhi early?

9. How did Gandhi's government become repressive?


A. HOW CAN A BENEVOLENT LEADER TURN INTO A DESPOT?

B. WHAT PROBLEMS ARE MOST LIKELY TO BRING DOWN A GOVERNMENT?



Pakistan and Kashmir

http://www.newsaustralia.com/Kashmir.htm

Bangladesh

http://www.hcidhaka.org/indbangla/

Lesson 25 - Shifting Coalition Sands

A. Moraji Desai's Janata government remained so faction-ridden from its

inception in 1977 that it could reach no consensus on how to resolve India's

most compelling problems, dissolving its precious mandate in the acid of

cabinet squabbles.

B. India viewed Pakistan and its rigged elections for Bhutt

C. In addition many opponents "disappeared, got ill or suddenly died"

D. As a result of these developments, India's seventh general elections

brought Indira Gandhi back to the center of Delhi power in January of 1980.

E. India worried about Russia's intervention into Afghanistan

F. India thought they could be next.

G. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan under Zia ul-Haq moved diplomatically

closer to its fellow Islamic nations of the Middle East rather than toward

possible reunification with India in 1980 as a result of the Russian activity.

H. Prospering Punjab represented the best chance for India to unite its Hindu

and Sikh populations peacefully.

I. Incredibly, Gandhi invaded Punjab and destroyed religious temples of the

Sikhs in 1984.

J. Justifiably, the Sikhs were responsible for the assassination of Gandhi in

Oct of 1984. Unfortunately, rampaging mobs of Hindus in Delhi killed many

Sikhs in revenge for the assassination as violence begat violence. Rajiv

Gandhi, Indira's son was sworn in as the new king er....prime minister of

India.

K. So the trilogy of Nehru, his daughter Indira and her son Rajiv was now

complete. More of a royal line than a democratic process.

L. Armed with a clear mandate, Rajiv reached several accords with Punjab,

Assam and Mizora. It appeared as if the young Raj had better negotiation

skills than either his mother or grandfather.

M. Unfortunately, Sikh terrorism increased in Punjab and other places.

N. By 1986, fighting in Sri Lanka had escalated in intensity.

O. Pollution in Dehli increased dramatically. The air was fouled in Calcutta,

Bombay and Madras, also.

P. In 1991 Rao replaced Gandhi as premier.

Q. In 1992 India's faltering economy suffered another blow from the Gulf War

due to its spiraling oil prices and the return of thousands of Indian

laborers from the the Middle East.

R. In 1996 Gowda replaced Rao and lasted less than a year; he was replaced by

Gujral.

S. Kashmir, with over one half million garrisoned Indian troops, remained in

a state of undeclared war between India and Pakistan.

Critical Questions

1. Why did Moraji Desai inherit many problems in India in 1971?

2. How did Pakistinian elections differ from Indian elections during this

period?

3. How did Indira Gandhi return to power?

4. Why was India worried about Russia's invasion of Afghanistan?

5. How did India-Pakistan relations evovle by 1980?

6. Why did Punjab continue to be economically important to India?

7. Why was Indira Gandhi assassinated?

8. How did Indira's Gandhi's assassination precipitate widespread rioting in

Delhi?

9. Why was Rajiv Gandhi successful early in his regime?

10. How did continued Sikh violence affect Punjab?

11. How did fighting in Sri Lanka affect India?

12. Why is pollution a problem in modern-day India?

13. How did the Gulf War affect India?

14. Why do problems continue to exist in Kashmir to this day?


A. WHY HAS INDIA CONTINIUED TO HAVE FRAGMENTED ELEMENTS WITHIN ITS SOCIETY

SINCE ITS INDEPENDENCE?

B. HOW DO SOME WESTERN COUNTRIES DIFFER FROM INDIA IN RELIGIOUS TOLERENCE?



Indira Gandhi

http://www.cncw.com/india/indira.htm

Rajiv Gandhi

http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Rajiv.html

Lesson 26 - Final Exam and Final Papers Due Areas of Concern

1. Discuss How India broke away from British rule?

2. How has India developed since Independence?

3. In your opinion, how do you think modern India will proceed in the 21st

century?

Hinduism

SUMMARY: This is an overview course on the history, development and modern

status of Hinduism in today's world. Areas covered in this course will

include the

origins of Hinduism, Hindu scripture and philosophy, ethics and current

status of

Hindus in the world today.

ï‚· Primary Text: Hinduism - Kanitkar and Cole

ï‚· Secondary Text: Hinduism â€“ Ellinger

Lesson 1 - Diversity and Unity

1. In Northern India, a personâ€™s name very often has two parts; the first

is his/her

personal name, the second is the family name.

2. In Western India a person has three names; the first identifies the

individual,

the second his fatherâ€™s name and the third his family name.

3. In the South a person has four names; the first initial denotes the

village of

origin, second is the fatherâ€™s name, third is the personâ€™s given name and

fourth signifies caste.

4. Vishnu is the premier manifestation of God for the Hindus.

5. Brahmin are Indian priests.

6. Gurus give spiritual guidance.

7. Offerings are called prasad.

Critical Questions

1. How do names differ from region to region in India?

2. Why is Vishnu important to Hindus?

3. Why is Krishna important to Hindus?

4. Why are Brahmin important?

5. What are the roles of gurus in Hinduism?

6. Why do Hindus make offerings called Prasad?



Prasad

http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/articles/prasad.shtml

Krishna

http://www.hinduism-links.com/Gods_and_Goddesses_Krishna.html

Lesson 2 - The Temple

1. The temple is the home of the murtis(images or statues), the material

representatives of the divine spirit.

2. Visitors must remove their shoes before entering temples because leather

is

spiritually impure.

3. dharma is oneâ€™s social or moral duty.

4. The arati is the singing of prayers and the receiving of spiritual

purification and

the deityâ€™s blessing.

5. The arati contains the viewing of the deity and the receiving of grace at

its sight.

6. The mukti or moksha (liberation) occurs when the worshipper achieves

spiritual

liberation.

7. Ganesha is the maker of happiness.

8. Vishnu is the Lord of the Universe.

9. Durga is the protector.

Critical Questions

1. Why are temples important to Hindus?

2. Why must visitors remove their shoes before entering Hindu temples?

3. Why is dharma important?

4. Why is the arati important?

5. How do we achieve mukti?

6. Who is Ganesha?

7. Who is Vishnu?

8. Who is Durga?



Vishnu

http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/god/vishnu.shtml

Arati

http://www.boloji.com/hinduism/047.htm

Lesson 3 - Murtis and Mythology

1. The three great gods of Hinduism are Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva.

2. Avatars are reincarnations of an original deity.

3. Vishnu is represented in painting and sculpture with a dark bluish

complexion

and four hands.

4. Vishnu holds a padma (lotus) and gada (mace).

5. Vishnu also holds a shankha (counch) and chakra (discus).

6. Vishnuâ€™s Vahana (vehicle) is an eagle (Garuda).

7. Lakshmi is a woman of good fortune, sometimes portrayed as the wife of

Vishnu

or an aviatar.

8. Shiva represents the destroyer and regenerator aspect of Brahman in

Hinduism.

9. Durga represents the Mother Goddess and creation.

10. Ganesha is a god of good luck and wisdom.

Critical Questions

1. Why are avitars important?

2. Why is Lakshmi important?

3. Why is Shiva important?

4. Why is Durga important?

5. Why is Ganesha important?

6. Why are all the avitars of Vishnu important?

7.



Durga

http://www.hinduism-links.com/Gods_and_Goddesses_Durga.html

Ganesha

http://hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/ganesha.htm

Lesson 4 - Gods and Priests

1. The samkhya system of Hinduism and Buddhism do not accept the existence of

a

Divine being.

2. The Rig-Veda are hymns of prayer.

3. All truth is one (Indra)

4. Brahman is God.

5. Brahmin is a priest.

6. Brahma is the Hindu creator god (one who works for Brahman).

7. Upanishads are discussions between teachers and pupils about the meaning

of life.

8. The Isha Upanishad says that the whole universe is pervaded by Brahman.

9. The Chandogyu Upanishad says that Brahman created the universe.

Critical Questions

1. Why are some branches of Hinduism different than others?

2. Why is the Rig-Veda important?

3. Why is Indra importrant?

4. Why are Brahman, Brahmin, and Brahma sometimes confusing to Westerners?

5. Why are the Upanishads of great interest?

6. What differentiates the Isha Upanishad from the Chandogu Upanishad?



Rig-Veda

http://www.siamese-dream.com/reference/rig_veda.html

Indra

http://www.themystica.org/mythical-folk/articles/indra.html

Lesson 5 - Shakti, the Mother Goddess

1. Brahman is nirakara (without form) and niguna (without attributes).

2. Tat tvam asi means that you are part of Brahman.

3. The origin of the Mother Goddess used by the Vedic Aryans supposedly comes

from the Indus valley.

4. Shakti represents the female energy in creation, although usually referred

to as the

consort of Shiva.

5. Ishta-devata means your own personal deity chosen from the pantheon of

Hindu

gods.

6. The higher gods of Brahminical Hinduism are called deva, while lowly

village

gods are called grama-devata.

Critical Questions

1. Describe Brahman.

2. How are we part of Brahman?

3. What is the origin of the Mother Goddess in Hinduism?

4. What does Shakti represent?

5. Why is Ishta-devata important?

6. How do deva differ from grama-devata?



Shakti

http://www.goddess.ws/

Ishta-devata

http://www.himalayanacademy.com/books/dws/lexicon/i.html

Lesson 6 - Priests (Brahmin)

1. Theologians would say that the all deities of Hinduism are different

aspects of the

Saguna Brahman or Absolute Reality.

2. To put it in its simplest terms, Hindus have One Divinity which is

worshipped

under various appearences and names.

3. Some Hindus believe in Rta, not God, but a cosmic force, similar to the

Tao in

China.The god Varuna guards this force.

4. There are no centrally trained or ordained priests in Hinduism.

5. The vedas are the primary scriptures of Hinduism.

6. Dharma shastras are law books that are studied in conjunction with the

vedas.

7. Other writings in Hinduism include the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the

Pruanas.

8. Religious rituals for children are called samskaras.

9. Other rituals and ceremonies are covered in the Grihya-sutras.

10. The earliest scriptures of the vedas are called Brahmanas.

Critical Questions

1. How would describe the Saguna Brahman?

2. How would you describe the concept of Rta?

3. What are vedas?

4. How do Dharma-shastras differ from vedas?

5. What are some other writings in Hinduism?

6. How are rituals and ceremonies in Hinduism interpreted?


Saguna Brahman

http://anand.itismylife.com/nucleus/plugins/print/print.php?itemid=28

Rta

http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/r/rta.html

Lesson 7 - The Four Stages of Life

1. The four stages of life in Hinduism are called ashramas and are

patriarchal.

2. The first ashrama is brahmacharya and is for boys only which introduces

them to

the vedas and the upanayana.

3. The second ashrama is that of a married householder or grihastha.

4. The third ashrama is that of retirement called vanaprastha, where he hands

most

of the responsibilities to the eldest son.

5. The fourth ashrama is called sannyasa or wandering pilgrim for moksha.

6. Arranged marriages are the most common in India.

Critical Questions

1. How do Hindus divide their lives?

2. How is the first ashrama defined?

3. How is the second ashrama defined?

4. How is the third ashrama defined?

5. How is the fourth ashrama defined?

6. Why are arranged marriages important in India?



Ashrama

http://www.geocities.com/dipalsarvesh/ashram.html

moksha

http://www.hindubooks.org/sudheer_birodkar/hindu_history/beliefs.html

Lesson 8 - Food in Hinduism

1. Dalits are untouchable and may be polluting to higher castes if they

handle their

food.

2. Swastikas are common Indian insignias and are far older than the ones used

by

Hitler in Germany. Indians are greatly offended at any mention of the

swastika

as anything but holy.

3. Vegetarianism is not universal among Hindus.

4. English is the language taught in India to children as their first

language.

5. Almost all Hindus marry other Hindus.

6. Cricket is the national sport of India.

Critical Questions

1. Why are dalits avoided by most Hindus?

2. Why are swastikas a sensitive subject in India?

3. Discuss vegetarianism.

4. Why do Indians have English as their first language?

5. Why do Hindus mostly marry other Hindus?

6. Why do Indians prefer cricket over all other sports?



Dalits

http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/nov/14inter.htm

Indian Cricket

http://www.allofindia.net/articles/Sports_cricket_1.asp

Lesson 9 â€“ Dharmas

1. Most Hindu rituals take place in the home and they called pujas.

2. The sva-dharma or personal code of religious practice in a family is

determined

by their varna (social category) and jati (caste).

3. Most ritual is divide between sanatana-dharma or ancient way of life or

varna-

ashrama-dharma (life based on varna and jati.

4. The highest varna is Brahmin (priests and professionals).

5. After Bramin come Kshatriyas who are soldiers and administrators.

6. Vaishyas are after Kshatriyas and are business people.

7. The lowest varna is Artisan called Sudra.

Critical Questions

1. What is the difference between varna and caste?

2. Why are pujas important?

3. How are most household rituals divided?

4. What is the highest varna?

5. Who come after the Brahmin?

6. What is the third lowest varna?

7. What is the lowest varna?



Varna

http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/Rel231/lectures/hindu/varna.htm

pujas

http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/

Lesson 10 - Mid-Term Exams and Paper

Areas of Concern

1. How did early Hinduism develop?

2. Discuss varna and caste.

3. Discuss the pantheon of Hinduism.

Lesson 11 - Family Ritual

1. Jati (caste) is the single most important element of a Hinduâ€™s life; it

pervades all

other aspects of oneâ€™s behavior.

2. The naming of a baby is called Namakarana and is performed twelve days

after the birth.

3. Boyâ€™s names are an even number of syllables and girlâ€™s names are an

odd

number of syllables.

4. Artha is the earning of money.

5. kama is the moderate enjoyment of the good things in life.

6. The seven steps ritual include : food, strength, wealth, happiness,

children,

seasonal pleasures, and a lifelong friendship.

Critical Questions

1. Why is caste so important in Hinduism.

2. How does naming a Hindu baby occur?

3. How do naming boys and girls differ in Hinduism?

4. Why is artha important in Hinduism?

5. How does one practice kama?

6. What is the seven steps ritual?



Caste System

http://www.friesian.com/caste.htm

Kama

http://dir.yahoo.com/Society_and_Culture/Religion_and_Spirituality/Faiths

Lesson 12 â€“ Scriptures

RIG VEDA

1. The Vedas are divided into: Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and the

Atharva

-Veda.

2. Each Veda has four parts: Samhita, the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

3. The Samhitas are hymns praising God.

4. The Brahmanas are prose rituals for prayers for priests.

5. The Aranyakas are forest meditations.

6. The Upanishads are tutorials of mystical teachings of Hindu philosophy.

7. Some of the most important Hindu philosophical concepts are:

a. the individual soul (atman) and the universal soul (Brahman) are identical.

b. Brahman is without form and eternal (similar to the Chinese Tao).

c. The visible world is an illusion (maya).

d. reincarnation is determined by karma (actions in current life)

e. The soul is capable of achieving liberation (moksha).

f. There is a unity in all things in the universe.

Critical Questions

1. How are the Vedas divided?

2. How is each individual Veda divided?

3. What are Samhitas?

4. What are Bramanas?

5. What are Aranyakas?

6. What are Upanishads?

7. What are some of the primary Hindu philosophical concepts?



Samhitas

http://www.atributetohinduism.com/articles_hinduism/209.htm

Bramanas

http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=Hinduism+Bramanas&e

Lesson 13 - Smriti Texts

1. Smriti texts include educational texts composed after the Vedas.

2. These texts explain the six orthodox systems of philosophy.

3. It also includes the epic, Bhagavad Gita.

4. Texts in Hindu mythology are called Puranas.

5. These texts worship Vishnu, Shiva, and the Mother Goddess.

6. The epic Ramayana by Valmiki is included in this group.

Critical Questions

1. What are Smriti texts?

2. What do Smriti texts explain?

3. What is Bhagavad Gita?

4. What are Puranas?

5. Who do these texts worship?

6. What is Ramayana?



Smriti Texts

http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sasiasoc/slate/fall2003/religion.html

Bhagavad Gita

http://www.hinduism-links.com/Sacred_Texts_Bhagavad_Gita.html

Lesson 14 â€“ Pilgrimage

1. Pilgrimages are called Yatras.

2. Yatras are made to cleanse the spirit of sinful thoughts or actions.

3. The Mother Goddess is called Kali. Other shrines are for Vishnu and Shiva.

4. In Hinduism materialism is unreality.

5. Liberation of the soul (atman) is called moksha.

6. For the word guru, gu means darkness and ru means light.

Critical Questions

1. Why do Hindus make Yatras?

2. Why is the Mother Goddess important?

3. Why are Vishnu and Shiva important?

4. Why is materialism unreal to a Hindu?

5. Why is the liberation of atman important?

6. How does a guru represent both lightness and darkness.



Vishnu

http://www.hinduism-links.com/Gods_and_Goddesses_Vishnu.html

Shiva

http://www.hinduism-links.com/Gods_and_Goddesses_Shiva.html

Lesson 15 - Hindu Philosophy

1. Hindus believe in one ultimate reality.

2. Hindus believe in the authority of the Vedas (which include the Upanishads)

3. Hindus also believe in karma, samsara, moksha and dharma.

4. Many Hindus practice abstention of various types.

5. Many Hindus practice observance.

6. Most Hindus practice posture for the purposes of meditation.

7. Most Hindus practice breath control for meditation.

8. Many Hindus try to obtain sense withdrawal.

9. Concentration and contemplation are two other common activities for most

10. Hindus besides meditation.

Critical Questions

1. Why do Hindus believe in one ultimate reality?

2. Why are the Vedas and the Upanishads important to Hindus?

3. What is the difference between karma, samsara, moksha and dharma?

4. How do Hindus practice abstention?

5. How do Hindus practice observance?

6. Why do Hindus practice posture and breath control?

7. How are sense withdrawal and meditation related?

8. Why are contemplation and concentration important to Hindus?



Vedas

http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Upanishads/

Karma

http://www.saranam.com/Hinduism/Karma.asp

Lesson 16 - Hindu Ethics

1. Suicide has never been considered wrong in Hindu society.

2. Alcohol and most drugs are also acceptable in Hindu society; speed, crack

and

heroin are not approved.

3. Among the worst evils one can commit is to kill a Brahmin.

4. Among spiritual Hindus, alcohol is not approved as well as drugs of any

type.

5. Stealing gold is a serious offense (money also)

6. Disrespect for oneâ€™s guru and his wife is a serious offense.

7. Permitting willful abortion is a serious offense among spiritual Hindus.

Critical Questions

1. Why is suicide not acceptable in the West?

2. Why are Hindus split on the use of alcohol and drugs?

3. Why is killing a Brahmin such a serious offense?

4. Why is stealing gold or money a serious offense?

5. Why is disrespect of a guru or his wife a serious offense?

6. Why is abortion considered a serious offense?



Hindu Ethics

http://wrc.lingnet.org/hindueth.htm

Brahmin

http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/X/X-Brahmin.html

Lesson 17 - Hinduism Since 1757

1. Vasco Da Gama sailed into Calcutta in 1498.

2. Britain eventually became the dominant European force in India in 1757.

3. A prominent figure in India was Ram Mohan Roy.

4. Sahajanand was another prominent figure in India in the early 19th century.

5. Sri Ramakrishna was a major figure in the later 19th century.

6. Bhimrao Ranji Ambedkar was an important early 20th century personage.

7. Satya Sai Baba has been influential in the later part of the 20th century.

Critical Questions

1. Why was Vasco Da Gamaâ€™s voyage to Calcutta important?

2. How did Britain come to power in India?

3. Why was Ram Mohan Roy important?

4. Why was Sahajanand important?

5. Why was Sri Ramakrishna important?

6. Why was Bhimrao Ranji Ambedkar important?

7. Why was Satya Sai Baba important?



Calcutta

http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/India/States

Ram Mohan Roy

http://www.chanda.freeserve.co.uk/rmroy1.htm

Lesson 18 â€“ Gandhi

1. Gandhi captured the popular imagination of India.

2. He was assassinated in Delhi in 1948.

3. Gandhiâ€™s popular name was Bapu.

4. The Isa Upanishad was his favorite Hindu text.

5. Gandhi practiced Ahimsa, or non-violence.

6. Gandhi was an advaitist, one who believed in an ultimate unity between God

and the universe.

7. Gandhi felt caste had nothing to do with religion.

8. Gandhi believed in equal rights for women.

Critical Questions

1. How did Gandhi capture the popular imagination of India?

2. Why was Gandhi assassinated?

3. Why did Gandhi prefer the name Bapu over Mahatma?

4. Why were the Upanishads Gandhiâ€™s favorite texts?

5. Why is Ahimsa important in any discussion of Gandhi?

6. What is an advaitist?

7. What were Gandhiâ€™s view on caste and women?



Gandhi

http://www.hindugateway.com/library/av/

Upanishads

http://www.digiserve.com/mystic/Hindu/Upanishads/devotion.html

Lesson 19 - Some Aspects of Hinduism Today

1. ISKCON is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (Hare

Krishna).

2. TM or Transcendental Medication is a major Hindu practice today.

3. Vegetarianism is very popular among Hindus in recent years.

4. Indians still have a great love of cricket.

5. Strict orthodox Hindus never cross the Kala Pani, or oceans that surround

India.

6. Hinduism has no central authority.

Critical Questions

1. Why is ISKCON important?

2. Why is TM important?

3. Why do Hindus practice vegetarianism?

4. Why do Indians love cricket?

5. Why do orthodox Hindus fear to cross Kala Pani?

6. Why do you think Hindus have no central religious authority?



Transcendental Meditation

http://www.digiserve.com/mystic/Hindu/Upanishads/devotion.html

Hare Krishna

http://www.academicinfo.net/hinduismkrishna.html

Lesson 20 - Final Exam and Papers due

Final Exam

Areas of Concern:

1. How did colonialism affect Hinduism?

2. How did Gandhi impact on Hinduism?

3. What are current trends in Hinduism today?

Documents

INDIA’S HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HINDUISM By Arthur H ...202.203.193.2/userfiles/Indian History, Philosophy and Hinduism.pdf · INDIA’S HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND HINDUISM By Arthur