Indian Energy 2020

8/8/2019 Indian Energy 2020

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Indo-U.S. Cooperation in Energy - Indian Perspective

By

V. Raghuraman Senior Advisor – Energy

Confederation of Indian Industry, IndiaEmail: v.raghuraman.ciionline.org

&

Sajal Ghosh Executive officer, Energy Division

Confederation of Indian Industry, IndiaEmail: [email protected]

Confederation of Indian IndustryPlot No. 249-F, Sector 18

Udyog Vihar, Phase IV Gurgaon, Haryana 122015

IndiaMarch 2003

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Introduction

The Atlantic Council of the United States is now engaged in a policy project tohelp promote clean air in China and India. This is a quadripartite project involving theConfederation of Indian Industry, the South-North Institute for Sustainable Development(China) and the Committee for Energy Policy Promotion (Japan).

The objective of this project is to develop a consensus policy paper, which willinclude recommendations directed at the public and private sectors of China, India, Japanand the United States, which will contribute to promoting clean air in China and India.

This paper “Indo-U.S. Cooperation in Energy – Indian Perspectives” by V.Raghuraman and Sajal Ghosh of the Confederation of Indian Industry, was prepared asinput to the Working Group, which is developing the policy paper noted above.

This paper has been developed to present some areas for enhanced Indo-U.S.cooperation in the energy sector from an Indian perspective. To lay a sound foundationfor identifying these areas, the paper first presents an energy scenario for India and then asummary of existing Indo-U.S. cooperation efforts in the pubic and private sectors.

The paper highlights opportunities for foreign investment (including U.S.investment) in subsectors of the energy sector, ranging from oil and gas to renewables.The paper then identifies areas for possible enhanced Indo-U.S. energy cooperation in arange of areas including geophysical exploration, energy efficiency, clean energy sourcesand the power sector.

The paper concludes by presenting recommendations for strengthening Indo-U.S.energy cooperation.

Donald L. GuertinDirector, Program on Economics, Energy and EnvironmentAtlantic Council of the United States

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Executive Summary

The energy sector holds the key in accelerating the economic growth of India. Thechallenge is especially significant given the Honorable Prime Minister’s cherished goalof reaching 8% growth rates from the current threshold of around 5 to 6%. However, the

development of the Indian energy sector has been constrained by capital, technology,environment and security issues arising out of internal and external consequences.

Five different ministries have structurally handled the Indian energy sector and power is a concurrent subject of both the central government and the states. Althoughreforms in the energy sector are underway, the pace of reform is different in the subsectors viz, power, coal, oil, gas and renewables. The power sector needs special attentionto foster development aspirations. Despite significant growth in terms of technologicalsophistication and capacity addition, the power sector suffers from financial weaknessand supply constraints. Thus, emphasis should be put on a scheduled process to turnaround the sector from “bankruptcy to bankability”.

Indo-U.S. cooperation in the field of energy has been crystallizing over the yearsin government, academia and industry. Some collaboration in the coal, gas and electricitysectors now exist and a number of American enterprises are operating in India but themagnitude is small relative to the total potential that can be exploited.

Bringing the availability of energy up to the global average will require hugeadditions to the energy infrastructure in India. To attract foreign investment in the energysector, the Indian Government has provided attractive packages and policy incentives.

Immense Indo-U.S. energy cooperation possibilities exist in the area of energy

efficiency, nuclear energy, the application of biotechnology in biomass gasification,geophysical exploration, renewables, and other clean energy technologies. The UnitedStates can also play a role in regional energy cooperation and ensuring energy security by promoting greater cooperation and integration of regional energy markets in electricityand natural gas, as well as the unhindered cross-border trading of cleaner fuels andenergy resources among South Asian countries.

It would also be possible for Indian organizations to carry out research anddevelopment programs in collaboration with U.S. research entities on emergingtechnologies such as integrated gasification humid air turbines, integrated gasificationmolten carbonate fuel cells, development of hot gas cleanup systems for IntegratedGasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), high temperature air pre-heater, new material for ultra-supercritical boilers, cleaner vehicles, development of super-conducting materials,hydrogen energy and development of local scale clean technologies. With regards toclean coal technologies over the next decade in the United States, it may be difficult todeploy the advanced technologies that emerge from research programs, as most of thenew power plants will be based on non-coal sources. There are excellent opportunities inIndia to examine the feasibility of these technologies, which will be a win-win situationfor India and the United States.

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For a country such as the United States, reforms in the power sector were fast and

are now at a consolidation stage. The reform experiences of the United States would be of immense importance in deciding the way forward for power sector reform in Indiaalthough the solution must be tailor-made to the Indian power sector.

India can follow the US model of rural electrification supported by the U.S.Government on commercial principles without financial subsidy by making loansavailable at the same cost as the cost of borrowing to government, after taking intoaccount local conditions and culture. The establishment of rural cooperatives to take uputility services in rural areas should be encouraged in India. The rural electriccooperatives can use the convergence potential to lower the cost of service to theconsumer. Rural electrification should be handled along with rural roads, telecom andwater supply for synergy and integrated development with the involvement of the ruralcommunity.

While India suffers from many disadvantages such as inadequate infrastructure, poverty, a low level of productivity, and a higher level of pollution similar to manydeveloping countries, it has the great advantage of having a cheap and efficient humanresource. This availability of highly qualified cheap manpower along with fast growingindustrialization and significantly higher economic growth potential has undoubtedlytransformed India into one of the largest potential markets in the world. Since India is amultilingual and multicultural society, properly orchestrated and executed Indo-U.S. jointventures could be an example to other developing countries that will definitely open upthe avenues of future collaboration with other developing countries.

Acknowledgement

Sajal Ghosh would like to thank A.V. Naik, Energy Division, CII for

providing valuable inputs on Oil & Gas Sectors.

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1. Energy Scenario in India

Energy is the prime mover of economic growth and is vital to the sustenance of a

modern economy. Future economic growth crucially depends on the long-termavailability of energy from sources that are affordable, accessible and environmentallyfriendly.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to acceleratethe development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich incoal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydroand bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4% of the world’s reserve). India,like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percentof primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil andnatural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the

pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largelyresponsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercialenergy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth.

If we look at the pattern of energy production, coal and oil account for 54 percentand 34 percent respectively with natural gas, hydro and nuclear contributing to the balance. In the power generation front, nearly 62 percent of power generation is fromcoal fired thermal power plants and 70 percent of the coal produced every year in Indiahas been used for thermal generation.

The distribution of primary commercial energy resources in India is quite skewed.

70 percent of the total hydro potential is located in the Northern and Northeasternregions, whereas the Eastern region accounts for nearly 70 percent of the total coalreserves in the country. The Southern region, which has only 6 percent of the total coalreserves and 10 percent of the total hydro potential, has most of the lignite depositsoccurring in the country.

On the consumption front, the industrial sector in India is a major energy user accounting for about 52 percent of commercial energy consumption. Per capita energy

consumption in India is one of the lowest in the world as shown in Fig. 1. But, energy

intensity, which is energy consumption per unit of GDP, is one of the highest incomparison to other developed and developing countries. For example, it is 3.7 times that

of Japan, 1.55 times that of the United States, 1.47 times that of Asia and 1.5 times that of the world average. Thus, there is a huge scope for energy conservation in the country.

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Fig. 1: Per capita energy consumption

8080

4026

4017

597

293

290

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Kg. of Oil Equivalent

USA

Japan

Germany

China

Pakistan

India

Per Capita Energy Consumption

Source: CMIE

During the pre-reform period, the commercial energy sector was totally regulated by the government. The economic reform and liberalization, in the post 90s, hasgradually welcomed private sector participation in the coal, oil, gas and electricity sectorsin India. Energy prices in India have been under an administrated regime with subsidies provided to meet certain socio-economic needs of the public. This has led to distortionand inefficiency in the use of different sources of energy. The government has takenserious steps to deregulate the energy price from an Administered Price Mechanism(APM) regime. The prices of all grades of coal and petroleum products have already beenderegulated. In the electricity sector, most of the State Electricity Boards (SEBs) havestarted taking reform measures and regulatory commissions have been set up to

determine tariffs based on economic rational.

2. Existing Indo-US Cooperation in Energy Sector

Indo-Us cooperation in the field of energy has been crystallizing over the years ingovernment, academia and industry. Some collaboration in the coal, oil, gas andelectricity sector exists and many American enterprises are operating in India, as we willsee in the later section (Section 3). In this section, we will highlight some other examplesof cooperation in the field of energy.

2.1 Projects with Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) 2.1.1 China-India-Japan-United States Cooperation to Promote Clean Air

With the objective of recommending economic and energy policies to promoteclean air and reduce air pollution associated with energy use in China and India, theAtlantic Council of the United States initiated a quadripartite project on “China-India-Japan-United States Cooperation to Promote Clean Air” in the year 2001. Thesecountries have extensive experiences with policies that foster more effective use of

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energy, through appropriate pricing, deregulation, restructuring, investment, trade, andtechnology transfer. The government and private sectors of these countries also haveexperience in working with each other on energy issues, which would facilitate such aneffort. The first seminar on Clean Air for Asia was organized by CII in association withthe Atlantic Council where over 40 experts from India, China, Japan and USA shared

their perceptions on clean air.

2.1.2 Standards and Labeling Program – Standards and Labeling have been identifiedas a key area for energy efficiency improvement. Developed countries, which haveimplemented the Standards and Labeling Program through market push and pull, have been in a position to demonstrate savings of 10,000 MW. In view of the above, theStandards and Labeling Program is a priority area in the Indian context. TheCollaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) – USA, hasundertaken two missions to India and have prepared a road map for implementation of the Standards and Labeling Program. The CII’s working group on energy efficiencylabeling is already involved in formulating energy labels for energy efficient products in

the country.

2.1.3 CII - USAID Initiatives in Promoting Energy Efficiency and Cleaner

Technologies

The Indian Parliament enacted the Energy Conservation Bill in 2000. The Actspelled out a roadmap for the country to move up the energy efficiency ladder andattempted to radically change India’s approach towards energy conservation efforts.

The approval of the bill set the stage for the establishment of institutional andlegal structures and the mobilization of market forces to implement energy efficiency

programs in the country. The establishment of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) isseen as an important step in this direction.

Energy efficiency is increasingly seen in India as a viable option that is costcompetitive, supplemental and environmentally sound in comparison to energy supplystrategies. For a long period CII has been involved with promoting energy efficiencyservices in the country in collaboration with USAID.

2.1.3.1 Energy Conservation and Commercialization (ECO) This project is a USAIDassistance instrument that aims to promote widespread commercialization of energyefficiency technologies and services in India, thereby contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Assistance is provided for the development of amarket oriented policy environment, the commercialization of energy conservation, andthe enhancement of private and financial sector capabilities for deploying market basedmechanisms for energy efficiency investments. This project addresses technical,economic, financial, regulatory and institutional barriers to implementation of end useenergy efficiency improvements in India.

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2.1.3.2 The CII Green Business Centre This is a joint initiative of the CII and thegovernment of Andhra Pradesh with technical support from USAID. It is established as acenter of excellence for energy, environment and climate change. It offers green servicesincluding energy efficiency in buildings to Indian industries. The main focuses are on promoting clean and efficient energy, using recycled products and renewables to develop

a better environment and to lead to sustainable development.

2.1.3.3 CII – USAID Climate Change Project - The climate change issues provide anew impetus to examine energy efficiency as a low cost means of reducing GHGemissions. Progress on the proposed flexible mechanisms such as emissions trading andthe Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) creates a strong additional, possibly global,market drive for investments in energy efficiency. The major objective of this program isto expand awareness of climate change negotiations especially with the CDM, and its possible impact on the Indian economy and industry. Such knowledge enables industry totake up issues with the Indian Government for negotiations in the climate change fora.The Center also helps to foster partnerships with CDM-related projects that could be role

models for future activity in this area.

2.2 Other USAID Projects in India

2.2.1 Power Sector

2.2.1A Reform & Restructuring

The United States Energy Association (USEA), with funding from the UnitedStates Agency for International Development (USAID) is forging strong relationships in

the Indian Power Sector. USEA has established a system of matching the Indian utilities,State Electricity Boards (SEB) and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERC)with various U.S. utilities and regulatory commissions. The primary goal of these partnerships is to assist Indian utilities, SEBs and SERCs in promoting more efficient,environmentally sound supply and utilization of energy by introducing commerciallyviable, market-oriented approaches. Additionally, these partnerships would help toenhance joint venture opportunities for U.S. investments and trade in international energymarkets and reduce the climate impact of energy activities.

The USEA has established the following partnerships in India between U.S. andIndian organizations in the power sector:

1) Bombay Suburban Electric Supply (BSES) with Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation(NMPC);

2) Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation (CESC) with Gulf Power Company;

3) Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board (APSEB) with Pennsylvania Power & LightCompany (PP&L);

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New Partnerships

In the state of Haryana, USAID identified and developed projects worth $40million for the World Bank to improve low-tension electricity distribution. The USAID’stechnical assistance in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and West Bengal is helping toestablish State Electricity Regulatory Commissions to help power sector restructuring.

USEA recently started three new partnerships with Tamil Nadu ElectricityRegulatory Commission (TNERC), Haryana Electricity Commission (HERC), andCERC. USEA is actively seeking U.S. partners for the Maharashtra State ElectricityBoard (MSEB) and the Power Finance Corporation (PFC).

2.2.1B Collaboration with NTPC

The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), the world's sixth largestthermal power generating company, has gone from installing 200 MW units to 17,735MW since 1982 and plans to add another 16,000 MW by 2007.

Over the years, the performance of NTPC's power stations has been the benchmark for the Indian power sector. Six the 10 best-rated coal based stations in thecountry belong to NTPC. The corporation, with less than one fifth of the country'scapacity, has been generating more than one fourth of the country's total electricity.

In an effort to benefit the entire Indian power sector, the NTPC in associationwith USAID and the U.S. Department of Energy, has set up the Center for Power Efficiency and Environmental Protection (CENPEEP) to ensure sustainable and eco-friendly power development. The center aims at acquiring, assimilating and dissimulatingnew technologies to improve the efficiency of power generation and reduce greenhousegas emissions. 2.2.2 Renewables

USAID's support for renewable energy technologies has resulted in theinstallation of nearly 200 MW of sugar cogeneration plants, using sugarcane waste for power that will offset approximately one million tons of carbon dioxide annually. USAIDcredit assistance to the Indian Solar Electric Light Company helped establish a multi-million credit line for the company to bring power for pumping water, lighting andcommunication to 2500 rural homes. Zero-emission electric vehicles, to replace theheavily polluting three-wheelers, are being introduced to India through an Indo-U.S. jointventure brokered by the USAID.

2.2.3 Clean Technology Initiatives (CTI)

Working with the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and the Steel Authorityof India Limited (SAIL), CTI is actively promoting the adoption of the Internal StandardsOrganization (ISO) 14001 standards through demonstration pilot projects. CTI is alsoworking closely with the cement, agro-pulp and paper industries to pilot a new ratingsystem that measures each facility's performance against the best of the district. This

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http://www.worldbank.org/

http://www.ntpc.net/

http://www.indianindustry.com/

http://www.indianindustry.com/

http://www.ntpc.net/

http://www.worldbank.org/



collaboration is anticipated to facilitate capacity building and demonstrate improvedenvironmental and economic performance.

The CTI is also involved in the new Environmental Information Center (EIC)established at the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI).The EIC will serve as a foundation of information regarding the adoption of environmentally friendly techniques for both the private and public sectors. The UnitedStates-Asia Environmental Partnership (US-AEP) is also working with the CTI byconducting lectures, workshops, and tours to promote business exchanges. The CTIcurrently focuses on the following areas:

• Awareness raising and information outreach: stimulating interest and participationof Indian industries in improved environmental management.

• Private sector environmental incentives: strengthening and publicizing market- based incentives for corporate environmental responsibility.

• Indian industry capacity development: strengthening the organizational learning process within Indian firms related to environmental management.

• Commercially-oriented technology cooperation: catalyzing information, technicalassistance, and funding.

The USAID's Clean Technologies Initiative implemented by TetraTech providesassistance to Indian industries in adopting certified environmental management systemsand enhancing the capacity of industry to incorporate the best technologies and practicesfor increasing productivity and profitability. Energy intensive sectors like cement,thermal power and steel are targeted for assistance. Nine firms will achieve ISO 14000certification under a pilot phase.

2.3 Marketing Alliance with Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP)

• The Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation and the IIP signed an agreementon June 6, 1999 for the setting of visbreaking plants in Latin American andUkrainian refineries.

• Exxon-Mobil and the IIP entered into an agreement on June 17, 1998 to marketMobil’s latest lubes de-waxing technologies.

• The IIP along with the Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) and Gas Authorityof India Limited (GAIL) signed a joint collaborative agreement with BP-Amocofor preparing Techno-Economic Feasibility Report (TEFR) production,transportation and marketing of dimethyl ether for the Indian market.

• The IIP entered into an agreement with Unitel Technologies, and Valvardi, USAfor establishing mini-refineries in India.

2.4 Marketing Alliance with National Chemical Laboratory (NCL)

The National Chemical Laboratory (NCL) of India has collaborative researchagreements with a number of U.S. based multinational corporations including DuPont,Dow, Eastman, General Electric, Cargil, Schenectady Chemicals and UOP . The major

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http://www.cleantechindia.com/

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projects on which the NCL works with these companies include development of eco-friendly chemical processes and products. These collaborative arrangements give theMNC access to Indian human capital as well as to emerging scientific knowledge.Laboratories like the NCL gain complimentary strengths in product development,financial and marketing inputs to scientific and technological cooperation.

The NCL’s research alliance with General Electric Co. has a long-term perspective on research and development programs. The success of this alliance has ledGE to establish a corporate research and development lab in Bangalore.

2.5 Partnerships with U.S. Academia

The Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad has establishedacademic linkages with many American universities through post-doctoral assignments.Some of these universities are: the University of Texas Medical Center, Dallas; the JohnHopkins Institute; the University of California at La Jolla; the University of California at

Los Angeles; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rutgers University, New Jersey;and Cripps Research Institute, San Diego, California.

2.6 SAREC – South Asia Regional Energy Coalition

South Asian countries need capital and energy to propel economic growth andimprove the quality of life in an environmentally responsible manner. The region isendowed with untapped energy resources but their development, efficient distribution andutilization require cooperation and trade among the countries in this region.

Although limited exchange of electricity already occurs between Nepal, Bhutan

and India, multilateral cooperation to develop and exchange energy resources will havefar-reaching economic and security benefits. India can benefit from electricity and gasimports from neighboring countries to foster its development aspirations. Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar can also realize significant economic benefits from thedevelopment and export of hydroelectric power and natural gas. Lastly, Pakistan’seconomy could benefit from electricity export from independent power producers.

The South Asia Regional Energy Coalition (SAREC), which is a non-governmental effort established under the aegis of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce,focuses on and promotes the concept of an integrated South Asian energy market byestablishing a network of mechanisms through which public and private sector stakeholders can influence regional energy policy, consumption pattern and sectoralreform throughout South Asia. The Confederation of Indian Industry is a member of SAREC and is also represented on its technical committee.

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3. Investment Opportunities in the Indian Energy Sector

3.1 Oil & Natural Gas

India is currently the fourth largest oil consumer in the Asian-Pacific region after

Japan, China and South Korea. The total demand of oil is expected to reach about 368million metric tons (MMT) by the year 2025, assuming the base case with GDP projectedto grow at 6.5 percent per annum until 2025. Further in line with international trends, it isestimated that the share of middle distillates would increase from a current level of 59-60 percent to about 65 percent by 2025. Therefore the estimated refining capacity and cruderequirement by the year 2025 shall have to be in the range of 355-360 MMT.

The present refining capacity in India is at a level around 114.7 MMT per annum.There are plans for expansions of existing refineries and implementation of grassrootrefinery projects by different oil companies. In the deregulated scenario of the petroleumsector, the implementation of additional refining capacity will depend on the growth of the economy and growth in the consumption of petroleum products. It is expected that thecountry may have a refining capacity of about 184 MMT at the end of 10th Five Year Plan (2002-2007) considering various capacity augmentation programs pursued by oilcompanies. The production of domestic crude oil is only about 33 MMTPA, leaving asubstantial gap for imports to meet the refining capacity. Hence, the gap will have to bemet through increased domestic crude production by enhanced exploration and production activities as well as imports. The import of crude oil is estimated to go upfrom present level of about 85 MMTPA to 151 MMTPA during the 10th plan period. Theoil import bill is estimated to increase from US$17-18 billion

*at present to US$31.3

billion in 2006-07, which is an enormous burden on India’s balance of paymentcondition. In view of highly volatile oil prices in the international market, the task becomes all the more difficult when controlling the burden of a huge oil import bill.Thus, oil security has become the most important key issue for the country.

3.1.1 The Opportunities The gas industry seeks to play an important role in the growthof the energy sector in India. Hydrocarbon Vision projects a natural gas demand of 313million cubic meters (MCM) and 391 MCM by the year 2011 and 2024-25, respectivelyfrom the existing demand and supply of 115 MCM and 65 MCM respectively.

Exploration and Development

The government has until recently allotted exploration blocks through the systemof bidding rounds. In 1997, the government announced the New Exploration Licensing

Policy (NELP) in an effort to promote investment in the exploration and production of domestic oil and gas. Under the NELP, foreign investors are granted the same treatmentas domestic companies and it is no longer binding on them to partner with state oilcompanies; no blocks are reserved for national oil companies. The New ExplorationLicensing Policy has been operationalized through NELP-I and II production sharingcontracts and NELP-III is under bidding.

* U.S.$1 = Rs48

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transportation, and the modernization of existing transportation facilities available in the petroleum sector.

The requirement of LPG over and above the indigenous availability is met byimports. The LPG import capacity at two ports in the country, viz . Visakha and Mumbai,

is 700 trillion Metric Tons per annum (TMTPA). New LPG import facilities at Kandlaand Mangalore are being constructed with the capacity at Visakha is being augmented.However, to fill in the gap, the private sector and joint venture companies are planning toset up LPG import facilities at different locations. Foreign companies including Exxon,Shell, Caltex, Mobil, and Vitol SHV have shown interest in setting up LPG importfacilities. Huge investment is required for the development of these facilities.

3.1.2 Policy – New initiatives

♦ The Indian petroleum sector has opened up to the private sector, both domestically

and foreign, for investments through joint ventures and strategic alliances.♦ In exploration and production, Indian oil and natural gas fields have opened up to the

private sector as well as to foreign participation under production sharing contracts.

♦ The refining sector has opened up to the joint sector (public-private partnerships) aswell as to the private sector for new refineries.

♦ Foreign investment is to be permitted as indicated:

100% FDI in exploration

26% FDI in refining in a Joint Sector 100% FDI in refining in the case of private Indian companies51% FDI in petroleum products and pipeline sector

100% FDI in production, import, marketing and setting up import terminals for LNG and pipelines for natural gas74% FDI in marketing infrastructure100% FDI for market study and formulation of investment/financing plans

♦ India is moving towards market-based gas pricing and gas use to replace the regimeof allocations and administered prices.

♦ The importation of natural gas and LNG is under the Open General License.

♦ For gas fields developed in the private sector, promoters are free to market the gas atmarket related prices.

♦ There is a proposal to set up a Petroleum Regulatory Board.

♦ In the petroleum product pipeline sector, pipelines will be developed through jointventures.

3.1.3 Supports and incentives

♦ There is a seven-year tax holiday after the commencement of commercial productionfor blocks in Northeast India.

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♦ Specific equipment imported for oil and gas exploration or exploitation has beenexempted from customs duty.

♦ A new Petroleum Tax Code has been developed to promote private investment in thesector.

♦ The model Production Sharing Contract for exploration provides that capital

expenditures incurred in respect of exploration and drilling operations are fully tax-deductible.

♦ Various incentives are announced under the New Exploration Licensing Policy(NELP).

♦ Attractive terms have been offered to investors for the construction of liquefiednatural gas import terminals.

♦ Some major U.S. companies involved in the marketing sector in India are

Caltex, Esso Petroleum, Exxon – Mobil Gas, Mobil Peeves Co. Ltd., Mosbacher

and Unocal.

3.2 Coal

Coal meets approximately 63 percent of the country’s total energy requirements.According to current estimates, the reserves are sufficient to meet India’s needs for atleast another 100 years. India now ranks 3rd amongst the coal producing countries in theworld.

During the IX plan, coal demand increased from around 300 million tons in 1996-97 to 353 million tons during 2001-02, implying a cumulative growth rate of 3.3 percent per annum. This is significantly lower that the IX plan target growth rate of 6.85 percent.The reasons for this slow growth are the failure of new coal-based power plants tomaterialize, a slump in the steel, lower demand in the cement sector and overall

sluggishness in the economy. Against the projected demand of 453 million tons, theanticipated availability is projected to be 405 million tons in the terminal year of X plan.

3.2.1 The Opportunities

Production

India has a huge untapped potential for underground mining. Currently, the predominant method used in the country is open cast mining to exploit the 64 billion tonsof proven reserves situated within a depth of 300 meters.

Coal beneficiation

The use of beneficiated coal has gained acceptance in steel plants and power plants located at a distance from the pithead. Currently, India has 21 large coal washeries but only two are devoted to power requirements. There is enormous scope for privateinvestment in this area, with the government now permitting build-own-operate (BOO)washery projects by coal companies.

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3.2.2 Foreign Investment Policies

The private Indian companies establishing or operating power projects as well ascoal or lignite mines for captive consumption in such projects may be allowed foreignequity up to 100 percent provided that the coal or lignite produced by them is meant

entirely for captive consumption in power generation.

One hundred percent foreign investment in the equity of an Indian subsidiary of aforeign company or in the equity of an Indian company for setting up of coal processing plants in India is permitted subject to the conditions that such an Indian subsidiary or theIndian company (a) shall not do coal mining and (b) shall not sell the washed coal or sized coal from their coal processing plants on the open market and shall supply thewashed coal or sized coal from their coal processing plants to the respective partiessending raw coal to such coal processing plants for washing or sizing.

Other private Indian companies engaged in exploration or mining of coal and

lignite for captive consumption for production of iron, steel or cement are permittedforeign equity up to 74 percent. Automatic approval of the Reserve Bank of India for foreign direct investment in the equity of Indian companies up to 50 percent in all theabove cases is permitted.

Automatic approval from the Reserve Bank of India for foreign direct investmentin equity of an Indian subsidiary of a foreign company or in the equity of an Indiancompany for setting up coal processing plants in India may be allowed subject to theconditions that such an Indian subsidiary or the Indian company (a) shall not do coalmining and (b) shall not sell the washed coal or sized coal from their Coal ProcessingPlants on the open market and shall supply the washed or sized coal from their Coal processing Plants to the respective parties sending raw coal to such Coal processingPlants for washing or sizing.

However, foreign direct investment beyond 50 percent in the equities of privateIndian companies engaged in activities of the nature indicated above should requireapproval of the FIPB.

Some policy initiatives to attract foreign investment –

• Grading and pricing of non-coking coal on Upper Heating Value (UHV) basis being replaced by Gross Calorific Value (GCV) basis in line with international practices.

• Independent regulatory body being set up to arbitrate price disputes between producers and consumers.

• Bill for setting up an independent body to allocate coal and lignite blocks to private companies for exploration and mining is on the anvil.

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US-based Spectrum Technologies has established the ST-BSES Coal Washery

Company, a joint venture with power producer BSES Ltd. to set up a 2.5 million ton

washery.

3.3 Power Sector

Over the next 10 years, the minimum capacity addition needed is estimated to beover 83,000 MW. At an average cost of US$1 million per MW, the investment calls for US$83 billion. If the investment required in transmission and distribution is taken intoaccount, the total figure rises to US$143 billion. A majority of this amount will have to be funded by the private sector, both domestic and foreign.

3.3.1 Power Sector – Recent Policy Initiatives

100% FDI is permitted in generation, transmission and distribution. Long-term power purchase and fuel supply agreements

Mandatory International Competitive Bidding (ICB) Detailed guidelines have been formulated for private sector participation inRenovation & Modernization (R&M).

All R&M schemes costing up to Rs.500 crores* are not required to be submitted for the concurrence of the Central Electricity Authority (CEA).

A new Hydel Policy announced an objective of making investment in hydro projectsmore attractive.

The CEA study on “Preliminary Ranking Study of Hydro Electric Schemes” iscomplete, identifying potential hydroelectric sites at various river basins, whichare prioritized in the order of their attractiveness for implementation. The ranking

studies will serve as guide to the potential developers on which hydro schemes tochoose for implementation. A transparent methodology for the selection of developers for surveying,

investigation and project execution will encourage private sector investment. Tariff dispensation and innovative financing mechanisms will minimize the risks

associated with hydro projects.

Revised norms for Environmental Clearance Reforms and Restructuring of State Electricity Boards Emphasis on distribution reform followed by generation The Electricity Bill 2000 is being finalized for introduction in the Parliament.

A number of prominent foreign corporations already doing business in India’s power sector are as listed below:

Power Equipment : General Electric, Donaldson (India) Filter System, Woodward, Foster Wheeler India Pvt. Ltd.

* One crore = 10 million

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Engineering Consultancy: Bechtel, Fluor Daniel, Sargent & Lundy and RaytheonInternational.

Management Consultants: Arthur Andersen, Boston Consulting, Ernst & Young, KPMGPeat Marwick, Price Waterhouse and McKinsey & Company.

3.4 Renewables

India is planning to add about 12,000 MW of power generating capacity fromrenewables by the end of the 11th. Plan. Almost half of it will come from wind, 3500MW from biomass and 2000 MW from small hydro.

3.4.1 Policy Initiatives in Renewables

A host of fiscal incentives and facilities are available to both manufacturers and

users of renewable energy systems, which include:• 100 percent accelerated depreciation for tax purposes in the first year of

the installation of projects/systems.

• No excise duty on the manufacturing of most finished products.

• Low import tariffs for capital equipment and most of the materials andcomponents.

• Soft loans to manufacturers and users for commercial and near commercial technologies.

• Five-year tax holiday for power generation projects.

• Remunerative pricing under the alternate power purchase policy by stategovernment for the power generated through renewable energy systems,fed to the grid by private sector.

• Facility for the banking and wheeling of power.

• Facility for the third party sale of renewable energy power.

• Financial Incentives/Subsidies for devices with high initial cost.

• Involvement of women not only as beneficiaries but also as activecontributors in the implementation of renewable energy programs.

• Encouragement to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and smallentrepreneurs.

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• Special thrust for renewable energy in Northeastern region of the country.10 percent of plan funds earmarked for the Northeast towards enhancedand special subsidies.

• Allotment of land on a long-term basis at token lease rent and supply of garbage free of cost at project site by state governments, with respect to projects on energy recovery from municipal waste.

3.4.2 Foreign Investment Policy

• Foreign Investors can enter into a joint venture with an Indian partner for financial and/or technical collaboration and also to set up a renewableenergy based Power Generation Projects.

• Approval for a liberalized foreign investment regime to facilitate foreigninvestment and technology transfer through joint ventures.

• The proposals for up to 74 percent foreign equity participation in a jointventure qualify for automatic approval.

• 100 percent foreign investment as equity is permissible with the approvalof the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB).

• Various Chambers of Commerce and Industry Associations in India can beapproached for providing guidance to the investors in finding appropriate partners.

• Foreign Investors can also set up a liaison office in India.

•

The Indian Government is also encouraging foreign investors to set uprenewable energy based power generation projects on a build, own andoperate basis.

4. Future Possibilities in Indo-U.S. Energy Cooperation

It is thus evident from Section 3 that immense possibilities exist in Indo-U.S.energy cooperation both at the upstream and downstream of coal, oil, gas, renewables andthe power sector. Cooperation already exists in some pockets but the magnitude is smallrelative to the total potential that could be exploited.

In this section, we will focus on some other areas of possible cooperation betweenIndia and the United States.

4.1 Geophysical Exploration It has been observed worldwide that Mesozoic sediments are responsible for more

than one half of the world’s oil and gas. Both in India and the United States (Coloradoflood basalt), a thick basalt cover overlays these rocks. Normally applied seismic

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methods are not capable of exploring the Mesozoic sediments. The National GeophysicalResearch Institute (NGRI) of India has developed techniques to delineate these sediments below the basalt where drilling has proven them. India could provide technical know-howto America in solving similar kinds of problems.

4.2 Improving Energy Efficiency

Indian industry has not paid much attention to energy savings. The high-energyconsumption in the Indian industries is due to three main reasons:

♦ Most of the manufacturing units still depend on old machinery

♦ The relatively high cost of capital as compared to European/U.S. standards.

♦ Uncertainty about the long-term growth of the particular industrial sector.

A recent World Bank report shows that Indian industry has the potential to save20 to 30 percent of total energy consumption. Energy conservation and efficiency

improvement in the Indian power sector requires special attention since the sector has been suffering from a chronic supply shortage, lack of capital investment for newcapacity addition and environmental problems associated with coal-based power plants.High auxiliary consumption and transmission and distribution loss further aggravate the problem.

It has been estimated that nearly 30,000 MW could be saved through theimplementation of energy conservation programs. Studies and experience have indicatedthat most of India's megawatt potential can be captured at substantially lower costscompared to the cost of capacity additions, which currently stands at over US$1 million per MW. However, in spite of good returns and short payback periods for energy

efficiency investments, most of India's end-use energy efficiency potential remainslargely untapped.

Macroeconomic policies sometimes discourage the undertaking of energyefficiency measures. Environmentally harmful subsidies reduce the private costs of producers and consumers resulting in over-utilization of natural resources. Energysubsidies in India, for example, lead to energy intensive economic structures andtechnologies, and wasteful management practices. It has been estimated that theelimination of energy subsidy worldwide would reduce global carbon emission by 9.5 percent. A study by the International Energy Agency of the OECD in 1999 on the under pricing of electricity in China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, South Africa

and Venezuela, found that reducing price subsidies in India would reduce primary energyconsumption by 13 percent, increase GDP through higher economic efficiency by 1 percent, lower CO2 emissions by 16 percent, and produce domestic environmental benefits including lower local air pollution.

The United States has considerable experience in improving the energy efficiencyin various sectors of the economy. They have used an integrated and coordinatedapproach of technological improvements, policy measures and institutional development

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for achieving quantum jumps in energy efficiency. India can benefit from U.S.experiences on how to manage subsidies that exists in the Indian sector so that it does notcreate a market distortion but develops a market for improved energy efficiency inappliances.

The government of India has already passed the Energy Conservation Bill in theParliament whose salient features are mandatory energy audits in energy intensiveindustries, labeling and standardization of the appliances and energy conservation in buildings. India can endogenize the methods and procedures followed by the UnitedStates for testing and certification of appliances.

4.3 Clean Energy

The future choice of technology for power generation crucially depends oncurrent and future trends of environmental regulations, availability of low-cost fuel on along-term basis, plant efficiency and costs of the technology. Seventy one percent of

India’s power generation comes from coal and it is expected that coal will continue todominate in the future of power generation. However, the burning of coal creates a hostof serious environmental problems requiring emissions control and waste disposal.

Since India cannot live without coal, one of the solutions is to adopt clean coaltechnologies for power generation, which would not only reduce pollution, but alsoachieve higher thermodynamic efficiencies. Technologies for coal gasification, IGCC,CO2 capture and sequestrations along with coal water slurry fuel are strong candidates for Indo-U.S. research and development.

It would also be possible for Indian organizations to carry out research anddevelopment in collaboration with U.S. research entities on clean and new technologieslike integrated gasification humid air turbine, integrated gasification molten carbonatefuel cell, development of hot gas cleanup system for IGCC, high temperature air pre-heater, new material for ultra-supercritical boiler and development of local scale cleantechnologies. Indo-U.S. synergy in this area would be most welcome.

Over the next decade in the United States, it may be difficult to deploy theadvanced coal technologies that emerge from research, as most of the new power plantswill be based on non-coal sources. There are excellent opportunities in India to examinethe feasibility of these technologies, which would be a win-win situation for India and theUnited States.

Being a tropical country, India is abundantly endowed with renewable energysources. In the area of power generation about 3000 MW (about 3 percent of totalinstalled capacity) power-generating capacity based on renewable energy has already been installed in the country. For India, biomass gasification and cogeneration holds great promise as an eco-friendly source of power, especially for decentralized applications.Though India has developed world-class technologies in this area, it needs moredevelopment with the help of biotechnology, another lucrative area for future Indo-U.S.

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4.4 Power Sector Reforms

The State Electricity Boards (SEB) in India, which have enjoyed monopolistic power to generate and distribute electricity in their respective states, are caught in avicious cycle of resource shortages and poor operational and financial performances. The

financial weaknesses for most of the SEB are mainly due to the irrational tariff structurealong with high transmission and distribution (T&D) losses. In 2000-01, the totalcommercial losses reached an alarming figure of 24,000 Crs

*. In addition, the outstanding

amount due the Central Public Sector Undertakings has now reached Rs. 26,000 Crs,which is threatening their viability.

Over the past decade, the government has taken several steps aimed atreconstruction and corporatization of the SEBs in order to make them independent profitcenters, delivering reliable electricity at affordable prices. The efforts of power sector reform have included:

• Unbundling generation, transmission and distribution sectors and allowing privatesector participation in generation transmission and distribution

• Setting up of the Central and State Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC/SERC)

• Securing outstanding debts of the SEBs

The Ministry of Power is encouraging and extending support to the states toundertake reforms by choosing a model from the options available that suit them best.Power sector reforms have started with Orissa. As of now almost all the states have takenup reform processes.

Unfortunately, the reform process in some states faces a setback mainly due to

inexperience in realizing ground realities and a lack of proper groundwork beforeunbundling and corporatization of SEB. In Orissa, for example, investors have foundsignificant variations in the actual and on-paper performance of the SEB including crucialareas like segment-wise demand, losses and physical condition of the distribution assets.Most of the data provided for 1998-99 and future projections have been proven wrongand the deviation in many cases is in the range of 25 to 50 percent. Based on the data pertaining to distribution loss and consumer profile, etc, tariff fixation by the commissionhas suffered severely. There needs to be a well-established institutional framework consisting of regulatory agencies, emphasizing the rules and regulations of the sector and policy guidelines. The regulatory agency should have international experience,independence from political pressures, accountability, autonomy, and expertise ontechnology, economics, law and accounting.

Interest in restructuring and reform of the power sector is a worldwide phenomenon being pursued in different forms in different countries, depending on thestructure and condition of the economy and political institutions. The entire process of reforms in most countries was initiated in the mid-1980s and early 1990s. For a countrylike the United States, reforms were fast and are now at consolidation stage. The reform

* 1 Crs = 10 million Rupees

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experiences of the United States would be of immense importance in deciding the wayforward for the power sector reform in India, although the solution should be tailor-madeto the Indian power sector. As we have seen earlier, USAID has already started several projects in this area, however a more comprehensive Indo-U.S. cooperation is expected.

It is believed that the Electricity Bill to be tabled soon in the Parliament will givea major boost to the process of power sector reforms throughout the country. The billaims at creating an enabling framework for a competitive and efficient power sector,which can contribute significantly to the requirements of all sectors of the economy and population.

The tariff structures in India for bulk power were determined in a simplistic way.In generation, for all practical purposes, there was a single tariff. In transmission, costswere averaged on a regional basis for tariff determination. Other types of tariff settingmethodologies, which have been prevailing in India, are Performance based Tariffs andCompetitive Bidding for mega-power projects. US experiences show that “time of day

metering” and “duel tariff system” could be attempted for HT industrial consumers of India.

Quality of power supply requires special attention in India. In the United States,losses due to poor quality energy supply are estimated at $150 million. The damages thatare being caused in eastern and southern regions due to high frequency excursions thoughnot quantified until now appeared to be substantial.

4.5 Nuclear Power

Development of nuclear power is essential in the context of India’s energysecurity and environmental perspective. Nuclear power plants would be a good option for future base load power generation. Although the present share of nuclear power is lessthan 3 percent of the total installed capacity, the Vision 2020 of the Department of Atomic Energy envisages a cumulative installed capacity of 20,000 MWe.

Nuclear power generation in India commenced in 1969 with the commissioningof the Tarapur Atomic Power Station built on a turnkey basis by the International GeneralElectric of the United States based on boiling water reactor technology using importedenriched uranium.

Despite imposition of a ban by the United States and several other developedcountries after nuclear tests followed by technological, commercial, organizational, political and financial challenges, today India is one of the few countries which is entirelyself reliant in the peaceful application of nuclear energy.

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The United States has the world’s largest share of nuclear power, yet instead of constructing new plants, the United States has emphasized extending the life of existing plants. Some states in the U.S. are also examining the role of nuclear power in their energy mix in order to comply with the Kyoto Protocol.

The sharing of experience and information would be a win-win situation for bothIndia and the United States on the nuclear power generation front particularly in the areasof research and development, design standardization, management competence, training,safety, environment and regulatory practices. The Indo-U.S. joint research anddevelopment program in “cold fusion” could be another thrust area.

4.6 Rural Electrification

Rural electrification in India has suffered badly over the last decades mainly because of the poor operational and financial health of SEBs. Although 86 percent of thetotal villages have been electrified over the years, nearly 80,000 villages are yet to beelectrified. Moreover, the use of electricity in rural areas for households and other productive purposes such as small industries are rather limited. Rural people are often notin a position to afford the cost of electricity and they meet their basic energy needsthrough the use of energy sources like firewood, cow dung, agricultural residue andkerosene. However, inefficient exploitation of these resources has led to environmentaldegradation. An action plan on 100 percent village electrification within the next 6 yearshas been prepared in which rural electrification would be treated as a basic minimumservice under the Prime Minister Gramodya Yojana. Other elements of the action planinclude; setting up credit support from Rural Electrification Corporation to SEBs for speedy electrification in the backward areas, improving the quality of power supply invillages by strengthening the distribution network, earmarking a sum of at least Rs. 750Crores out of the Rural Infrastructure Development Fund for rural electrification worksand augmenting the resources of REC by allowing it to float capital gains tax exemption bonds.

Renewables can play a major role in rural electrification. In India, 18,000 villagesmostly in remote far-flung areas can only be electrified by using renewable resourcessince they are not economically viable to connect through conventional grid systems. Thefeatures of rural electricity viz, low and dispersed loads, high T & D costs and seasonalityof the load favors decentralized (small hydro and biomass based) power plants for meeting rural electricity needs in a sustainable manner. Local institutions like Panchyats might play an important role in the implementation, operation and maintenance of such power plants. This will not only minimize transaction costs but also minimize

transmission and distribution costs.

The United States has a successful rural electrification program, which has beensupported by the government on commercial principles without financial subsidy bymaking loans available on the same cost as cost of borrowing to government. The onlysubsidy was in the form of office overhead expenses. However, it ensured thatcooperatives borrowing under this program collected appropriate tariff for meeting this

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cost and enabling the repayment of the interest and principal. Effectively, the consumer was asked to pay the full cost for the power they were receiving.

The US model of rural electrification could well be adopted in India after takinginto account the local conditions and culture. Establishment of rural cooperatives to take

up utility services in rural areas should be encouraged. The rural electric cooperatives canuse the convergence potential to lower the cost of service to the consumer. Ruralelectrification could be handled along with rural roads, telecom and water supply. In thisregard, standardization of equipment/materials used for rural electrification and theerection methodology should be attempted. In the United States, installation cost has beenreduced substantially due to these initiatives. India could consider studying the US ruralmodel and deal with the electricity in rural areas in a differentiated manner.

4.7 Education & Fundamental Research

We strongly believe that availability of the world’s third largest scientific and

technical manpower and well established R&D infrastructure in the form of nationallaboratories and universities will motivate many more American companies to invest insetting up research and development centers in India. This has already happened in thesoftware sector.

The first decade of the 21st

century should see many flourishing business partnerships emanating from the cooperation in science and technology.

4.8 Clean Development Mechanism & Opportunities

India is among the top 10 contributors to GHG emissions, despite its per capitaemissions being only one-sixth of the world average. Since India’s major energy comesfrom coal, which has the highest CO2 emission coefficient, India needs to adopt clean andenergy efficient technologies to reduce its GHG emissions. However, there is a problemin obtaining finances for these technologies. The CDM, included in the Kyoto Protocolcould be very helpful in overcoming the situation.

With regard to the Kyoto Protocol, India has already signed the Indo-U.S. JointStatement on Cooperation in Energy and Related Environmental Aspects in 1999. Indiadeclared hereby the intention to achieve a 10 percent share for renewable energy inelectricity capacity by 2012 and a 15 percent improvement in energy efficiency by 2008.

This bilateral agreement also includes the passages of technology transfer via theCDM route. The Indian Government has set up within the Ministry of Environment andForests a “Working Group on the Framework Convention or Climate Change.”

The Credit Rating Information Services of India Limited (CRISIL) conducted astudy to examine the range of possibilities and investment potential for CDM in India.The top-down analysis shows that the CDM could account for between 397-503 MMTCof emissions reduction required of Annex B countries in 2010. The corresponding CDM

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• Anti-theft legislation with stringent provisions and support of government intackling law and order problems for curbing the widespread theft of electricitywould be helpful in India.

• Formation of a robust national grid at the earliest possible time will improve

reliability, quality and economics of power supply in India. Open access tosurplus capacity of the transmission system, including inter-regional HVDC links,should be allowed on a commercial basis.

• Many of India’s best talents have been serving in America for decades. Their services have frequently been utilized to great mutual advantage, under theTOKTEN (Transfer of Knowledge through Expatriate Nationals) Scheme of theIndian government. The scope of TOKTEN Scheme needs to be upgraded toTOKTEE (Transfer of Knowledge through Exchange of Experts), which wouldinclude both Indian and American experts.

• Promotion of Indian industries is a significant source of outreach for USindustries, particularly in view of India’s technological competence and lower cost. Cost effectiveness of Indian technology has been demonstrated in a fewareas, such as in space hardware, electronics, auto parts, software, etc, where theUnited States has tried to outsource from India. With a liberal and proactive policy, greater use of Indian enterprise and industrial capability could be achievedthat would be beneficial for both countries. Such collaboration could also lead to agreater presence of the United States in Asian and African countries.

• In order to create an enabling environment for future Indo-US cooperation, it isdesirable that the United States lift the bans that were imposed after the Pokhran

nuclear test in India.

• The possibilities of exchanging energy services in the upcoming GeneralAgreement on Trade and Services (GATS) regime should be explored.

• The United States can play a major role in regional energy cooperation andenergy security. This work is intended to promote greater cooperation andintegration of regional energy markets in electricity and natural gas, as well as theunhindered cross-border trading of cleaner fuels and energy resources among theSouth Asian countries.

• While India suffers from many disadvantages such as inadequate infrastructure, poverty, poor agricultural productivity, large-scale and a higher level of pollutionsimilar to many developing countries, it has the great advantage of possessingcheap and efficient human resources. India can offer minimum intellectual capital per dollar. According to the demographic projection by 2025, more than 50 percent of India (about 600 million) will be less than 20 years old. This readyavailability of highly qualified cheap man-power along with fast growingindustrialization and significantly higher economic growth potential have

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undoubtedly transformed India into one of the largest potential markets in theworld. Since India is a multilingual and multicultural society, properlyorchestrated and executed Indo-US joint ventures could be an example for other developing countries and this will definitely open up the avenues of futurecollaboration with other developing countries.

SOURCES

Websites of:

a) Ministry of Environment & Forest (http://envfor.nic.in) b) Ministry of Power (http://powerin.nic.in)c) Ministry of Coal (http://coal.nic.in)d) Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (http://mnes.nic.in)

e) Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (http://petroleum.nic.in)f) Central Pollution Control Board (http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb)g) Indo-US Science & Technology Forum (http://www.ind-usstf.org)h) Tata Energy Research Institute (www.teriin.org)i) Confederation of Indian Industry (www.ciionline.org) j) USAID (www.usaid.gov/in)k) The South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy Cooperation and Development(http://www.sari-energy.org)l) National Chemical Laboratory (http://www.ncl-india.org)m) International Energy Agency (http://www.iea.org)n) South Asia Regional Energy Coalition (http://www.energysouthasia.com)

o) The Atlantic Council of the United States (www.acus.org) p) Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) Pvt. Ltd. (www.cmie.com)q) Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (http://www.npcil.org)

http://envfor.nic.in/

http://powerin.nic.in/

http://coal.nic.in/

http://mnes.nic.in/

http://petroleum.nic.in/

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb

http://www.ind-usstf.org/

http://www.teriin.org/

http://www.ciionline.org/

http://www.usaid.gov/in

http://www.sari-energy.org/

http://www.ncl-india.org/

http://www.iea.org/

http://www.energysouthasia.com/

http://www.acus.org/

http://www.cmie.com/

http://www.npcil.org/

http://www.npcil.org/

http://www.cmie.com/

http://www.acus.org/

http://www.energysouthasia.com/

http://www.iea.org/

http://www.ncl-india.org/

http://www.sari-energy.org/

http://www.usaid.gov/in

http://www.ciionline.org/

http://www.teriin.org/

http://www.ind-usstf.org/

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb

http://petroleum.nic.in/

http://mnes.nic.in/

http://coal.nic.in/

http://powerin.nic.in/

http://envfor.nic.in/

Documents

Indian Energy 2020