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Indigenous Peoples in Central Africa:
the Case of the Pygmies
Quentin Wodon, Mohamed Arbi Ben-Achour, and
Prospere Backiny-Yetna
World Bank
Presentation made on December 20, 2010 at the
World Bank’s workshop on Indigenous Peoples,
Human Development and Poverty, Washington, DC
Introduction
The Pygmies are the Indigenous People of
Central Africa (CAR, DRC, Gabon, others)
They are one of the most vulnerable minority in
one of the poorest regions of the world
Therefore it is especially importance to take into
account their specific needs and how they may
benefit/suffer from development projects.
But data sources to assess the pygmies’ well-
being are scarce - the population is relatively
small and thus not well represented in surveys
Contribution & Today’s Presentation
Part I: First robust estimates of poverty and
human development indicators for the pygmies
CAR: 2003 national census
DRC: 2004-05 survey
Gabon: 2003 national census & poverty mapping
Part II: Qualitative/institutional analysis, part of
ESW to inform a pygmy strategy for the DRC
Also: Review of literature (not presented today)
Summary paper for the global indigenous study,
plus an edited volume with more detailed studies
How many pygmies are there? Census: 3,000 Gabon (<1%), 10,000 CAR (<1%)
DRC: anywhere from 60,000 to 700,000 (1%)
Previous estimates: 100,000 to 250,000
2004-05 household survey with weights: 63,097
Dynamique Pygmée: 450,000; NGOs for ESW: 660,000
Province Number % of total Name Lifestyle
Equateur 172,197 26% Twa Sedentary or semi-sedentary
Province Orientale 16,804 3% Mbuti Nomads in process of sedentarization
Bandundu 56,210 8% Twa Semi-sedentary
Oriental n.d n.d Nomads
Occidental n.d n.d Nomads
Maniema 4,452 1% Twa Semi-sedentary
Katanga 320,930 48% Twa Sedentary
Nord Kivu 25,871 4% Twa Sedentary
Sud Kivu 63,600 10% Twa Sedentary
Total 660,064 100%
Where do pygmies live? Case of DRC
Mostly rural, some still living in
forests, but sedentarization
Some geographic concentration,
but still widespread dispersion
in huge country
Costly to carry census
of pygmy population, but
required for better knowledge
How poor are the pygmies? CAR
Asset-based wealth indicator for now (poverty
mapping using 2003 census and 2007 QUIBB
household survey to be conducted soon)
Two “indigenous” groups: Pygmies and Mbororos
90% of pygmies in poorest quintile of wealth
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Total
National
Mbororos 46.7 14.0 13.1 11.6 14.6 100
Pygmy 89.7 6.2 2.4 0.9 0.8 100
Non-indigenous 21.0 18.7 20.1 20.1 20.1 100
All 21.4 18.6 20.0 20.0 20.0 100
How poor are the pygmies? CAR Education indicators, pop. 15 year and older (%)
Five times less likely to be still in school
Twice as likely to have no education at all
Mbororo Pygmy Non indigenous
Male Female All Male Female All Male Female All
Still in school 2.6 1.0 1.8 3.6 1.1 2.3 13.5 7.0 10.2
If not in school, highest achievement
None 93.8 97.3 95.5 86.3 93.6 90.1 41.3 66.1 53.9
Incomplete
Primary 2.7 1.3 2.0 11.3 5.7 8.4 19.8 14.5 17.1
Complete
Primary 1.3 0.5 0.9 1.5 0.2 0.9 12.4 6.7 9.4
Secondary 2.1 0.9 1.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 24.3 12.2 18.2
University 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 2.2 0.5 1.3
How poor are the pygmies? DRC
Very small sample size in household survey (29 out
of 12,000 households), but estimations indicative
Higher poverty, lower schooling/literacy, working
School
enrollment
rate (6-11
years)
Literacy
rate (15+
years)
Labor
force
part. 15+
years)
Unem-
ployment
rate (15+
years)
Share in
informal
sector
Poverty
incidence
Poverty
gap
Sq.
poverty
gap
Non-
Pygmy 56.1 65.0 73.8 6.2 90.2 71.7 32.4 18.1
Pygmy 18.7 30.5 85.9 1.0 100.0 84.8 39.4 25.1
All 56.0 64.9 73.8 6.2 90.2 71.7 32.3 18.0
How poor are the pygmies? Gabon
Poverty mapping technique using 2003 census and
2005 QUIBB household survey
Squared poverty gap ratio pygmy/non-pygmy: >3
Poverty
indicators
Per capita
consumption
(Fcfa per year)
Share of
population
in poverty
Poverty
Gap
Squared
Poverty
Gap Average Median
Pygmy 70.1 30.0 16.4 342896 303282
Non-Pygmy 32.7 10.7 4.9 760399 587879
All 32.8 10.7 4.9 760067 587589
How poor are the pygmies? Gabon
Education indicators, pop. 15 year and older (%)
More than four times less likely to be still in school
Almost four times more likely to have no education at allPygmy Non-Pygmy
AllMale Female All Male Female All
Still in school 6.7 3.4 5 21.9 22.3 22.1 22.1
If not in school, highest achievement
None 66.4 67.4 66.9 14.1 21.4 17.7 17.8
Incomp. Primary 23.4 24.2 23.8 11.3 15.7 13.5 13.5
Complete Primary 7.4 1.4 4.3 13.3 16.3 14.8 14.8
Secondary 1 0.5 0.7 43.4 34.7 39.1 39
University 0.3 0 0.1 9.6 3.9 6.8 6.8
World Bank ESW –Complex set of issues
Some of the main issues are: Citizenship and registration
Access to health services
education, potable water and sanitation
Access to land, agriculture and livestock
Environmental protection, forest zoning
Pygmy leadership capacity
Improvement of housing, quality of life
Sensitization of the public authorities
(nationally, regionally and locally)
to Pygmy-related issues
Evolution of localization, lifestyle
Traditionally nomadic hunter-gatherers
Pocess of semi-sedentarization under way since the 1960s, with today only about 20 000 still being nomad hunter-gatherers
Socioeconomic and cultural specificity eroding over time
Forests as natural habitats to which they are closely attached, but threatened by expansion of agricultural activities in forests, uncontrolled mining and logging, unplanned settlements (e.g. war)
Many abandon traditional lifestyle and seek shelter along main roads and next to larger villages and towns.
No land ownership and limited use rights and access to farm land and natural resources (Bantu customary law)
Horizontal societal organization (absence of hierarchy)
Speak own dialect; Have separate customary rules-regulations.
Perceive themselves and are perceived by Bantu as a distinct cultural and ethnic group
Relations with social environment
Land acquisition depends on consent of Bantu traditional “owners” and the payment of tributes
Limited know-how and experience with agriculture
Pygmies compelled to offer their labor to Bantu farmers for low wage rates or in exchange for basic food Limited income opportunities and povert
Malnutrition and marginalization
Historically harmonious trade relationships between Bantus and Pygmies gradually deteriorating and evolving towards Bantu domination and Pygmy subservience
Pygmies suffer from discrimination and abuse, then interiorize negative attitudes
Lack of confidence, Shame, Negation of own culture
Citizenship – De jure and de facto De jure
Equal citizens according to Constitution
Equal rights (to justice, education, healthcare,
judiciary, freedom of association and expression)
No special status as Indigenous Peoples, but
protection of minorities in Art. 51 of Constitution
De facto
Majority does not know their rights, often not
registered citizens, No ID, birth certificate etc.
Low participation in elections up until recently
Number of obstacles for candidacies
Access to judiciary and customary laws
Very limited access to judiciary, legal system
Own customary law not recognized
Land ownership and administrative land division (districts, sectors etc) regulated according to Bantu customary law
Reinforced by recent legislation, e.g Forestry Code
Makes land ownership, community forest concessions and administrative representation nearly impossible
However, new form of Pygmy representation through localité chiefs and emergence of small number of Pygmy and support organizations
Education and health
High illiteracy rates: 80% and up to 100% for women
Low schooling rates (20% for primary education)
Alarming health care indicators (high infant and maternal mortality, high prevalence of infectious diseases, parasites, AIDS and other STDs)
Obstacles to better schooling/health outcomes
Lifestyle (nomadic intervals, hygiene)
Discrimination by teachers/fellow students, healthcare officials
Distance to schools, health centers, vaccination campaigns
Child labor, fees and high costs of books/material
Illiterate parents, alcoholism, lack of information, endemic
malnutrition, isolation
Conclusion
With limited resources and opportunities, the Pygmies are facing
increasing marginalization, and social and economic
impoverishment
(e.g., poor health, alcoholism, loss of idenity, social fragmentation,
and limited access to schooling)
Pygmy culture has been internationally recognized as a universal
patrimony, but unless this process can be reversed, it will lead to
the loss of the Pygmies’ identity and cultural memory.
Recommendations
Capacity building
Access to education (alternative learning/teaching
techniques adapted to semi-nomad lifestyle), healthcare
Improve Pygmy representation in the administration,
relationship between communities (Pygmy and Bantu)
15 year, phased program, based on national consensus,
to be developed by government and funded by donors
Creation of Interministerial Committee and implementing
agency for recommendations in various sectors of concern
Pygmy Act endorsing their status as an indigenous people,
special needs and rights