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Journal of Human Values

DOI: 10.1177/0971685800006002052000; 6; 145Journal of Human ValuesVictor A. van Bijlert

Some Thoughts on Indian Ethics for a Globalizing World

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Some Thoughts on Indian Ethicsfor a Globalizing World*

VICTORA. VAN BIJLERT

VictorA. van Bijlert is at Leiden University, NIAS, Copenhagen.

In the coming years people will live in an ever-globalizing world with possibilities and challenges thatdid not exist before. The contours of this new world are already with uscapital flow across the worldwith lightning speed; mass media events broadcast anywhere in the globe as if they happened nextdoor; tests, food habits, consumer goods, cultural production and political ideas floating across the

globe unhindered; the boundaries of nation states becoming more and more porous; and the Internet

being a major source of rapid unbound communication.All sectors of the society are affected by this

global society, the technological revolution. In this connection ethics becomes an increasingly im-

portant issue in global decision making. The author suggests some solutions on the basis of Indianculture.

I

Globalization

In the coming years we will be living in an ever-

globalizing world with possibilities and challengesthat did not exist before. The contours of this

new world are already with us: capital flows acrossthe world with the speed of light; mass mediashow events around the globe as ifthey happenednext door; tastes, food habits, consumer goods,cultural production and political ideas floatingacross the world unhindered; boundaries of nation

states becoming more and more porous; theInternet being a major source of rapid unboundcommunication. Such is globalization and highmodernity, daily poured out on us. Globalization

is propelled by innovations in the field of ICT

(information and communication technology).Allsectors in society, from government to private,from industry to services, are affected by this

global technological revolution. Because of its in-

tensity and enormous impact, globalization posesglobal challenges in the sphere of ethics as well.It is more and more the case that what is done or

decided in one part ofthe world has its impact onothers. In this connection ethics becomes an in-

creasingly important issue in global decision making.Ethical

problemsalso assume

global aspects.In this

article I will suggest some solutions on the basis

of Indian culture.

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For many social analysts globalization is justWestern hegemony lurking behind everything that

happens in the world at present. This observation

has gainedsome

credence since world commu-nism has fallen and we have reached the end of

history, according to Fukuyama, or we are go-ing to face clashes between civilizations, accordingto Huntington. Both authors, whose writings havecreated international stir, regard the ultimate vic-

tory of Western values like liberal democracy andthe market economy as the supreme goals of

humanity. Fukuyama holds that .

liberal

democracy mayconstitute the end

point of mankinds ideological evolution, andas such constitute[s] the end of history. That

is, while earlier forms of government were

characterized by grave defects and irrationali-ties that led to their eventual collapse, liberal

democracy was arguably free from such fun-damental internal contradictions.I

Huntington on the other hand proclaims:

If NorthAmerica and Europe renew their moral

life, build on their cultural commonality, and

develop close forms ofeconomic and politicalintegration to supplement their security col-laboration inNATO, they could generate a thirdEuroamerican phase of Western economicaffluence and political influence. Meaningfulpolitical integration would... revive the powerof the West in the eyes of the leaders of other

civilizations.2

Neither ofthese authors is a prominent cham-

pion ofglobalization theories, nor do they interpretthe phenomenon of globalization.And yet theywrite from the assumption that the impact ofWestern civilization has been global, at least forthe time being. For Fukuyama the Western modelwill become the unchallenged standard for our

time. Huntington hopes the aspirations of non-Western civilizations can be contained so that theywill not pose a threat to the West. Both authors

share a deep commitment to the idea that the Westand its economic and political models are worth

preserving and seem to be wedded to the ideathat Western civilization is superior to everythingelse in the world.

Globalization as Global

Capitalism

There areother authors who sound less triump-halist notes about the West and its global impact.

In 1997 Roger Burbach, Orlando Nunez and Boris

Kagarlisky published a book called Globalizationand its Discontents. In it they argue along with

Fukuyama but from a different perspective:

The decisive historic event of the late twenti-

eth century is the collapse ofcommunism andthe triumph of Western capitalism.... The

political playingfield is now controlledby those

espousing neo-liberalismand globalisation, thesecular creeds of the dominant classes.

According to the authors the result of this vic-

tory is not a blooming ofdemocracy and generalaffluence, but

a period in which capital is so powerful that itsbeneficiaries enjoy a grand banquet while the

ever-increasing numbers ofthe worlds popu-lation are forced into poverty and misery. Inthis brave new world plagues and pestilencesmultiply while research and technology areharnessed by the rich and powerful in theirown interests.44

This prospect seems undesirable for ordinarypeople by any standards, and we would do well



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to consider the darker implications ofglobalization.If present trends are anything to go by, the follow-

ing scenario for the next few decades is verylikely. Government and the public sectors will

retreat; the national state as organizer of socialsolidarity may disappear;5 and violent crime willincrease.6 This new global world order probablywill have no major political centre of gravity butwill consist in a complex structure of economic

activity and political alliances, all devoted to share-holders interests. Large regions such as EuropeandAsia will not lose their distinctive cultural fea-

tures but their borders will become increasinglyporous. Europe may have lost its inner borders

but will close its outer borders to the influx ofeconomic refugees from the so-called ThirdWorld. The ICT revolution will change our con-

cepts of economics, politics, democracy, nationalityand civilization itself. Corporate businessmay takeover functions formerly reserved for the state,such as social security, the police, prisons, the

army, tax-collecting, housing, infrastructure andeducation. In the Netherlands the social securitysystem is already for a large part run by private

firms that are supposed to compete with eachother. The postal and telephone system has been

privatized but the resultant company, also a pri-vate one, keeps the monopoly over the use ofthe

physical infrastructure. Presently in the Nether-lands there is a political debate going on aboutwhether to stop further privatization.These aspects of globalization also form the

subject ofa powerful essay by the famous socio-

logist Zygmunt Bauman. He regards globalization

primarily as so many new attempts by global elitesto undisturbedly increase their financial assets,evade national controls, evade taxes and enjoythe spoils ofa jet-setting life. Hurrying across the

globe, physically as well as electronically, the globaljet-setter holds an edge over the rest of the not-so-rich-and-mobile population. The differencesbetween the rich and poor are only getting worse.

The following remark by Bauman indicates thedominant note of his essay:

With the freedom ofmobility at its centre, the

present-daypolarization has many dimensions;the new centre puts a new gloss on the time-honoured distinctions between rich and poor,

the nomads and the settled, the normal andthe abnormal or those who breach the law.

Finally, we have the warning against so-calledmarket fundamentalism issued by no less than

George Soros in his latest book. In the context of

globalizaticn as global capitalism, he contends that

the global capitalist system is coming apart atthe seams.8 He says: There is much talk about

imposing market discipline, but if imposing mar-ket discipline means imposing instability, howmuch instability can society take?.... [M]aintain-ing stability in financial markets ought to be the

objective of public policy.9 Market fundamen-talists have transformed an axiomatic, value-neutral

theory into an ideology, which has influenced

political and business behavior in a powerful and

dangerous way.

Globalization as Politics

of Difference

Not all the prospects of a globalized world arebleak. There are social theorists who have modi-

fiedpessimistic views of globalization. The social

anthropologist Friedman maintains:

In recent years there has developed a rela-

tively large literature dealing with globalization.Much of this... has centred on what...

appeared to be an aspect of the hierarchicalnature of imperialism, that is, the increasinghegemony of particular central cultures, the dif-fusion ofAmerican values, consumer goods



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and lifestyles.... [T]here was genuine fear, atleast among the cultural elites, of the djfi ameri-cain and the hegemony of the Coca Cola cul-ture.

Todaythis theme has been

developed...into a more complex understanding ofcultural

processes that span large regions ofthe globe.... [G]lobalization refers both to the com-

pression ofthe world and to the intensificationof the consciousness of the world as a whole.&dquo;I

The famous social theorist of cultural stud-

ies Stuart Hall had this to say:

You are living globalization, as we are livingglobalization. The destruction of centres, thedissemination of centres that is going on, opensa conversation between spaces.... I am

arguing that globalization must never be readas a simple process of cultural homogeniza-tion ; it is always an articulation of the local, ofthe specific and the global. Therefore, therewill always be specificities-of voices, of posi-tioning, of identity, of cultural traditions, of

histories, and these are the conditions ofenun-

ciation which enable us to speak.2

In other words, globalization shows us the worldin all its variety and enables us to make our ownchoices. For Hall globalization is the ultimate

opportunity to enter into multiple dialogues with

everybody. Obviously, the modem mass mediaand electronic communications media help toestablish this new open marketplace for the ex-

change of ideas. The dark side of it all is the fact

that the electronic goodies are available only tothose who can afford them.

Thus, we see two different aspects of global-ization. The first is global capitalism, whichextends wealth beyond imagination to the selectfew who know how to reach for it, while the

castaways from the global grand banquet sinkdown in misery and despair. The other aspect of

globalization is the global interconnectedness

through the mass media and the electronic media-

radio, television and the Internet. Especially the

latter joinswhere the

capitalist aspectdivides. The

redemption from corporate capital or state powergone haywire will probably come from globalinterconnected as it cuts across any barriers and

borders. By means ofthis interconnectednesswewill be able to critically follow every step taken

by those in power. Thus, at least runs the promiseof many Internet prophets.A good example of Internets subversive po-tential is the global public attention given to theMAI (MultilateralAgreementon Investment)pro-posed in camera by the WTO. The draft texts ofthis notorious agreement were kept secret by the

original parties involved. But after somebody gothold of a copy, the MAI was put on the Internet

for everyone to see. In this case the information

revolution did foster transparency. The Internet

may become an important locale where free ex-

change is possible without state or other formsof censorship being able to do much against it. Itis hardly surprising that many national govern-ments are less than enthusiastic about the free

flow of information through the Internet and e-mail,and want to keep controls on this flow on the

plea of the need to fight crime or to protect citi-zens.

Globalization and Ethics

The positive sides ofglobalization should not blind

us to some harsh facts. Even if we do not sub-scribe fully to the views of Baumann, Burbach,Nunez and Kagarlitsky, some very unpleasantphenomena do show themselves. The world of

big global finance seems to continuously go outofcontrol. The recent economic and political cri-ses inAsia are only an instance of financial

volatility destroying whole political systems and



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states in its wake. The one in Indonesia stands

out most tragically (although the present demo-cratic changes in Indonesia are signs of hope).

These crises prove the need for solid ethical lead-ership and values. Financial crises are complexevents involving manypeople and institutions. Notthat sound ethics are a safeguard against crises,but they surely help towards preventing them. Itcan be argued that the recent financial crises inthe last analysis were caused by uncontrolled

greed fuelledby globalization and ICT. Greed isnot new and not caused by globalization. But

globalization magnifies its impact on daily life.Excessive

greedin a

globalizedmode will lead to

global destruction, not only the destruction ofthefabric of local societies, but the whole of the planet-ary environment.

Excessive greed does not show its ugly face in

global financial crises alone, but also reveals it-selfin the propagation ofexcessive consumerismwith its concomitant permanent dissatisfaction.

Consumerism will breedmore consumerism uponthe first easy satisfaction ofdesire. The real prob-lem lies deeper, of course. Why do we seeksatisfaction in the possession of outer objects?This is where ethics begin to play a significantrole.After all, we are dealing with human actorsand the choices they can make. One can chooseto be an unthinking consumer, one can choose tobe a thoughtful consumer, or no consumer at all.The same is true in the sphere of leadership. Thosein a position of power can decide to use the powerwell or to abuse it or not use it at all. Such deci-

sions are made in the consciousness of the

individual powerholder, but they do affect manyothers.

Consciousness and Ethics

The source from which human culture, moralconsciousness and ethics spring is the human

spirit.All human actions ultimately have their basisin consciousness. Broadly speaking, conscious-ness here means the whole of the human person,

the feeling or am, the inner witness. Withoutthis basic consciousness there is no thought andno sense of right and wrong and no agency. Human

agency wills to bring into being the social struc-

tures, the technology and the financial institutionsthat are the engines of globalization. Hence, wecan argue that the potential for taking other direc-tions away from materialism also lies within

human reach. The past 40,000 years have wit-

nessed an enormous increase in human

technological inventions,from the

polishedflint-

axes down to present-day communications

technology. The problem that was being addressedall this time was: how can we increase our bodilycomfort through conscious manipulation of

physical matter? The advances have been great,no doubt. Thoughtfully applied, technology is oneof the greatest boons to mankind.And yet final

satisfaction seems to ever elude us. We still need

more material things. The question that is perti-nent now is: to what end do we seek comfort,what is sufficient to satisfy genuine wants, andwhat is the ultimate meaning of our existence?After this never-ending hunt for material goodsand instant satisfactions is it not time to pause

and reflect?

For centuries the religious and spiritual tradi-tions in the world have presented to man ways to

escape from the snares of wanton materialism.

These traditions hold out before man vistas of

spiritual growth, emphasizing being instead of

possessing. They teach that the body of manshould be properly fed and clothed, but that manss

destiny lies in the nurturing ofthe soul. This wis-dom is also found in great abundance in Indian

civilization, ancient as well as modem. One of

the premises ofIndian spirituality throughout the

ages has been that man has the potential withinhim or herself to develop into a higher being. Indian



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spirituality declares that it is mans destiny to beable to realize this divine potential and it claims toteach many practical methods to this end.3

Indian Spirituality: SwamiVivekananda and SriAurobindo

Modem Indian spirituality was greatly influenced

by the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda

(1863-1902). He was a major exponent ofmodem

Vedanta, an important Indian tradition of philoso-phyand spiritual discipline. Vivekananda transformedtraditional Vedanta into an Indian

philosophyof

modernity with claims to universality. He alsostirred up radical Indian nationalism. His teach-

ings helped restore Indian self-confidence.Althoughhe died almost a century ago, his ideas have not

lost their relevance for the development of moralvalues. His ideas are at present being explored fornew forms ofethics in India.4Vivekananda taughtwhat we would probably now call empower-ment. 15 .

Man is man so long as he is struggling to riseabove nature, and his nature is both internal

and external.... It is good and very grand to

conquer external nature, but grander still to

conquer our internal nature.6

Fundamentally an optimist, Vivekananda believedin the great potential of human beings. In our-selves rests the treasure of all true morality and

prophetic visions of human civilization. Ethics isone of the preliminary steps towards a deeperrealization of humanity. To quote the Swami oncemore: Ethics itself is not the end, but the meansto the end ... a morality, an ethical code, derivedfrom religion and spirituality, has the whole ofinfinite man for its scope.&dquo;What do religion and spirituality mean here?

Certainly not narrow sectarianism, nor fanaticism.

Least of all fundamentalism, which is now so ram-

pant in the world. Rather, Vivekananda says:Religion is the greatestmotive power for realisingthat infinite

energywhich is the

birthrightand

nature of every man.8 Religion is realisation;not talk, nor doctrine, nor theories, however beau-tiful they may be. It is being and becoming ... itis the whole soul becoming changed into what itbelieves.&dquo;99

SriAurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) is another

major exponent ofmodem Vedantic spirituality.A political activist fighting British colonial rule inhis early years, but a spiritual realizer at the same

time, after 1910 SriAurobindo exclusively turnedto deep meditation and extensive writing.2 In thelife story ofAurobindo (as well as Vivekananda)one recognizes the empowering quality of real-ized practical Vedanta.Aurobindo wrote muchabout spiritual discipline, yoga and his own ex-

periences in this realm. Time and again in his

writings he testifies to divine human potentialand their actualization. The following written inthe early twenties is typical:

To convert our twilit or obscure physical men-

tality into ... supramental illumination, to build

peace and a self-existent bliss where there is

only a stress of transitory satisfactions besiegedby physical pain and emotional suffering, toestablish an infinite freedom in a world which

presents itselfas a group of mechanical neces-

sities, to discover and realise the immortal life

in a body subjected to death ... this is offeredto us as the manifestation of God in Matter

and the goal ofNature in her terrestrial evolu-tion.2

And in an earlier bookAurobindo had asserted

that

Indian religion placed four necessities beforehuman life. First, it imposed upon the mind a



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beliefin a highest consciousness ... universaland transcendent of the universe .... Next it

laid upon the individual life the need of self-

preparation by developmentand

experience ....Thirdly, it provided ... a well-founded, well-

explored, many-branching and always enlarg-ing way of knowledge and of spiritual or

religious discipline. Lastly ... it provided an

organisation of the individual and collective life,a framework ofpersonal and social disciplineand conduct ... by which ... [each] couldmove ... in his own limits and according tohis own nature. 22

Both Vivekananda andAurobindo affirm that

every human is able to aspire after spiritual idealsand will gain the power to ultimately make them a

living reality. But to be successful at this requiresthe total transformation of our consciousness

away from its material attachments into ever-

widening expansions.

Consciousness Ethics23

Spiritual realizations such as these form part ofthe sources ofinspiration ofethics and empower-ment for the next millennium. These realizations

may become the basis for a new ethics of insightand heightened awareness rather than of meredos and donts. This will be an ethics founded on

human consciousness as the basis of human

activity. Hence, it could be called consciousnessethics. Improving the quality of consciousness

will be seen to be as important as improving thequality of the material conditions of life. New

concepts ofmanagement and leadership will de-rive great benefitfromAsian spiritual insights andvisions. 14Asian insights add a human dimensionto the otherwise rather mechanical and sterile

concepts of management in the West. Throughtraining in consciousness ethics human beings

involved in any type oforganization may becomeless motivatedby materialism and more by a sense

of belonging and wholeness. Perhaps totally new

forms of enterprise may be tried out, which willbe owned and run by the producers themselvesso that there is no difference between sharehold-

ers and stakeholders. The responsibility of theadvocates of this new ethics will be to show that

improvements are possible and how they can berealized. 25

What could consciousness ethics encompassif it were developed from a Vedantic perspective?&dquo;I tentatively propose four major characteristics/criteria. First, it is

visionaryin that it reveals hid-

den potentials in human consciousness, especiallypotentials that lead to improving the quality of lifein a non-physical sense. Second, it strengthensour sense of beauty and stimulates creativity inall respects, including artistic creation. Third, itis disciplined by rationality and logic, and thus

kept within the boundaries of empirical experi-ment. Fourth, it encourages respect for universalhuman dignity.27 The first characteristic distin-

guishes this ethics from purely instrumental and

mechanical approaches to ethics in leadership andmanagement of organizations. The first charac-

teristic, as it were, promises the widening of thehuman horizon. The second characteristic deals

with aesthetics. There is a human need to per-ceive beauty through art, even though this needoften remains subliminal. The satisfaction ofthe

aesthetic need should form an integral part oftheconsciousness ethics, especially as consciousnessis directly involved in the perception of beauty.

Moreover, one could maintain that the perceptionof beauty is an act of love and thus refines oursensibilities, including our moral sensibilities.

Rationality on the otherhand prevents spiritualityfrom sinking into superstition and blind faith (aphenomenon regularly observed in the world ofNewAge spiritualities). If this new ethics has

something genuine to offer, we may demand



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tangible results or at least we may demand not tobe misled by unfounded claims. We have a rightto understand how it works and what it can and

what it cannot

accomplish. Moreover,this ethics

ought to be based on real experience, not on fan-

tasy run wild.And last, this ethics and spiritualitymay never be discriminatory, racist or degradingin any other way. It is based on the dignity and

equality of all human beings.

Globalization and.

Consciousness Ethics

What have we gained so far? Developing an ethicslike the ethics of consciousness proposed here isone of the strategies to prevent globalization from

becoming malignant. In order to accomplish thisthere are two approaches. First, the ethics ofconsciousness is a conscious effort at tran-

scending the limitations ofones present personalexistence. Since every person forms part of the

global community, every effort at spiritual growthwill have some effect on society and the world asa whole. To be fruitful this ethics needs living

practitioners,real

personswho realize and act

accordingly and speak about their realizations.The other approach is to disseminate the idea

of this ethics through all forms of mass media

available, including the Internet. With the help ofthe globalizing media, the protagonists of thisethics must try to overcome political, ideological,economic, nationaland cultural barriers. By goingglobal this ethics encourages people everywhereto take their destinies in their own hands and to

imaginatively think ofalternatives to the econom-ics of pathological greed, consumerism, grossinequality and irreparable damage to the environ-ment. The difficult but deeply rewarding missionofconsciousness ethics is to assist in the birth of

a more just world. What ethics of consciousnessadvocates is a constant dialogue with the differ-ent culturesofthe world, incorporating them into

ever-expanding discourses of globalness.

NOTESAND REFERENCES

* Earlier versions of this article have been presented as

papers at the following gatherings: International Sym-posium onApplied Ethics in Management, ManagementCentre for Human Values, IIM Calcutta, 20 February1998;15th European Conference on Modem SouthAsia,

Prague, September 1998; and 5th Euro-Asia Interna-

tional Research Seminar, University of Poitiers, Poitiers,France, 5 November 1998. On all these occasions thecontent of the paper was discussed. The insights thusreceived are acknowledged with gratitude.

1.F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man

(Hammondsworth: Penguin, 1992),xi.2. S.P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Re-

making of the World Order (New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1996), 308.

3. R. Burbach, O. Nez and B. Kagarlitsky, Globalization

and its Discontents: The Rise of Postmodern Socialism

(London: Pluto Press, 1997), 1.4. Ibid., 1.5. Ibid., 144, 154.

6. Ibid., 22-23.

7. Z. Bauman, Globalization: The Human Consequences

(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998), 3.8. G. Soros, The Crisis of Global Capitalism [Open SocietyEndangered](New York: PublicAffairs, 1998), xi.

9. Ibid., xvi.10. Ibid., 43.

11. Jonathan Friedman, Global System, Globalization andthe Parameters of Modernity, in M. Featherstone,S. Lash and R. Robertson, eds, Global Modernities (Lon-don : Sage Publications, 1995), 69-70.

12. D. Morley and Kuan-Hsing Chen, eds, Stuart Hall:



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Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies (London:Routledge, 1996), 407.

13. This idea is found in Buddhism, Jainism and the spiritualphilosophies that could be loosely identified as Vedanta.

In fact, schools such as the old Sankhya, Nyaya, theUpanishads and Yoga have held similar views.

14.Among others, by S.K. Chakraborty, Ethics in Manage-ment : Vedantic Perspectives (Delhi: Oxford UniversityPress, 1995); ibid., Values and Ethics for Organisations:Theory and Practice (Delhi: Oxford University Press,1998). See also R.C. Sekhar, Ethical Choices in Business

(New Delhi: Response Books, 1997).15. The term and concept of empowerment and its con-

temporary socio-political content were first developedby the Brazilian educationist and philosopher PauloFreire (see his The Politics of Education: Culture, Power

and Liberation [Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985]). Now-adays empowerment often designates a cluster of new,if somewhat fanciful, management theories. But I am

using empowermenthere in the sense ofsocio-politicalemancipation and the gaining of inner strength to ac-

complish this emancipation.16. Swami Vivekananda,Jnana-Yoga: The Yoga of Know-

ledge (Calcutta:Advaita Ashrama, 1997 [fifth edition]),12.

17. Ibid., 11.

18. Ibid., 15.

19. Ibid., 398-99.

20. See P.

Heehs,The Bomb in

Bengal:The Rise

of Revolu-tionary Terrorism in India 1900-1910 (Delhi: Oxford

University Press, 1993), 61-75;A.B. Purani, The Lifeof SriAurobindo (Pondicherry: SriAurobindoAshram

[fourth edition]).21. SriAurobindo, The Life Divine (Pondicherry: Sri

AurobindoAshram, 1973), 2.

22. Ibid., The Foundations of Indian Culture and the Re-naissance in India (Pondicherry: SriAurobindoAshram,1984), 124.

23. The term consciousness ethics was proposed by S.K.

Chakraborty in an oral comment on an earlier and muchsmaller version of this article, which was presented at the

symposium session of 2 1 st Century Ethics: Knowledgeor Wisdom?, Management Centre for Human Values,IIM Calcutta, 19-21 February 1998. In his latest book

(Values and Ethics for Organisations [n. 14 above],82-83) Chakraborty introduced the term theory ofconsciousness ethics.

24. Chakraborty, Values and Ethics for Organisations (n.14 above), 20-26; D. Kimber, Sharing, Giving and

FriendshipThe Forgotten Factors of Business Rela-

tionships, Journal ofHuman Values, 1997,3(1),53-56;

Erik van Praag, Spiritueel Leiderschap (Deventer:Kluwer, 1996).

25. In this respect I do fundamentally disagree with neoliberal

propaganda to the effect that society is an arena, a

place where every individual has to continuously com-

pete, because such is life and therefore all attempts to

change society for the better must fail.26. This does not mean that there are no other perspectives

from which ethics ofconsciousness could be and prob-ably will be developed. Nor that consciousness ethics isthe only ethics worth the name. The perspective that isoffered in this article is my own. It is based on my

understandingof Indian culture.

27. V.A. van Bijlert, Raja Rammohan Roys Thought andits Relevance for Human Rights, inAbdullahiA.An-

Naim, J.D. Gort, H. Jansen and H.M. Vroom, eds, Human

Rights and Religious Values:An Uneasy Relationship?(Amsterdam: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1995),106-7.


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