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IndigenizingEducationinCanada

BackgroundPaperforRCAP

Jo-annArchibaldQ’umQ’umXiiem&JanHareUniversityofBritishColumbia

October24,2016

*Thisbackgroundpaperisinfirstdraftformatandsomesectionsareincomplete.SometextmaychangeastheauthorscontinuetoworkonthispaperfortheNov2-4,2016Forum,SharingtheLand,SharingaFuture:RealizingthePromise,Facingthe

ChallengeofReconciliation.

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IndigenizingEducationinCanada

IndigenizingeducationmeansthateverysubjectateverylevelisexaminedtoconsiderhowandtowhatextentcurrentcontentandpedagogyreflectthepresenceofIndigenous/AboriginalpeoplesandthevalidcontributionofIndigenousknowledge.(MarleneBrantCastellano,2014)

IntroductionTheauthors,Jo-annArchibaldandJanHarewereaskedtopreparethisbackgroundpaperaboutIndigenizingEducationinCanadatostimulatereflection,analysis,andidentificationofpolicyprioritiesfortheNovember2016ForumonSharingtheLand,SharingaFuture.Weappreciatedthisopportunitytoengageintheseprocesseswhilewewrotethispaper.FollowingCoastSalishtradition,weraiseourhandsinthanksandrespecttoallthepeoplewhohavebeeninvolvedinIndigenouseducationovertheyears.ThemanydiverseIndigenouseducationalpathwaysthroughoutthiscountrywerestartedbytheseIndigenouseducatorsandotherswhoworkedatlocal,provincial,andnationallevelstomakeeducationmoremeaningfulforIndigenouslearnersandtomakeIndigenouseducationaccessible,relevant,andmeaningfulforalllearnersacrossCanada.Today,wehavemoreopportunitiestodiscuss,debate,anddeterminewhatconstitutesIndigenouseducationandwaystoIndigenizeeducationbecauseoftheindividualandcollectiveeffortsandcommitmentoftheseearlyeducators.ThequoteabovebyMarleneBrantCastellano,formerRCAPCo-DirectorofResearch,identifiescomplexandimportantcriteriaforwhatconstitutesthenotionofIndigenizingeducation.RCAP’seducationalrecommendations,ifcarriedoutwouldalsoachievethevisionasnotedbyCastellano.RCAPpresentedachallengeforallinvolvedinlifelongeducationtoimprovelearningforAboriginallearnersthroughpositiveworkingrelationshipsbetweeneducatorsandAboriginalpeopleandthroughusingformsofIndigenousknowledgetoproviderelevant,respectfulteachingandlearningapproaches.Ultimately,therecommendationsrecognizedtheimportanceoflocalcontrolofeducationandfamily/communityengagementthatformedthebasisofthe1972IndianControlofIndianEducationPolicy.Thisbackgroundpaperaddressesthefollowingquestions:WhatdoesIndigenizingeducationmean?Whyisitimportant?Whatdoesitlooklike?Whataretheissues?Wehaveusedalifelongconceptualframework,followingRCAP’slifecycleofchild,youth,adult,andElder(Chapter5:Education,p.446),butinstead,wehavealigned,childwithearlychildhoodeducation,youthwithK-12education,adultwithpost-secondaryeducation,andElderwithcommunityeducation(seeFigure1).WeusedthemajorRCAPeducationalrecommendationsassociatedwiththeselifelongeducationalphasestoguidethediscussionofthesequestions.Wefocusedourattentiontoactionsontheserecommendationsinthepast20years.

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Figure1.ConceptualFramework

IndigenizingEarlyChildhoodEducationIndigenousearlychildhoodeducationandcareservices,whereinIndigenouschildrenlearnfromandarecaredforbycentre-basedand/orprogrambasedsettingsthataredesignedandoperatedbyIndigenouspeoplesandcommunitiesarecentraltotherecommendationsofRCAP.Recognizingthesignificantdevelopmentaloutcomesachievedintheseearlystagesoflife,RCAP’sprimaryrecommendationsfocuson:(1)extendingearlychildhoodservicestoallAboriginalchildrenregardlessofresidence;(2)encouragingprogramsthatfosterthephysical,social,intellectualandspiritualdevelopmentofchildren,reducingdistinctionsbetweenchildcare,prevention,andeducation;(3)maximizingAboriginalcontroloverservicedesignandadministration;(4)offeringone-stopaccessiblefunding;and(5)promotingparentalinvolvementandchoiceinearlychildhoodeducationoptions.RCAPdrawsattentiontotheemergenceofculturally-specificearlychildhoodprograms,withthereporthighlightingfederalfundedprogramsincludingtheFirstNationsInuitChildCareInitiative(FNICCI)andtheAboriginalHeadStartUrbanandNorthernprogram(AHSUNC)asgivingrisetostrategicearlyinterventionsavailabletoAboriginalfamiliesandcommunities.Inaddition,earlychildhoodprogramsthatfeatureIndigenouslanguagesasthatbasisofcareandlearningarepartofthecriticaldevelopmentofearlylearningprogramsinFirstNationscommunities.WiththeonsetofAboriginallearningchildhoodprogramsgroundedinculturalvalues,beliefs,andlanguageatlocallevels,andconsiderationofthesocio-economicrealitiesanddifferenteducationalstartingpointsofAboriginalchildrenand

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families,Aboriginalearlychildhoodprogramswerebegantotakeformintheearly1990’s.Indigenousearlychildhooddevelopmentscholar,MargotGreenwood(2001,2004,2006)haswrittenatlengthregardingthehistoricalevolutionofculturallyspecificAboriginalearlychildhoodeducationandcareservicesinCanadasuggestinginheranalysesthatAboriginalchildcareprogramsdifferfrommainstreamprogramsintheirstructure,andthewaysyoungchildren’slearningandgrowthissupported.ShetellsthattheemergenceofcommitmentstoAboriginalearlychildhoodeducationintheearly1990’sweredrivenbyneedfortosupportequityandemploymentforAboriginalfamilies.Asresearchemergedthatlinkedsocialinteraction,stimulatinglearningenvironments,andqualitycarewithbraindevelopment,thefocusonchildren’soverallwell-beinggroundedargumentsforearlychildhoodinAboriginalcommunities.AsthefieldofIndigenousearlychildhooddevelopmentandcarecontinuestomature,Greenwood(2006)emphasizesthecentralityofprogramsandpoliciescomingfromaplacewhereAboriginalwaysofknowingandbeingformthebasisofdevelopmentanddelivery.ThefocusofyoungAboriginalchildren’sidentity,embeddedinIndigenousknowledges,haveresultedin“therefocusingandtransformationofmanyexistingprogramsandtheestablishmentofadditionalprogramsandservices”(p.1)inon-reserveandoff-reservecommunities.ThefollowingsectionisadescriptionofAboriginal-specificearlychildhoodcareanddevelopmentprogramsatfederalandprovinciallevelsthatrespondtotherecommendationsofRCAP.NationalProgramsAboriginalHeadStartinUrbanandNorthernCommunities(AHSUNC)Since1995,theAboriginalHeadStartinUrbanandNorthernCommunities(AHSUNC)hasbeenprovidingearlyinterventionprogrammingforFirstNations,Inuit,andMétischildren,ages3to5years,andtheirfamilieslivingoff-reserve.TheprogramisfundedbythePublicHealthAgencyofCanadaandcurrentlysupportsnearly4,800childrenandtheirfamiliesat133AHSUNCprojectsitesacrossthecountry(PHAC,2016).AcommunityAHSUNCprogramissupportedbyasponsor,whichcanincludeaFirstNationsorganization,hostagency,non-profitorganization,oreducationalauthority.Theprogramisfederallyfunded,yetlocallydeliveredinorderthatotherservicesdirectedatchildrenandfamiliescancomplementtheprogram.Thisallowsforfamilysupportworkers,healthservices,orchildwelfareandothercommunityprogramstobeintegratedintotheAHSprogram.TheprogramwasdevelopedinnationalconsultationwithAboriginalfamilies,communities,leaders,andorganizationsinurbanandnortherncenters,resultinginsixguidingprogramcomponents:1)Aboriginalcultureandlanguage;2)educationandschoolreadiness;

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3)healthpromotion;4)nutrition;5)socialsupport;and6)parentalinvolvement.Itoperatesthreetofourhalf-daysperweek,ninemonthsperyear.Anevaluationreportoftheprogram(AHSUNC,2012)showstherehasbeenimmediateandpositiveimpactonchildren’sschoolreadinessandculturalliteracy.Programperformancestudiesshowchildrenparticipatingintheprogramhaveimprovedlanguage,social,motorandacademicskills.Morespecifically,childrenwithpriorparticipationintheprogramhadsignificantlyhigherschoolreadinessscoresatthebeginningofaschoolyearthanchildrennewtotheprogramofthesameage.Further,thoughyoungchildrenmaybegintheprogramwithlowerschoolreadinessscoresthananormativesampleofage-matchedpeers,theirscoresattheendoftheyeararecomparableorabovethoseofthenormativesample.Datafromtheevaluationalsorevealedthatthecultureandlanguagecomponentoftheprogramwaskeytofosteringapositivesenseofidentityforchildrenandfamiliesasitallowedforgreaterparticipationinculturalactivitiesthatincludedstorytelling,songs,andtraditionalactivities.ExperienceswithcultureandlanguageofchildrenwhoparticipatedintheprogramwerecomparedtodatafromtheStatisticsCanadaAboriginalChildren’sSurvey(2006),showingthatAHSUNCparticipantsseeAboriginalcultureasmoreimportanttothemandtherewasasignificantincreaseinexposuretoculturalactivities.Giventhesignificantimpactsidentifiedintheevaluation,thereisneedtoconsiderlongitudinalresearchthataddresseschildren’slong-termoutcomesfromtheirparticipationintheprogram. AboriginalHeadStartOn-Reserve(AHSOR)TheAboriginalHeadStartprogramwasextendedtoAboriginalchildrenandfamilieslivingon-reservein1998,centeredonthesixprogramcomponentsofAHSUNC.TheASHORinterventionprogramisfederallyfundedbyFirstNationsandInuitHealth.Itservesover9000childreninover300FirstNationscommunitiesacrossCanada(FNIH,2010).Uniquetotheprogramisitslocally-controlleddeliverymodeloptions,thatallowforcenter-based,outreach,orhome-visitingversionsoftheprogram.LiketheAHSUNC,thisprogrampromotesparents,families,andcommunitymemberstodelivertheprogram,aswellasbuildingrelationshipswithothercommunityprogramsandservicessothatchildrenreceiverelevantandholisticsupports.AnevaluationofAHSORprogramsurveyed400stakeholdersfromprojectsacrossCanadatoassesstheaccomplishmentsoftheprogram,rolesandresponsibilitiesofprogramstakeholders,andthestrengthsandlimitationsoftheprograminlocalsettings.Responsescamefromparents,earlychildhoodeducators,administrators,andcommunitymembers.Findingsfromthissurveyrevealthatthemajorityofparentssurveyedaresatisfiedwithwhattheprogramisdoingtosupporttheirchildintheareasofsocialdevelopment,developinghealthyeatinghabits,andfosteringschoolreadiness.OverallresponsesfromthesurveyindicatethatthemajorityofprojectsitesfocusontheEducationcomponentmorethananyotherofthesix

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programcomponents.WhatstandsoutfromresponsesisthatKindergartenteachersreportedthattheyseeadifferenceinthechildrenwhohaveattendedtheAboriginalHeadStartprogramcomparedtoAboriginalchildrenwhodonotattendtheprogram.Teachersreportchildrenintheprogramhavebetterbasicskills,aremoreindependentandconfident,andhaveenhancedself-esteem.Whilethesurveysidentifychallengestotheprogram,thereportconcludesthattheprogramholdsgreatpromiseforthedevelopmentofchildren,families,andcommunities.FirstNationsandInuitChildCareInitiative(FNICCI)Inanefforttoincreaseparentalaccesstolicensedchildcare,therebyensuringparentscanprepareforandtakepartinemployment,education,andtraining,theFirstNationsandInuitChildCareInitiative(FNICCI)wasestablishedin1995throughfundingbyHumanandResourcesandSkillsDevelopmentCanada.After2011,FNICCIhasbeenmanagedthroughtheAboriginalSkillsandEmploymentTrainingStrategy,whichfallsunderthemandateofEmploymentandSocialDevelopmentCanada.FNICCIcreateschildcarespacesforAboriginalchildrenupto6yearsofage.Equallyimportanttothisinitiativeisthegoalthatchildrenexperiencechildcareservicesthatreflecttheirvalues,beliefs,cultures,andlanguages.Intheiranalysisoffederallyfundedchildcareinitiatives,theBCAboriginalChildCareSociety(BCACCS,2014)suggestthatanincreaseintheAboriginalpopulation,newemploymentandtrainingopportunities,aswellasadesireforculturally-basedearlychildhoodprogramminghasledtoanincreasedemandforchildcarespacesinAboriginalcommunities.Fundinghasnotkeptupwiththedemandandanestimated50%morechildcarespacesareneededtomeetrequestsfortheFNICCIprogram.Areviewof8selectedAboriginalHumanResourcesDevelopmentAgreements(AHRDA’s)thatincludeaFNICCIrevealsdaycarecentersfundedthroughthisinitiativehavehadanimpactonchildren’sdevelopmentandthelocaleconomybyenablingparenttopursueemploymentandtraining.Keyinformantsandparentsidentifyspecificsuccessesthatincludepositivesocialization,thedevelopmentofself-confidence,andfocusonthehealthandnutritionalneedsofAboriginalchildren(HRSDC,2009).AssessingtheimpactoftheFNICCIonInuitregions,areportbytheInuitTapiriitKunatimi(2014)notethat“guaranteeingtherightofInuitchildrentochildcaregroundedinthelanguage,culture,values,andtraditionsoftheirfamiliesandcommunitiesrequiresafundingframework,indexedtotherisingcostofliving,thatencourages,sustainsandsupportsInuitownershipofearlychildhooddevelopmentprograms”(p.23).ProvincialInitiativeExamplesAboriginalInfantDevelopmentProgram(AIDP)SupportingAboriginalfamiliesandchildreninBritishColumbia,whoareatriskfororhavebeendiagnosedwithdevelopmentaldelays,theAIDPprovideshomevisits,appropriateactivities,andassessmentsthatareculturallysensitiveandrelevanttofamilies.Establishedin2002,theprogramrespondstotheneedforculturally-based

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programs.Theprogramisvoluntary,familycentered,andcenteredonchildrenagesbirthtothreeyears.Consultantsassistfamiliestoaccessotherhealth,social,andcommunityservices.TheneedforAIDPservicesissteadilyincreasingasAboriginalcommunitiesestablishcomprehensivechildcareservices.Thereare29AIDP’soperatinginBC.Fourteenoftheseprogramsweresurveyedandreportedtobeservingover400infantsandtheirfamilies.ThereisaProvincialAdvisorfortheprogram,whoisthepointofcontactandprovidesexpertadvice,consultation,support,information,resource,coordinationandleadershipforthisgrowingprogram.Inaddition,theadvisorworkswithconsultantstoraiseawarenessandbuildcapacity,strengthenpartnershipsandprogramandpolicydevelopment.BCACCS(2014)contendsthatAIDPisunevenlyavailableacrosstheprovince,withsmallerandmoreremotecommunitieshavinglimitedaccesstotheseservicesincomparisontolargerurbancentersorFirstNationsprogramsthathavegreatercapacityforresourcesandservices.InuitEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentWorkingGroup(IECDWG)TheInuitEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentWorkingGroup(IECDWG)sharesavisionforthefutureofInuitchildren,whichisforhappy,healthyandsafeInuitchildrenandfamilies.Currently,thegroupisasub-committeeoftheInuitTapiriitKanatami(ITK)healthcommittee.ItsmemberscomefromtheregionalInuitorganizationswhicharesignatoriesoftheAboriginalHumanResourceDevelopmentAgreements,nowcalledtheAboriginalSkillsEducationTrainingStrategy(ASETS).Theregionsare:Nunatsiavut,Nunavik,Qikiqtaaluk,Kivalliq,KitikmeotandInuvialuit.OtherrepresentativesidentifiedinthetermsofreferenceincludeonerepresentativefromPauktuutitandanotherfromInuitTapiriitKanatami(ITK),whichisthesecretariatforthegroup.TheIECDWGhasbeenmeetingformallyeachyear,since2004,whenanInuitEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentStrategywasfinalized.Thisstrategywhichisreviewedandupdatedannuallyprovidesavision,principles,andgoalsforInuitECD(ITK2004;2006).EarlyImmersioninAboriginalEarlyChildhoodWiththeonsetofAboriginalearlychildhoodprogramsgroundedintheculturalbeliefs,values,cultures,andlanguagesoflocalAboriginalcommunities,emphasisonIndigenouslanguagepreservation,revitalization,andusehasbecomeapriority.Likethe‘languagenest’programsinNativeHawaiiancommunitiesintheUnitedStates,aswellasMaoricommunitiesinAotearoa/NewZealand,earlychildhoodprogramsinCanadahaveestablishedlearningsettingswhereyoungchildrenareimmersedincultureandlanguageofthecommunity.RCAPhighlightedtheSplats’inDaycareinBCasanexampleofhowAboriginallanguagesinearlychildhoodprogramsgivetheseprogramsadistinctlyAboriginalcharacter.Sincethen,earlyimmersionprogramshaveexpandedacrossCanada.SomesuccessfulearlyimmersionprogramsincludetheKihewWacistonCreeImmersionSchoolinOnionLake,Saskatchewan,themultipleclassesofkindergartenattheOpaskwayakCreeNation,theNhiyawakCreeImmersion

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KindergartenatSt.FrancesSchoolinSaskatoon,theEskasoniMi’kmaqImmersionprogram,andtheCseysetenlanguagenestatAdam’sLake,BC.ResearchconcerningAboriginalchildren’sparticipationinearlyimmersionprogrammingunderscoreslanguagelearning’scontributiontoIndigenousidentity,wellbeing,andacademicachievement(AssemblyofFirstNationsChief,2005;BallandPence,2005;McIvor,2006).McIvorremindsusthatlanguageisoneofthemosttangiblesymbolsofayoungAboriginalchild’sidentity.Further,FrancisandReyhner(2002)tellusthatculturalandidentityaffirmationoccursthroughlanguagelearning.“Withoutthelanguageofone’sancestors,individualandcollectiveidentitygetsweakenedanditislikelythattheculturewoulddieoutwithinafewgenerations”(McIvor,2006,p.6).Thereisagrowingbodyofliteraturethatdemonstrateschildren’scognitiveabilitiesareenhancedwhentheylearnanadditionallanguage.Forexample,Aguilera(2007)examinedthehistoryandimplementationoflanguageinstructionforAmericanIndian,AlaskaNative,andNativeHawaiianchildreninthreedifferentlanguagecommunities.FindingsfromthestudyindicatethatinallthreecasestudiesNativeAmerican-speakingstudentsperformedwellontheachievementtests,whichweregiveninEnglishevenastheyweretaughtthroughIndigenouslanguageinstruction.“Studentswhohaveastrongsenseoftheirownethnicidentitydobetterinschoolthanthosewhodon’t.Schoolswhichreinforcepositiveethnicidentificationforstudentswillproducestudentswithhigherachievements”(p.3).DiscussionSystemicActions:SuccessesandChallengesTherehavebeenstrongcollaborativeeffortsonthepartofIndigenousfamilies,communities,governments,andleaderstorealizetherecommendationsofRCAPinrelationshiptoAboriginalearlychildhoodeducation.WhatstandsoutinresponsetotheRCAPrecommendationsistheemphasisofAboriginal-specificearlychildhoodeducationanddevelopmentprogramsthathaveemergedinthepastfewdecadestonurturethephysical,social,intellectual,andspiritualdevelopmentofyoungAboriginalchildren.Researchunderscoresthebenefitstoidentity,well-beingandachievementwhenIndigenousknowledgesystemsareattheheartoflearning.Further,programsandservicesthatpromoteIndigenousculturesandlanguagesplayaroleinIndigenousself-determinationandautonomy.Canada’sAboriginalHeadStartprograms(AHSORandAHSUNC)areprovenexamplesofthepositiveimpactculturally-basedearlychildhoodprogramshaveonthelinguisticandculturalrestorationofIndigenouscommunities.Whilethesetwoprogramsarefederallyfunded,theyarelocallydeliveredandthereforeofferopportunitiestoengagelocalknowledgeholders,communitymembers,andfamiliesinensuringcultureandlanguagepermeateprogramdimensions.AmongthesixfoundationalprinciplesofAHSiscultureandlanguage.ForthemuchyoungerAboriginalchildhoodmovementinCanada,localAHSprojectsitesprovidehopeand

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promisethatprogramandcenter-basedearlychildhoodservicesareessentialtothelargerpictureofIndigenousresurgenceforfamiliesandcommunities.AsBall(2014)states,“ASHisthemostextensive,innovative,andculturallybasedearlychildhooddevelopmentinitiativeforAboriginalpreschoolchildrenandfamiliesinCanada.AHShasledthegrowthofcapacityinFirstNations,Métis,andInuitpeopletodeliverculturallybasedECCEintheircommunities”(p.13).AnotherpositivedevelopmentinresponsetoRCAPrecommendationshasbeentheshifttomaximizecontroloverservicedesignandadministrationofAboriginal-earlylearningprogramming.Asanexemplar,authorityofhealthprogramsinBC,whichincludesearlychildhooddevelopmentservicesforFirstNationschildrenlivingon-reserve,hasbeentransferredtotheFirstNationsHealthAuthority(FNHA).ATripartiteAgreementonFirstNationsHealthGovernancegivesresponsibilitytotheFNHAauthoritytoplan,design,manage,deliveryandfundprogramspreviouslyadministeredbytheFirstNationsHealthBranchandHealthCanada.ThisuniqueagreementbringstogetherBCFirstNations,thefederalgovernment,andtheprovincialgovernmenttogivecommunitiesgreatercontroltodeliverabroadrangeofearlychildhoodanddevelopmentservicesthatmeetlocallydefinedneeds.ProgramsthatwillbemanagedunderthisagreementincludeAHSOR,MaternalandChildHealth,FetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorder(FASD),andthePrenatalNutritionProgramspreviouslyorganizedunderEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentbythefederalgovernment.TheflexibilitytodecideonlocalECDprioritiesmeansthatthe“FNHAexpectsthatthetransferwillensuremoreculturallyenrichedECDprogramandgreatlyimprovethehealthandwell-beingofFirstNationschildren,families,andcommunitiesinBC”(BCACCS,2014,p.46).WhilethesesuccessfulexamplesdemonstratehowrecommendationsofRCAPhavebeenattendedto,therestillremainschallengestoadvancingIndigenousearlychildhoodeducationandpolicythatreflectRCAPgoals.Challengesidentifiedinclude:Professionallearning:ThepaucityofAboriginalearlychildhoodeducatorspresentsamajorchallengeforAboriginalcommunitiesandprograms(Greenwoodetal.,2007).ReportssuggestthattheshortageofqualifiedAboriginalearlychildhoodteachersisduetostringentearlychildhoodlicensingrequirements,highcostsofdevelopinganddeliveringlocaltrainingprograms,andthevastdistancesbetweenpost-secondaryinstitutesandAboriginalcommunitiesthatrequirepotentialeducatorstorelocatefromtheirfamilyandcommunities(BCACCS,2012;Preston,etal.,2012).Inaddition,thoseseekingadmissiontoprogramsmaynothavetheformalacademicrequirementsneededforacceptanceintotrainingprograms.TheIECDWG(2010)identifiedthetrainingneedsofearlychildhoodeducatorsworkinginregionsinnorth.Theirrecommendationsfocusontheneedforincreasedfundingtosupportprofessionallearning,trainingspecifictoInuitlanguagelearning,andcreatinggreateropportunitiesforknowledgeexchange.Focusonspecific-trainingtopicsrelevanttotheBCearlychildhoodcontextincludespecialneeds,

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effectivecommunication,addressingthelegacyofresidentialschools,andmanagementskills(BCACCS,2012).Ball(2014)pointsouttheneedfor“federalinvestmentinprofessionaleducationtosubstantiallyincreasetheskilledAboriginallabourforceforoperatingprogramsforyoungAboriginalchildrenandfamilies,includingearlychildhoodeducationislongoverdueandcouldworktoovercomethechallengesofstaffrecruitment,retention,andon-goingimprovement”(p.2).DeclineoffederalinterestinAboriginalEarlyChildhoodDevelopment:IntheirscanandanalysisofAboriginalearlychildhooddevelopmentprograms,BCACCS(2014)assertthatfederalinterestinearly2000’sinclosingthegapinlifechancesbetweenAboriginalchildrenandotherchildreninCanadathroughearlychildhooddevelopmentprogramsandserviceshasreceded.TheirreportpointstonumerouschangesinpolicydirectionsthatdirectlyimpactonfundingtoAboriginalearlychildhoodeducation,includingtheshelvingoftheKelownaAccord,thedelaytoaccepttheUnitedNationsDeclarationofIndigenousPeoples,andthechangesbythecurrentLiberalgovernmenttoreplaceplansforanationalchildcareprogramwiththeUniversalChildCareBenefitthatgivesfamilies$100permonthtooffsetchildcareexpensesforchildrenundersixyears.AnotherreportbythePublicPolicyForum(2014)describestheflurryofprogramsandservicesestablishedbetween1995and2005,notingthatfollowingthistimeframetherehasbeenfewdevelopmentsinAboriginalearlychildhoodatthefederallevel.Ball(2014)recommendsamechanismformonitoringtheextenttowhichCanadaishonouringitscommitmentstoAboriginalchildren.Shedrawsattentiontoalegalframeworkandanindependentnationalchildren’scommissionasameanstomonitorconditionsforAboriginalchildren,includingfederal,provincial,andterritorialcommitmentsandpoliciesthataffectchildren,andbringlegalactionwherenecessary.Commitmentstolong-termfunding:ReportsconcerningAboriginalearlychildhoodeducationanddevelopmentmakeconsistentcallsforincreasedandsustainedfundingthatwillallowfororganizationsandcommunitiestodeveloptheirowncapacityandculturallyappropriateearlylearningmodels(Ball&Moselle,2013;BCACCS,2014;Nguyen,2011,Prestonetal.,2012;PublicPolicyForum,2014).InseekingtopromoteadialogueonIndigenousearlychildhooddevelopmentandidentifyopportunitiestoexpandexistingprogramandservices,thePublicPolicyForum(2014)recommendsacomprehensiveanalysisoffundinglevelsinnon-IndigenouscommunitiescomparedtoFirstNations,Inuit,andMétiscommunities.Thisisbecausetherearesignificantfundingdisparitiesinthepercapitafundinglevelsforsimilarprogramsthattargetdifferentpopulationgroups.Thereportgivestheexampleofpercapitafundingforchildcareservicesadministeredbyprovincialgovernmentsincreasing,whilefundingforAHSORhasslowed.Accesstoandcoordinationofearlychildhooddevelopmentprogramsandservices:Despitetheemergencetwodecadesagooffederallyfundedprograms,suchasAHS,FNICCI,andothers,aswellasmanyinnovativeprovincialandlocalprograms,there

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isanurgentneedtoincreaseaccessibilitytoAboriginalearlychildhoodeducationprogramforchildrenandfamilies.TheFirstNationsRegionalHealthSurvey(2012)findsthatonlyathirdofchildrenlivingon-reserveattendaformalizedchildcareprogram.Inurbanandnortherncommunities,thereisagrowingdemandforculturallyrelevantearlychildhoodservices.Thishasledtoanannualaverageof1300AboriginalchildrenonwaitinglisttoattendAHSUNCprograms(PHF,2014).Asthedemandforlocallydevelopedservicesgrows,specificservicesforyoungMétischildrenandfamiliesarerare(MétisNationCouncil,2014).ThereisagrowingbodyofresearchthatthesupportsthegoalsofRCAPtoensureparentalinvolvementandchoiceinearlychildhoodeducationoptionsandthatECDbeextendedtoallAboriginalchildrenregardlessofresidencethroughcoordinatedandintegratedservices.Programsthatserveasfocalpointsforcoordinatingaccesstoothercommunityservicesforfamiliesenableearlyidentificationofsocial,educational,andhealthchallengesandpromotessocialinclusionforfamiliesthatmightotherwisebeisolated(Ball,2012;2014).ThisformofcoordinationcanbeobservedinAHSprogramsthatlinkfamiliestoarangeofotherservicesinthecommunity.LessonsLearnedThefollowingsystematicactionscouldbeconsideredpositiveachievementsregardingthemajorRCAPrecommendationsthatwerenotedatthebeginningofthissectionaboutearlychildhoodeducation:

• Holisticservicesthatemphasizesocial,emotional,intellectual,andspiritualdevelopmenthavepositiveoutcomesassociatedwithidentity,well-being,andacademicachievement.

• ControlofandparentalinvolvementinAboriginalearlylearningservicescontributestoculturally-relevantprogramsthatareflexibleandresponsivetofamilyandcommunityneeds.

On-goingchallengesrelatedtoIndigenizingeducationthatcouldbecomefuturecorepolicyissues:

• ThereisagrowingneedforqualifiedAboriginalearlychildhoodeducationwhorequireprofessionallearningopportunities.

• ThegrowingAboriginalpopulationofyoungchildrenandyoungfamiliesunderscorestheneedtoincreasefundingandaccesstoqualityAboriginalearlychildhoodeducation.

• Theneedforcoordinatedandintegratedservices• Long-termevaluationofprogramsthatareunderfederal,provincial,and

FirstNationsjurisdiction

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IndigenizingK-12EducationAscanofK-12provincialMinistryofEducationwebsitesandsomenationaleducationalorganizationswascompletedinresponsetothequestionaboutbreakthroughs,positiveachievements,innovativeideas,barriersandneglectedissuesacrossCanada.Theprofessionalknowledgeandexperiencesoftheauthorssupplementedthisanalysis.CriteriafordeterminingtheachievementsandissuesthatwillbepositionedintheDiscussionsectionwerebasedonRCAP’smajoreducationalrecommendationsthatincluded:(1)ensuringeducationisrecognizedasacriticalcomponentofAboriginalself-government;(2)enactingaspectsofAboriginalcontrolofAboriginaleducation;(3)culture-basedcurriculumandprograms;(4)priorityforAboriginallanguages;(5)system-wideapproachessuchasschoolboardstrategy;(6)youthempowerment;and(7)establishingcommunityhighschoolprogramsinruralandremoteareas(Chapter5:Education,1996,pp444-487).ProvincialMinistriesofEducationBritishColumbia(BC)TheBCMinistryofEducation(Ministry)hasundertakenthetaskofself-identificationofAboriginalstudentsattendingpublicschoolssothattheiracademicprogresscanbetrackedthroughouttheirschoolingandintopost-secondaryeducation1.TheMinistryhasreportedontheresultseachyearfrom2003,althoughtheirwebsiteshowsafive-yearspanofdata.Inaddition,eachschooldistrict(of60)isrequiredtodevelopandimplementafive-yearAboriginalEducationEnhancementAgreement(AEEA)thatisinpartnershipwithAboriginalpeople/communities.TheAEEAsetsimprovementgoalsandtargetsandcarriesoutstrategiesforAboriginalstudentsuccess.SchoolBoardsareexpectedtoreportannuallyontheprogressoftheAEEA.NodataisshownaboutthenumbersofAboriginalteachersworkingintheschooldistricts.Kitchenham,Fraser,Pidgeon,&Ragoonaden(2016)conductedresearchonhowAboriginalEducationEnhancementAgreementshavehelpedimproveAboriginaleducationandwhatimprovementswereneededfortheseagreements.ThisresearchwasconductedfortheBCMinistryofEducation.Theresultsof22schooldistricts’participationindicatedthefollowingfindings:trustandrelationshipbuildingareessential;academicsuccessisachievedthroughIndigenousinclusion;andculturalalliancesarebeneficial.TherecommendationscallfortheMinistryofEducationandSchoolBoardstoincreaseprofessionaldevelopmentforallstaffinschools;increaseknowledgeandinformationabouttheAEEAthroughouttheschooldistrict,inparticularhowtheAEEArelatestotheworkofstaffandconnectstothe

1EachstudentattendingK-12publicschoolsisgivenaPersonalEducationNumber

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MinistryofEducation’sgoals;andcontinuetobuildandstrengthencommunityrelationshipswiththeschooldistricts2.In2015-16,theBCMinistryofEducationcompletedaK-9curriculumredesignthathasAboriginalperspectivesandresourcesembeddedineachsubjectareaandeachgradelevelfromkindergartentogradenine.Thegrades10-12graduationprogramisstillindevelopmentstagesbuttherearehopesthatAboriginalperspectiveswillbeincludedinthesegradesaswell.Already,thereareprovincialhighschoolAboriginalcoursesorresourcesforMath8,9;EnglishFirstPeoples10,11,and12;andBCFirstNationsStudies12.OtherprovincialresourcesincludetheFirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearningthathaveguidedtheK-9curriculumredesignandusedwidelythroughouttheeducationalsystemandanAboriginalWorldviewsandPerspectivesintheClassroomteachingresource.TheaforementionedcurriculumresourceswereledbytheFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee(FNESC)thatworkedwithbothAboriginalandnon-Aboriginaleducatorsinthedevelopmentandimplementationphases.ThenextsectionhighlightsFNESCasanIndigenousorganizationthatisnotaunitoftheprovincialgovernment,butworkswiththeBCMinistryofEducationinjurisdictionalandothereducationpolicymatters.BC-FirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee(FNESC)andFirstNationsSchoolsAssociation(FNSA)TheFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommitteewasformedin1992toprovidequalityeducationforallFirstNationsK-12learnersinBritishColumbia.FNESCisanIndigenousledandcontrolledprovincialorganizationthatengagesinresearch,policyandcurriculumdevelopment,developingpartnerships,advocacy,andworkswiththeFirstNationsSchoolsAssociation(FNSA)andtheIndigenousAdultandHigherLearningAssociation(IAHLA).FNESChasamembershipofapproximately100communities.FNSAwasformallyestablishedin1996toalsosupportqualityeducationforFirstNationsstudentsandthedevelopmentofculturally-basedcurriculaandprograms.Ithasamembershipof128BCFirstNationsschools3.OneimportantjurisdictionalundertakingofFNESCwasthedevelopmentoftheFirstNationsJurisdictionoverEducationinBritishColumbiaAct(BillC34,2006)thatenablesspecificFirstNationstohavecontroloveron-reserveK-12education.TheBCActincludedagreementswiththeFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee,thefederalgovernment,andtheBCprovincialgovernment.In2006thelegislationwiththefederalgovernmentwaspassedandin2007itwaspassedinBC.TheFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommitteehasmadesomeprogresswiththeprovincialgovernmentregardingreciprocaltuitionwheretheMinistryofEducationprovidesperstudentfundingforFirstNationsstudentslivingoff-reserveandattendingFirst2SeeAboriginalEducationEnhancementAgreements:ComplicatedConversationsasPathwaystoSuccesshttps://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/research/AEEA-Final_Report_June_2016.pdf3Seehttp://www.fnesc.ca

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Nationsschoolsandfornon-statusstudentslivingonreserve.FNESChasbeenmoreinvolvedintheMinistryofEducation’spolicymatters.Thenegotiationswiththefederalgovernmentregardingfundinghavestalledmovementwithimplementingthisact.Asmentionedabove,FNESChasledthedevelopmentofIndigenouscurricula.OnerecentresourcenotincludedearlieristheIndianResidentialSchools&ReconciliationTeacherResourceGuidesforgrades5,10,and11/12thatwasinresponsetotheTRCcalltoactiontodevelopageappropriatecurriculumabouttheseschoolsandtheirimpactforuseinpubliceducation(andothersystems).Theseresourcesweredevelopedbyateamofeducatorsandpilotedin30schoolsbeforefinalpublication.Suggestionsfordealingsensitivelywiththetopicofresidentialschoolsarealsoincluded4.AlbertaAlberta’sMinistryofEducationFirstNations,Métis,andInuitPolicyFrameworkwasestablishedin2002.The2016-19BusinessPlanforEducationindicatesthatcurrentlythehighschoolcompletionofnon-Aboriginalstudents(5yearsaftergrade10)is82%andthetargetrisesfrom82.7to83.3%by2018-19.ForAboriginalstudentsthetargetwas53.2%in2013-14andmovesto55%in2016-17;56.5%in2017-18;and59%in2018-19.Onewonderswhynotahigherrateofimprovement?In2014theGovernmentofAlbertareleasedan“ExpressionofReconciliationfortheLegacyoftheIndianResidentialSchoolSystem”documentthatindicateshavingallK-12learnaboutAboriginalhistoryandcultureandensuringalleducatorsgetmoreprofessionaldevelopment.AnewAssistantDeputyMinisterofAboriginalLearningwastobeestablished.Theprogressonthesestrategiesisnotyetevidentfromthisministry’swebsite.SaskatchewanAJointTaskForceonImprovingEducationandEmploymentOutcomeswascreatedbytheFederationofSaskatchewanIndianNationsandtheSaskatchewanprovincialgovernmentin2012.Thistaskforcereleasedacomprehensivereportin2013(earlylearning,K-12,post-secondary,andemployment)basedonextensiveconsultationswithFirstNationsandMétispeople,areviewofliterature,andconductingresearchthemselves:Voice,Vision,andLeadership:APlaceforAll.SomeexamplesofAboriginalprogramsthatweresubsequentlydevelopedinclude:earlymathandlanguageskillsassessment,partnershipsbetweentheprovincialeducationalsystemandFirstNationseducationalorganizationstosupportstudentslivingon-reserve.4Seehttp://www.fnesc.ca/about-the-project/

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ManitobaManitoba’sMinistryofEducationnotesaKindergartentoGrade12AboriginalLanguagesandCultures:ManitobaCurriculumFrameworkofOutcomes(forteachingAboriginallanguages).ThereareavarietyofcurriculumresourcesfromK-12publishedin1995-98.OntarioOntario’sIndigenousEducationStrategy(firstreleasedin2007astheFirstNations,Métis,andInuitPolicyFramework,FNMI)hasthreemajorgoals:(1)toimproveFNMIstudentachievementandwell-being;(2)toclosetheachievementgapbetweenIndigenousandallstudents;and(3)toincreasepublicconfidenceinpubliclyfundededucation.Majorstrategiesinclude:aBoardActionPlanthatisquitestructuredbuthasfundingattached;Aboriginalcurriculumresourcesandteacherprofessionaldevelopment.ThisMinistryhasreportedeveryfewyearsonprogressofitsStrategywiththelastreportin2013.Muchoftheworktodatawastogetthepublicschoolsystemreadyforsystemicchange.TheOntarioMinistryofEducationintroducedaprocessofvoluntaryself-identificationofAboriginalstudentsin(year).ComparingtheStatsCanadadataonAboriginalstudentnumbers,Ontarioappearstohave2/3self-identification(getfigures).NodataisshownaboutthenumbersofAboriginalpeopleworkingwithinthepublicschools.NovaScotia

In1997,theMik’maqEducationActwassignedasanagreementandbecamealawin1999betweenthefederalgovernmentandtheMi’kmaqBandsinNovaScotiawithrespecttoeducation.Communitiesmaymakelawsfork-12andpost-secondaryeducationandprovideservicesandprograms.TheMi’kmaw-Kina’matneweyEducationAuthority(MK)wasestablishedasacorporationunderthisacttosupportanddelivertheact’sservicesfor12Mi’kmawcommunitiesinNovaScotia.TheMKcollectsdataontheirstudentsandworkswithuniversitiesonteachereducationandmaster’sdegreeprogram.ThefollowinghighschoolgraduationratesforMi’kmawstudentswerereported:2010-11,75%;2012-13,88%;2013-14,92%5(Simon,2014).PillarTwoof“NovaScotia’sActionPlanforEducation2015.The3Rs:Renew,Refocus,Rebuild”includes“language,history,andcultureofAcadians,AfricanNovaScotians,Gaels,andMi’kmaq,includingTreatyEducation,inthegradesprimaryto12curriculum.”Thereisanentrepreneurshipemphasistotheactionplan(i.e.,establishBusiness-EducationCouncilandincludeEntrepreneurshipEducation)andmorepriorityisplacedonmaththroughoutthegradeswithmathmentorsintheearlyyears.AteacherrecruitmentcampaignisrecommendedtoattractAcadian,5Simon,L.(2014).Mi’kmawKina’matneweySupportingStudentSuccess.Ontario:Inspire

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African,NovaScotianandMi’kmaqteachers.Arecommendationismadetorevampteachereducation6.NunavutIn2000,thethennewNunavutgovernmentcreatedanapproachfora“made-in-NunavuteducationalsystemembeddedinInuitculture.”7In2007-08,threefoundationaldocumentswerepublishedthatfocussedonIlitaunnikuliriniqassessment,InuglugijaittuqinclusiveeducationandInuitQaujimajatuqangitNunavutcurriculum.BesidesNunavutcurriculum,someoftheapprovedcurriculumhasbeenadaptedfromtheNWT,Alberta,SaskatchewanandManitoba.Ofnoteisthe“EldersInSchools”programthatismandatedinNunavut’sEducationAct.In2012-13,94certifiedElderswereteachinglanguageandculture(traditionalland-based,environmentalknowledgeandnavigationskills).Thefoundationsofthe2008EducationActincludesInuitvalues,Inuitlanguageandbilingualeducation,inclusiveeducation,andlocalcontrolbyDistrictEducationAuthorities.Thelastreportwasfor2012-13.Thehighschoolgraduationratewasnotedat32.2%.Thepreviousfouryearsindicatesarangearound37%.NorthwestTerritories(NWT)Over50%ofNWTstudentsareAboriginal.Inresponsetothe2010ReportoftheAuditorGeneralofCanadatotheGovernmentoftheNorthwestTerritories,anAboriginalStudentAchievementEducationPlan2011-21wasdeveloped.Itisacomprehensivestrategythatincludesamulti-prongedapproachtolanguageandculturecurriculumandprogramming,includingAboriginallanguageteachereducationlearningexperiences.TheNWTalsodevelopedanActionPlan,2014-17thatincludescommitments,areasforaction,rationale,andthree-yeardeliverables.Theactionplanisholisticandincludescommunity/schoolrelationships,studentacademiclearningandsenseofidentity,professionalknowledgeandtrainingforteachers,andaccountabilitymeasures8.Inaddition,aResidentialSchoolsEducation,grade10teachingresourcebecamemandatoryin2012forgrade10NorthernStudiesinNWTandSocialStudiesinNunavut.YukonTheGovernmentofYukonhasestablishedtheFirstNationsProgramsandPartnershipsUnit(FNPP)thatbuildsrelationshipswithFirstNationscommunities,workstoincreaseFNperspectivesinschoolsandtoincreasetheK-12FNstudents6https://www.ednet.ns.ca/sites/default/files/docs/educationactionplan2015en.pdf7http://www.gov.nu.ca/sites/default/files/files/Inclusive%20Education%20ENG.pdf8SeeNWTDepartmentofEducation,Culture&Employmenthttps://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/sites/www.ece.gov.nt.ca/files/resources/education_renewal_action_plan.pdf

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academicprogress,andtoenhanceFNlanguagerevitalization.ThisunithascompletededucationalagreementswithvariousFNcommunitiesintheYukon.However,nospecificinformationisincludedonitswebsite.TheRoleofNationalOrganizationsCanadianCouncilonLearning(CCL)TheCCLwasestablishedin2004bythefederalgovernmentandgivenan$85milliongranttoengageinresearchandreportonlifelonglearninginCanada.Itoperatedforsixyearsbeforeitsdissolutionbythefederalgovernmentin2010.OneimportantunitoftheCCLwastheAboriginalLearningKnowledgeCentrecarriedoutinpartnershipbetweentheUniversityofSaskatchewanandtheFirstNationsAdultandHigherEducationConsortium.AnumberofinnovativeresearchstudieswereundertakenandpublicationsthatreportonAboriginallearningatlocal,provincial,andnationalsiteswerepublishedthatincludedthefollowing:(1)2007RedefiningHowSuccessIsMeasuredinFirstNations,InuitandMétisLearningthatwasdevelopedincollaborationwithvariousAboriginalorganizations.ThisreportaddressedthemeansbywhichAboriginallearnerscouldbeassessed.(2)2009StateofAboriginalLearninginCanada:AHolisticApproachtoSuccess.AHolisticLifelongLearningMeasurementFrameworkwasdeveloped,whichwasthefirstofitskindinCanada.FirstNations,Inuit,andMétisHolisticLifelongLearningModelsweredevelopedbythesethreegroupsandthemodelsestablishabaselineofsomeindicatorssuchaslifelongeducationallevels,sourcesanddomainsofknowledgeandcommunitywell-being.Theaforementionedpublicationsarecurrentlyavailableonline,buttheCCLwebsiteisnolongerfunctional.ThemanyotherAboriginallearningreportstherewereontheoriginalCCLwebsitedonotseemtobeavailable.TheAssociationofCanadianDeansofEducation(ACDE)ACDEhasamembershipof63deans,directorsandchairsofeducationatCanadianuniversitiesanduniversity-colleges.ACDEis“committedtopan-Canadianleadershipinprofessionalandteachereducation,educationalresearch,andpolicy.”9OneprojecthasbeenthedevelopmentofnationalAccords,theAccordonIndigenousEducation(2010)isaprimeexample.Thisaccordsetsoutavision,principles,andgoalsthatitssignatoriesmayusetoguidetheirprograms,evaluation,andresearch.ACDEencouragesitsmemberstosharetheirprogress,challenges,andsuccessesinimplementingthisAccord.Examplesofgoalsincludeculturallyresponsivepedagogy,curricula,andassessment;promotingIndigeneitywithintheFaculty’sprograms;affirmingandrevitalizingIndigenouslanguages;andensuringnon-Indigenousstudentscriticallyexaminetheirownpositioningandperspectives,aswellashavingauthenticIndigenouseducationlearningexperiences.AprogressreportabouttheIndigenousEducationAccordwaspublishedin2011.Oneothernationalproject,anannualIndigenousteachereducationsymposiumwillbediscussedinthepost-secondarysection.9http://www.csse-scee.ca/acde/about

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CouncilofMinistersofEducationCanada(CMEC)TheCMECmadeAboriginaleducationoneofitsprioritiesin2004.InthepastdecadetheCMEChassponsorednationalconferences,establishedabestpracticesdatabase,workedinpartnershipwiththeCanadianEducationStatisticsCounciltodefine,collect,andshareAboriginaleducationdata,cooperatedwithfacultiesofeducationandotherstoincreasethenumbersofAboriginalteachercandidatesandincludeAboriginalcultureandhistoryinteachereducationprograms,andhasworkedwiththefederalgovernmentonareasofmutualconcernandinterest.TheCMEChasdevelopedanewAboriginalEducationPlan2015-17thatemphasizestheprofessionaldevelopmentofAboriginalfutureteachersanddevelopmentorsupportforcurriculumresourcesontheIndianResidentialSchools.IndspireIndspireisanationalIndigenousledregisteredcharitythatservesFirstNations,Inuit,andMétisstudentsthroughpartnershipswithIndigenous,privateandpublicsectors.KnownforcelebratingtheachievementsofIndigenouspeoplethroughitsawards,Indspirealsoawardedin2015-16,12.2million,inscholarshipsto3,792IndigenousstudentsacrossCanada(Jamieson,2016)10.Indspireprojectsalsoinclude:aK-12Institutewhichisavirtualeducationalresourcecentre,nationalconferences,researchassistancetoschoolsandcommunities,studentcareerprogramsandactivities.MartinAboriginalEducationInitiativeTheMartinAboriginalEducationInitiative“seekstoimproveelementaryandsecondaryschooleducationoutcomesforAboriginalCanadiansthroughtheimplementationofspecificprogramsandtheapplicationofappropriateresearch.”11SomeprojectsincludethePromisingPracticesinAboriginalEducation(PPW)establishedin2009thatincludeK-12curriculumresourcesandpractices,policiesandresearch,andothertopicssuchasparent/communityengagementandearlychildhoodeducation.OtherprojectsincludeanAboriginalYouthEntrepreneurshipProject,theAccountingMentoringProject,aBankingMentorshipProject,andaModelSchoolsProgram(basedonresearch).DiscussionSystemicActions:SuccessesandChallengesRCAP’srecommendationthatemphasizesAboriginalparentalinvolvementandlocalcontrolthroughlegislationandschoolpolicieshasbeentakenupacrossthecountry;10Jamieson,R.(2016September).ACallforQualityEducation.Policy:CanadianPoliticsandPublicPolicy,4(5),44-46.http://www.policymagazine.ca/pdf/21/PolicyMagazineSeptemberOctober-2016-Jamieson.pdf11http://www.maei-ieam.ca/about.html

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althoughthequalityandimpactofsuchengagementisnotconsistentlyreportedinpubliclyaccessibledocumentsonprovincialandterritorialwebsites.SincethereleaseofRCAP,provincialMinistriesofEducationhavedevelopedAboriginaleducationprovince-widestrategiesthatincludepolicyframeworks,actionplans,andagreements.Onlytwoprovinceshaveenteredintolegislativeactions:NovaScotiaandBritishColumbia.ThethreeterritorialgovernmentsofYukon,NorthwestTerritories,andNunavuthavetheirowneducationalactsthataddressAboriginaleducation.Twoexemplarsofprovincial-federal-FirstNationslegislationmentionedaboveweretheMi’kmaqEducationActinNovaScotiaandtheBCFirstNationsJurisdictionoverEducationAct.TheformerhasdemonstratedsubstantialMi’kmaqacademicsuccesswhilethelatterhasnotyetbeenrealizedduetofundingissues.TheMi’kmaqisamuchsmallerhomogenouscontextcomparedtothelargeranddiversecontextofBC.However,theprogressonrealizinglocalcontrolthroughlegislationcontinuestobeapressingandlong-standingissue.AnotherRCAPrecommendationrelatedtotheoneaboveisaschoolboardcomprehensiveAboriginaleducationstrategydevelopedwithAboriginalpeopletoincludehiringAboriginalteachers;creatingAboriginaladmin/leadershippositions,counselors/liaisonworkers/speechtherapists);developingAboriginalcurriculum;increasingElderinvolvement;implementingAboriginallanguageclasses;includingfamily/communityinvolvementmechanisms;andreducingstereotypes/racism.TwoexemplarsthathavetakenupthisrecommendationincludeBritishColumbiaandOntario.BritishColumbia’sschooldistrictAboriginalEducationEnhancementAgreementsandLocalEducationAgreementsandOntario’sIndigenousEducationStrategyappeartohaveconsistentbutsmallgrowthpatternswhenthereisavibrantrelationshipbetweenAboriginalpeople(families,communities,organizations)andschool/districtstaffandleadership.ImprovementgoalsortargetsaresetthatoftenincludereducingtheachievementgapbetweenAboriginalandnon-Aboriginalstudents;however,otherimportantsuccessgoalsreflectmoreofaholisticapproachsuchasasenseofbelonging(emotional),studentempowerment/leadership(physical),appreciationandknowledgeofIndigenouscultureandhistory(social/emotional,spiritual,intellectual).Additionalfundingisattachedtobothprovincialstrategies.TheseprovincesappeartobetheonlyonesthatcarryoutidentificationofAboriginalstudentsfortrackingtheiracademicprogressandreportingpubliclyonaggregatedatawithBChavingalongerandmorecomprehensivereportingprocess.12

12Seetheannual“HowAreWeDoingReport?”https://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/performance.htm

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AnotherRCAPrecommendationthathasasystemicactionimplicationisthedevelopmentofinnovativecurriculathatreflectAboriginalculturesandcommunityrealities.ThisrecommendationhasbeentakenupacrossCanadaatlocallevels,especially,wherepublic,independent,andFirstNationsschoolshaveworkedwithFirstNations,Métis,andInuitfamilyandcommunitymemberstodevelopcurricula,programs,andservicesthatarebasedonlocalIndigenousknowledges.Someoftheseresourcesareprovince-wideaswell,recommendedforuseinpublicschools.District,MinistriesofEducationandothernationalassociationwebsitesincludeinformationandweblinkstothesenumerousteaching/learningresources.IndspireandtheMartinAboriginalEducationInitiativecontinuetoaddcurricularandothereducationalresourcestotheirwebsites.IndspirehasalsoestablishedaK-12Instituteasadigitalinteractiveresourceforeducators.Theteachingresourcesareatallgradelevelsandallsubjectareas,includingmathandscience.Thelatter(culturallyresponsivemathandscience)wasonlybeingintroduced20yearsago.TodayIndigenousknowledgeorculturallyresponsiveapproachestoteachingmath,science,andallothersubjectsareevident,althoughtheirqualityandimpactneedstobeaddressthroughresearch.Whatisnotevidentistheuptakeofthisinnovativecurricula.MinistriesofEducationindicatethatAboriginalcontentandperspectiveswillbeintegratedmoreintotheprovincialcurriculum;however,theonlyprovincethatdoesthisinclusionisBritishColumbia,andthenonlyrecently,in2015-16.TheBCAboriginalEducationPartners’GrouphavebeguntoadvocateforanAboriginalcoursetobetakenasahighschoolgraduationrequirement.TheongoingchallengeofmeaningimplementationthroughouttheschoolsystemremainsforAboriginalcurriculum.AnotherongoingchallengethathasnotbeengivensufficientattentionandactionistherecommendationthatAboriginallanguageeducationbeapriorityinalleducationalsystems.ExceptfortheterritorialgovernmentsandNovaScotiathroughtheMi’kmawEducationAct,Aboriginallanguageeducationdoesnotappeartobeapriorityinalleducationalsystems,norhasitreceivedasmuchattentionorsupportasIndigenousknowledge-basedcurricula.LessonsLearnedThefollowingsystemicactionscouldbeconsideredpositiveachievementsregardingthemajorRCAPrecommendationsthatwerenotedatthebeginningofthissectionaboutK-12education:

• relationshipbuildingbetweenAboriginalpeople/organizationsandpublicschoolsystemandFirstNationssschools;

• meaningfuldecision-makingengagementofAboriginalpeopleinpolicy,programs,andevaluation;

• establishingsystem-widestrategywithgoals,targets,strategies,andassessment;

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• self-identificationofAboriginalstudentsinordertohavebaselinedataforcomparison;

• appointingAboriginalteachers/principals/district-wide;• providingon-goingprofessionaldevelopmentforallteachersinworking

withAboriginallearnersandteachingAboriginalcontent/approaches;• curricularinnovation;and• reportingonprogress.

TheongoingchallengesrelatedtoIndigenizingK-12educationcouldbecomefuturecorepolicyissues:

• LegislationandimplementingselfgovernanceineducationthatalsoincludesurbanAboriginalpeople;

• Insufficientfunding;• SystemicchangetomakeAboriginalknowledgeandhistoryamandatory

learningrequirement;and• AddressingAboriginallanguageeducationmorefully.

Inresponsetothequestionaboutwhoarethedriversofchange,itisevidentthatFirstNations,Métis,andInuitpeoplearethemajordriversofchangeatlocal,national,andinternationallevels.ThevariousprovincialandnationalstrategieshavehadmanyIndigenouspeopleworkingtogetherwithnon-Indigenouseducatorsandgovernmentstaff.Whenanorganizationisformallyestablishedandrecognizedtoservetheirconstituentgroups,suchastheBCFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee,theMi’kmaw-Kina’matneweyEducationAuthority,andtheCanadianDeansofEducation,thentheyarerecognizedashavingauthorityandresponsibilitytocarryouttheirrespectivemandates.OneongoingchallengeishowurbanAboriginalpeoplecanconstitutetheirownself-governinggroup,especiallyatpublicschooldistrictlevels.IndigenizingPost-secondaryEducationTeacherEducationRecommendationsOnesetofveryimportantchangemakersforK-12educationareteachersandotherschool/districtleaderssuchasprincipalsanddirectorsofinstruction.RCAPmadeanumberorrecommendationsrelatedtopreparingeffectiveteachers,bothAboriginalandnon-Aboriginal:(1)ExpandandfundexistingAboriginalteachereducationprogramscontingentonevidenceofAboriginalsupportfortheprogram,involvementinprogramgovernance,useofAboriginalcontentandpedagogy,andperiodicevaluations;(2)IncreaseAboriginalsecondaryschoolteachers;(3)ExpandthenumbersofAboriginalpeoplethroughteachereducationprogramsandcareerladderingopportunitiesdelivereddirectlyincommunitiesandensurestudentsineachprovinceandterritoryhaveaccesstosuchprograms;(4)Includecourse(s)aboutAboriginaleducationforbothAboriginalandnon-Aboriginaleducationstudents(Chapter5:Education,1996,pp.490-500).Theachievements,innovations,

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andchallengesrelatedtotheserecommendationsaredrawnfromanenvironmentalscanofteachereducationprogramsacrossCanada,areviewoftheliterature,andtheauthors’teachereducationexperiencesandknowledge.BothhaveworkedspecificallyinIndigenousteachereducationandgenerallyinteachereducationfor13-35years.However,theemphasiswillbeonthetimeperiodsincethereleaseoftheRCAPreportin1996.AnOverviewofAboriginalTeacherEducationProgramsIn1996,RCAPindicatedthattherewere34AboriginalteachereducationprogramsacrossCanadaandthattherewereapproximately8,075Aboriginalteachers;althoughthosenumbersalsoincludedparaprofessionals.TheactualnumbersofcertifiedAboriginalteacherswasnotgivenandstillseemstobeunknown.Thisisoneareaofdatacollectionthatisstillnotundertaken.RCAPestimatedthat“[a]tleastthreetimesasmanyareneededtoachieveparitywiththenumberofnon-Aboriginalteachersservingnon-Aboriginalchildren”(1996,p.491).Ifdataarenotcollectedandreportedon,thenitisdifficulttoknowthelevelofprogressandthehindrancestoincreasingthenumbersofAboriginalteachers.NationalorganizationshaveidentifiedincreasingthenumbersofAboriginalteachersasaprioritysuchastheCouncilofMinistersofEducationCanadaandCanadianAssociationofDeansofEducation.AsetofIndigenousteachereducationprogramsthatwereestablishedinthe1960s–1980swerementionedintheRCAP1996report.AnumberofthesearestillofferingtheirprogramssuchasNITEP(NativeIndianTeacherEducationProgram)atUBC;McGillofferscommunity-basedprogramsthroughoutQuebecinpartnershipwithFirstNationsandInuit;NORTEP(NorthernTeacherEducationProgram)Saskatchewan;andSUNTEP(SaskatchewanUrbanNativeTeacherEducationProgram)atUniversityofSaskatchewan(pp.495-96).AscanofFacultyofEducationteachereducationprogramsacrossCanadawascompleted.ItisdifficulttounderstandhowRCAPidentified34Indigenousteachereducationprogramsinits1996report.In2016,19IndigenousteachereducationprogramswereidentifiedthatculminatedinaBachelorofEducationdegree.Eitheranumberoftheseprogramshavebeendiscontinued,orthedefinitionofteachereducationprogramsmayhaveincludedladderingandaccessoptions,whichthe2016scandidnotinclude.EachprovinceorregionhasatleastoneIndigenousteachereducationprogramthatincludespreparationforelementary,middle,andhighschoolteaching.TheprogramshavemanyIndigenouseducationcoursesthatcouldconstituteaspecializationinthisareaandmanyarecommunity-basedoroffersomepartoftheprogramatcommunitysites.TherangeofcoursesincludesAboriginalhistory,Indigenousknowledge,math/scienceandAboriginalculture,Aboriginalcurriculumandpedagogy,andIndigenouslanguages.

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AboriginallanguagesarebeginningtohaveamorecentralplaceinBachelorofEducationdegreeprogramswithsomehavingladderingopportunities.Someexamplesinclude:

• UniversityofVictoria’sAboriginalLanguageRevitalizationBachelorDegreeprogramandladderingcertificationthatculminatesinaBachelorofEducationdegreeInterestingly,theUniversityofVictoriaalsooffersaMastersinIndigenousLanguageRevitalization(MILR),whichistheonlyoneofitskindinCanada.ItofferstheprograminacohortstructureandcurrentlyhascohortsinBCandoneinSaskatchewan13

• LakeheadUniversity’sB.EdinAboriginalEducationandNativeLanguageInsructors’Program/SpecializationinNativeLanguage

• JointAboriginalLanguageSpecialist/B.EddegreewithRedRiverCollegeandtheUniversityofWinnipeg

• NipissingUniversity’sDiplomainAnishnaabemwinasaSecondLanguageProgram

Twoinnovativeteachereducationdegreeprogramsthatareofferedasapartnershipbetweendifferentpost-secondaryinstitutionsarewiththeUniversityofWinnipeg:(1)ajointventurebetweentheManitobagovernment,UniversityofWinnipeg,andschooldiversionstooffertheCommunity-BasedAboriginalTeacherEducationProgram(CATEP)toacquireaBA/BeddegreeforAboriginalpeopleworkingasteachingassistants;and(2)thejointprograminAboriginalLanguageTeacherEducationwiththeRedRiverCollegeinManitoba.LearningfromscholarshipaboutAboriginaleducationcoursesinteachereducationRCAPrecommendedthatAboriginaleducationcoursesinteachereducationbeincludedforallteachereducationlearners.TheIndigenousteachereducationprogramshavemanysuchcoursesthatconstituteanIndigenouseducationspecialization.Inthelastfiveyears,teachereducationprogramshaverespondedtonationalandprovincialpolicythatcallsforcompulsoryinstructioninAboriginaleducationfortheirpre-serviceteachers.TheAssociationofCanadianDeansofEducation(ACDE)expresseditscommitmenttoincreasingfutureteachers’knowledgeaboutandunderstandingofIndigenouseducationinitsAccordonIndigenousEducation(AssociationofCanadianDeansofEducation,2010),TherecentlyreleasedreportfromCanada’sTruthandReconciliationCommission(TruthandReconciliationCommissionofCanada,2015)hasaseriesofrecommendations,amongits94callstoaction,thatcallonpost-secondaryinstitutionstorequireallstudentsinthefieldsofnursing,medicine,legalstudies,socialwork,andeducationtotakecoursesdealingwithAboriginalhistory;thelegacyofresidentialschools;Aboriginalrights;andIndigenousteachings,practices,andworldview.Professional

13Seehttps://www.uvic.ca/education/assets/docs/IED%20Summer%202016%20Newsletter.pdf

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provincialcertificationbodiessuchastheBCTeacherRegulationBranch,in2012,requiredthatteachercandidateshadtocompleteanAboriginalcourseorequivalentlearningexperiencesinordertobegrantedprofessionalcertification.Teachereducatorshavestartedtowriteabouttheirexperiencesteachingpre-serviceteachersincourseworkthatattendstoIndigenouseducation.Thisgrowingbodyofliteraturehighlights,ingeneral,twoveryspecifictopics:(1)teachercandidateresponsestoIndigenouseducationcourseworkfromtheperspectivesofteachereducators(Anuik&Gillies,2012;Deer,2013;denHeyer,2009;Dion,2007;Kanu,2005;Kerr&Parent,2015;Kitchen&Raynor,2013;Tanaka,Williams,Benoit,Duggan,Moir,&Scarrow,2007;Tompkins,2002;Tupper,2011);and(2)pedagogicalapproachesthatteachereducatorsuseintheirteachingofIndigenouseducationcoursework(Belczewski,2009;Cannon,2012;Chambers,2006;Hare,2015;Iseke-Barnes,2008;Kerr,2014;Nicol&Korteweg,2010;Oberg,Blades,&Thom,2007;Schneider,2015;Scully,2012&2015;Wolf,2012).Recently,thenationalCanadianJournalofNativeEducationdevotedits2015themeissuetoIndigenousTeacherEducationandTeacherEducationforIndigenousEducation(Archibald&Steinhauer,Eds).Thissectionwillhighlightkeypointsoftheliteratureidentifiedabove.TeachereducationhasdrawnonarangeofapproachestoincorporateIndigenouswaysofknowing,includingmulticulturalandanti-racismeducation,alongwithadvancingIndigenousperspectives,content,andpedagogiesthroughthedifferentbutrelatedtheoreticalstrandsandpracticesofcriticalracetheory,culturallyresponsivepedagogies,andcourseworkdedicatedspecificallytoIndigenouseducation(Sleeter,2011;St.Denis,2007).Thereisagrowingbodyofliteratureadvocatingpre-serviceteachers’learningthroughengagingwithIndigenoustheoriesandpracticesandfromIndigenouseducators,knowledgekeepers,andcommunities(Archibald,2008;Cherubini,2008;Kitchen&Raynor,2013;Phillips,2011;Sanfordetal.,2012).Forexample,WilliamsandTanaka(2007)describetheirdevelopmentofacourseforpre-serviceteacherswhichisgroundedinIndigenousprinciplesofmentorshipandcommunityengagement,andwhichusespedagogiesofexperientiallearning,storytelling,andcommunityservice.Studentreflectionsfromthiscourserevealeddeeptransformationsinsocialunderstandingswherebyemergingteachersreleasedtheirpersonalandlong-heldbeliefsofteachingandlearningtoconsiderpedagogiesmuchdifferentfromwhatteachereducationtendstopromote.Inanotherstudy,KitchenandRaynor(2013)engagednineteachercandidatesinacourseconcernedwithIndigenizingteachingandlearningwherebystudentstookpartinactivitiesthatreflectedexperientialorientationswithinIndigenouspedagogies.Thisincludedtakingpartinceremonialpractices,sharingcircles,modelling,storytelling,andlearningfromIndigenousEldersandcommunitymembers.Responsesfromteachercandidatesintheirjournalsandinterviewssuggestthatthesestudentsmadeasignificantmovementtowardsunderstanding,articulating,andimplementingIndigenouspedagogy.Studiessuchastheseformthe

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coreofresearchthatfocusesonteachereducators’perceptionsoftheexperiencesofpre-serviceteachers.ResearchthatrevealsIndigenousperspectivesandpracticesrecommendedforpre-serviceteachertrainingraisesthequestion:WhatknowledgeandexperienceswithIndigenousknowledgesystems,waysofknowing,andpedagogiesdoinstructorsbringtotheclassroom?LiteraturesuggeststhatIndigenousandnon-IndigenousfacultyexperiencetheteachingofIndigenouscontent,perspectives,andpedagogiesinhighereducationdifferently.Non-IndigenousfacultymayfeelunpreparedorlackconfidencetoengageinconversationsonIndigenousissuesintheclassroom(Merculieff&Roderick,2013).Kovach,Carriere,Montgomery,Barrett,andGilles(2015)examinetheexperiencesofIndigenousandnon-Indigenousinstructorsteachinginthedisciplinesofsocialworkandeducation,describingan“outside-indynamic”experiencedbynon-IndigenousinstructorswhofeelvulnerableadoptingIndigenousknowledgesystemsintheirteachingorfeelthattheyneverreallyquiteknowenough.Non-Indigenousinstructorscanthusfeelliketeachercandidates,believingitisnotappropriateforthemtouselocalknowledgeandpracticesandfearingtheyarebeingdisrespectful(Belczewski,2009).Still,someinstructorsmaynotseethepossibilitiesforconnectionstoIndigenousperspectivesintheircourses(Merculieff&Roderick,2013).Non-IndigenousinstructorstakingontheroleofalliesfacethesamekindofresentmentorresistancefromstudentsandcolleaguesthattheirIndigenousacademiccounterpartsexperiencewhentheyemphasizeIndigenouscontentandperspectivesintheircoursecurriculum(Christie&Asmar,2012).Asaresult,theseinstructorsmaycontinuallyneedtoreflectonwhatitmeanstobeaneffectiveallyinsupportingIndigenousknowledgesintheclassroom(Kovachetal.,2015).Forsomenon-IndigenousfacultywhoteachIndigenousstudiescoursesandcomponentswithinexistingcourses,thechallengeistodeconstructtheirownprivilegebyexaminingtheirepistemologicalassumptionsandintellectualtraditions,andthewaythesemaintaindominantdiscoursesandstructuresoftheacademy(Biermann,2011;Kelly,2013).InCanada,asfacultiesofeducationhaveincreasedtheircourseandcontentofferingsinIndigenouseducation,Indigenousandnon-Indigenousteachereducatorshavesharedtheirexperiences,describingthepedagogicalframeworkstheyusetoengageteachercandidates.TheirstrategiesincludelearningfromIndigenousEldersandknowledgekeepers,land-andplace-basedpedagogies,experientiallearning,anddecolonizingactivities.Themajorityofourknowledgeinthisareacomesfromself-studies.Non-Indigenousteachereducatorstendtoconsidertheirpositionassettler-scholar-educator(Kerr,2014;Scully,2015)andhowthissociallocationplaysaroleinhowandwhattheyteach(Belczewski,2009;Chambers,2006;Kerr,2014;Nicol&Korteweg,2010;Oberg,Blades,&Thom,2007;Scully,2012).Forexample,Kerr(2014)emphasizesthemodellingofbeingtaughtbyIndigenousperspectivesinreadingsandactivities,andextendingthatengagementtothepre-serviceteachers.NicolandKorteweg(2010)conveyhowtheymustconstantlyreflectontheireffortstodecolonizetheirownteachingpractices.Incontrast,Indigenousautobiographicalaccountstendtoemphasize

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pedagogicalstrategieswithteachercandidates,withlessattentiongiventohowtheiridentitiesimpactontheirteaching(Cannon,2012;Iseke-Barnes,2008;Wolf,2012).Forexample,Cannon(2012)arguesthatweneedpedagogicalframeworksinteachereducationthatunderscoreidentity-makingprocessesthatarespecifictocolonizationandnon-IndigenousCanadians.Heexplainstwoapproachesthatheusestohelppre-serviceteachersquestiontheirprivilegeandtakeresponsibilityforhistoriesofsettlercolonialism.Drawingonherworkinteachereducation,JudyIseke-Barnes(2008)laysouttwoactivitiesthathelpemergingandpracticingteachersunderstandhowoppressionandthedynamicsofpowerimpactonIndigenousexperiences.Theseself-narrativesanddescriptivepedagogiesdemonstratehowteachercandidateslearnabouttheirprospectiveworkasteachersinclassrooms,withafocusonhowtheirinstructorsareapproachingtheteachingofIndigenouscontent,perspectives,andpedagogies.Insummary,thereisasmallbutgrowingbodyofliteraturethatdescribesthedifferentexperiencesofIndigenousandnon-IndigenousinstructorsteachingIndigenouscontent,perspectives,andpedagogiesinteachereducationsettings.Inaddition,variouspedagogicalstrategieshavebeendetailedintheresearchonIndigenouseducationthatalignwiththeoreticalframingsandspecificpedagogies.AsIndigenouseducationissettobecomepartofthecommonpracticeinteachereducationacrossCanada,throughinstructionthatisintegratedintocourseworkorthatformsmandatorycourses,whatstandsoutisthegrowingnumberofself-studiesandpersonalnarrativesthataccountforhowinstructorsengageinthepracticesofIndigenouseducation.Whileanunderstandingofthepedagogicalpracticesmaybeextractedfromthisscholarship,lessisknownaboutthepedagogicalcomplexitiesorpersonalvulnerabilitiesthatemergeasaresultoftheidentitiesthattheinstructorsbringtoteachingIndigenouseducationcoursework.OthergapsrelatetotheperspectivesofstudentswhotakeAboriginaleducationcourses,theimpactofsuchcoursesontheirprofessionalpreparation,andconsiderationsforwhatconstitutes‘good’coursecontentandpedagogy.Inadditiontoresearchliterature,anationalmechanismforsharingsuccessesandchallengesaboutIndigenousteachereducationwasestablishedbytheAssociationofCanadianDeansofEducationin2013:anannualIndigenousTeacherEducationSymposium.NationaldialoguesandactiononAboriginalteachereducationIn2013,onbehalfoftheACDE,NITEPandtheOfficeofIndigenousEducationattheUniversityofBritishColumbiasponsoredanIndigenousteachereducationsymposiumandinvitedrepresentativesfromFacultiesofEducationacrossCanadatoparticipateinadialoguetosharetheirexperiences,successes,andchallengesrelatedtorecruitment,programs,communityrelationships,andretention.TheACDEhascontinuedtosupportthisnationalgatheringasoneofitscollectiveprojectswithateachereducationprogramagreeingtohosttheeventeachyear:BC,Alberta,Labrador/NewFoundland,NewBrunswickhavebeenhostsandManitoba

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willhostthe2017gathering.Thesenationalgatheringshaveprovidedimportantopportunitiesfornetworkingandlearningfromeachother’sexperiences.ThisnationalgatheringalsohasthepotentialtodiscussfuturepolicydevelopmentaboutAboriginalteachereducationandtobegincooperativeactions.TheCouncilofMinistersofEducationCanada(CMEC)InJune2015,theCMECsponsoredanAboriginalEducator’sSymposiumatYellowknife,NWT.ThepurposesofthisnationalformweretolearnfromnewandexperiencedAboriginaleducatorsaboutwaystoattractmoreAboriginalpeopletoateachingcareer,tosupporttheircompletionofteachereducationprograms,howtoencourageretentionofeducatorsoncetheyareintheteachingforce,andhowtosupportAboriginaleducatorsintheircareerdevelopment.TheCMECcontinuestoincludethegoalof“SupportingtheprofessionaldevelopmentofAboriginalstudentsinterestedinpursuingteachingasacareer:consideringteacher-trainingneeds,sharingknowledge,andinitiatingdialogueamongAboriginalandnon-Aboriginaleducation”inits2015-17CMECAboriginalEducationPlan.14However,nofurtherdetailinhowitwillcarryoutthisgoalorhowitwillincorporatetherecommendationsfromtheJune2015nationalgatheringisshownonitswebsite.AnothermajorsetofRCAPrecommendationsreferredtopublicpost-secondaryinstitutionsandhowtheyaddressedIndigeneity.PublicPost-secondaryInstitutionsInreferencetopublicpost-secondaryinstitutionsRCAPrecommendedthat(1)Publicpost-secondaryinstitutionshaveacomprehensivestrategytoincreaseparticipationandretentionofAboriginallearners:Aboriginalcurriculum,meetingspaces,AboriginalappointmentstoBoardofGovernors,Aboriginalstudentunions,supportservices,andcross-culturalsensitivitytrainingforfacultyandstaff;(2)Post-secondaryinstitutionsrecognizeAboriginallanguagesonequalbasistomodernlanguagesforentrancerequirementsandsecondlanguagerequirements;and(3)EldershaveanactiveroleineducationthroughoutlevelsandsystemsandbecompensatedasprofessionalsandeducationinstitutionsfacilitateexchangesamongElders.TheK-12educationsectionexaminedMinistriesofEducationandtheirIndigenouseducationstrategiesacrossCanada.ContinuingwiththeexaminationofsystemicstrategiesthatpromoteIndigenizingeducation,thissectionfirstpresentswaysthatthreeprovincialMinistriesofAdvancedEducationundertakethisresponsibilityandthensomeexemplarsofcollege/universitypracticesthataddresstheRCAPrecommendationsnotedabove.AnenvironmentalscanofprovincialandterritorialMinistriesofAdvancedEducationwebsiteswasconducted.TheexamplesselectedfordiscussioneitherhaveaseparateIndigenouspost-secondarystrategyorincorporateIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationintotheoverallstrategy.Itwas14seehttp://www.cmec.ca/532/Programs-and-Initiatives/Aboriginal-Education/CMEC-Aboriginal-Education-Plan-2015–2017/index.html

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difficulttoidentifyIndigenousspecificstrategiesinsomejurisdictions;therefore,theywerenotincluded.Thephrases“IndigenizetheAcademy”or“Indigenization”havebeenusedbymorecollegesanduniversitiesacrossCanadainthelastdecade.SomeexemplarsofIndigenizingpost-secondaryeducationwillbediscussedbelow.ProvincialAboriginalPost-secondaryPolicyFrameworksInBritishColumbiaanAboriginalPost-SecondaryEducationandTrainingFrameworkandActionPlan:2020VisionfortheFuture(Framework)waslaunchedin2012withvision,goals,strategies,and2013,2016,and2020targets.TheFrameworkwasdevelopedinpartnershipwithmanyIndigenouscommunitiesandorganizations.ItincludessystemicchangessuchasAboriginalrepresentationonBoardofGovernors,capitalfundingprojectsforAboriginalstudentgatheringspaces,studentfunding,supportingcommunitybasedprograms,andincreasingtransitionfromK-12topost-secondaryeducation.Theyhaveincludeda2013/14reportonprogress15.ThisMinistry’swebsiteincludesafairamountofdetailabouttheirfundedprograms.SaskatchewandoesnothaveaseparateAboriginaleducationpolicyframeworkbutitincludesgoalsofincreasingFirstNationandMétisstudentpost-secondaryenrollmentandcompletion.Thisprovincefundsvariouspost-secondaryinstitutesandprogramstoachievethisgoal.Areportisincludedintheprovince’sannualreportingprocess16.Ontariodevelopedthe“AboriginalPostsecondaryEducationandTrainingPolicyFramework,2011”inconsultationwithmanypeople.Progressreportsaresetforeverythreeyears.Thefirstreport,2014indicatedsuccessinestablishingstrongrelationshipsamongcolleges,universities,andFirstNations,Métis,andInuitpeoples.OnecommonoutcomeisthatallpubliclyfundedcollegesanduniversitieshaveAboriginalEducationCouncils.Therearemanyexamplesofprogramsandinitiativesrelatedtotheplan’sgoals;however,verylittlestudentdataisincludedtoreinforcethesuccessclaims.TotalinvestmentinAboriginalpost-secondaryeducationfor2011-14was$83.5million.17InresponsetotheTRC,Ontario’splan,“TheJourneyTogether:Ontario’sCommitmenttoReconciliationwithIndigenousPeoples”setsoutexpendituresthattotal$250million.TheOntariogovernmentwillworkwithIndigenouspartnerstodevelopprogramsaimedatreconciliationoverathree-yearperiod(2016-19).Forpost-secondaryeducationtheOntariogovernmentalsoannounced$97millionforIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationandtraining.15Seehttp://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/post-secondary-education/aboriginal-education-training16Seehttp://www.finance.gov.sk.ca/PlanningAndReporting/2015-16/2015-16AdvancedEducationAnnualReport.pdf17Seehttp://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/publications/APSET2015ProgressReport.pdf

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CollegeandUniversityAboriginalPost-secondaryStrategiesBasedontheknowledgeandexperienceoftheauthors,themajorityofcollegesanduniversitiesappeartohavespecificAboriginalstrategicplansorincludeAboriginalpost-secondaryeducationasoneofitprioritiesintheirrespectivecollege/universitystrategicplans;sometimesboth.ConductinganenvironmentalscanofCanadiancolleges’anduniversities’strategicplanswasnotpossible,giventhelimitedresourcesforwritingthisarticle.However,futureresearchprojectscouldincludeexaminingthecharacterandimpactofinstitutionalstrategicplans.However,weidentifiedsomerecentnationalpublications,suchasUniversityAffairs(Macdonald,201618)andrepositories,UniversitiesCanada,thatindicategrowinginterestanddescriptionsofprogramsandactionstoIndigenizetheacademythroughIndigenousprograms/courses;physicalstudentspacesforgathering,learning,andsupportservicesthatreflectIndigenousarchitectureand/orculture;Indigenousleadershippositions;andIndigenousadvisorycouncils.BuildingorrefurbishingexistingfacilitiesforIndigenousgatheringspacesrequiresmuchinstitution,government,andprivatesectorfundingandcommitment.Someexamplesofnewbuildingsinclude:

• TheFirstNationsLonghouseattheUniversityofBritishColumbiawasthefirstofitskindataCanadianuniversity(openedin1993)

• TheFirstPeople’sHouse(Longhousestyle)attheUniversityofVictoria,openedin2010

• TheGordonOakesRedBearCentreattheUniversityofSaskatchewanopenedin2015

• TheFirstPeoples’PavilionattheUniversityofQuebec,Val-d’Orcampus• InBritishColumbia,theMinistryofAdvancedEducationprovidedfunding

forIndigenousstudentgatheringspaces,whichresultedin24post-secondaryinstitutesreceivingsuchfunding.

UniversitiesCanada(UC,2015)withamembershipof97universitiesreleasedits13principlesonIndigenouseducationthatfocusedontheircommitmenttoimproveIndigenouseducationintheiruniversities.OneusefulUCprojecthasbeentocreateadatabaseof350IndigenousorientedprogramsandstudentservicesatuniversityacrossCanada.UCalsoreleasedsomedataona2013surveyofitsmembership,witha90%returnratethatindicatedthefollowing:

• 61universities(2/3)offeruniversitytransitionsprogramsforIndigenousstudents;

• 25Indigenouslanguagesaretaught;• morethan75%oftheuniversitiesofferculturalactivitiesforIndigenous

students;• 71%haveapartnershipwithlocalIndigenouscommunities;and

18SeeUniversityAffairs,http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/indigenizing-the-academy/

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• 33%ofIndigenousprogramsareofferedoffcampus19(UniversitiesCanada,2015).

OneareaofinnovationhasbeentheestablishmentofElders-in-Residenceprogramsatcollegesanduniversities.TrentUniversity,thefirstuniversitytoestablishanIndigenousStudiesDepartmenthashadEldertenuretrackpositionssince197520.TrentsponsorsanannualEldersandTraditionalPeople’sGatheringandcelebratedthe40thanniversaryofthisgatheringin2016.VancouverIslandUniversityincludesanElders-in-ResidenceprogramfortheIndigenousStudiesprogramthatbeganin1992.TheElders’programexpandedtobeauniversity-wideserviceadministeredthroughtheOfficeofAboriginalEducation.Anevaluationwasconductedin2010thatexaminedthevalueofimpactoftheVIUElders’Program.ThefindingsindicatethatstudentsvaluedtheholisticaspectoflearningandinteractingwithEldersandatthesametimefeltthatEldersdidnotreceiveinstitutionalrespectfortheirknowledgeandroles.FacultyandstaffwerefairlypositiveabouttheroleandimpactofElders,yet,somefeltatensionbetweentheirpedagogyandthatofElders’.Recommendationsincluded:increasingthetimethatEldershavetocarryouttheirroles;thatallstudents,faculty,andstaffhaveaccesstoElders;improvepoliciesandprotocolsaboutthecareofElderswhileintheirroles;andprovideprofessionaldevelopmentexperientialexperiencesforfacultyandstaffaboutworkingwithElders(Martine&Drees,2011).DiscussionSystemicActions:SuccessesandChallengesTherehavebeensomemajoradvancesandinnovationsinIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationsince1996.Theseinnovationsrequiresystem-widecooperationandcommitmentfrominstitutionalleaders.Long-standingprogramsIndigenousteachereducation,Indigenouslaw,andIndigenousstudiesbeganofferingtheirprogramsinthelate1960sand1970s.Tocontinueofferingsuchprogramsalsorequiresimmenseeffort,commitment,andleadership,oftencarriedoutbyIndigenousfacultyandstaffandnon-Indigenousallies.ThissectionfirstfocusedonIndigenousteachereducationprogramsthataddresstheRCAPrecommendationsandtheirstrengthsinclude:(1)community-basedrelationshipsandsites;(2)Indigenousknowledgethatshapesteachingandlearning;and(3)theintroductionofAboriginallanguagerevitalizationcoursesandprograms.ThereisasmallbutgrowingcorpusofresearchaboutIndigenousteachereducationprograms.19Seehttp://www.univcan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/issue-closing-canadas-indigenous-gap-oct-20151.pdf20Seehttps://www.uwinnipeg.ca/index/cms-filesystem-action?file=pdfs/conferences/2007/trent-university.pdf

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NotenoughisknownabouthowmanyIndigenousteachereducationstudentsenrollinteachereducationprogramsacrossCanada;whattheirexperiencesarerelatedtoadmissionandprogramcompletion;whatgraduates’experiencesareintransitioningtoteachingcareers;andhowsuchprogramsarefundedandwhattheirchallengesareinrelationtofunding.Afairlynewtrendofrequiringallteachercandidates/studentstotakearequiredIndigenouseducationcourseorequivalentlearningisoccurringinteachereducationprogramsacrossCanada.Again,asmallbutgrowingcorpusofresearchisexamininginstructorexperiencesinteachingsuchcourses.Whatisneededismoreofthistypeofresearchaswellastheimpactonteachercandidatesandmoreaboutthesuccessesandchallengesofpedagogyandapproaches.TheteachereducationresearchandwaysofexpandingnationaldialoguethroughgroupssuchastheCanadianAssociationofDeansofEducationandtheCouncilofMinistersofEducationCanadaneedtocontinue.Onenationalassociation,UniversitiesCanadahascreatedpublicationsonIndigenouspost-secondarystudentdataandopportunitiesfordialogueandcooperationasdiscussedabove.ThereappearstobeanincreaseinIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationalprogramsandservicesinrecentyears.UniversitiesCanadanotesthatfrom2013-15therewasa33%increaseininprogrammingandstudentservicesforIndigenousstudents.ThegrowthofIndigenousorientedlearningprogramsandstudentservicesmayseemrecent;however,inordertodevelopIndigenouscommunityrelationships,securefunding,andacquireuniversityapprovalfornewprogramstakesyears.Thenextchallengeistosustaintheseprogramsandservices.Manypost-secondaryinstitutesarefacingcurrentbudgetdeficitsandchallengesandmoreIndigenouspeopleareinterestedinpursuingpost-secondaryeducationsostudentfundingremainsabigchallenge.Returningtothe‘closingthegap’goal,the2011NationalHouseholdSurveyindicatesthat9.8%ofIndigenouspeopleaged25-64haveauniversitydegreecomparedto26.5%ofthenon-IndigenousCanadianpopulationofthesameage.Itmayappearthatpost-secondaryinstitutionsassystemshavecreatedsomefairlyrecentsystemicchangetomaketheirlearningenvironmentsandprocessesmoreculturallyrelevantandsafeforIndigenouslearners.Toclosethegapwillrequireconstantvigilancetomonitorthesechangesandtomakeimprovementstothemastheneedarises.Thereisno‘quick’fix,noristhereonesingleanswer.Theholisticapproaches,orstrategicplans,thatseemtohavepromiseorthathavedemonstratedsomesuccessinclude:partnershipswithIndigenouscommunities/organizations;useofIndigenousknowledgesystemsforlearningandstudentsupportprograms;expandingtheIndigenousfacultyandstaff,includingElders;increasingnon-Indigenousstudent,faculty,staffawarenessandknowledgeaboutIndigenoushistory,culture,andcurrentsituations;andmonitoringprogressconsistentlyovertime.

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LessonsLearnedThefollowingsystemicactionscouldbeconsideredpositiveachievementsregardingthemajorRCAPrecommendationsthatwerenotedatthebeginningofthissectionaboutpost-secondaryeducation:

• Indigenousteachereducation,whichoffersIndigenous-basedprogramstopeopleofIndigenousancestryhasarich40+yearhistory.MuchcanbelearnedabouthowtheseprogramsworkwithIndigenouscommunities/organizations-basededucation;createculturallyresponsiveprogramswhilealsoensuringitsteachercandidateslearnknowledgeandacquireskillsrequiredforprofessionalcertification;andhowithelpsitsteachercandidatesdealwiththeimpactofcolonizationontheirfamiliesandIndigenouscommunitiesmoregenerally.

• Teachereducationprogramsareleadingthepost-secondaryapproachofmandatorylearningaboutIndigenoushistoryandcultureasrecommendedbyRCAP(1996)andtheTRC(2015).Moreneedstobelearnedaboutthechallengesandsuccessesofsuchmandatorylearning.

• System-wide,holistic,andcomprehensivestrategiesforIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationareemergingincollegesanduniversitiesacrossCanada,whileafewMinistriesofAdvancedEducationandTrainingappeartohavecomprehensivestrategiesandfewerreportonIndigenouspost-secondarystudentenrollmentandretention.

• CollegesanduniversitieshavevariedElders-in-Residenceprogramsthatmaybeparttofulltime.TherolesofEldersmayincludeteachingandmentoringstudentsandadvisingfacultyandstaff.NotmuchisknownabouthowEldersperceivetheirroles,challengestheyexperience,andtheimpactofEldersontheacademy.

Someissuesnotedinthissectioncouldformfuturepolicycoreissues.Theyinclude:

• EncouragingmoreprovincialandterritorialgovernmentstoincreasetheirsystemicapproachesforIndigenouspost-secondaryeducationandtocommunicatethoseontheirwebsites.ThebriefenvironmentscanofgovernmentalwebsitesonadvancededucationoftendidnotprovideaprominentplaceforIndigenouseducation,exceptforBritishColumbiaandSaskatchewan.NunavutlistedonlyArcticCollege,whichprovidespost-secondaryeducationinthisterritoryandtheNorthwestTerritorieslistedAuroaCollegeasprovidingitspost-secondaryeducationprograms.

• ReportingonIndigenouspost-secondarystudentenrollmentandcompletionratesthatincludesbutisnotlimitedtoteachereducation.

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• ConductingmoreresearchonIndigenousteachereducationthatincludes

students’perspectives,programmaticimpact,andtransitiontocareer/work.

• Conductingmoreresearchonthesuccesses,challenges,andimpactofcollegeanduniversitystrategicplans.

Community(tobewritten)Conclusion(tobewritten

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