Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and the Sustenance of ... · Keywords─Lake Nyos Gas Disaster, IAK, Sustenance, Local livelihood strategies, resettlement Camps I. INTRODUCTION

International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume II, Issue X, October 2018|ISSN 2454-6186

www.rsisinternational.org Page 128

Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and the

Sustenance of Local Livelihood Strategies in Buabua

and Kimbi ─ the Lake Nyos Gas Disaster

Resettlement Camps, NWR of Cameroon

Augustine Toh Gam1, Nobert Tohnain Lengha

2, Reeves Meli Fokeng

1*

1Department of Geography and Planning, Faculty of Arts, University of Bamenda, Cameroon

2 Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, University of

Dschang, Cameroon

*Corresponding author

Abstract─ Natural disasters in most parts of the world have

resorted to many fatalities, forced migration and involuntary

resettlement of the affected population. Lake Nyos Gas Disaster

of 1986 which killed about 1,746 people and led to forced

migration of over 15,000 affected people and the subsequent

resettlement of survivors in resettlement camps in near by

administrative sub-divisions in the North West Region of

Cameroon is one of such natural catastrophies. The paper

evaluates the use of Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge (IAK) in

agriculture and how it has helped to sustain the livelihood of this

environmentally traumatized resettled population. The study

sampled two of these resettlement villages (Buabua and Kimbi)

to access Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge (IAK) and the

sustenance of local livelihood strategies. Field campaigns

including the administration of semi-structured questionnaires

and focus group discussions (FGDs) facilitated the collection of

data on IAK practices and how this knowledge helps in

sustaining local livelihoods. A total of 24 Indigenous Agricultural

Knowledge (IAK) were identified, with 54.16% of them used in

crop cultivation, and 45.83% in livestock farming including the

raising of small ruminants, poultry and piggery production. IAK

shows successful results after being applied as there is increased

crop and livestock yields. The use of IAK in agriculture has led

to sustainable and efficient land use within the study area.

Despite the rising use of IAK and potential benefits in

agriculture and the sustenance of local livelihoods in Buabua and

Kimbi, survivors still express a strong desire to return to the

former disaster zone. The underlying reasons behind this phobia

is mainly small land sizes ranging from 30-50 square metres that

were allocated to households for both crop cultivation and

grazing, and the fact that the limits between grazing and crop

land are not clearly demarcated. Prospects for agricultural

expansion within the area are therefore slim and need to be

addressed.

Keywords─Lake Nyos Gas Disaster, IAK, Sustenance, Local

livelihood strategies, resettlement Camps

I. INTRODUCTION

he devastating Lake Nyos Gas Disaster of August 21,

1986 that took a dead toll left a deserted Nyos, Chahand

Subum villages as the survivors were consequently resettled

in camps of Buabua and Kimbi villages amongst others.

According to [1] the Lake Nyos Gas Disaster of 1986 was the

worst natural disaster ever to be inflicted on West Africa by a

single catastrophic event. In August 1986, this Lake released a

toxic aerosol of water and carbon dioxide which killed more

than 1,250 people (Freeth & Kay, 1987; Kling et al., 1987;

cited in [1]. The number of those killed vary by sources;[2]

estimated over 1,700 deaths, Freeth & Kay, 1987; Kling et al.,

1987; cited in [1] reported more than 1,250 deaths,[3] reported

approximately 1,800 loss of lives, 3,000 cattle, and countless

wild animals, birds and insects, and the Cameroon postline (in

press) [4] reported 1,746 deaths(Nyos (about 1,200 deaths),

Subum (about 300 deaths) and Chah (200 deaths)).The toxic

gas spread and engulfed surrounding areas of the lake,

seriously affecting four main villages (Chah, Kam, Subum

and Nyos). About 15,000 inhabitants fled the area, as many of

them developed respiratory problems, lesions and paralysis as

a result of gases they inhaled [3].The economic losses of the

disaster were enormous. Fotabong & Fossung (1986; cited in

[3] revealed that 3,909 cows and 3,324 fowls died. A total of

364 sheep and 561 goats ceased breathing due to the

inhalation of the toxic gas [3]. [1] revealed that the Lake Nyos

is approximately 208 million cubic metres covering an area

of1501 square metres with an estimated carbon dioxide (CO2)

concentration of 270 (m). Before the occurrences of the Lake

Nyos Gas Disaster in 1986, the inhabitants of Buabua and

Kimbi resettlement villages were at Subum; a disaster affected

village, located some 8km away from the Lake Nyos [5].

This environmentally traumatized population stays

within the resettlement camps and practice asemi-subsistent

agriculture based on crop production and livestock farming

using locally acquired knowledge. There is increasing

importance today on the role played by indigenous people in

the society. The phrase “indigenous knowledge”, is still in

search of a standard definition. According to Rajasekaran T



(1993; cited in[6], indigenous knowledge is the systematic

body of knowledge acquired by local people through the

accumulation of experiences, informal experiments and

intimate understanding of the environment in a given culture.

Melchias (2001; cited in [7]saw indigenous knowledge to be

what indigenous people know and do, and what they have

known and done for generations-practices that evolved

through trial and error and proved flexible enough to cope

with change. Indigenous knowledge has proven to be vital for

biodiversity conservation, agricultural intensification and the

sustenance of local livelihoods. According to [8], the main

sources of indigenous knowledge in agriculture are from

interactions with the elderly, parents, relatives and friends.

Together with the importance of agriculture, the role of

indigenous knowledge in agriculture varies from country to

country [9]. Whilst it has given way to modern production-

oriented agricultural practices in some countries, it remains an

important component of subsistence agriculture in others [9].

Indigenous knowledge is an important asset with regards to

the social capital of local people and constitutes their main

resources for livelihoods [10]. This paper examines

indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices and how it

helps in sustaining the livelihoods of the resettled Lake Nyos

Gas Disaster survivors in Buabua and Kimbi camps.

1.1. Location of study area and methods

1.1.1. Location of study area: After the disaster, the survivors

were resettled in Upkwa, Esu, Ipalim, Buabua, Kimbi,

Kumfutu and Yemnge villages. The study sampled two of

these villages (Buabua and Kimbi in Fonfuka Sub-division

(Fig.1)) located at latitude 6°24'0'' and 6°42'0'' North and

longitude 10°15'0'' and 10°27'0'' East of the Greenwich

Meridian.

Fig.1. Location of the study area and Lake Nyos.

Within these camps, each family was allocated a

portion of 30-50 square metres of land for farming and

grazing. Two groups of indigenes live side by side; the Bums

who are predominantly peasant farmers and Mbororo tribes

(specifically the Akou) practicing cattle grazing.

1.1.2. Methods: A three-fold methodology is adopted for this

study. Initially, a preliminary field visit and contact led tothe

identification of indigenous agricultural knowledge (IAK) and

their listing. Socio-economic data and the inventory of main

IAK and practices were obtained through the administration



of 103 structured and semi-structured questionnaire

administered to a randomly chosen sample from 4185

inhabitants (census results by [11]) in the area. The sample

size (103) was expressed as a proportion of 1: 41

inhabitants/persons of the total population (4185)of the study

area. It was statistically applied as 4185÷41 = 103

questionnaires. The retained and analyzed questionnaires gave

a proportion of 54.4% men and 45.6% women. Further

inquiries were acquired through focus group discussions

(FGDs) and key informant interviews with village chiefs and

agricultural extension workers. Indigenous knowledge is self-

acquired and inherited experiences of indigenes which are

transferred to successive generations. As such, focus group

participants were meticulously chosen among men and

women with ages ranging from 25-60 years and aboveto come

out with the required information. Statistical data analysis was

done with the help Excel spreadsheets. IAK was graphically

presented as a proportion of observed frequency of IAK per

respondent and not as a percentage of an IAK per the sample

size. Cartographic techniques were used in QGIS 2.14 to

spatialise IAK and agricultural production in the study area.

II. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

2.1. Cultivated and reared animal species

Crop and livestock species adopted in the area are

many and varied as shown in Tables01 and 02. Three

categories of crops are grown in the study area namely food

crops such as vegetables, fruits/agro-forestry and cash crops.

Table 1:Types of Crops grown in the area.

Category Common names Scientific names

Food crops

Cassava Manih esculenta

Coco yams Xanthosoma sp

Peanuts Apios tuberosa

Groundnuts Arachis hypogaea

Maize Zea mays

White yams Dioscorea alata

Sweet potatoes Ipomoea batata

Beans Phaseolus vulgaris

Soya beans Glycine max

Bananas Musa spp

Vegetables

Cowpea Gaylusacia/solanum

nigrum

Huckleberry Pyrus

Okra Ablmoschus esculentus

Pumpkins Cucurbita maxima

Fluellen Kickxia spuria

Fruits/cash crops

Mangoes Mangifera indica

Plums Prunus domestica

Oranges Citrus sinensis

Cocoa Theobroma cacao

Palms Areccaceae

Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum

Robuster Coffee Coffea robuster

Pears Vigna unguiculata

Source.[12] and field survey (2016).

Table 2: Domestic animal species in Buabua and Kimbi

Species Common names Scientific names

Cattle

Zebu Goudali

Bos Taurus White Fulani (Aku)

Red Zebu/Fulani

Ruminants

Sheep Ovis aries

Goats Capra hircus

Guinea pigs Cavia porcellus

Others

Pigs Sus domesticus

Ducks Anas platyrhynchos

Fowls galloanserae

Source. Fieldwork (2016).

These many crop species are cultivated alongside

livestock farming using acquired local knowledge (IAK) in

the area for local livelihood sustenance.

2.2. IAK in agriculture

The technique adopted for agricultural practices in

Kimbi and Buabua integrates locally acquired knowledge

accumulated from past experiences, inherited and passed on to

successive generations along the succession line.

2.2.1. IAK in food crop production: Several technologies are

being adopted for food crop production in the case of this

study IAK is the main one. Among the IAK we have the

following: the relay and mixed cropping; the application of

household residues and animal dung; crop molding; Ankara

system; human bird/invaders scarer and many others.

2.2.2. Relay and mixed cropping: Relay cropping refers to

alternate planting of crops in roles on the same piece of land

with varying gestation periods. Commonly observed relay

crop system in the area is maize, cassava, okra, cocoyam,

cowpea and vegetable (Plate 1, Fig. 2). Maize is planted on

the same plot with cocoyam and okra. The maize which gets

mature faster than cocoyam and okra, is harvested in July and

the stalks are streamed to allow air and sunlight penetrate

underneath in order to enhance the growth of the shaded

crops. Also, maize is planted in April and during weeding

period in July, the ridges are molded and intercropped with

cassava in such a way that as maize is being harvested, it is

gradually replaced by cassava. This technique encourages the

maximum use of farm plots, as it equally improves soil

fertility and protects the soil against erosion. As[13],asserts

indigenous relay intercropping in Northeast Thailand, where

peanut or mungbean are planted with maize under rain fed

conditions.



Plate 1. Relay (B) and mixed cropping (A).

A: Maize, pineapple and plantain B: Maize, okravegetable and cassava

With mixed cropping which is the planting of many crops on

the same field), the indigenes believe that incase of the

prevalence of disease or wind destructions, not all the crops

are destroyed at once and if the price of one crop falls, they

would benefit from the other and thus, their livelihood is

sustained. As a consequence, mixed cropping is a very

common IAK used by farmers to maximize land use (Fig. 2)

and enhance the sustenance of local livelihood. Mixed

cropping of maize, cassava (Plate 1) and potatoes is common

and widespread in the area as potatoes which as cover crop

provides a protective cover to the soil while providing a major

surviving food source during the season of food scarcity. [7]

perceived that mixed and inter cropping is an advantageous

system whereby leguminous plants are inter-cropped with

other crops. Mixed cropping is reported to be practiced by

88.35% of the actors (Fig. 2).

2.2.3. Application of household residues and animal dung: In

the place of chemical fertilizer, indigenes apply household

residues and animal wastes such cow, goat dung and fowl

droppings on farm plot to enhance crop growth and yields.

Household residues are applied on home gardens (Plate 2, B)

and nearby plots while cow, goat dung and fowl droppings are

transported to distant plots. They are mainly applied on

vegetable farm plots along river valleys during the dry

farming season. This is one of the most used IAK practiced by

81% of the actors (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: IAK in crop production in Buabua and Kimbi.

9283

47

29

57

82

11

91

38

76

5

70

9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

# in Bum language

* sites of old collapsed buildings

** sites of elephant grass

A



[14] pointed out that in Selected Kebeles of Gimbi Woreda,

West Wollega Zone of Oromia Regional State, animal dung,

ash and households trash are used on homestead gardens or

backyards in order to improve soil fertility.

2.2.4. Crop molding: This IAK is commonly applied on tuber

crops like cassava, potatoes, cocoyam, and other crops like

banana and groundnuts (Plate 2, Fig. 2). In doing this,

farmers’ heap soils with the use of rudimentary flat hoes

around the crops. Farmers believe that heaping of soil around

plantain stems enhance nutrient status, reduce pest attack,

maintain stem stability against destructive winds, facilitate the

generation of new roots and enhance the growth of micro-

organisms needed for the decomposition of organic matter.

Better still; indigenes believe that molding tuber crops during

weeding period helps control soil erosion. Molding also

reduces rodents attack on cultivated crops and improves crop

yields as it is locally perceived that rodents would henceforth

spend longer time to bore the earth in other to meet a grain of

groundnut and or cassava tuber, thereby reducing their

chances of consuming and reducing yields before harvest.

Plate 1: Crop molding and the application of household residue on home gardens.

A: Moldingbanana plant B: Application of household residue

2.2.5. Ankara system (“mouka”): The use of Ankara as an

IAK is widespread in the study area as shown in Figure 02

accounting for 89.32%.This practice entails of the burning of

grass and other farm residues after being buried in the worked

soil to produce ash that enhances soil fertility. The science of

agronomy contradicts this practice as it only increases crop

yields in the first years but yields decline with time. In other

words, it is not environmentally friendly as soil micro-

organism (soil biota) needed for organic matter decomposition

and the distribution of soil organic matter within different soil

horizons are killed. Ankara is often used in the cultivation of

tubers (cocoyam), vegetables like pumpkins and cowpea and

grain crops like maize in the study area. In applying this IAK,

farmers clear farm plots in the dry season and allow the

grasses to get dry. The dried grasses are then arranged in the

laying out matrix in the form of semi-round or square ridges

partially covered with soil and allowing some sections to set

fire on. This practice has proven to enhance yields on farm

plots owned by local rural farmers.

2.2.6. Human bird/invaders scarers (“awii” in Bum): The

human bird or scarecrows unique post-harvest social measure

used by farmers in the area the farm sty constructed for

farmers to temporarily live in with domestic to guard against

cattle and wild animals such as monkeys which destroy the

cultivated crops (Fig. 2, Photo 1).It is the most appreciable

way of guarding crops before harvest as it is used by 79% of

the actors (Fig. 2). As a repulsive measure, gun powder which

is resistive and odoriferous is kept at the extremes of farm

plots with believe that the odour which will give the

impression of the presence of a gun will scare wild animals

from farms.

Photo1: Farm sty in Subum use as a resting site to guard against crop invader



This local practice is a method used to improve upon crop

yields and it is also a symbol of socialization as it fosters the

spirit of oneness amongst the settled people. The relative

location and closeness of the Kimbi game reserve and grazing

lands to farm plots with frequent off-track of game and reared

animals or cattle makes the practice of this local crop

protection method indispensable in the area.

2.2.7. Selection of suitable sites: old collapsed roofs (“chei

ndaa”) in Bum) and the site with elephantgrass (Pennisetum

purpureum): This is a crop selective IAK well acquired and

used by the rural inhabitants in the cultivation of garden eggs

and pepper on home gardens. They believe that “chei ndaa”

offers natural manure which is decomposed from the vegetal

components of the roofs (predominantly grass houses)

releasing nutrients needed by the crops. There is a belief that

elephant stalks have numerous minute fibrous roots that are

easily decomposed when cultivated to form soil nutrients.

Also asite with elephant grasses is believed to contain a

certain species of micro-organisms locally called “tanɨ” in

Bum, which constantly feed on its roots, producing a very

dark humus soil which is good for the cultivation of

cocoyams, yams, okra, vegetables and maize. This is a widely

held native believe and IAK in the study area (Fig. 2).

2.2.8. Application of local insect repellants: Ash from

chickens is used as local insect repellant on farm plots (Fig.

2). It is sprinkled on the leaves of garden eggs, vegetables and

okra to prevent caterpillars from destroying them. This can

also control the rate of black ant invasion. When banana

suckers are removed for transplanting, the stools are clean and

ash applied directly on them in order to prevent diseases such

as panama which attack plantain and banana. Ash is equally

sprinkled round palm trees if they are not producing cones

with the believe that ash is gotten from diverse sources of

plants burnt together and which contain acid which when

absorbed by plants or palm tree, will reactivate or neutralize

the enzymes and cause them to be productive. As his also

sprinkled on orange trees to control the rate of thorny

branches, the stems and on maize buds to control stem borers.

[10] stated that farmers in the Idemili South Local

Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria, uses ash for

seed treatment.

2.2.9. Mutual support groups (“lɨnɨ vuo” in Bum): Mutual

support groups provide a forum for the acquisition of new

IAK and the transferred of the already acquired indigenous

farming methods. The acquisition of this knowledge is

enhanced the social interaction of the indigenous groups, the

size of the households and the type of crops grown. In this

practice, individual households arrange themselves into small

mutual groups where they help to cultivate their farms through

the use of wage earning strategies sometimes using a

migratory labour. This participative approach consists of

the movement of individuals from one farm to another. Wage

earning mutual support groups equally carry out such rotatory

farming activities for individual members who express the

need. This IAK is applied in three different forms notably

during farm preparation, weeding (photo 2) and harvesting.

Photo2. Mutual self-help group during weeding.

This also provides a forum for the acquisition of new

IAK and transfer of already acquired indigenous farming

methods. This is greatly determined by the social interaction

of the indigenous groups, the size of the households and the

type of crops grown. In its practice, individual households

arranged themselves into small mutual groups where they help

each other in the form of migratory labour on rotatory bases

from one individual’s farm to the other. Paid mutual self-help

groups also carried out paid labour farming activities. This

IAK is applied in three different stages of farming such as

land preparation, weeding(Photo 2)and harvesting.

2.2.10. Local flood control and Land management: As most

of the crop cultivation is limited along river Buabua, the

occurrence of floods ravaging crops and stream bank erosion

is eminent. Having a good mastery of river behavior during

the wetter season will mean that the indigenes do a careful

ploughing and the arrangement of ridges along river banks. In

order to control the likelihood of floods or erosion, farmers

plough ridges far away from the river banks. This will

generally lead to land protection and soil fertility to conserve

plant growth.

2.3. IAK in agroforestry

The agroforestry sector in the area also uses IAK in

the practice. The main IAK are selective pruning, stone

bounds and broken bottles, sprinkling of goat or cow dung on

leaves to prevent attacks by animals. This is variably applied

on fruit tree species such as pear, mango, orange and plume.

2.3.1. Selective pruning, stone and broken bottle bunds: In

this strategy stone and broken bottles are placed around

orange tree to prevent fowls or table birds from constantly

removing the soil beneath as they search for nematodes and

other insects (Plate 3, A). Selective pruning which is

commonly carried out on pear trees consist of either plucking

off parasitic plants or a selective removal of branches to

improve fruit quality and taste during fruiting (Plate 3, B).



Plate 3: IAK in agroforestry.

A: Stone bounds and broken bottles (orange tree) B: Selective pruning of pear tree

2.3.2. Leaf protection: In order to protect plant leaves from

animal destruction, dry goat or cow dung is grinned and

mixed with water, then sprinkle on the leaves of cassava, pear

and cocoa stems. It is thought that animal dung when mixed

with water and sprinkled on leaves will produce anodour of

urine and/or animal defecation. This gives an unpleasant smell

to the crop leaves and prevent its eating by domestic animals.

This helps to maintain crop yields and boost the final harvest.

2.4. IAK in Livestock production

Indigenous knowledge is used at various levels of the

agricultural enterprise including livestock. It is used in both

small and large scale animal production.

2.4.1. IAK in cattle rearing and small ruminant production:

The ruminant production sector in the study area also registers

a significant number of IAK (Fig. 3). These IAK are generally

used to boost animal production, growth, meat quality and

animal health care.

Fig. 3. IAK of livestock production in the study area.

24

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37

29

3735

68

46

17

55

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Stone and broken

bottle bunds



2.4.2. Animal feeds mixed with salt and animal salting: In

order to improve feeding taste for cattle and small ruminants,

corn peelings and/or maize mixed with salt is kept in dishes or

held in the hand for goats and sheep to feed on in the morning

before grazing on the grassland. Indigenes believe that this is

a medium for reared animals to become familiar with their

owners and homes. It also serves as a means of dissuasion for

goats. Through this practices, goats and sheep are persuaded

not to take a particular course of action such as invading

neighbor’s yard and moving further away from kraals in order

to feed on pasture. This IAK permit the farmer to remain in

close friendship with his animals. To improve meat quality,

salt is kept in dug-out canoes (Photo 3) most often beside

riverbanks for cattle to feed on at least once a week. It is

widely believe that beef from cattle the beef of a cattle

constantly feed with salt is very tasteful. Salt is also said to

increase cattle taste and demand for hay especially in dry

periods with scarcity of fresh grasses.

Photo 3: A dugout canoe for keeping cattle salt.

2.4.3. Cattle de-worming and de-ticking: Worm infection in

cattle is treated with the help of kaii (mahogany) with the

following specific measures; the barks are removed, dried,

grinned and mixed with salt, then dished out in dugout canoes

for cattle to leak. These dug-out canoes are usually placed

beside river banks or water points such that immediately after

feeding on kaii, cattle could move directly to the stream and

drink water which they believe would facilitate the digestion

of these concoctions. Also, calves of less than three months

are tied around the kraals or paddocks. It was explained that

this method is also used in order to dissuade the animals still

breast feeding from feeding further away and also to prevent

them from mechanical injuries while in the flock. Following

the same reasoning, cattle infectious insects/parasites (ticks)

are removed from cattle skin on daily basis using bare hands

or razor blade. At the end of the grazing season (that is the dry

season), accumulated cow dung is gathered and burn as it is

assume that this could be the breeding grounds for ticks.

2.3.5. Herds mobility, hired labour and transhumance: In the

livestock sub-sector, herders periodically mingle between

mobility within the area for grazing using hired labour “ladde

or wadde, which in Fulfulde mean herder and transhumance.

The mobility of herds during the dry season season is between

the wetter valleys of Buabua and the Dumbu Ranch. This

movement to humid valleys by the Aku is known in the

Fulfulde language as “fadama”. Grazers affirm that this

movement to wetter parts helps to maintain herds during the

harsh dry season. The settled Aku are sedentary grazers in

majority; practicing grazing alongside seasonal crop

cultivation. Sedentary grazing forms an important component

in the sustenance of nomadic herders’ livelihoods. [15]

Demonstrates the periodic displacement and transhumant

character of settled Mbororo grazers of the Tubah Uplands in

the North West Region of Cameroon. [15] Revealed that there

are two types of pastoralists in the area; semi-nomads, who

practice agriculture and transhumance and fully settled Fulani

(real sedentary nomads).

2.3.6. Rotatory feeding of pigs: To improve the local pig

yields,kitchen left-overs, banana leaves, and stalks are given

to pigs alongside the regular interchanging of the pigs

between the pig sty and tethering outside the pig sty to restrict

movements (Plate 4).



Plate 4: IAK in piggery.

A: Pig tethering B: Local pig sty

Results from this study reveal that the giving of banana stalks

to pigs during periods of intensive sunshine helps to regulate

their body temperatures. The indigenes believe that with these

methods, even during the dry season, the health of pigs reared

is not jeopardized. Also, pigs are not allowed to roam about

for fear that they may destroy crops grown and consequently

reduce yields.

2.4. IAK in poultry farming

2.4.1. Nest preparation, control of eggs and enhancing

security: To enable the safety of hens at brooding stage, the

indigenes construct thatched baskets from bamboo and

ropesand place them on the walls of house for the hen to lay

its eggs. These baskets are either lined with old dresses or dry

banana leaves. The need is to preserve the constant removal of

eggs for human consumption and consumption by dogs (Plate

5). As a native believe, the indigenes constantly

reduce/remove the laid eggs with hopes of encouraging the

hen to lay more. This is a similar finding by [8] in Uganda,

where Farmers do not only prepare and place a small

bottomless basket to encourage hens to lay more eggs and

hatch many chicks, but also regularly remove laid eggs to

encourage the hen to lay more. The baskets are placed in a

small round hole lined with dry banana leaves [8]. Added to

this, in order to further preserve the egg and the hen, some

households construct a traditional pen (“ndouma si nguo” in

Bum) of about 1m tall with capacity to contain 3-4 hens at a

time. Reproductive hens are then channeled to lay their eggs

as well as incubate and hatch them here in order to prevent

dogs or wild animals from invading (Plate 5).

Plate 5: Eggs and chicken security measures

A: Traditional pen B: Panther’s skin at the door



C: Weaved basket hanged on the wall forhens to lay eggs

To enhance hen and chicken security, some

households who allow their brooding hens to lay and hatch in

the house use a wild cat skin (Panther’s skin) to scare the hen

from going out of the house when they are not in doors (Plate

5). This creates fear to the hen as well as to the angry and

predatory sparrow hawk ready to devour the young chickens.

In this same light, well dried carcasses of killed hawks are tied

on tall bamboos or trees at one end using a long twine

permitting them to swing from one angle to the other

following the wind. This helps to scare life hawks from

coming closer to attack the chicken and thus ensuring greater

survival rate as one of the respondents rightly puts it, “ with

these our local methods dem, hawk were yi dey for sky no fit

prevent we for di keep fowls”.

2.4.2. Believes and concoctions and ensuring animal health:

To prevent diseases common to fowls, the indigenes grind

ground and wild pepper and mix with water for fowls to drink.

This is thought tocure gastritis and prevents bird flu (avian

flu) from attacking the fowls reared. Acacia fortilis, a

medicinal plant in the area is used to prepare fowls

medication. The seeds are harvested and soaked in water to

produce a concoction called “Bulle”, a unique concoction in

Bum, for fowls to drink. In Uganda, the indigenes use similar

concoctions to those of Buabua and Kimbi to cure their

chicken as demonstrated by [8].Chicken infected with

coccidiosis are injected with or given mixture of ash, ground

pepper and water to drink; pawpaw seeds also are given to

chicken as de-wormers [8]. Common pest that attack chicken

are mites. Mites are a common problem during incubation

periods and may cause the affected hen to leave its nest. The

indigenes in order to address this problem regularly remove

and sun the materials that make up the fowl nest. In some

cases, the intensity of mites may cause the brooding hen to

abandon its eggs. [8] revealed that farmers of Uganda faced

with such situations put dry banana leaves in a mortar and

position it near a fireplace to aid the eggs brooding process,

then eggs are regularly turned and eventually the chicks hatch.

2.4.3. Spatial distribution of IAK and Sustenance of local

livelihoods: Living in resettlement camps and applying their

local knowledge in agriculture, the indigenes of Buabua and

Kimbi villages sustain their daily life from the application of

variety of self-acquired, life and inherited experiences in

agriculture. Though the agriculture at large is still at a small

scale, crop yields from the use of IAK in the area are

sustaining (Table 3).

Table 3: Estimated yearly crop yields from the application of IAK

Crop type Quantity in buckets

(15litres)

Quantity in bags

(100Kg)* Quantity in bags (100Kg) Quantity in US tons (t)**

Maize 2200 275 27500 30.25

Cassava 753 94.13 9413 10.35

Beans 193 24.13 2413 2.65

Groundnuts 286 35.75 3575 3.93

Soya beans 66 8.25 825 0.91

Total 3498 437.26 43726 48.09

*8buckets=1 bag of 100Kg, **1Kg = 0.0011 US ton



By applying IAK in food crop farming, households register an

increasing yearly yield especially in maize and cassava (30.25

and 10.35 tons respectively). These are the main staple food

stuffs and partly commercial crops of the area. Dried maize is

sold on weekly market days to middle men or “bayem

sellams” coming from nearby towns and cassava is

transformed in to gari for local consumption and sale. Maize

is locally consumed in form of corn foufou with locally grown

huckleberry and garden eggs or corn foufou and roasted

chicken katikati. Corn foufou and roasted chicken is a

traditional dish of honour and respect commonly prepared

during dead celebrations, marriages or the reception of in-

laws. There is a close relationship between the use of IAK and

the distribution of agricultural activities in the area (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Spatial distribution of agricultural production and IAK in Buabua and Kimbi.

Three main agricultural practices were recognized in

the area; cash crop farming (cocoa) along the ring road beside

the Kimbi game reserve, food crop farming mostly in the river

valley where soils are relatively fertile and cattle grazing on

steep slopes at both sides of the river valley. Pig keeping and

poultry were also limited to inhabited areas of the river valley.

III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

IAK has proven successful in agriculture and the

sustenance of local livelihoods. These IAK are applied to food

crop cultivation and livestock farming (cattle grazing, poultry

and piggery). This notwithstanding, many upheavals arising

from social and economic standpoint strengthens the future of

the survivors resettled in Buabua and Kimbi. Agricultural land

is small (30-50 square metres per household). Farmer-grazers

conflicts are now the norm rather than the exception in these

resettlement camps. Small land sizes are a major hindrance to

free grazing and periodic displacement of herds by the settled

Mbororo. Possibility of expanding food and cash crop

production is also very slim. Sources complained of the lack

of land for agricultural development and expansion. Faced

with such upheavals, the survivors of the Lake Nyos Gas

Disaster in Buabua and Kimbi villages now express the

dyeing need to return to the former disaster area.[16]Revealed

that the resettlement of disaster survivors has created social

conditions that have led to their relocation back to the disaster

zone. Analysis of relocation decisions shows that motivations



for relocation are caused mainly by social, economic and

cultural factors, which arise from resettlement [16].Expanding

the land area of these resettlement camps can be a motive to

halt back survivors, expand agriculture and sustain local

livelihoods.

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Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and the Sustenance of ... · Keywords─Lake Nyos Gas Disaster, IAK, Sustenance, Local livelihood strategies, resettlement Camps I. INTRODUCTION