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INDO - ARAB CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE 1

INDO - ARAB CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE


1. India’s contribution to science and technology (from ancient to modern).........................1-5

2. Nobel laureates of Indian Origin..................................................................................6-12

3. Inspiring lives of scientists and their contributions........................................................13-40

4. Conventional, non-conventional and clean energy sources of India..............................41-45

5. Iron Pillar- a wonder ................................................................................................46-47

6. Science and its various branches................................................................................48-50

7. Ayurveda and medicinal plants ..................................................................................51-57

8. Indigenous Agriculture, Biotechnology and Nano-technology .....................................58-61

9. Traditional Wisdom of Astronomy .............................................................................62-70

10. India in space: A remarkable Odyssey........................................................................71-81

11. Discovery of Gravitational Waves – The Indian Contributions.....................................82-83

Content

12. Arab Sciences ....................................................................................................................

5-9

10-16

17-44

45-49

50-51

52-54

55-61

62-65

66-74

75-101

102-103

104-116


Advancements in science and technology have been the major reason for thedevelopment of human civilization. India has been contributing to the fieldsof science and technology since ancient times. Even today, what we term

as ‘traditional knowledge’ is actually based on scientific reasoning.

Pre-Independence

The history of scientific discoveries and development in India dates back to theVedic era. Aryabhatta, the famous mathematician of the Vedic era, invented ‘zero’.It is believed that ancient Indian scholars had developed geometric theorems beforePythagoras had made them popular. The concept of squares, rectangles, circles,triangles, fractions, and the ability to express number 10 to the 12th power, algebraicformulae, and astronomy have all had their origins in Vedic literature; some arestated to have been known as early as 1500 BCE. The decimal system was alreadyin use during the Harappan Civilization. This is evident in their use of weights andmeasures. Moreover, the concepts of astronomy and metaphysics are all describedin the Rig Veda, an ancient Hindu text of the Vedic era.

From the complex layout of Harappan towns to the existence of the Iron Pillarin Delhi, it is evident that India’s indigenous technologies had been verysophisticated. They included the design and planning of water supply, traffic flow,natural air conditioning, complex stone work and construction engineering. TheIndus Valley Civilization was the world’s first to build planned towns withunderground drainage, civil sanitation, hydraulic engineering and air-coolingarchitecture. While other ancient civilizations of the world were small towns withone central complex, the Indus Valley Civilization had the distinction of being spreadacross a region about half the size of Europe. Weights and linguistic symbols werestandardized across this vast geography, for a period of over 1000 years, from around3000 BCE to 1500 BCE.

India’s Contribution to Science and Technology

(From Ancient to Modern)1


2 Indian Contributions to Science

Water Management

Water has been the life blood of most major civilizations. Criss-crossed by manygreat rivers, India is no exception to the rule. Indians had been developing watermanagement techniques even before the Harappan time. Wells, ponds, lakes, damsand canals have been constructed with advanced technologies throughout thehistoric timeline of Indian civilization. Water has been used for storage, drinkingand purposes of irrigation. It is estimated that even today, there are more than amillion man-made ponds and lakes in India.

Iron and Steel

Iron and steel have literally been the pillars of modern civilization. Ancient Indiawas pioneer in developing the technology of producing rust-free iron. This metalfrom India was famous in contemporary Europe for sword making. The famousIron Pillar of Delhi is a testimony to that technology which is almost rust freeeven today.

Farming Technique and Fertilizers

Indian farming technology was mostly indigenously developed and was ahead ofits time. It included soil testing techniques, crop rotation methods, irrigation plans,application of eco friendly pesticides and fertilizers, storage methods for crops,etc.

Physics

The concept of atom can be traced to the Vedic times. The material world wasdivided into five elements, namely, earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Vayu), water (Jal)and ether or space (Akasha). Paramanu (beyond atom) was considered to be thesmallest particle, which cannot be divided further. Nuclear energy is producedtoday splitting the same.

Medicine and Surgery

Ayurveda (Ayur means life, Veda means knowledge) is probably the oldeststructured system of medical science in the world. Proper knowledge about variousailments, diseases, symptoms, diagnosis and cure is the basis of Ayurveda. Manyscholars like Charaka and Susruta have made invaluable contribution to Ayurvedaby inscribing in written form, as found in ancient manuscripts.


India’s Contribution to Science and Technology (From Ancient to Modern) 3

Shipping and Shipbuilding

Shipbuilding was one of India’s major export industries till the British dismantledit and formally banned it. Medieval Arab sailors purchased boats from India. Eventhe Portuguese, instead of buying from Europe, also obtained their boats fromIndia. Some of the world’s largest and most sophisticated ships were built in Indiaand China. The compass and other navigation tools were already in use in India,much before Europe. Using their expertise in the science of maritime travel, Indiansparticipated in the earliest known ocean-based trading system.

Post-Independence

India has witnessed considerable growth in the field of science and technologypost Independence. Significant achievements have been made in the areas of nuclearand space science, electronics and defense. India has the third largest scientific andtechnical manpower in the world. In the field of Missile Launching Technology,India is among the top five nations of the world. Science and technology was broughtinto the mainstream of economic planning, with the establishment of the Departmentof Science and Technology (DST) in May 1971. DST, today, promotes new areas inscience and technology and plays the role of a nodal department for organizing,coordinating and promoting science and technology in the country.

Our country’s resources are used to get maximum output in the field ofagriculture and industry. Indian scientists are making path-breaking research inthe fields of agriculture, medicine, biotechnology, cold regions research,communications, environment, industry, mining, nuclear power, space andtransportation. Now, India has the expertise in the fields of astronomy andastrophysics, liquid crystals, condensed matter physics, molecular biology,virology, and crystallography, software technology, nuclear power and defenseresearch and development.

Atomic Energy

The main objective of India’s nuclear energy programme is to use it to generatepower, and apply the technology for further progress in agriculture, medicine,industry and research. India is, today, recognized as one of the most advancedcountries in nuclear technology. Accelerators and nuclear power reactors are nowdesigned and built indigenously.



Space

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the sixth largest space researchorganization in the world. It has numerous milestones to its credit since itsestablishment in 1969. India’s first satellite Aryabhatta was built by ISRO in 1975. Itwas followed by many more. In 2008, Chandrayaan-1 became India’s first missionto the moon. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), under the Departmentof Space (DOS), is responsible for research, development and operation in the spacethrough satellite communications, remote sensing for resource survey,environmental monitoring, meteorological services, and so on. India is the onlyThird World country to develop its own remote-sensing satellite.

Electronics and Information Technology

The Department of Electronics plays promotional role for the development anduse of electronics for socio-economic development. Application of electronics inareas such as agriculture, health and service sectors has also been receiving specialattention. For upgrading the quality of indigenously manufactured products, aseries of tests and development centres and regional laboratories have been set up.These centres for electronic design and technology help small and mediumelectronics units. Information Technology (IT) is one of the most important industryin the Indian economy. The IT industry of India has registered huge growth inrecent years. India’s IT industry grew from 150 million US dollars in 1990/91 to awhopping 500 billion US dollars in2006/07. In the last ten years, the IT industry inIndia has grown at an average annual rate of 30%.

Oceanography

India has a coastline of more than 7,600 km and 1,250 islands. The Department ofOcean Development was established in 1981 to ensure optimum utilization of livingresources, exploitation of non-living resources such as hydrocarbons and mineralsand production of ocean energy. Two research vessels, FORV Sagar Kanya and FORVSagar Sampada, are assessing and evaluating the resource potential.

Surveys and exploration efforts have been directed to assess sea bed topography,and concentration and quality of mineral nodules. India has sent 13 scientificresearch expeditions to Antarctica since 1981, and has established a permanentlymanned base, Dakshin Gangotri. A second permanent station, an entirelyindigenous effort, was completed by the eighth expedition. The objective was to


India’s Contribution to Science and Technology (From Ancient to Modern) 5

study the ozone layer and other important constituents like optical aurora,geomagnetic pulsation and related phenomena. The National Institute of OceanTechnology has been set up for the development of ocean-related technologies.

Biotechnology

India has been the frontrunner among the developing countries in promotingmultidisciplinary activities in this area, recognizing the practically unlimitedpossibility of their applications in increasing agricultural and industrial production,and in improving human and animal life. The National Biotechnology Board wasformed in 1982. The Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986. The areaswhich have been receiving attention are cattle herd improvement through embryotransfer technology, in vitro propagation of disease- resistant plant varieties forobtaining higher yields and development of vaccines for various diseases.

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) was established in 1942,and is today the premier institution for scientific and industrial research. It has anetwork of 40 laboratories, two cooperative industrial research institutions andmore than 100 extensions and field centres. It plays a leading role in the fulfilmentof the technological missions supported by the government.

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1. SIR RONALD ROSS

Ronald Ross was born in India in 1857 in Almora district, located in presentday Uttarakhand. His father was a General in the British Army in India.Ross lived in India until he was eight. Then he was sent to a boarding school

in England. He later studied medicine from St. Bartholomew Hospital in London.

When Ross was a small boy, he sawmany people in India fall ill withmalaria. At least a million peoplewould die of malaria due to lack ofproper medication. While Ross was inIndia his father fell seriously ill withmalaria, but fortunately recovered. Thisdeadly disease left an impression in hismind. When Ross returned to India aspart of the British-Indian medicalservices, he was sent to Madras wherea large part of his work was treatingmalaria patients in the army.

Ronald Ross proved in 1897 thelong-suspected link between mosquitoes and malaria. In doing so, he confirmedthe hypotheses previously put forward independently by scientists AlphonseLaveran and Sir Patrick.

Till that time, it was believed that malaria was caused by breathing in bad airand living in a hot, humid and marshy environment. Ross studied malaria between1882 and 1899. While posted in Ooty, he fell ill with malaria. After this, he wastransferred to the medical school in Osmania University, Secunderabad. Hediscovered the presence of the malaria parasite within a specific species of mosquitoof the genus Anopheles. He initially called them Dapple-wings. Ross made his

Nobel Laureates of Indian Origin2


Indian Contributions to Science 7

crucial discovery while dissecting the stomach of a mosquito fed on the blood of amalaria victim. He found the previously observed parasite. Through further study,he established the complete life cycle of this parasite. He contributed majorly tothe epidemiology of malaria and brought a method to its survey and assessment.Most importantly, he made mathematical models for further study. In 1902, Rosswas awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his remarkable work on malaria andwas conferred Knighthood as mark of his great contribution to the world of medicine.In 1926, he became the Director of the Ross Institute and Hospital for TropicalDiseases in London, which was founded in his honour. Ross dedicatedly advocatedthe cause and prevention of malaria in different countries by conducting surveysand initiating schemes in many places, including West Africa, Greece, Mauritius,Sri Lanka, Cyprus and many areas affected by the First World War.

In India, Ross is remembered with great respect and love. There are roads namedafter him in many Indian towns and cities. The Regional Infectious Disease Hospitalat Hyderabad was named after him as Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Tropical andCommunicable Diseases in recognition of his services. The building where heworked and actually discovered the malaria parasite, located in Secunderabad nearthe old Begumpet airport, is a heritage site and the road leading up to the buildingis named Sir Ronald Ross Road.

A small memorial on the walls of SSKM Hospital Kolkata commemorates Ross’discovery. The memorial was unveiled by Ross himself, in the presence of LordLytton, on 7 January 1927.

2. SIR C.V. RAMAN

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on 7 November 1888 at Tiruchirappalli,Tamil Nadu. His father, Chandrashekhara Iyer, was a lecturer in physics, in a localcollege. His mother Parvathi was a homemaker. He passed his matriculation whenhe was 12. He joined Presidency College in Madras. He passed his Bachelors andMasters examinations in science with high distinction. He had a deep interest inphysics.

While doing his Masters, Raman wrote an article on physics and sent it to variousscientific journals of England. On reading this article, many eminent scientists inLondon noted the talent of this young Indian. Raman wanted to compete for theICS examination. But to write that examination, one had to go to London. As hewas poor and could not afford it, he took the Indian Financial Service examinationconducted in India. He was selected and posted at Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar),which was then a part of British India.


8 Nobel Laureates of Indian Origin

Later, while working in Kolkata, heassociated himself with an Institute calledIndian Association for the Cultivation ofScience, which was the only researchinstitution in those days. While workingthere, his research work came to the noticeof the Vice Chancellor of CalcuttaUniversity. The Vice Chancellor appointedhim as Professor of Physics in CalcuttaUniversity. Sir Raman was in a goodposition in the Financial Service. Hesacrificed his profession and joined theacademic career. When he was working asa professor, he got an invitation fromEngland to attend a science conference.

As the ship was sailing through the Mediterranean Sea, Raman had a doubt asto why the sea water was blue in colour. This doubt initiated his research on light.He found out by experiment that the sea looks blue because of the ‘Scattering Effectof the Sunlight’. This discovery is called ‘The Raman Effect’. A question that waspuzzling many other scientists at the time was easily solved by him. His pioneeringwork helped him become a Member of Royal Society of London in 1924. He wasawarded with Knighthood by the British Empire in 1929. This discovery also gotSir Raman the Nobel Prize for Physics for the year 1930. He became the first Indianscientist to receive the Nobel Prize. Raman discovered ‘The Raman Effect’ on 28February 1928 and this day is observed as the ‘National Science Day’ in India. In1933, he joined the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, as Director. Later he quitthe post of Director and continued to work only in the Department of Physics. TheUniversity of Cambridge offered him a professor’s job, which he declined statingthat he is an Indian and wants to serve in his own country. Dr Homi Bhabha and DrVikram Sarabhai were his students. Sir C.V. Raman died on 21 November 1970.

3. SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was born on 19 October 1910 in Lahore. His father,Chandrasekhara Subrahmanya Iyer was an officer in Indian Audits and AccountsDepartment. His mother Sitalakshmi was a woman of high intellectual attainments.Sir C.V. Raman, the first Indian to get Nobel Prize in science, was his paternal uncle.Till the age of 12, Chandrasekhar was educated at home by his parents and privatetutors. In 1922, at the age of 12, he attended the Hindu High School. He joined the



Madras Presidency College in 1925.Chandrasekhar passed his Bachelors (hons)in physics in June 1930. In July 1930, he wasawarded a Government of India scholarshipfor graduate studies in Cambridge,England.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekharcompleted his PhD at Cambridge in thesummer of 1933. In October 1933,Chandrasekhar was elected to receive PrizeFellowship at Trinity College for the period1933–37. In 1936, while on a short visit toHarvard University, Chandrasekhar wasoffered a position as a Research Associateat the University of Chicago and remained there ever since. In September 1936,Chandrashekhar married Lalitha Doraiswamy. She was his junior at the PresidencyCollege in Madras.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar is best known for his discovery of ChandrasekharLimit. He showed that there is a maximum mass which can be supported againstgravity by pressure made up of electrons and atomic nuclei. The value of this limitis about 1.44 times a solar mass. The Chandrasekhar Limit plays a crucial role inunderstanding the stellar evolution. If the mass of a star exceeded this limit, thestar would not become a white dwarf but it would continue to collapse under theextreme pressure of gravitational forces. The formulation of the ChandrasekharLimit led to the discovery of neutron stars and black holes. Depending on the mass,there are three possible final stages of a star—white dwarf, neutron star and blackhole.

Apart from the discovery of the Chandrasekhar Limit, major works done bySubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar includes: stellar dynamics, including the theory ofBrownian motion (1938–43); the theory of radiative transfer, including the theory ofstellar atmospheres and the quantum theory of the negative ion of hydrogen andthe theory of planetary atmospheres, which again comprised the theory of theillumination and the polarization of the sunlit sky (1943–50); hydrodynamic andhydro magnetic stability, including the theory of the Rayleigh-Bénard convection(1952–61); the equilibrium and the stability of ellipsoidal figures of equilibrium,partly in collaboration with Norman R. Lebovitz (1961–68); the general theory ofrelativity and relativistic astrophysics (1962–71); and the mathematical theory ofblack holes (1974–83).



Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was awarded (jointly with the nuclearastrophysicist W.A. Fowler) the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983. He died on 21August 1995.

4. HAR GOVIND KHURANA

Har Govind Khurana was born on 9 January 1922 in a small village called Raipurin Punjab (now in Pakistan) and was the youngest of five siblings. His father was apatwari, an agricultural taxation clerk inBritish India.

Khurana had his preliminary schooling athome. Later he joined the DAV High Schoolin Multan. He graduated in science fromPunjab University, Lahore, in 1943 and wenton to acquire his Masters in science in 1945.He joined the University of Liverpool for hisdoctoral work and obtained his doctorate in1948. He did postdoctoral work atSwitzerland’s Federal Institute ofTechnology, where he met Esther Sibler whobecame his wife. Later, he took up a job atthe British Columbia Research Council inVancouver and continued his pioneering work on proteins and nucleic acids.

Khurana joined the University of Wisconsin in 1960, and 10 years later, joinedMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

Dr Khurana received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 alongwith M.W. Nirenberg and R.W. Holley for the interpretation of the genetic code, itsfunction and protein synthesis. Till his death, he was the Alfred P. Sloan Professorof Biology and Chemistry Emeritus at MIT. The Government of India honouredhim with Padma Vibhushan in 1969.

He won numerous prestigious awards, including the Albert Lasker award formedical research, National Medal of Science, the Ellis Island Medal of Honour,and so on. But he remained modest throughout his life and stayed away from theglare of publicity.

In a note after winning the Nobel Prize, Dr Khurana wrote: ‘Although poor, myfather was dedicated to educating his children and we were practically the onlyliterate family in the village inhabited by about 100 people.’ Following his father’s



footsteps, Dr Khurana imparted education to thousands of students for more thanhalf a century. He was more interested in the next project and experiments thancashing in on his fame. He was born in a poor family in a small village in Punjab,and by dint of sheer talent and tenacity rose to be one of science’s immortals. DrHar Govind Khurana died in a hospital in Concord, Massachusetts, on 9 November2011.

5. VENKATARAMAN RAMAKRISHNAN

Venkataraman Ramakrishnan was born in Chidambaram, a small town in Cuddaloredistrict in Tamil Nadu in 1952. His parents C.V. Ramakrishnan and Rajalakshmiwere lecturers in biochemistry at Maharaja Sayajirao University in Baroda, Gujarat.Venky, as he is popularly known, did hisschooling from the Convent of Jesus andMary in Baroda. He migrated to Americato do his higher studies in physics. Hethen changed his field to biology at theUniversity of California.

He moved to Medical ResearchCouncil Laboratory of Molecular Biology,Cambridge, UK. It was there he crackedthe complex functions and structures ofribosomes, which fetched him NobelPrize for Chemistry in 2009, along withThomas E. Steitz, USA and Ada E.Yonath, Israel. He became the fourthscientist of Indian origin to win a NobelPrize after Sir C.V. Raman, Har Gobind Khurana and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.

Venkataraman Ramakrishnan began his career as a Post-Doctoral Fellow withPeter Moore at Yale University, where he worked on ribosomes. After completingthis research, he applied to nearly 50 universities in the US for a faculty position.But he was unsuccessful. As a result of this, Venkataraman continued to work onribosomes from 1983 to 1995 in Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1995, he got anoffer from the University of Utah to work as a professor of biochemistry. He workedthere for almost four years and then moved to England where he started workingin Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology. Here, he began adetailed research on ribosomes.



In 1999, along with his fellow mates, he published a 5.5 angstrom resolutionstructure of 30s subunit of ribosome. In the subsequent year, Venkataramansubmitted a complete structure of 30s subunit of ribosome and it created a sensationin the field of structural biology.

Venkataraman earned a fellowship from the Trinity College, Cambridge andthe Royal Society. He is also an honorary member of the US National Academy ofSciences. In 2007, he was awarded with the Louis-Jeantet Prize for his contributionto Medicine. In 2008, he was presented with Heatley Medal of British BiochemistrySociety. For his contribution to science, he was conferred with India’s second highestcivilian award, the Padma Vibhushan in 2010.

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1. Sushruta

An ancient Indian surgeon dating back to almost 2,500 years ago, Sushrutamade numerous contributions to the field of surgery. Sushruta is regardedas the Father of Surgery. In his book Sushruta Samhita, he described over

300 surgical procedures, 120 surgical instruments and classified human surgerycategories. He lived, taught and practiced his art on the banks of the Ganges whichis now called Varanasi in North India.

Some of his contributions include surgical demonstration of techniques ofmaking incisions, probing, extraction of foreign bodies, alkali and thermalcauterization, tooth extraction, excisions, and so on. He also described removal ofthe prostate gland, urethra, hernia surgery, caesarian section, and so on. He classifieddetails of six types of dislocations, 12 varieties of fractures and types of bones andtheir reaction to injuries. He has written about 76 signs of various eye diseases,symptoms, prognosis, medical/surgical interventions and cataract surgery. Thereis also description of a method ofstitching the intestines by using ant-heads as stitching material. He evenintroduced the use of wine tominimize the pain of surgicalincisions.

Sushruta provided details ofalmost 650 drugs of animal, plant, andmineral origin. Other chapters inSushruta Samhita emphasizes on thewell-being of children and expectantmothers. Sushruta had also written indetail about the symptoms ofpoisoning, first-aid measures and

Inspiring Lives of Scientists and Their

Contributions3


Inspiring Lives of Scientists and Their Contributions 14

long-term treatment, as well as classification of poisons and methods of poisoning.The Sushruta Samhita was translated into Arabic and later into Persian. Thesetranslations helped to spread the science of Ayurveda far beyond India.

2. Bhaskara II

Bhaskara II, also known as Bhaskaracharya, was born in 1114 CE near Vijjaydavidaor present-day Bijapur in the state of Karnataka. Born to a family of scholars, helearnt mathematics from his astrologer father Mahesvara. A leading mathematicianof twelfth century, he wrote his first work on the systematic use of the decimalnumber system. He also headed the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, a leadingmathematical centre of ancient India.

His main work Siddhanta Shiromani, which has four parts, namely, Lilavati,Bijaganita, Grahaganita andGoladhaya deals with arithmetic,algebra, mathematics of the planetsand spheres, respectively. Bhaskarais particularly known for thediscovery of the principles ofdifferential calculus and itsapplication to astronomicalproblems and computations. WhileNewton and Leibniz have beencredited with differential andintegral calculus, there is strongevidence to suggest that Bhaskarawas a pioneer in some of theprinciples of differential calculus. Hewas perhaps the first to conceive the theorems of differential coefficient anddifferential calculus.

He conceived the modern mathematical finding that when a finite numberis divided by zero, the result is infinity. He also accurately defined manyastronomical quantities using models developed by seventh-century scholarBrahmagupta. For example, he calculated that the time that is required for the Earthto orbit the Sun is 365.2588 days. The modern accepted measurement is 365.2563days, a difference of just 3.5 minutes. Bhaskara wrote Karanakuthuhala, a book onastronomical calculations, which is still referred in making precise calendars.Bhaskara II was also a noted astrologer, and it is said that he named his first workafter his daughter Lilavati.



3. Aryabhatta

Aryabhatta is the earliest known mathematician and astronomer of India. The birthplace of Aryabhatta, who lived between circa 476–550 CE, is still a mystery. Whilemany believe that he was born in Pataliputra in Magadha, present-day Patna in thestate of Bihar, others are of the view that he was born in Kerala and lived in Magadhaat the time of the Gupta rulers. His works include the Aryabhamiya (499 CE, whenhe was 23 ) and the Arya Siddhanta.

His most famous work,Aryabhatiya is a detailed text onmathematics and astronomy. Themathematical part of theAryabhatiya covers arithmetic,algebra and trigonometry. It alsocontains continued fractions,quadratic equations, sums ofpower series and a table of sines.Aryabhatta is believed to havewritten at least three texts onastronomy and wrote some freestanzas as well. Aryabhatta was agenius and all his theoriescontinue to surprise many mathematicians of the present age. The Greeks and theArabs developed some of his works to suit their demands.

He wrote that if 4 is added to 100, multiplied by 8, added to 62,000 and thendivided by 20,000, the answer will be equal to the circumference of a circle ofdiameter 20,000. This calculates to 3.1416 close to the actual value of Pi (3.14159).He was also the one who created the formula (a + b) 2 = a2 + b2+ 2ab.

His other work Arya Siddhanta deals with astronomical calculation and thisis evident through the writings of Aryabhatta’s contemporary, Varahamihira andlater mathematicians and commentators, including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I.It contains description of several astronomical instruments like gnomon (shankuyantra), a shadow instrument (chhaya yantra), possibly angle-measuring devices,semicircular and circular instrument (dhanur yantra/chakra yantra), a cylindrical stickyasti yantra, an umbrella-shaped device called the chatra yantra and water clocks ofat least two types—bow-shaped and cylindrical.

Aryabhatta was aware that the earth rotates on its axis and that the earth



rotates round the sun and the moon moves round the earth. He discovered thepositions of the nine planets and related them to their rotation round the sun. Healso knew about the eclipse of the sun, moon, day and night, earth contours andthe 365 days as the exact length of the year. Aryabhatta also revealed that thecircumference of the earth is 39,968km. According to modern-day scientificcalculations it is 40,072 km. Solar and lunar eclipses were also scientificallyexplained by Aryabhatta. India’s first satellite Aryabhatta was named in his honour.

4. Jagadish Chandra Bose

Jagadish Chandra Bose was born on 30 November 1858 in Mymensingh (now inBangladesh). His father Bhagaban Chandra Bose was a deputy magistrate. Bosereceived early education in a vernacular village school. He was sent to Kolkata atthe age of 11 to learn English andwas educated at St. Xavier’s Schooland College. He was a brilliantstudent. He passed his Bachelors inphysical sciences in 1879.

In 1880, Bose went toEngland. He studied medicine atLondon University for a year butgave it up because of his ill health.Within a year, he moved toCambridge to take up a scholarshipto study Natural Science at Christ’sCollege, Cambridge. In 1885, hereturned from abroad with a BScdegree and Natural Science Tripos(a special course of study atCambridge).

After his return, he got a lecturer’s job at Presidency College, Kolkata, witha salary half that of his English colleagues. He accepted the job but refused to drawhis salary in protest. After three years, the college ultimately conceded his demandand Jagdish Chandra Bose was paid full salary from the date he joined the college.As a teacher, Jagadish Chandra Bose was very popular and engaged the interest ofhis students by making extensive use of scientific demonstrations. Many of hisstudents at the Presidency College later became famous in their own right andthose included Satyendra Nath Bose and Meghnad Saha.



In 1894, Jagadish Chandra Bose decided to devote himself to pure research.He converted a small enclosure adjoining a bathroom in the Presidency Collegeinto a laboratory. He carried out experiments involving refraction, diffraction andpolarization. It would not be wrong to call him as the inventor of wireless telegraphy.In 1895, a year before Guglielmo Marconi patented this invention, he haddemonstrated its functioning in public.

Jagadish Chandra Bose later switched from physics to the study of metalsand then plants. He was the first to prove that plants too have feelings. He inventedan instrument to record the pulse of plants.

Although Jagadish Chandra Bose did invaluable work in science, his workwas recognized in the country only when the western world recognized itsimportance. He founded the Bose Institute at Calcutta, devoted mainly to the studyof plants. Today, the Institute carries out research in other fields too. JagadishChandra Bose died on 23 November 1937.

5. Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray

Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray was bornon 2 August 1861 in Khulna district inpresent-day Bangladesh. His fatherHarish Chandra Ray was a landproprietor. Up to the age of nine, PrafullaChandra studied in a school in hisvillage. In 1870, his family migrated toCalcutta and Ray and his elder brotherwere admitted to Hare School. When inthe fourth standard, he suffered from asevere attack of dysentery and had topostpone his studies for a couple of yearsand returned to his ancestral home in thevillage. However, he utilized this time in reading literature.

A pioneer in chemical research in India, Prafulla Chandra Ray joined thePresidency College as a lecturer in chemistry in 1889 after completing highereducation at the Edinburgh University. With the help of a renowned French chemist,Berthelot, he did commendable research work in Ayurveda. In 1892, he foundedBengal Chemicals and Pharmaceutical Works, India’s first pharmaceutical company,which progressed phenomenally under his guidance. His book History of HinduChemistry was published in 1902. He attended several international science



congresses and seminars as a representative of Indian universities. In 1920, he waselected as President of Indian Science Congress Association.

Prafulla Chandra Ray’s ultimate aim was to make use of the wonders ofscience to uplift the masses. He wrote several articles on science, which werepublished in leading journals of the time. An ardent social worker, he was activelyinvolved in relief work during famine in 1922 in North Bengal. He advocated theuse of khadi and started several cottage industries. A firm believer in rationalism,he condemned the decadent social customs such as untouchability. He continuedwith his constructive social reform work till his death.

6.Birbal Sahni

The renowned paleobotanist, Birbal Sahni, was born on 14 November 1891 atShahpur district, now in Pakistan. He was the third son of Ishwari Devi and LalaRuchi Ram Sahni. He studied at the Government College, Lahore and PunjabUniversity and graduated from Emmanuel College, Cambridge in 1914. Aftercompletion of his education, Birbal Sahni came back to India and worked asprofessor of botany at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi and Punjab Universityfor about a year. In 1920, he married Savitri Suri, who took an interest in his workand was a constant companion.

He studied the fossils of the Indian subcontinent. He was the founder of BirbalSahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow. Palaeobotany is a subject that requiresthe knowledge of both botany and geology. Birbal Sahni was the first botanist tostudy extensively about the flora of Indian Gondwana region. Sahni also exploredthe Raj Mahal hills in Bihar, whichis a treasure house of fossils ofancient plants. Here he discoveredmany new genus of plants.

Birbal Sahni was not only abotanist but also a geologist. Byusing simple instruments and hishuge knowledge of ancient plants,he estimated the age of some oldrocks. He showed to the people thatthe salt range, now in PakistanPunjab, is 40 to 60 million years old.He found that the Deccan Traps inMadhya Pradesh were of the tertiary



period, about 62 million years old. Moreover, Sahni took a keen interest inarchaeology. One of his investigations led to the discovery of coin moulds in Rohtakin 1936. He was awarded the Nelson Wright Medal of the Numismatic Society ofIndia for his studies on the technique of casting coins in ancient India.

Being a teacher, Sahni first raised the standard of teaching at the Department ofBotany. Sahni died on the night of 10 April 1949, less than a week after laying thefoundation stone of his institute. The Institute of Palaeobotany was the first of itskind in the world. His wife completed the task he had left undone. The institute istoday known as the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany.

7. P.C. Mahalanobis

A well-known Indian statistician and scientist, Mahalanobis is greatly popular forintroducing new methods of sampling. His most significant contribution in thefield of statistics was the ‘Mahalanobis Distance’. Besides, he had also madepioneering studies in the field of anthropometry and had founded the IndianStatistical Institute.

Originally, the family of Mahalanobis belonged to Bikrampur, Bangladesh. Asa child, Mahalanobis grew up in an environment surrounded by socially activereformers and intellectuals. He had his initial education from Brahmo Boys Schoolin Calcutta. Further, he enrolled himself into Presidency College and got a BScdegree with specialization in physics. In 1913, Mahalanobis left for England forfurther studies and came in contact with S. Ramanujan, the famous mathematicianfrom India. After completion of hisstudies, he returned to India andwas invited by the Principal ofPresidency College to take classesin physics. Soon he was introducedto the importance of statistics andrealized that it was very useful insolving problems related tometeorology and anthropology.Many of his colleagues tookinterest in statistics and as a resultin his room in the PresidencyCollege, a small statisticallaboratory grew up where scholarslike Pramatha Nath Banerji, Nikhil



Ranjan Sen, and Sir R.N. Mukherji actively participated in all discussions. Themeetings and discussions led to the formal establishment of the Indian StatisticalInstitute which was formally registered on 28 April 1932. Initially, the Institute wasin the Physics Department of Presidency College, but later with passing time theinstitute expanded.

The most important contributions of Mahalanobis are related to large-scalesample surveys. He had pioneered the concept of pilot surveys and samplingmethods. He also introduced a method of measuring crop yields. In the later stageof his life, Mahalanobis became a member of the Planning Commission of India.During his tenure as a member of the Planning Commission of India, he significantlycontributed to the Five Year Plans of India.

The Mahalanobis Model was implemented in the second Five Year Plan of Indiaand it assisted in the rapid industrialization of the country. He had also correctedsome of the errors of the census methodology in India. Besides statistics,Mahalanobis had a cultural bend of mind. He had worked as secretary toRabindranath Tagore, particularly during the foreign visits of the great poet andalso worked in the Visva-

Bharati University. Mahalanobis was honoured with the second highest civilianaward of the country, Padma Vibhushan, for his immense contribution to the fieldof statistical science.

Mahalanobis died on 28 June 1972 at the age of 78. Even at such a ripe age hecontinued research work and discharged all his duties perfectly. In the year 2006,the Government of India declared 29 June, the birthday of Mahalanobis, as theNational Statistical Day.

8. Meghnad Saha

Meghnad Saha was an astrophysicist, best known for his development of the Sahaequation, used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars. MeghnadSaha was born on the 6 October 1893 in a village near Dhaka in Bangladesh. Hisfather Jagannath Saha had a grocery shop in the village. His family’s financialcondition was very bad. He studied in the village primary school while attendingthe family shop during free time. He got admitted into a middle school which wasseven miles away from his village. He stayed in a doctor’s house near the schooland had to work in that house to meet the cost of living. He was ranked first in theDhaka middle school test and got admitted into Dhaka Collegiate School.



Saha graduated from PresidencyCollege with major in mathematicsand got the second rank in theUniversity of Calcutta whereas thefirst one was bagged by SatyendraNath Bose, another great scientist ofIndia. In 1915, both S.N. Bose andMeghnad ranked first in MScexamination, Meghnad in appliedmathematics and Bose in puremathematics. Meghnad decided to doresearch in physics and appliedmathematics. While in college, he gotinvolved with the freedom struggleand came in contact with great leadersof his time like Subhash Chandra Bose and Bagha Jatin.

Meghnad Saha made remarkable contribution to the field of astrophysics. Hewent abroad and stayed for two years in London and Germany. In 1927, MeghnadSaha was elected as a Fellow of the London Royal Society. He joined the Universityof Allahabad in 1923 where he remained for the next 15 years. Over this period, hegained a lot of recognition for his work in astrophysics and was made president ofthe physics section of the Indian Science Congress Association in 1925.

In 1938, he became a professor of physics at the University of Calcutta. He tookseveral initiatives, such as, introducing nuclear physics in the MSc physics syllabusof the University of Calcutta, starting a post post-MSc course in nuclear science,and also took steps to build a cyclotron, the first of its kind in the country.

Saha also invented an instrument to measure the weight and pressure of solarrays and helped to build several scientific institutions, such as the Department ofPhysics in Allahabad University and the Institute of Nuclear Physics in Calcutta.He founded the journal Science and Culture and was its editor until his death. Hewas the leading spirit in organizing several scientific societies, such as the NationalAcademy of Science (1930), the Indian Physical Society (1934), Indian Institute ofScience (1935) and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (1944). Alasting memorial to him is the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, founded in 1943 inKolkata.

In addition to being a great scientist, he was also an able institution builder. Hefounded the Indian Science News Association at Calcutta in 1935 and the Institute



of Nuclear Physics in 1950. He is also credited with preparing the original plan forthe Damodar Valley Project.

Other than being a scientist, he was also elected as a Member of Parliament.Besides, Saha’s work relating to the reformation of the Indian calendar was verysignificant. He was the Chairman of the Calendar Reform Committee appointed bythe Government of India in 1952. It was Saha’s efforts which led to the formation ofthe Committee. The task before the Committee was to prepare an accurate calendarbased on scientific study, which could be adopted uniformly throughout India. Itwas a mammoth task, but he did it successfully. Saha died on 16 February 1956.

9. Satyendra Nath Bose

Satyendra Nath Bose came into thenews in connection with the discoveryof ‘Higgs Boson’ or popularly calledthe ‘God Particle’. Satyendra Nath Bosewas an outstanding Indian physicist.He is known for his work in QuantumPhysics. He is famous for the ‘Bose-Einstein Theory’ and a kind of particlein atom has been named after him asBoson.

Satyendra Nath Bose was born on 1January 1894 in Kolkata. His fatherSurendra Nath Bose was employed inthe Engineering Department of the EastIndia Railways. Satyendra Nath was the eldest of seven children. Satyendra did hisschooling from Hindu High School in Kolkata. He was a brilliant student and didhis college from the Presidency College, Kolkata with mathematics as his major.He topped the University in the Bachelors and Masters. In 1916, the University ofCalcutta started MSc classes in modern mathematics and modern physics. S.N. Bosestarted his career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in the University of Calcutta. Heserved there from 1916 to 1921. He joined the newly established Dhaka Universityin 1921 as a Reader in the Department of Physics. In 1924, Satyendra Nath Bosepublished an article titled ‘Max Planck’s Law and Light Quantum Hypothesis’.This article was sent to Albert Einstein, who appreciated it so much that he himselftranslated it into German and sent it for publication to a famous periodical inGermany—Zeitschrift fur Physik. The hypothesis received great attention and was



highly appreciated by scientists who named it as the ‘Bose-Einstein Theory’.

In 1926, Satyendra Nath Bose became a professor of physics in Dhaka University.Though he had not completed his doctorate till then, he was appointed as professoron Einstein’s recommendation. In 1929, Satyendra Nath Bose was elected asChairman of the Physics Session of the Indian Science Congress and, in 1944, asChairman of the Congress. In 1945, he was appointed as Khaira Professor of Physicsin the University of Calcutta. He retired from Calcutta University in 1956. TheUniversity honoured him on his retirement by appointing him as EmeritusProfessor. Later, he became the Vice Chancellor of the Visva-Bharati University. In1958, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, London.

Satyendra Nath Bose was honoured with Padma Bhushan by the Governmentof India in recognition of his outstanding achievements. He died in Kolkata on 4February 1974.

10. Salim Ali

Dr Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali or Dr.Salim Ali is synonymous with birds.The famous ornithologist-naturalistwas born on 12 November 1896 inMumbai. He is also known as the‘Birdman of India’. He pioneered asystematic survey on birds in India.His research work has shaped thecourse of ornithology in India to a greatextent. A great visionary, he madebirds a serious pursuit when it usedto be a mere fun for many. Orphanedat a very young age, Salim Ali wasbrought up by his maternal uncle,Amiruddin Tyabji who introducedhim to nature.

As a 10-year-old, Salim once noticed a flying bird and shot it down. Tender atheart, he instantly ran and picked it up. It appeared like a house sparrow, but hada strange yellowish shade on the throat. Curious, he showed the sparrow to hisuncle and wanted to know more about the bird. Unable to answer, his uncle tookhim to W.S. Millard, the Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society(BNHS). Amazed at the unusual interest of the young boy, Millard took him to see



many stuffed birds. When Salim finally saw a bird similar to the bird he had shotdown, he got very excited. After that, the young Salim started visiting the placefrequently.

Ali failed to get an ornithologist’s position at the Zoological Survey of Indiadue to lack of a proper university degree (He was a college dropout). He, however,decided to study further after he was hired as guide lecturer in 1926 at the newlyopened natural history section in the Prince of Wales Museum in Mumbai. Hewent on study leave in 1928 to Germany, where he trained under Professor ErwinStresemann at the Zoological Museum of Berlin University. On his return to India,in 1930, he discovered that the guide lecturer position had been eliminated due tolack of funds. Unable to find a suitable job, Salim Ali and his wife Tehmina movedto Kihim, a coastal village near Mumbai, where he began making his firstobservations of the Baya or the Weaver bird. The publication of his findings on thebird in 1930 brought him recognition in the field of ornithology.

Salim Ali was very influential in ensuring the survival of the Bombay NaturalHistory Society (BNHS) and managed to save the 200-year old institution by writingto the then Prime Minister Pandit Nehru for financial help. Dr Ali’s influence helpedsave the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary and the Silent Valley National Park. In 1990, theSalim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) was established atAnaikatty, Coimbatore, aided by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF),Government of India. He was honoured with a Padma Vibhushan in I976. He diedat the age of 90, on 20 June 1987.

11. Panchanan Maheshwari

Born in November 1904 in Jaipur,Rajasthan, Panchanan Maheshwari is afamous biologist. During his collegedays, he was inspired by Dr W.Dudgeon, an American missionaryteacher. Maheshwari invented thetechnique of test-tube fertilization ofangiosperms. Till then no one thoughtthat flowering plants could be fertilizedin test tubes. Maheshwari’s techniqueimmediately opened up new avenuesin plant embryology and foundapplications in economic and appliedbotany. Cross-breeding of many



flowering plants which cannot cross-breed naturally can be done now. The techniqueis proving to be of immense help to plant breeders. Maheshwari’s teacher onceexpressed that if his student progresses ahead of him, it will give him a greatsatisfaction. These words encouraged Panchanan to enquire what he could do forhis teacher in return. Dudgeon had replied, Do for your students what I have donefor you.’ Meticulously following his teacher’s advice, he did train a host of talentedstudents. He pursued his postgraduate university education in botany at AllahabadUniversity.

He went on to establish the Department of Botany in the University of Delhias an important centre of research in embryology and tissue culture. The departmentwas recognized by the University Grants Commission as Centre of Advanced Studiesin Botany.

Maheshwari was assisted by his wife in preparation of slides in addition toher household duties. Way back in 1950, he talked on contacts between embryology,physiology and genetics. He also emphasized the need of initiation of work onartificial culture of immature embryos. These days, tissue culture has become alandmark in science. His work on test-tube fertilization and intra-ovarian pollinationwon worldwide acclaim. He founded an international research journalPhytomorphology, which he continued editing till his death in May 1966, and a popularmagazine The Botanica in 1950. He was honoured with the Fellowship of RoyalSociety of London, Indian National Science Academy and several other institutionsof excellence. He also wrote books for schools to improve the standard of teachingof life sciences. In 1951, he founded the International Society of Plant Morphologists.

12. B. P. Pal

B.P. Pal, the famous agricultural scientist, was born in Punjab on 26 May 1906. Hisfamily later moved to Burma (presently known as Myanmar), then a British colony,to work as a medical officer. Pal studied at St. Michael’s School in Maymyo, Burma.Apart from being a brilliant student, Pal was fond of gardening and painting.

In 1929, Pal qualified for Masters in Botany at Rangoon University where healso won the Matthew Hunter Prize for topping all science streams at the University.He was awarded a scholarship which permitted him to pursue his postgraduateeducation at Cambridge. Dr Pal worked with Sir Frank Engledow on hybrid vigourin wheat at the famous Plant Breeding Institute. This provided the basis for thedesign of the Green Revolution, essentially based on the commercial exploitationof wheat hybrids.



In March 1933, Dr Pal was appointed Assistant Rice Research Officer in theBurmese Department of Agriculture. In October, the same year, he moved to Pusa,Bihar, to become the Second Economic Botanist at the Imperial Agricultural ResearchInstitute, which was renamed the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) in1947. IARI was earlier located in Pusa, Bihar, but after a severe earthquake whichdamaged its main building, the institute was shifted to New Delhi in 1936. Dr Palwas the first Indian Director of the IARI in New Delhi, and the institute was namedPusa in 1950. He continued to serve in that capacity until May 1965, when he becamethe first Director General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Heheld this position from May 1965 to January 1972, during which period the GreenRevolution was launched with outstanding success.

Dr Pal’s major contribution to the scientific aspects of the Green Revolutionwas in the area of wheat genetics and breeding. He observed that rust disease waslargely responsible for low yields of wheat and, therefore, developed a systematicbreeding method to develop varieties with resistance to rust disease. Then Indiawas reeling under a severe food crisis and was known in the world as a country ofstarving people. Dr Pal was instrumental in changing India’s global image and itsoon became an exporter of food grains.

Dr Pal was also a rose breeder of distinction and created several varieties. Hewas the founder President of the Rose Society and Bougainvillea Society. He alsofounded the Indian Society of Genetics and Plant Breeding and edited the IndianJournal of Genetics and Plant Breeding for 25 years. He was elected as a Fellow of theRoyal Society in 1972. He was awarded the Padmashri in 1959, the Padma Bhushanin 1968 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1987.

He died on 14 September 1989.

13. Homi Jehangir Bhabha

Homi Jehangir Bhabha, the mainarchitect of Indian Atomic Energyprogramme, was born in a rich Parsifamily on 30 October 1909 in Mumbai.He received his early education atMumbai’s Cathedral Grammar Schooland did his college in ElphinstoneCollege. He went to CambridgeUniversity, forced by his father and hisuncle Dorabji Tata, who wanted him



to get a degree in mechanical engineering so that on his return to India he can jointhe Tata Mills in Jamshedpur as a metallurgist.

Bhabha’s illustrious family background had a long tradition of learning andservice to the country. The family, both on his father’s and his mother’s side wasclose to the house of Tatas, who had pioneered projects in the fields of metallurgy,power generation and science and engineering, in the early half of the twentiethcentury. The family imbibed a strong nationalistic spirit, under the influence ofMahatma Gandhi and the Nehru family. The family also had interests in fine arts,particularly Western classical music and painting, that aroused Bhabha’s aestheticsensibilities, and it remained a dominant influence in all the creative work heundertook during his life time.

Bhabha, after completion of his engineering, switched over to physics. Duringthe period 1930–39, Bhabha carried out outstanding original research relating tocosmic radiation. This earned him a Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1940, at theyoung age of 31. Bhabha returned to India in 1939, and had to stay back on accountof the outbreak of the Second World War. He was selected to work at the IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore, where Sir C.V. Raman, India’s first Nobel laureatein Science, was at the time Head of the Department of Physics. Initially appointedas a Reader, Bhabha was soon designated as Professor of Cosmic Ray Research.

Bhabha’s leadership of the atomic energy programme spanned 22 years, from1944 till 1966. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was formally inauguratedin December 1945 in ‘Kenilworth’ building, which was Bhabha’s ancestral home. InJanuary 1966, Bhabha died in a plane crash near Mont Blanc while heading to Vienna,Austria, to attend a meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency.

14. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai

Fondly referred to as the ‘Father of theIndian space programme’, VikramSarabhai was born in Ahmedabad on 12August 1919 to an affluent family. It washis early years at a private school thatshaped his scientific bend of mind. Afterstudying at the Gujarat College in hishometown in 1937, he left for England tostudy physics at St. John’s College,Cambridge. There, Sarabhai earned anundergraduate tripods degree. That was



the year 1940 and the world was facing the Second World War. So, Sarabhai returnedto India and became a research scholar at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,where he studied the effects of cosmic rays.

It was at Bangalore, under the direct guidance of Nobel laureate, Dr C.V. Ramanthat he started setting up observatories in Bangalore, Pune and the Himalayas.Soon after the war was over, he returned to UK for a while. Sarabhai received a PhDfrom Cambridge University for his pathbreaking work.

His real work began in 1947 along with meteorologist, K.R. Ramanathan, whohelped him establish the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad. Initially, itconsisted of rooms at the Science Institute of the Ahmedabad Education Society.Analys‘ing and studying cosmic rays and atmospheric physics, the scientists setup two dedicated teams at the site. Sarabhai’s team realized that evaluating theweather was not enough to comprehend variations in the cosmic rays; they had torelate it to variations in solar activity. He was the pioneer researcher in the field ofsolar physics.

With such a big breakthrough in hand, Sarabhai soon received financial supportfrom the Indian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Departmentof Atomic Energy. And the support did not just end there. He was asked to organizethe Indian programme for the International Geophysical Year of 1957. Around thistime, the erstwhile Soviet Union launched Sputnik-1. India, not too far behind,decided to set up the Indian National Committee for Space Research chaired bySarabhai.

The visionary scientist set up India’s first rocket launching station, TERLS inThumba on the coast of the Arabian Sea on 21 November 1963 with the support ofHomi Bhabha from the Atomic Energy Commission. In 1966, Sarabhai was appointedas Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission following Bhabha’s untimelydemise. Sarabhai’s greatest achievement was the establishment of the Indian SpaceResearch Organization (ISRO). He died in his sleep at 52 on 31 December 1971.

The pioneering work on space science and research done by Dr Vikram Sarabhaiearned him Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Medal in 1962 and Padma Bhushan in 1966.

15. Varghese Kurien

Fondly called the ‘Milk Man of India’, Varghese Kurien was born on 26 November1921 in Kozhikode, Kerala. His father was a civil surgeon in Cochin. He graduatedin physics from Loyola College, Madras in 1940, and then did BE (mechanical)from the University of Madras. After completing his degree, he joined the Tata



Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur,from where he graduated in 1946. Hethen went to USA on a governmentscholarship to earn his Masters inmetallurgical engineering fromMichigan State University.

He is famously known as thearchitect of Operation Flood, the largestdairy development programme in theworld. Kurien helped modernize theAnand model of cooperative dairydevelopment and thus engineered theWhite Revolution in India, and madeIndia the largest milk producer in theworld. He is the founder of the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation,the cooperative organization that manages the Amul food brand. Amul is a globallyrecognized Indian brand and involves millions of Indians and gives direct controlto farmers. Kurien and his team were pioneers in inventing the process of makingmilk powder and condensed milk from buffalo’s milk instead of cow’s milk. Qualitypacked milk is now available in more than 1000 cities throughout the length andbreadth of India. And this milk is with a difference—pasteurized, packaged,branded, owned by farmers. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1999. Hepassed away in September 2012.

16. M.S. SwaminathanMankombu Sambasivan Swaminathanwas born on 7 August 1925 inKumbakonam, Tamil Nadu. Thisfamous geneticist is known as the manbehind India’s ‘Green Revolution’, aprogramme, which revolutionizedIndia’s farming scenario byintroducing high yielding crops. TheTime magazine placed him in theTime’s 20 list of most influential Asianpeople of the twentieth century. He isthe Founder and Chairman of the M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation.



His physician father was an ardent follower of Gandhi and it instilled a sense ofpatriotism in him. In college, he rejected more lucrative professions and studiedagriculture. He almost became a police officer, but a 1949 fellowship to studygenetics in the Netherlands changed his career path. In 1952, he earned his PhD ingenetics from Cambridge University and then did further studies at the WisconsinUniversity. There he turned down a professorship. He was clear about comingback to India and working here for the betterment of our country’s poor foodscenario.

He nurtured a vision to see a world devoid of hunger and poverty and advocatedthe cause of sustainable development. He also emphasized on the preservation ofbiodiversity. Swaminathan brought into India seeds developed in Mexico by theUS agricultural guru, Norman Borlaug, and, after cross-breeding them with localspecies, created a wheat plant that yielded much more grain than traditional types.Scientists at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) accomplished the samemiracle for rice. Imminent tragedy turned to a new era of hope for Asia, paving theway for the Asian economic miracle of the 1980s and 90s. Today, India grows about70 million tonne of wheat a year, compared to 12 million tonne in the early ’60s. Heserved as the Director

General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research from 1972–79 and becameUnion Minister for Agriculture from 1979–80. He also was Director General of theIRRI and became President of the International Union for the Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources. He received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for CommunityLeadership in 1971 and Indira Gandhi National Integration Award in 2013.

17. M.K. Vainu Bappu

Manali Kallat Vainu Bappu was born on10 August 1927 to a senior astronomer inthe Nizamiah Observatory, Hyderabad.M.K. Vainu Bappu is credited as the manbehind the creation of the Indian Instituteof Astrophysics. One of the greatestastronomers of India, Vainu hascontributed much to the revival of opticalastronomy in independent India. Bappujoined the prestigious HarvardUniversity on a scholarship afterreceiving his Masters in physics fromMadras University.



Within a few months of his studies, he discovered a comet, which was thennamed Bappu-Bok- Newkirk after him and his colleagues Bart Bok and GordonNewkirk. He completed his PhD in 1952 and joined the Palomar University. Heand Colin Wilson made an important observation about the luminosity of aparticular kind of star and it came to be known as the Bappu-Wilson effect. Hereturned in 1953 and played a major role in building the Uttar Pradesh StateObservatory in Nainital. In 1960, he took over as Director of Kodaikanal Observatoryand contributed a lot towards its modernization. He established the observatorywith a powerful telescope in Kavalur, Tamil Nadu.

Awarded with the prestigious Donhoe Comet Medal by the AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific in 1949, he was elected President of the InternationalAstronomical Union in 1979. He was elected Honorary Foreign Fellow of theBelgium Academy of Sciences and was an Honorary Member of the AmericanAstronomical Society. He succeeded to establish Indian Institute of Astrophysicsin Bangalore. His ambition of setting up a powerful 2.34m telescope materializedin 1986, four years after his death. Today, Bappu is regarded as the father of modernIndian astronomy.

18. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

Born on 15 October 1931 at Rameswaram,Tamil Nadu, Dr Avul Pakir JainulabdeenAbdul Kalam is a man of greatdistinction. Known as the Missile Manof India worldwide, he also became verypopular as India’s eleventh president.

Kalam had inherited his parent’shonesty and discipline which helpedhim in his life. He specialized inAeronautical Engineering from theMadras Institute of Technology. Beforebecoming the President of India, heworked as an aerospace engineer withthe Defence Research and DevelopmentOrganization (DRDO). Kalam’s contribution in the development of ballistic missilesand space rocket technology is noteworthy. He also played a pivotal organizational,technical and political role in India’s Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998.

He was a visiting Professor at IIM, Ahmedabad, IIM, Indore, and Chancellor of



Indian Institute of Space Science, Thiruvananthapuram among many others. DrKalam played a vital role as a Project Director to develop India’s first indigenousSatellite Launch Vehicle SLV-III which successfully put the Rohini satellite in thenear earth orbit in July 1980 and made India an exclusive member of Space Club.He was responsible for the evolution of ISRO’s launch vehicle programme,particularly the PSLV configuration. Dr Kalam was responsible for the developmentand operation of AGNI and PRITHVI Missiles. His books—Wings of Fire, India 2020—A Vision for the New Millennium, My Journey, and Ignited Mind: Unleashing the Powerwithin India—have become household names in India and among the Indiannationals abroad. These books have been translated in many Indian languages.

Dr Kalam was one of the most distinguished scientists of India with the uniquehonour of receiving honorary doctorates from 30 universities and institutions. Hehas been awarded the coveted civilian awards—Padma Bhushan (1981), PadmaVibhushan (1990) and the highest civilian award Bharat Ratna (1997). He passedaway on 27 July 2015 at Shillong.

19. Sam Pitroda

Satyanarayan Gangaram Pitroda,popularly known as Sam Pitroda, wasborn on 4 May 1942 at Titlagarh,Odisha. His parents were originallyfrom Gujarat and were strictGandhians. So Pitroda was sent toGujarat to imbibe Gandhianphilosophy. He completed hisschooling from Vallabh Vidyanagarin Gujarat and his Masters in physicsand electronics from MaharajaSayajirao University in Vadodara. Hewent to the US thereafter, andobtained a Masters in electricalengineering from Illinois Institute ofTechnology in Chicago.

This technocrat is an innovator, entrepreneur and policymaker. He has beenadvisor on Public Information Infrastructure and Innovations to the prime ministerof India, Dr Manmohan Singh. He is widely considered to have been responsiblefor bringing in revolutionary changes in India’s telecom sector. As technology



advisor to Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1984, Dr Pitroda not only heralded thetelecom revolution in India, but also made a strong case for using technology forthe benefit and betterment of society through several missions ontelecommunications, literacy, dairy, water, immunization, oilseeds, and so on.

He has served as Chairman of the National Knowledge Commission (2005–08),a high-level advisory body to the prime minister of India, set up to give policyrecommendations for improving knowledge-related institutions and infrastructurein the country. Dr Pitroda holds around 100 key technology patents, has beeninvolved in several start-ups, and lectures extensively around the world. He livesmainly in Chicago, Illinois, since 1964 with his wife and two children.

20. Anil KakodkarDr Anil Kakodkar, the famousIndian nuclear scientist, was born on11 November 1943 in Barawani, avillage in Madhya Pradesh. Hisparents Kamala Kakodkar and P.Kakodkar were both Gandhians. Hedid his schooling in Mumbai andgraduated from the Ruparel College.Kakodkar then joined VeermataJijabai Technological Institute,Mumbai, in 1963 to obtain a degreein mechanical engineering. In 1964,Anil Kakodkar joined the BhabhaAtomic Research Centre (BARC),Mumbai.

He was the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AECI) andSecretary to the Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy. He was alsothe Director of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay during the period1996–2000, before leading India’s nuclear programme.

Anil Kakodkar was part of the core team of architects of India’s Peaceful NuclearTests that were conducted during the years 1974 and 1998. He also led theindigenous development of the country’s Pressurised Heavy Water ReactorTechnology. Anil Kakodkar’s efforts in the rehabilitation of the two reactors atKalpakkam and the first unit at Rawatbhatta are noteworthy as they were about toclose down.



In 1996, Anil Kakodkar became the youngest Director of the BARC after HomiBhabha himself. From 2000–09, he headed the Atomic Energy Commission of IndiaDr Anil Kakodkar has been playing a crucial role in demanding sovereignty forIndia’s nuclear tests. He strongly advocates the cause of India’s self-reliance byusing thorium as a fuel for nuclear energy.

21. G. Madhavan Nair

Dr G. Madhavan Nair was born on 31 October 1943 in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.This former Chairperson of theIndia Space Research Organization(ISRO) is known as the man behindChandrayaan, India’s firstunmanned mission to the moon.

Nair did his graduation inelectrical and communicationengineering from the University ofKerala in 1966. He then underwenttraining at Bhabha Atomic ResearchCentre (BARC), Mumbai. He joinedthe Thumba Equatorial RocketLaunching Station (TERLS) in 1967.During his six years’ tenure atISRO, as many as 25 successfulmissions were accomplished. He took a keen interest in programmes such as tele-education and tele-medicine for meeting the needs of society at large. As a result,more than 31,000 classrooms have been connected under the EDUSAT networkand tele-medicine is extended to 315 hospitals—269 in remote rural/districthospitals including 10 mobile units and 46 super specialty hospitals.

He also initiated the Village Resource Centres (VRCs) scheme through satelliteconnectivity, which aims at improving the quality of life of the poor people in thevillages. More than 430 VRCs have now access to information on important aspectslike land use/land cover, soil and groundwater prospects, enabling farmers to takeimportant decisions based on their queries.

In the international arena, Dr Madhavan Nair has led the Indian delegations forbilateral cooperation and negotiations with many space agencies and countries,especially with France, Russia, Brazil, Israel, and so on, and has been instrumentalin working out mutually beneficial international cooperative agreements. G.



Madhavan Nair has led the Indian delegation to the S&T Sub-Committee of UnitedNations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS) since 1998. Hewas awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India’s second highest civilian award in 2009.

22. Vijay Bhatkar

Dr Vijay Pandurang Bhatkar is one of the most acclaimed scientists and IT leadersof India. He is best known as thearchitect of India’s firstsupercomputer ‘Param’ and as thefounder Executive Director of C-DAC, India’s national initiative insupercomputing. He is credited withthe creation of several nationalinstitutions, notably amongst thembeing C-DAC, ER&DC, IIITM-K,I2IT, ETH Research Lab, MKCL andIndia International Multiversity.

As the architect of India’s Paramseries of supercomputers, DrBhatkar has given India GISTmultilingual technology andseveral other pathbreakinginitiatives. Born on 11 October 1946 at Muramba, Akola, Maharashtra, Bhatkarobtained his Bachelors in engineering from VNIT Nagpur in 1965. This wasfollowed by Masters from MS University, Baroda and a PhD in engineering fromIIT Delhi, in 1972.

He has been Member of Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet ofGovernment of India, Governing Council Member of CSIR and Chairman of e-Governance Committees, governments of Maharashtra and Goa.

A Fellow of IEEE, ACM, CSI, INAE and leading scientific, engineering andprofessional societies of India, he has been honoured with Padmashri andMaharashtra Bhushan awards. Few of the many recognitions he has received includeSaint Dnyaneshwar World Peace Prize, Lokmanya Tilak Award, HK Firodia andDataquest Lifetime Achievement Awards. He was a nominee for the PetersburgPrize and is a Distinguished Alumni of IIT, Delhi.

Dr Bhatkar has authored and edited 12 books and 80 research and technicalpapers. His current research interests include Exascale Supercomputing, Artificial



Intelligence, Brain-Mind- Consciousness and Synthesis of Science and Spirituality.He is presently the Chancellor of India International Multiversity, Chairman of ETHResearch Lab, Chief Mentor of I2IT, Chairman of the Board of IIT-Delhi and NationalPresident of Vijnana Bharati.

23. Kalpana Chawla

Kalpana Chawla was born on 17 March 1962 in Haryana’s Karnal district. She wasinspired by India’s first pilot J.R.D. Tata and had always wanted to fly. She did herschooling from Karnal’s TagoreSchool, and later studiedaeronautical engineering fromPunjab University. To give wings toher aeronautical dream, she movedto America. After obtaining aMasters of Science in aerospaceengineering from the University ofTexas in 1984, four years later,Chawla earned a doctorate inaerospace engineering from theUniversity of Colorado. In the sameyear, she started working at NASA’sAmes Research Center. Soon,Chawla became a US citizen andmarried Jean-Pierre Harrison, afreelance flying instructor. She also took keen interest in flying, hiking, gliding,travelling and reading. She loved flying aerobatics, tail-wheel airplanes. She was astrict vegetarian and was an avid music lover.

Chawla joined NASA’s space programme in 1994 and her first mission to spacebegan on 19 November 1997 as part of a six-astronaut crew on Space ShuttleColumbia Flight STS-87. She logged more than 375 hours in space, as she travelledover 6.5 million miles in 252 orbits of the earth during her first flight. While onboard,she was in charge of deploying the malfunctioning Spartan Satellite. Interestingly,she was not only the first Indian-born but also the first Indian-American in space.

As a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator, Chawla was one ofthe seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003.



24. Sunita Williams Pandya

Born on 19 September 1965 to DrDeepak and Bonnie Pandya at Ohioin the US, Sunita Williams Pandyaholds three records for female spacetravellers—longest space flight (195days), number of space walks (four)and total time spent on space walks(29 hours and 17 minutes).

Williams’s roots on her father’sside go back to Gujarat in India andshe has been to India to visit herfather’s family. Williams attendedNeedham High School in Needham,Massachusetts, graduating in 1983. She went on to receive a Bachelor of Science inphysical science from the United States Naval Academy in 1987, and a Master ofScience in engineering management from Florida Institute of Technology in 1995.The 47-year-old Williams has been on her expedition to space in July 2012. She wasa flight engineer on the station’s Expedition 32 crew and was designated commanderof Expedition 33 on reaching the space station.

Sunita is very fond of running, swimming, biking, triathlons, windsurfing,snowboarding and bow hunting. She is married to Michael J. Williams, a FederalPolice Officer in Oregon. The two have been married for more than 20 years, andboth flew helicopters in the early days of their careers.

She is a devotee of Hindu God Ganesha. She took with her a copy of the BhagavadGita and an idol of Ganesha when she visited the International Space Station on herrecord-breaking space flight. She took the English translation of the VedicUpanishads on her trip in July 2012.

25. Sabeer Bhatia

Sabeer Bhatia was born in Chandigarh on 30 December 1968. He grew up inBangalore and had his early education at The Bishop’s School in Pune and then atSt. Joseph’s Boys’ High School in Bangalore. In 1988, he went to the US to obtain hisBachelors degree at the California Institute of Technology after a foreign transferfrom BITS Pilani, Rajasthan. He earned a Masters in electrical engineering from theStanford University.



After graduation, Sabeerbriefly worked for AppleComputers as a hardwareengineer and for FirepowerSystems Inc. While working there,he was amazed at the fact that hecould access any software on theinternet via a web browser. He,along with his colleague JackSmith, set up Hotmail on 4 July1996.

In the twenty-first century,Hotmail became one of world’slargest e-mail providers with over369 million registered users. As President and CEO, he guided Hotmail’s rapidrise to industry leadership and its eventual acquisition by Microsoft in 1998. Bhatiaworked at Microsoft for a little over a year after the Hotmail acquisition and inApril 1999, he left Microsoft to start another venture, Arzoo Inc., an e-commercefirm.

Bhatia started a free messaging service called JaxtrSMS. According to him,JaxtrSMS, would do ‘to SMS what Hotmail did for e-mail’. Claiming it to be adisruptive technology, he says that the operators will lose revenue on the reductionin number of SMSs on their network but will benefit from the data plan that theuser has to buy.

Bhatia’s success has earned him widespread acclaim. The venture capital firmDraper Fisher Jurvetson named him ‘Entrepreneur of the Year 1997’; MIT chosehim as one of 100 young innovators who are expected to have the greatest impacton technology and awarded ‘TR100’; San Jose Mercury News and POV magazineselected him as one of the 10 most successful entrepreneurs of 1998; and Upsidemagazine’s list of top trendsetters in the New Economy named him ‘Elite 100’.

Sabeer was inducted into Eta Kappa Nu (HKN) as an undergraduate student.

26. Smt. Anna Mani

Anna Mani was an Indian physicist and meteorologist. She was the Deputy DirectorGeneral of the Indian Meteorological Department.

Anna Mani was born in Peerumedu, Travancore on 23 August 1918. Since



childhood, she had been a voracious reader.She wanted to pursue medicine, but shedecided in favour of physics because sheliked the subject. In 1939, she graduatedfrom Presidency College Madras, with aB.Sc Honors degree in physics andchemistry. Thereafter, she worked underProfessor C. V. Raman, researching on theoptical properties of ruby and diamond.She authored five research papers, but shewas not granted a PhD because she did nothave a Masters in physics. Then she movedto Britain to pursue physics, but she endedup studying meteorological instruments atImperial College London. After returning to India in 1948, she joined theMeteorological department in Pune. She retired as the deputy director general ofthe Indian Meteorological department in 1976. She conducted research and hadpublished numerous papers on solar radiation, ozone and wind energy as well ason meteorological instrumentation. She was believed in Gandhian principles. In1994, she suffered from a stroke, and died on 16 August 2001 in Thiruvananthapuram.The main publications by Anna Mani are Wind Energy Resource Survey in India, SolarRadiation over India and The Handbook for Solar Radiation Data for India.

27. E. K. Janaki Ammal

Janaki Ammal Edavaleth Kakkat was an Indian botanist who conducted scientificresearch in cytogenetics and phytogeography. Her most notable work involves thoseon sugarcane and the eggplant. She had collected various valuable plants ofmedicinal and economic value from the rain forests of Kerala.

Janaki Ammal was born in 1897, in Thalassey, Kerala. Her father was DewanBahadur Edavalath Kakkat Krishnan, sub-judge of the Madras Presidency. Afterschooling in Thalassery, she moved to Madras where she obtained her Bachelorsfrom Queen Mary’s College, and an honors degree in botany from PresidencyCollege in 1921. Ammal taught at Women’s Christian College, Madras, with asojourn as a Barbour Scholar at the University of Michigan in the US where sheobtained her Masters in 1925. Returning to India, she continued to teach at theWomen’s Christian College. She went to Michigan again as the first Oriental BarbourFellow and obtained her D.Sc. in 1931. She returned as professor of botany at theMaharaja’s College of Science, Trivandrum, and taught there from 1932–34. From



1934–39, she worked as a geneticist atthe Sugarcane Breeding Institute,Coimbatore.

Ammal made several intergenerichybrids: Saccharum x Zea, Saccharum xErianthus, Saccharum x Imperata andSaccharum x Sorghum. Ammal’s work atthe Institute on the cytogenetics ofSaccharum officinarum (sugarcane) andinterspecific and intergeneric hybridsinvolving sugarcane and related grassspecies and general such as Bambusa(bamboo) were epochal.

From 1940–45, she worked as assistant cytologist at the John Innes HorticulturalInstitution in London, and as cytologist at the Royal Horticultural Society at Wisleyfrom 1945–51. The Chromosome Atlas of Cultivated Plants which she wrote jointly withC.D. Darlington in 1945 was a compilation that incorporated much of her own workon many species. On the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru, she returned to India in1951 to reorganize the Botanical Survey of India (BSI). She was appointed as Officeron Special Duty to the BSI on 14 October 1952. She served as the Director General ofthe BSI.

Following her retirement, Ammal continued to work focusing special attentionon medicinal plants and ethno botany. She settled down in Madras in November1970, working as an Emeritus Scientist at the Centre for Advanced Study in Botany,University of Madras. She lived and worked in the Centre’s Field Laboratory atMaduravoyal near Madras until her demise on 7February 1984.

Ammal was elected Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1935, and ofthe Indian National Science Academy in 1957. The University of Michigan conferredan honorary LL.D. on her in 1956. The Government of India conferred the Padmashrion her in 1977. In 2000, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Governmentof India instituted the National Award of Taxonomy in her name.

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Energy is an inevitable requirement for growth. Researchers will tell you thatthe more energy a society consumes per capita, the better is its quality oflife. Whenever in the history of mankind we have made a breakthrough in

our lifestyle, our energy consumption has also significantly increased—be it whenpeople settled into villages to start farming or at the time of the Industrial Revolution.

As a developing country, India is in a state of transition in energy usage andhas rapidly increasing energy demands to support its growth story. Growing energydemands and concerns for energy security are now spurring us to look for alternativeenergy sources. We have abundant reserves of coal and more than 50% of our energyneeds are met by coal. But we do not have enough petroleum reserves, hence, weimport more than 70% of our petroleum needs. Reducing our dependence on foreignsources of oil is one more reason why we are exploring new avenues of energy.

This is where we want the renewable and non-conventional energy resources tostep in. Though it is difficult to estimate when the world will run out of fossil fuels,it is certain that we will run out of them. Some estimates will tell you two decadeswhile others would say we have enough for the next two centuries. For dependablesources of energy in future, we have to look beyond coal and petroleum and exploreenergy sources that might be entirelynew or the old ones we haveforgotten about.

Often the terms ‘renewable’ and‘non-conventional’ are erroneouslyused interchangeably. A renewableenergy resource is one whosereserves can be replenished fromtime to time. Many tried and trustedenergy forms such as wood, charcoal,

Conventional, Non-conventional and

Clean Energy Sources of India4



bio-wastes are all renewable. Archaeological digs tell us about metal works inancient world that had kept their furnaces fired up for thousands of years byrenewably utilizing stretches of forest lands. If it is a renewable source of energy, itdoes not have to be non-conventional and neither does it need to be clean.

Non-conventional energy sources are those which have not been historicallyused. So, the technology for their use is still developing and scientists are workingcontinuously to make their utilization process more efficient. Examples arehydroelectricity, solar photovoltaic plants and nuclear energy. One must rememberthat coal or petroleum did not just become ubiquitous sources of energy overnight.A considerable amount of research and scientific genius, starting from the nineteenthcentury, went into getting them to where they are today in terms of reliability andlarge-scale use. Hence, it should not be surprising or perplexing that growth ofnon-conventional energy sources would also require similar volumes of researchand patience.

A non-conventional energy source need not always be clean and renewable,example being nuclear energy. India has a well-developed, indigenous nuclearpower programme and considerable amount of fuels in the form of Thorium sandsfor the breeder reactors. Though during the process of power production, nopollutants are emitted from a nuclear plant, the problem starts with the spent nuclearfuel rods. Even though they can no longer be used for power production, thesefuel rods are still considerably radioactive, which makes their disposal a problem.As of now, these fuel rods are disposed off by burying them in concrete insidedeep mines or bore holes from where their radiation cannot affect living beings.But considering that some of these radioactive elements can remain active forthousands of years, the hope is to arrive at better disposal technology. While it isscary to think of what an accident at a nuclear power plant might do to theneighbouring areas, these perils are well known to the plant designers who make anuclear power plant more robust and safer than other conventional power plants.

India has vast potentials for developments in all three forms of energy—renewable, non-conventional and clean. But, it is anticipated by most researchersthat the drive to move to renewable energy would not so much be due to end offossil fuels as due to the harmful effect that fossil fuels have on our environments.So, here, we shall primarily confine our discussion to clean and renewable sources.


Conventional, Non-conventional and Clean Energy Sources of India 43

Clean and Renewable Energy Sources:

India has limited potential in the field of hydroelectricity and much of it has alreadybeen realized. Currently, there is much stress and interest regarding micro-hydroelectric projects. These would result in small hydro-turbines running on smallor large rivers and a series of such turbines along the river can meet the energyrequirements of a number of villages instead of one. Also, the construction ofgigantic dams across rivers can be avoided.

Most of our country’s renewable energy potential lies in the development ofwind energy. Wind energy surveys of large parts of the country are still in progress.We might have an even larger potential than estimated. Till mid-2016, more than17 GW wind energy production capacity had been installed.

Being located in the Tropical zone, India receives plenty of sunlight. But regularrains due to monsoon results in having very few areas—like parts of Gujarat andRajasthan—of uninterrupted sunshine to generate electricity through solar energy.Currently, all solar power projects are photovoltaic in nature while small-scalesolar thermal installations are operational in cities like Chennai and Bengalurugiving hot water, water purification and other heating requirements for privatehomes and hotels. There are future plans of establishing large-scale solar thermalpower plants in regions of Rajasthan. Such a plant would use the sun’s energy tovapourize water and the steam to drive a turbine for power production. There are,of course, the usual barriers to development of solar power, namely, large initialinvestment and large land area requirement.



Another viable mean of energy production is conversion of organic waste intoenergy. We have had some success in this regard through pilot biogas projects inseveral villages across the country. Researchers are developing more and new waysof making energy from organic matters, waste or otherwise. One of the ways isproduction of Syngas, which can be used to produce hydrocarbons and syntheticpetroleum in the long run.

One vital aspect of energy use, apart from power generation, is transportation.This sector has also seen the growth of new fuels that could end our dependenceon imported petrol. Amongst alternative fuels, we now use liquefied petroleumgas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), mixtures of CNG and hydrogen. Futureplans include use of hydrogen in petrol-burning engines too. Biodiesels—derivedfrom oil of plants like jatropha, karanja and even from algae and mixed with dieselin a 20:80 ratio—are used, though in limited scope. The greatest advantage ofdeveloping alternative fuels is that they can be used in the current vehicles with

minimal to no changes. And most importantly, these alternative fuels have minimaladverse effects on atmosphere compared to fossil fuels.

Parallel to developing and exploring new energy sources, we should alsoemphasize on the economic use of our resources. No replacement for fossil fuels isgoing emerge suddenly out of the blue. Even if it does, with a growing population,

A wind farm


Conventional, Non-conventional and Clean Energy Sources of India 45

our energy demands are increasing much faster than ever before in history. Theneed of the hour is efficient use of energy and end of all wasteful usage. We needto have more efficient refrigerators and air-conditioners. We should stress onbuilding efficient lighting systems and street lights that would light up and shutoff depending on amount of surrounding light. We need more efficient power plantsthat may burn coal but do it more completely and cause lesser pollution. If wecontinuously strive towards these goals, we are bound to attain energy security ona long-term basis.

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The Iron Pillar in Delhi has attracted the attention of archaeologists and metallurgistsfrom all over the world for years. This marvelous structure has withstood corrosionfor the last 1,600 years, despite harsh weather conditions. The pillar is a testamentto the high level of skill achieved by ancient Indian blacksmiths in the extractionand processing of iron. Made up of 98% wrought iron of pure quality, it is 23 feet 8inches high and has a diameter of 16 inches.

Experts at the IIT-Kanpur (Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur) resolvedthe mystery behind the 1,600-year-old iron pillar in the year 2002. Metallurgists atIIT-Kanpur have discovered that a thin layer of ‘misawite’—a compound of iron,oxygen and hydrogen—has protected the cast iron pillar from rust. This protectivelayer took form within three years after erection of the pillar and has been growingvery slowly since then. After 1,600 years, the film has grown just one-twentieth of amillimeter thick. The protective layer was formed in the presence of high amountof phosphorus that acted like a catalyst. It was a unique iron-making process

Iron Pillar of India5


Iron Pillar of India 47

practiced by ancient ironsmiths in India who reduced iron into steel in one step bymixing it with charcoal. Modern blast furnaces, on the other hand, use limestone inplace of charcoal yielding molten slag and pig iron that is later converted into steel.In the process, most phosphorous content is carried away by the slag. The pillar,almost 7m high and weighing more than 6 tonne, was erected by Chandragupta IIVikramaditya (375–414 CE) of the Gupta dynasty that ruled northern India during320–540 CE. \

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Human beings differ from other animals in many ways. Of particularimportance is the ability to think, communicate and use language. This,in turn, gives us the skill to pass on information from one generation to

the next. This ability has been more or less responsible for the growth of a systematicanalysis of different questions. Systematic analysis of any question can be calledscience. Science is in no way limited to the laboratories or classrooms. What yourmother does as part of her cooking process in her kitchen, skills that have beenhoned over years of experimentation and careful observation, is not far from ascientist experimenting in a lab.

Once any query is analysed in a particular, rational modus operandi, it is obviousto gather some views and answers. Next comes the second litmus test for science:results must be repeatable and reproducible. What one person does in a lab inIndia, she/he should be able to get the same result multiple times by someone elsein a lab located in a different country. For instance, Japan should also get the sameresult using the same input and instruments. It is easy at times to think that whatappears in scientific writings are the author’s personal views. However, whensomething is actually circulated as part of the larger body of scientific knowledgein reputed scientific publications, it has been cross-checked by multipleindependent researchers and the rational thought process of all related scholarsagrees with those facts. This ensures that ‘false science’ and erroneous claims cannotbe sustained for any considerable duration.

The person who invented the wheel, the person who discovered fire, the tribethat discovered agriculture, they were all scientists in their own right. From thetimes of the early Greeks till the times of Galileo and Newton, those whom we, inpresent days refer to as scientists were actually philosophers or naturalists.Archimedes was a philosopher as was Galileo; even Darwin was a naturalist. Amore stringent categorization of science into branches came about with the growthof scientific knowledge. People like Archimedes and Aristotle contributed to allbranches of human knowledge without bothering about the divisions of physics,

Science and Its Various Branches6


Science and Its Various Branches 49

chemistry or biology. This trend can also be seen among philosophers like Galileo,Leonardo da Vinci, Johannes Kepler and Newton; they also did not have a fixedarea or branch of study. They analysed nature as they observed it and tried to comeup with suitable explanations. Sometimes when they felt the need to extend therange of human senses, they also invented devices like a telescope or a microscope.In those times, you could also find a person like Benjamin Franklin, who was apolitician and a diplomat, but was also a skilled observer of nature; he proved thatlightning was a manifestation of electric discharge and also invented bifocal lenses.

Science and mathematics have always been closely interrelated. Mathematicsenjoys the undisputed position of being the universal language of science,irrespective of your branch of interest. Many a times in history, it becomes difficultto classify people as just scientists or mathematicians. Newton himself is equallyfamous as both, though his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica often referredto as simply the Principia would primarily be considered as a mathematical text.One comes across names like Gauss, Euler, Bernoulli, Pascal—people who madebreakthroughs in mathematics and then applied them to the natural sciences tofurther our understanding of the natural world.

As the body of scientific knowledge increased and the study of science becamepart of university curriculums, it was found that for one person to be able toassimilate and work on such a variety of topics would be impossible. So peopleneeded to specialize and develop topics of study such as physics, life sciences,chemistry, and so on. In the past, we had people like Faraday who made excellentcontributions to physics and chemistry; his two major contributions being laws ofelectromagnetism and laws of electrolysis. We also have Louis Pasteur whograduated with honors in physics and mathematics but worked mainly in the fieldof chemistry, and alongside, discovered that most diseases are caused bymicroscopic germs. Later, life sciences branched out into botany and zoology—studying plants and animals, respectively. Eventually, those studying chemistry,took leave of their colleagues pursuing too. Broad divisions of science emerged onthe basis of their subject matter, with chemistry forming a kind of feeble bondbetween all three. With time, more specialized topics arose like organic chemistry,astrophysics and paleobotany (study of fossilized plants). With increasingunderstanding and knowledge, the degree of specialization has also increased andhas grown narrower every day. To paraphrase what the famous science fiction writerIsaac Asimov once said: As we increase our knowledge of the world we live in,people will be more and more specialized in their chosen topics and the only peopleto know something about all branches of science would be science fiction writers.



In recent years, however, with deeper understanding, the inherent connectionbetween the different branches has been increasingly felt. The subject matters arestill too vast for one person to be able to work on two different fields of knowledge.But the growing feeling is that to be able to better answer the questions about naturethat still baffle us or to be able to face the new challenges, greater coordination andsharing of knowledge is required amongst experts from various fields. For example,consider the MRI machine in a hospital. To ensure that this machine works and canbe used for diagnosis, a coordinated effort by mathematicians, physicists, engineers,software programmers and doctors is needed to take place. Works of differentdomains of science are starting to intersect more and more and some of the bestresearch is being carried out by interdisciplinary endeavours. Some interestingexamples that are at the intersection of two or more disciplines are bioinformatics,biomechanics, quantum computing and molecular biology. Some of the areas ofconcern that use multidisciplinary research include global warming, sustainabledevelopment, land management and disaster relief.

Another important differentiation exists among scientists in terms of how theywork on their respective fields. There are theoretical researchers who studyproblems, try to hypothesize solutions and attempt to model the problem as wellas solution using mathematics. Then we have experimentalists who design a set-up and conduct experiments either to verify a hypothesis made by the theoreticiansor to learn more about the system being studied. A newly emergent approach—due to massive increase in use of computers—is the computational approach whereone may simulate a system on a computer and try to solve its equations or simulatecertain experiments being performed on the system.

An interesting differentiation of the disciplines occurs quite naturally from theirscale of studies. We have scientists who study things as big as the galaxies toscientists studying sub atomic particles. In between these two extremes, you canimagine a whole range of sizes where the interests of different scientists lie. Youcould have a biologist dealing with normal living organisms, the ones we see inour everyday lives. Then you might have a microbiologist studying microorganismsor molecular biologists studying the fundamental molecules that sustain andpropagate life. The diversity is ever increasing.

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Ayurveda and Its Various Treatment Methods

Ayurveda, which literally translates as ‘the knowledge for long life’, is aform of alternative medicine which originated in India over 5000 yearsago and is a time-tested health-care science. The Sushruta Samhita and

Charaka Samhita are considered as the encyclopedias of medicine and are regardedas the foundational works of Ayurveda. Over the centuries, practitioners ofAyurveda developed a number of medicinal preparations and surgical proceduresfor the treatment of various ailments. Kerala, the southern state of India, is popularworldwide for its booming Ayurvedic treatment centres. In Kerala, Ayurveda isnot treated as alternative but more as a mainstream treatment process.

Ayurveda emphasizes in restoring the balance of Vata, Pitta and Kapha in thebody through diet, lifestyle, exercise and body cleansing, and thereby enhancingthe health of the mind, body and spirit. It is now very popular in treating problemssuch as obesity, skin and body purification, stress management, spondylitis,arthritis, psoriasis, insomnia, constipation, Parkinson’s disease, frozen shoulder,Tennis elbow, and so on. Some of the popular Ayurvedic treatment methods arelisted below.

Abhyangam: Abhyangam is a special type of oil massage and is veryuseful in treating obesity and diabetic gangrene (a condition developeddue to lack of blood circulation in certain parts of the body). The massageis done with a combination of specially prepared Ayurvedic herbal oilsand applied all over the body stimulating the vital points. This treatmentis good for the general health of the skin and prevents early aging andrelieves muscular aches and pain.

Dhara: In the Dhara treatment process, herbal oils, medicated milk,buttermilk, and so on are allowed to flow on the forehead in a specialrhythmic method for about 45 minutes in a day for 7 to 21 days. This

Ayurveda and Medical Plants7



treatment is ideal for insomnia, mental disorders, neurasthenia, memoryloss and certain skin diseases.

In Thakra Dhara, after giving head massage, medicated buttermilk ispoured in an uninterrupted flow from a hanging vessel to the foreheadand scalp. This is good in treating scalp problems such as dandruff,Psoriasis, hypertension, diabetes, hair loss and other skin complaints. InSiro Dhara, after giving a good head massage, herbal oil is poured in anuninterrupted flow from a hanging vessel to the forehead and scalp. Thisis considered good in relieving stress and strain and generates sleep.

Sirovasthy: In Sirovasthy, a cap is fitted on the patient’s head and thenmedicated lukewarm oil is poured into it for about half an hour. Iteffectively treats insomnia, facial paralysis and numbness in the head,dryness of nostrils, throat and headaches.

Pizhichil: In Pizhichil, warm herbal oil is applied to the entire body ina rhythmic style for about an hour. The vigorous sweating in the processtreats problems like arthritis, paraplegia, paralysis, sexual dysfunctionand many nerve-related problems.

Virechanam: Virechanam is the method of cleaning and evacuation ofthe bowels through the use of purgative medicines. It eliminates excessbile toxins from the intestines. People with digestion-related problemsresort to this form of treatment. When the digestive tract is clean and toxic-


Ayurveda and Medical Plants 53

free, it benefits the entire body system. It helps increase appetite and properassimilation of the food.

Kayavasthy: In Kayavasthy, the body is treated with warm medicatedoil. The oil is kept on the lower back of the patient for 30 to 45 minutes ina boundary made of herbal pastes. It treats back pain and other problemsin the lower vertebral area.

Medicinal PlantsAyurveda and medicinal plants are synonymous. In rural India, 70 per cent of thepopulation depends on traditional medicines or Ayurveda. Many medicinal herbsand spices are used in Indian style of cooking, such as onion, garlic, ginger, turmeric,clove, cardamom, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, fenugreek, fennel, ajwain, anise,bay leaf, hing (asafoetida) and black pepper. Ayurvedic medicine uses all of theseeither in diet or in the form of medication. Some of these medicinal plants havebeen featured on Indian postage stamps also.

As per the National Medicinal Plants Board, India has 15 agro climatic zonesand 17,000–18,000 species of flowering plants. Out of this, 6000–7000 species areestimated to have medicinal usage. About 960 species of medicinal plants areestimated to be in trade, of which 178 species have annual consumption levels inexcess of 100 metric tonne.

Medicinal plants are not only a major resource base for the traditional medicineand herbal industry but also provide livelihood and health security to a large

A Few herbs that have medicinal value



segment of the Indian population. India is the largest producer of medicinal plants.The domestic trade of the AYUSH industry is of the order of 80–90 billion. Indianmedicinal plants and their products also account for exports to the tune of 10 billion.

There is a global resurgence in traditional and alternative health-care systems,resulting in increased world herbal trade. The world herbal trade, which stands at120 billion US dollars today, is expected to reach 7 trillion US dollars by 2050.India’s share in the world trade, at present, however, is quite low.

Some of the most popular medicinal plants in India are listed below:

Guggulu is a shrub found in the arid and semiarid zones of India,particularly Rajasthan. It is used in the treatment of various categoriesof ailments such as neurological conditions, leprosy, skin diseases, heartailments, cerebral and vascular diseases and hypertension.

Brahmi is a herb that spreads on ground with fleshy stems and leaves.It is found in moist or wet places in all parts of India. Brahmi is usefulfor treating brain diseases and to improve memory power. It isprescribed in rheumatism, mental disorders, constipation, and bronchitis.It is also a diuretic.

Amla or the Indian gooseberry is a medium- sized deciduous tree foundthroughout India. The pale yellow fruit is known for its varied medicinalproperties. It is regarded as a digestive, carminative, laxative, anti-pyreticand tonic. It is prescribed in colic problems, jaundice, haemorrhages,flatulence, etc.

Amla or Indian Gooseberry



Ashwagandha is a small- or medium-sized shrub found in the drierparts of India. It is prescribed for nervous disorders and is also consideredas an aphrodisiac. It is used to treat general weakness and rheumatism.

Arjuna tree holds a reputed position in both Ayurvedic and Unanisystems of medicine. According to Ayurveda, it is useful in curingfractures, ulcers, heart diseases, biliousness, urinary discharges, asthma,tumours, leucoderma, anaemia, excessive perspiration, and so on.

Aloe Vera is a popular medicinal plant. It contains over 20 minerals,all of which are essential to the human body. The human body requires22 amino acids for good health, eight of which are called ‘essential’because the body cannot fabricate them. Aloe Vera contains all of theseeight essential amino acids, and 11 of the 14 ‘secondary’ amino acids.Aloe Vera has Vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C and E. In India, Aloe Verais believed to help in sustaining youth, due to its positive effects on theskin.

Neem is famous for its blood purifying properties. Many herbalistsrecommend chewing the leaves, taking capsules of dried leaf, or drinkingthe bitter tea. It helps the gastrointestinal system, supports the liver andstrengthens the immune system. It is extremely effective in eliminatingbacterial and fungal infections or parasites. Its antiviral activity can treatwarts and cold sores.

Tulsi, a common medicinal Plant



History of the Organized Development of Ayurveda in ModernIndia

Ayurveda, as such, does not need any introduction to the people of India. Tillrecently, Ayurveda has been practiced by most households and stayed as amainstream health care system in the country. In March 1995, the Department ofIndian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) was created by theGovernment of India. Later, in November 2003, this Department was renamed asthe Department of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Homoeopathy) underthe Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. The primaryobjective of the Department of AYUSH is to provide focused attention to thedevelopment of education and research in Ayurveda, yoga and naturopathy, Unani,Siddha, and homoeopathy systems of medicines. The Department lays emphasison upgradation of AYUSH educational standards, quality control andstandardization of drugs, improving the availability of medicinal plant material,research and development, and awareness generation about the efficacy of thesystems domestically and internationally. Today, almost all state governments havea Department of AYUSH pushing traditional Indian systems of medicine to themainstream.

The National Rural Health Mission (2005–12) is a major programme of theGovernment of India. The NRHM seeks to provide effective health care to the ruralpopulation throughout the country with special focus on 18 states, which haveweak public health indicators and/or weak infrastructure. Among its various goals,the one that pertains to the Ayurveda sector is its goal on revitalizing local healthtraditions and mainstreaming AYUSH systems of medicines into the public healthsystem.

With the efforts of the government and several non-governmental organizations,Ayurveda is slowly and steadily coming back to its pre-eminent position. One ofthe awareness generation activities needs special mention here. The WorldAyurveda Congress and AROGYA Expo, organized by Vijnana Bharati, which isably supported by the Department of AYUSH, is a massive promotional event onAyurveda that attracts all stakeholders, both national and international. Began in2002 and held every two years, the World Ayurveda Congress has completed itsSixth edition in 2014 at New Delhi. The Honourable Prime Minister of India ShriNarendra Modi has given the valedictory address in the Sixth edition of the WorldAyurveda Congress and immediately after three hours, a new ministry for AYUSHwas declared by the Union Government. In each of its editions, the AROGYA Expo—an exhibition that displays Ayurvedic products, treatment methodologies and



educational institutions—generates awareness among lakhs of common citizens.Today, the Government of India, actively promotes Ayurveda in various countriesas well.

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Agriculture

India is an agrarian country. This statement today remains as true as it was 69years ago in spite of agriculture not making up the largest part of our economy.As our economy stands now, the major growth and portion of the national income

comes from the services sector, but the largest part of our working population isengaged in agriculture and related activities. Most Indians still make theirlivelihoods from the country’s farmland. There are two aspects to what makes theagricultural sector important to our country. One is the need to feed our ever-growing population without depending on food imports. The other is about thebasic strength of any economy. While short-term growth spurts can be achieved byeconomic activities based on value addition (like the services sector), for the long-term health of an economy and for it to have strong basics, primary sectors thatgenerate products (such as agriculture) need to be strong.

After Independence, our agricultural sector was suffering from many illsincluding lack of irrigation facilities, inequitable distribution of land and almostzero use of technology to improve production. As such, at that point too, we wereheavily dependent on importing grains to feed our population. In the 1960s, thissituation was not unique to India. Several Third World countries had got theirindependence and they were struggling to feed their populations. At this point oftime, the introduction of Green Revolution is supposed to have saved the lives ofone-third of the world’s population. The man who is credited with it is Dr NormanBorlaug. In 1963, he introduced high-yielding varieties of wheat in India. That wasthe turning point for our agriculture and we have been moving ahead from there.Several measures were introduced to improve agricultural production along withthe use of high-yielding crop varieties. In this task, the group of indigenous scientistsled by Dr M.S. Swaminathan played a major role. The other steps taken include:development of irrigation facilities, more widespread use of chemical fertilizers,pesticides, insecticides, land reforms and consolidation of land holdings underchakabandi, use of mechanized instruments in land tilling, harvest and post-harvest

Agriculture, Biotechnology and Nano

Technology in India8


Agriculture, Biotechnology and Nano Technology in India 59

functions, easier and smoother availability of agricultural loans and ruralelectrification to facilitate running of farm machineries.

Simultaneously, the government also invested in opening agriculturaluniversities and research laboratories to develop indigenous technologies. Thisled to developing wheat and paddy crop varieties that are typically suited to ourclimate and the vagaries of monsoon—flooding or droughts—are pest resistantand have better yield, thereby lowering the risks for farmers.

Unfortunately, for long after the Green Revolution, there were very few changesmade in our approach to agriculture and as a result, production suffered. Thisoccurred in spite of the high yield crops we talked about previously. What wehave realized is that over the last couple of decades, the total land area underproduction has decreased, our population has kept increasing as ever and ouragricultural productions have been forced to cope with the growing demand.Unfortunately, this had caused long and indiscriminate use of chemicals in ourfarms. Farmers no longer depend on any natural manures or crop rotation torevitalize their fields. Long use of synthetic chemicals leads to fields reaching theirmaximum capacity of production while the weeds, pests and insects grow resistant.

Now is the ideal time for a second Green Revolution. For the past decade,

A Typical result of Green Revolution



agricultural scientists have been focusing on finding organic alternatives to thechemical fertilizers and insecticides and there has been some considerable success.Irrigation facilities have also been improved and people are growing more consciousof maintaining a stable underground water table. The plans are to make our fieldsless dependent on the monsoons, thus eliminating a highly variable factor from theproduction. Initiatives are concentrating on completing rural electrification withdependable power supply and recycling groundwater through techniques likerainwater harvesting. By consulting agricultural scientists, farmers are able to betterdetermine the specifics of when to use what kind of chemical aids, the precisequantum to beused precisely and what organic supplements to use so that theycan give better yields without over-stressing the land. This has decreased theindiscriminate use of chemicals in our farms and, hence, the contamination ofneighbouring areas and water resources too. There is a growing trend of soil testingand field evaluations of local conditions, which has enabled the researchers toprovide better suggestions to the farmers. This has made the process of farmingmuch more scientific and has also reduced the expenses of the farmers as now theyhave to use specific amounts of fertilizers or pesticides.

Biotechnology and Nano technology

There has been considerable hope put on biotechnology and nanotechnology.Biotechnology deals with applications of living organism to improve humaninitiatives. When we talk of biotechnology in India, we tend to talk primarily of itsuse in health and agricultural sectors. In medicine, it would mean better and cheapermedicines, new therapies to deal with age-old adversaries like cancer, vaccinationsand diagnostics. In agriculture, the expectations are in terms of developing higheryielding seeds by manipulating the very genes of plants, bio pesticides and bio-fertilizers, and food preservation and processing. Food preservation is essential aswe still lose almost 30% of our food grain production a year due to poor storagefacilities.

Nanotechnology, on the other hand, is a relatively unexplored area with onlygovernment-funded research so far. But the hopes associated with it are great.Nanotechnology is a technology of very small scales—a thousand times smallerthan the thickness of a human hair. At such scales, though the basic nature of matterremains the same, a lot of structural flaws can be removed making things stronger,catalysts more efficient and medicines working faster. The current goal is to directnanotechnology research to enhance agricultural productivity by helping geneticimprovements, treatment of polluted water resources, and making crops more


Agriculture, Biotechnology and Nano Technology in India 61

resistant to pest or insect attacks. In future, we could have nano particles-basedinsecticides where we would need to spray just a small quantity of it over an entirehectare.

There are several hurdles to beovercome before these goals can beachieved, especially assessment of long-term use of nanotechnology andbiotechnology on human health. Today,India seems to be on the right track and thefuture looks promising.

***


Development of astronomy in India has come a long way since the Vedic times and now ISRO heads our space exploration and research in astronomy.

When mentioning Indian astronomy, an image that automatically comes to our mind is that ofthe Jantar Mantar. It was built by Sawai Jai Singh of Jaipur in the eighteenth century. These collectionsof huge instruments for astronomical observations were fundamentally based on ancient India’sastronomy texts. Five Jantar Mantars were built to revise the calendars and make a more accuratecollection of tables that could predict the motions of the major stars and planets. This data was tobe used for more accurate time measurement, improved predictions of eclipses and better trackingof positions of stars and planets with relation to earth. They are so large in scale that it is supposedto have been aimed at increasing their accuracy. In the Jantar Mantar, one can find the world’slargest sundial and literally see the sun’s shadow move every second. Records also show thattelescopes were built and used in certain observations. This kind of accuracy helped produce inthose ages some remarkably accurate results, which even contemporary Europeans could notbeat.

One important lesson to learn from the Jantar Mantars is that the Raja built five of them. Hecould have built just one and been happy with the results. He built five so that the results given byone observatory could be verified against those of another. This kind of verification obviouslyreduced the human error involved when taking readings on an instrument. Also, the five observatorieswere in five different cities. Thus, one could check the position readings of heavenly bodies fromdifferent parts of earth and again verify the overall results. This shows a strong display of thescientific enquiry method in the minds of our past astronomers.

The ideas behind Jantar Mantar came from ancient Indian texts written by Aryabhata,Varahamihira, Bhaskaracharya and others. The most important texts of ancient Indian astronomyhad been compiled between the fifth and fifteenth century CE—the classical era of Indian astronomy.The more familiar ones among these works are Aryabhatiya, Aryabhatasiddhanta, Pancha-siddhantika and Laghubhaskariyam. Ancient Indian astronomers were notable in several respects.Their achievements are even more baffling considering they never used any kind of telescopes.They put forth the sun-centric theory for the solar system, elliptical orbits for planets instead of

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Astronomy in India 63

circular ones, reasonably accurate calculations for the length of a year and the earth’s dimensions,and the idea that our sun was no different from the countless other stars in the night sky.

Somewhere during the Middle Ages, progress in the field of astronomy stood still and anadmixture of astronomy and astrology arose. With colonization, the European school of astronomydisplaced our own. The last remarkable astronomer in pre-Independence India was SamantaChandrasekhara. His book Sidhant Darpana and his use of simple instruments in getting accurateobservations earned him praise even from the British.

Jaipur’s Nadi Valve Yantra tells you the sun’s hemispheric position

In our present era, the Indian space programme stands on the contributions made by two giants inthe field of physics—Homi J Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai. It was their tireless efforts, whichinitiated work in space research under the Department of Atomic Energy.

Over this period of time, India also produced some remarkable astronomers and astrophysicists.Meghnad Saha and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar are two world renowned names in astrophysics.On the side of the observational astronomy, we had Dr M.K. Vainu Bappu—till date the onlyIndian to have a comet named after him/her. Currently, the Giant Meter-wave Radio Telescope(GMRT) at Khodad near Pune is the largest of its kind in the world. The Kavalur observatory,named after Dr Bappu, is one of the best equipped in the eastern hemisphere.

Kavalur Observatory



Jantar Mantar—Ancient Astronomical Observatories of India and SomeInstrumentsHistorically, Indian astronomy developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of ‘auxiliary disciplines’associated with the study of the Vedas. The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, datedbetween 1400–1200 BCE.

Indian astronomy was in its peak in the fifth–sixth centuries with Aryabhata and his Aryabhatiyarepresenting the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge. Later, Indian astronomy influenced Muslimastronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy and others significantly. Other astronomersof the classical era, who further elaborated on Aryabhata’s work, include Brahmagupta, Varahamihiraand Lalla.

An identifiable astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and intothe eighteenth century, especially within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics foundedby Sangamagrama Madhava (1350–1425 AD) of Irinjalakkuda in Kerala.

The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the fifth–sixth centuries.The Panchasiddhantika (Varahamihira, 505 CE) approximates the method for determination ofthe meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using Gnomon or Sanku.

Once, while visiting the court of Emperor Muhammad Shah, Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipuroverheard a loud argument about how to calculate the most astronomically advantageous date for

Partial Solar Eclipse Images taken at the VBO, Kavalur



the purpose of the emperor beginning a journey. To the Maharaja, the debate highlighted the needfor education in the field of astronomy and for an observatory that could make accurate astronomicalcalculations. The idea for the Jantar Mantars or calculation instruments was born.

The Jantar Mantar consists of a number of structures in stone, brick and marble, each of themmarked with astronomical scales and designed to serve a specific purpose. Of the observatoriesoriginally built at Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura, Ujjain and Varanasi, all observatories still exist except theone in Mathura.

Among the devices used for astronomy was Gnomon, known as Sanku, in which the shadowof a vertical rod is applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, thelatitude of the point of observation and the time of observation. This device finds mention in theworks of Varahamihira, Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Brahmagupta, among others.

The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention inthe works of Aryabhatta (476 CE). The Goladipika—a detailed treatise dealing with globes andthe armillary sphere was composed between 1380–1460 CE by Parameswara. Probably, thecelestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillarysphere since the seventh century. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water.

The seamless celestial globe invented in Mughal India, especifically in Lahore and Kashmir, isconsidered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats inmetallurgy and engineering. All globes, before and after this, were seamed, and in the twentiethcentury, creating a seamless metal globe was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible,even with modern technology.

Laghu Samrat Yantra in Jaipur

The small Sun dial or Laghu Samrat Yantra is the instrument used for time calculation. From oneside, the wall is inclined at an angle of 27 degrees, which is equivalent to the latitude of Jaipur. Itis graduated to the scale of tangent to find out the declination angle of the sun.



Rashivalaya (Star Sign)It is a group of 12 instruments with graduated quadrants on both the sides. As mentioned in books,the purpose of constructing these 12 instruments was to get the direct determination of celestiallatitude and longitude. The method of observing celestial latitude and longitude is precisely thesame as that described for Samrat Yantra, and just as the quadrant of the latter represents theequator, so also the quadrants of the Rashivalaya represent the ecliptic at the moment of observation.The instruments are constructed in such a scientific way that one of these 12 is used, at the moment,when each sign of the zodiac reaches the local meridian.

Samrat Yantra

The Samrat Yantra may be described as a gigantic sun dial. Literally, it means the king of all theinstruments. It is not only the biggest of all the yantras but is also the most extraordinary in accuracyand excellence of its construction.



Misra Yantra

The Delhi observatory has one feature, the Misra Yantra, which is not included at any of the othersites. In fact, this is the only part of the Jantar Mantar structures that was not created by Jai SinghII. The Misra Yantra is thought to have been added by Jai Singh II’s son, Maharaja Madho Singh,who continued his father’s efforts towards modernization.

Ram Yantra

Ram Yantra measures the altitude of the sun, according to the height of the shadow cast by theGnomon (the dark upright pole to the centre right). In this photo, the reflected glare from the sunhas washed out the scale grid in the central section. It is more visible on the upright sections to theleft and right. As the sun rises and falls, the shadow falls and rises correspondingly, moving aroundthe instrument.



Some of the Great Ancient Indian Astronomers

Lagadha (1st millennium BCE): He had written the earliest astronomical text,Vedanga Jyotica,which provides details on several astronomical attributes, generally appliedfor timing social and religious events. It also explains astronomical calculations and calendarstudies, and establishes rules for empirical observation. Vedanga Jyotica has connectionswith Indian astrology and mentions important aspects of the time and seasons, includinglunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimasa. Ritusand Yugas are also described. It also mentions of 27 constellations, eclipses, seven planetsand 12 signs of the zodiac known at that time.

Aryabhata (476–550 CE): Aryabhata was the author of the Aryabhatiya and theAryabhatasiddhanta. Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the earth rotates about its axis,thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. Aryabhataalso mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the moon. Aryabhata’sfollowers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotationof the earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based onthem.

Brahmagupta (598–668 CE): His Brahmasphuta-siddhanta (Correctly EstablishedDoctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both Indian mathematics and astronomy. Brahmaguptaalso calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for parallax andcomputation of eclipses. His works introduced the Indian concept of mathematics-basedastronomy into the Arab world. He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted tothe earth.

Varahamihira (505 CE):Varahamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studiedIndian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian and Roman astronomicalsciences. His Panchasiddhantika is a treatise and compendium drawing from several sources.

Bhaskara I (629 CE): His works on astronomy are Mahabhaskariya, Laghubhaskariyaand Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE), a commentary on the Aryabhatiya. Baskara devisedmethods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes andthe solstices, and the quadrant of the sun at any given time.

Five separate instruments make up the Misra Yantra, including a smaller scale Samrat or sun dial.Two pillars adjoining the Misra Yantra indicate the year’s shortest and longest days. The giantdevice could also show when it was noon in a number of cities around the world.



Lalla (eighth century CE): His work Uisyadhivrddhida corrects several assumptions ofAryabhatiya. The Sisyadhivrddhida of Lalla deals with planetary calculations, determinationof the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses,rising and setting of the planets, various cusps of the moon, planetary and astral conjunctionsand complementary situations of the sun and the moon. The second part, titled Goladhyaya(Chapters XIV–XXII), deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomicalinstruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.Lalla also authored the Siddhantatilaka.

Bhaskara II (1114 CE): His two works are Siddhantasiromani and Karanakutuhala(Calculation of Astronomical Wonders). He reported his observations of planetary positions,conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics and the astronomical equipmentused in his research at the observatory in Ujjain, which he headed.

Sripati (1045 CE):Sripati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed theBrahmagupta school and wrote Siddhantasekhara (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including moon’s second inequality.

Mahendra Suri (fourteenth century CE): Mahendra Suri authored the Yantra-raja (TheKing of Instruments, written in 1370 CE)—a Sanskrit work on astrolabe, which wasintroduced in India during the reign of the fourteenth-century Tughlaq dynasty ruler FiruzShah Tughluq (1351–88 CE). Suri seems to have been a Jain astronomer in the service ofFiruz Shah Tughluq.

Nilakanthan Somayaji (1444–1544 CE): In 1500, Nilakanthan Somayaji of the Keralaschool of astronomy and mathematics in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata’s model forthe planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained themost accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the seventeenth century. NilakanthanSomayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya, developedhis own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury,Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth. He also authoreda treatise titled Jyotirmimamsa stressing the necessity and importance of astronomicalobservations to obtain correct parameters for computations.

Acyuta Pisaradi (1550–1621 CE): His work Sphutanirnaya (Determination of True Planets)details an elliptical correction to existing notions. Sphutanirnaya was later expanded toRasigolasphutaniti (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac). Anotherwork of Acyuta Pisaradi, Karanottama deals with eclipses, complementary relationshipbetween the sun and the moon and the derivation of the mean and true planets. In



Uparagakriyakrama (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Pisaradi suggestsimprovements in methods of calculation of eclipses.

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The Dream and Realization of Space Flight

For thousands of years, humans have curiously gazed at the night sky anddreamt of travelling to space and explore the distant heavenly bodies there.But that long cherished dream became a reality only after they developed

large rockets capable of carrying satellites and humans to space. After reachingspace, those rockets were powerful enough to make satellites, robotic spacecraft orspacecraft carrying humans to either circle the earth or proceed towards the otherworlds of our solar system. Besides satisfying the human urge to explore space,devices launched into space by humans have made our lives here on Earth easierand safer. Thus, benefits offered by space are truly revolutionary.

Now, let us understand the term ‘space’. When we talk of space research orspace flight today, the word ‘space’ refers to the region which is outside the Earth’satmosphere. Today, many scientists agree that space begins at an altitude of about100km from the Earth’s surface. Thus, all heavenly bodies including the sun, moon,planets, stars and galaxies are in space. Artificial satellites revolve round the Earthin space. Humans living in the huge International Space Station today are circlingthe Earth in space.

The Uniqueness of the Indian Space Programme

India is one of the few countries that have taken up the challenge of exploringspace and utilizing space for the benefits of the common man. For this, the countryhas developed various technologies which few other countries have done.

India’s achievements in space today are the result of the far-sightedness of DrVikram Sarabhai, one of the greatest sons of India. Sarabhai was a great dreamerand showed the path to realize those dreams. He had firm belief in the power ofspace technology to bring about rapid and overall development of India.

Professor Satish Dhawan, who succeeded Dr Sarabhai as the head of the Indianspace programme, made immense contributions to the Indian space programme

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India in Space : A Remarkable Odyssey 72

by assigning great importance todeveloping and mastering spacetechnologies through indigenous efforts.He also laid emphasis on the involvementof the Indian industry to meet the needsof the country’s space programme.Professor U.R. Rao, Dr K. Kasturirangan,Dr G. Madhavan Nair and Dr K.Radhakrishnan, who succeeded ProfessorDhawan, have made their own uniquecontributions to the Indian spaceprogramme.

The Beginning

Though India today is considered as oneof the prominent countries conductingmany space activities, the Indian space programme began in a modest way withthe formation of the Indian National Committee on Space Research by theGovernment of India in1962. The programme formally began on 21 November 1963with the launch of a 28-feet long American ‘Nike- Apache’ Sounding Rocket fromThumba, near Thiruvananthapuram. It carried a small French payload (scientificinstrument) to study the winds in the upper atmosphere. Sounding rockets are

Launch of Nike-Apache Rocket



small research rockets that carry instruments to study upper atmosphere and space.They cannot launch satellites.

Nearly 50 years later, on 9 September 2012, India celebrated its 100th spacemission. That historic mission was performed by India’s Polar Satellite LaunchVehicle (PSLV-C21) which launched a French and a Japanese satellite, togetherweighing 750 kg very accurately into the required orbit. This shows as to how farIndia has travelled in space and has attained mastery over space technology.

During the 1960s, India conducted space research mostly through soundingrockets. But the country also established a ground station to conduct various usefulexperiments using communication satellites.

India’s Space Capabilities

Indian Space Research Organization, which is widely known as ISRO, is the agencywhich implements the country’s space programme on behalf of India’s Departmentof Space. ISRO came into existence in 1969, the same year when humans set foot onthe moon for the first time.

Various centres of ISRO are now spread all over India. They include VikramSarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) situated in Thiruvananthapuram, which designs huge

PSLV-C21 launch, the 100th mission of India



rockets capable of launching large satellites. In the same city is the Liquid PropulsionSystems Centre (LPSC) that develops liquid rocket engines and the more efficientand highly complex cryogenic rocket engines.

Bangalore can be called as the space city of India. It has got many space-relatedfacilities including the ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), which builds Indian satellites.The famous Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft that conclusively discovered water on themoon was built here. Moreover, the ISRO headquarters and the Department ofSpace, which steer the Indian space programme, are in Bangalore. ISRO’s SpaceApplications Centre at Ahmedabad develops payloads for satellites.

National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) is another important centre of ISRO. Itis situated in Hyderabad and performs the important task of receiving the picturessent by India’s remote sensing satellites in the form of radio waves.

The island of Sriharikota in the Bay of Bengal has ISRO’s Satish Dhawan SpaceCentre and it is the space port of India. Sriharikota lies about 80 km to the North ofChennai and lies in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh. This is the place fromwhere 38 Indian built rockets have lifted off (as on April 2013) and have travelledtowards space. It also has facilities to assemble huge satellite launch vehicles aswell as launch and track them.

Into the Satellite Era

In the 1970s, India took a giant leap into space with the launch of its first satelliteAryabhata. Named after the famous ancient Indian astronomer, the satellite weighed360 kg at the time of its launch.

Aryabhata Satellite



Aryabhata looked like a large box with many faces (polyhedron). The satellite’sentire body was covered with solar cells that generated electricity when they wereexposed to sunlight. Aryabhata was built to understand the challenges involved inbuilding a sophisticated device like a satellite. Nevertheless, it was a scientificsatellite as it carried three scientific instruments to study the sun, distant heavenlybodies and the Earth’s ionosphere. On 19 April 1975, a Soviet Rocket carriedAryabhata into a 600 km high orbit. Aryabhata laid a firm foundation to India’ssatellite programme. With this, Indian scientists moved ahead and began buildingBhaskara 1 satellite, which was intended to conduct Earth observations.

Bhaskara 1 was also launched by a Soviet rocket into orbit in June 1979. It carrieda TV camera for taking the pictures of Earth’s surface. Besides, it carried a microwaveradiometer, an instrument to study the Earth. A similar satellite, Bhaskara 2, waslaunched in 1981 on another Soviet rocket. The experience gained during theBhaskara programme was the foundation stone for the later Indian Remote Sensing(IRS) satellite programme.

Geosynchronous orbit lies at a height of about 36,000 km from the surface ofthe Earth, which of course, is almost one-tenth of the way to moon. A satellite circlingthe Earth at that height takes 24 hours to go round the earth once. Since the Earthalso takes 24 hours to spin around its own axis once, the satellite’s speed issynchronized with the Earth’s spin, hence the name ‘geosynchronous orbit’. Asatellite in such an orbit placed over the equator is called a geostationary satellite.

In the late 1970s and early 80s, ISRO scientists also built the Rohini series ofsatellites and gained additional experiencein building satellites. Rohini satellites werelaunched by India’s first indigenous launchvehicle SLV-3.

Satellite as a Catalyst ofDevelopment

In the early 1980s, the power of the artificialearth satellites to bring about phenomenalgrowth in India’s television broadcastingand telecommunication sectors wasglaringly demonstrated by a satellite calledIndian National Satellite -1B (INSAT-1B). Itwas the second satellite in the INSAT-1series. Because of the failure of its INSAT-18



predecessor INSAT-1A, Indian space scientists were very much concerned, butINSAT- 1B brought in a major revolution in India’s telecommunications, televisionbroadcasting and weather forecasting sectors in a very short and unthinkable time.

INSAT-1B facilitated the rapid expansion of essential telecommunication facilitieslike telephone, telegraph and fax across the country. Through INSAT- 1B,mountainous, inaccessible and isolated regions of the North and Northeast Indiaas well as island territories of Andamans and Lakshadweep could be accessedeasily.

Enhanced Services from our INSATs

The indigenously built INSAT-2A had one anda half times the service capability of the earlierINSAT-1 satellites and weighed almost twiceat launch! Like INSAT-1 satellites, it toocarried transponders for telecommunications,TV broadcasting and an instrument forweather observation. Besides, it carriedanother special instrument capable of sensingdistress signals sent by special transmitters invehicles and even held by individuals indanger.

As time progressed, three more satelliteswere launched in the INSAT-2 series. They alsocarried ‘mobile service transponders’ tofacilitate communication between vehiclesand stationary users.

Special mention has to be made about GSAT-3 or EDUSAT, which was a satellitededicated to the field of education. It facilitated the provision of quality educationalservices to rural students through ISRO’s tele-education programme. Today, thereare about 56,000 classrooms in the EDUSAT network.

Another such service provided by INSAT/GSAT satellites today is thetelemedicine service. ISRO’s telemedicine programme links doctors at superspecialty hospitals in urban areas to patients at rural hospitals through audio/video facilities via satellite. One more interesting aspect of GSAT series of satellitesis that GSAT-8 and 10, launched in 2011 and 2012, respectively, carry a ‘GAGAN’transponder that broadcasts navigation signals. GAGAN programme boosts thequality, reliability and availability of navigation signals broadcast by American

INSAT-2A



GPS series of navigation satellites. In additionto communication satellites, India has builtanother type of satellite called the remotesensing satellites. In fact, India has emergedas one of the world leaders in the field ofremote sensing satellites.

Eyes in the Sky

So, what are these remote sensing satellites?What do they do? How are they useful to thesociety?

To understand this, let us begin with theword ‘remote sensing’. When we say remotesensing, it means that it is a method ofcollecting information about an object or aphenomenon without having any physicalcontact with it. Satellites carrying very sensitive cameras or radars and circling theEarth in space hundreds of kilometres high are known as remote sensing satellites.They transmit the pictures to ground stations through radio. Such pictures, takenin different colours or in black and white, show a lot of details. Trained scientistscan manipulate and analyse those pictures in computers to understand severalfacts, like estimating the net sown area, underground water availability, mineraldeposits through rock colour, environment assessment, pollution levels, wastelanddevelopment, and so on.

Quenching the Thirst for Knowledge

Communication satellites, weather satellites and remote sensing satellites aresatellites that make our life easy, interesting and safe. In addition to this, ISROscientists have built scientific satellites that quench the human thirst for knowledge,especially to understand our universe.

But the satellite or to be more precise the spacecraft which revealed the prowessof Indian scientists to efficiently explore space was Chandrayaan-1. SinceChandrayaan-1 went towards some other heavenly body instead of permanentlycircling the Earth, it is appropriate to call it a spacecraft rather than a satellite.

Chandrayaan-1 demonstrated many things including India’s ability to domeaningful science at low cost, its ability to assume leadership in a cooperativespace venture and develop the essential technology within stipulated time.

EDUSAT-Concept



Chandrayaan-1 made the outside world to look at India with enhanced respect andgalvanized student community within India. It became a prominent milestone notonly in the history of Indian space programme, but in the history of India itself.

Chandrayaan-1 orbiting the moon, in an artist’s view

Chandrayaan-1 Spacecraft undergoing pre-launch tests



One of the main objectives of Chandrayaan-1 was to further expand theknowledge about the moon, make more progress in space technologies, especiallyby decreasing the various internal ‘organs’ of a satellite or a spacecraft and providechallenging opportunities to India’s large younger generation of scientists to conductresearch about the moon.

Having proved India’s ability to successfully explore another heavenly body,Chandrayaan-1 collected massive amount of scientific data (information), includingpictures. Chandryaan-1 had detected water molecules on the moon. This was apath-breaking discovery indeed!

An ISRO Scientist readying Moon Impact Probe of Chandrayaan - 1

32 meter antenna at Byalalu that communicated with Chandrayaan - 1



Before Chandryaan-1 went to moon, scientists were not certain about the presenceof water on the moon. Thus, it was India’s Chandrayaan-1 which made a majordiscovery about the moon. Along with this, scientists were able to sense the heightand depth of various features on the lunar surface. Chandrayaan-1 thus became asymbol of India’s success in space.

Bringing Back from Space

Another remarkable achievement of ISRO is related to bringing back an object fromspace safely. The experiment which was performed in this regard was called SpaceCapsule Recovery Experiment-1 (SRE-1). The 550 kg SRE-1 capsule carrying twoexperiments was launched on 10 January 2007 in PSLV and the following 12 days,it circled the Earth at about 600 km height. Thus, the very first attempt of India tobring back a device which it had launched into space earlier, was a great success.

SRE - 1 being recovered over Bay of Bengal


SATELLITE APPLICATIONS


Earth Observation

With a humble beginning in early 60s, Indian space program has matured as a symbol of the country’s sophisticated technological capabilities and its growing regional and global prestige. Over the last four decades, Indian Space program has made remarkable progress towards building the space infrastructure as the community resource to accelerate various developmental processes and harness the benefits of space applications for socio-economic development.

The Indian Space programme has the primary objective of developing space technology and application programmes to meet the developmental needs of the country. Towards meeting this objective, two major operational systems have been established – the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) for telecommunication, television broadcasting, and meteorological services and the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) for monitoring and management of natural resources and Disaster Management Support.

The Indian Remote sensing programme is driven by the user needs. In fact, the first remote sensing based pilot project was carried out to identify coconut root-wilt disease in Kerala way back in 1970. This pilot project led the development of Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites. These IRS satellites have been the workhorse for several applications - encompassing the various sectors such as agriculture, land and water resources, forestry, environment, natural disasters, urban planning and infrastructure development, rural development, and forecasting of potential fishing zones.


A well knit network “Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS)” involving central & state Governments, private sectors, academia and Non-Governmental Organizations is in place for enabling the integration of Remote Sensing, contemporary technologies and conventional practices for management of natural resources.

The Indian Remote sensing programme is driven by the user needs. In fact, the first remote sensing based pilot project was carried out to identify coconut root-wilt disease in Kerala way back in 1970. This pilot project led the development of Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites. Varieties of instruments have been flown onboard the IRS satellites to provide necessary data in a diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to different user requirements in the country and for global usage.

These IRS satellites observe the planet Earth from space and provide us periodically synoptic and systematic information pertaining to land, ocean and atmosphere and several aspects of environment. This information is a key ingredient in the programmes of the government at the Centre and State towards ensuring food and water security, sustaining our environment and eco-system, understanding weather and climate, monitoring and management of natural resources, planning and monitoring of developmental activities, support to management and mitigation during disaster events, and information for better governance.

Application Projects in Diversified Areas

§ Towards Ensuring Food Security § Towards Ensuring Water Security § Towards Sustaining Environment and Ecosystem § Natural Resources Census § Towards Infrastructure Development § Towards Support to Smart Governance § Weather Forecasting § Satellites for Earth Observation § Meteorology


Satellite Communication

The communication satellite series, which started with the APPLE satellite, grew into a very large constellation of satellites in the INSAT and GSAT series. These satellites revolutionized the technological and economic growth of the country. The INSAT satellite system is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems providing regular services in the areas of telecommunications, business & personal communication, broadcasting, and weather forecasting & meteorological services. Today, newer initiatives have been taken to expand the INSAT applications to newer areas like Tele-education, Tele-medicine, Village Resource Centre (VRC), Disaster Management Support (DMS) etc., have enabled the space technology to reach the common man in India. The INSAT system has extended the outreach to less accessible areas like North- East, other far-flung areas and islands.

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has made remarkable progress towards building the space infrastructure - as the community resource to leapfrog the developmental processes. The launch of INSAT system has been the major catalyst in the rapid expansion of television coverage in India apart from growing applications like DTH, Satellite News Gathering, VSATs, Internet services etc. Use of INSAT for e-governance and developmental communication applications is also fast expanding.

Application Projects in Diversified Areas

§ Telecommunication • Tele-Medicine § Tele-Education § Mobile Satellite Services § Radio Networking


§ Village Resource Centre § Satellite Aided Search and Rescue • Satellite Navigation Programme § Satellite News Gathering and Dissemination § Standard Time and Frequency Signal Dissemination Services § Television § Training and Developmental Communications Channel (TDCC) § Satellites for Communication

Disaster Management Support

Disaster management support, in terms of space based critical infrastructure and services, is yet another community centric deliverable. One of the elements on which the space based Disaster Management Support (DMS) systems have been built is emergency communications systems. The DMS programme of ISRO/DOS, a convergence of space communications and remote sensing capabilities, is an effort to have technologically robust and a compatible system, which could strengthen India’s resolves towards disaster management.

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; close to 5,700 km long coastline out of the 7,516 km, is prone


to cyclones; about 68% of the cultivable area is susceptible to drought. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the East and part of West coast are vulnerable to Tsunami. The deciduous/ dry-deciduous forests in different parts of the country experience forest fires. The Himalayan region and the Western Ghats are prone to landslides.

Satellite images showing the damages at Kedarnath village caused by the flash floods in June 2013

Under the DMS programme, the services emanating from aerospace infrastructure, set up by ISRO, are optimally synthesized to provide data and information required for efficient management of natural disasters in the country. The Geostationary satellites (Communication and Meteorological), Low Earth Orbiting Earth Observation satellites, aerial survey systems together with ground infrastructure form the core element of the observation Systems for disaster management.

The Decision Support Centre established at National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) of ISRO is engaged in monitoring natural disasters such as flood, cyclone, agricultural drought, landslides, earthquakes and forest fires at operational level. The information generated from aero-space systems are disseminated to the concerned in near real time for aiding in decision making. The value added products generated using satellite imagery helps in addressing the information needs covering all the phases of disaster management such as, preparedness, early warning, response, relief, rehabilitation, recovery and mitigation.


Flood

India is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. Floods occur in almost all rivers basins in India. Twenty-three of the 35 states and union territories in the country are subject to floods and 40 million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the country’s geographical area, is prone to floods. Assessment of the extent of flood affected areas and the damage to the infrastructure will enable the decision makers to plan for relief operations. Satellite based imageries due to their synoptic coverage are the best tool to assess the extent of flood affected areas. As soon as the information of a flood event is obtained, the earliest available satellite is programmed to collect the required data for the delineation of flooded areas. Both optical and microwave satellites data is being used. The inundation maps with flooded and non-flooded areas marked in different colours along with the affected villages and the transport network are disseminated to the concerned Central / State agencies. Using the historical data of floods affecting different areas flood hazard zonation is being carried out. Such district level hazard atlases have been prepared for Assam and Bihar States. Further, integrating the information on the river morphology generated from aerial surveys, weather forecast and the in-situ data from CWC, flood forecasting methodologies have been generated and being operationalised.

Cyclone

The major natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of India is cyclone. India has a coastline of about 7516 kms and it is exposed to nearly 10% of the world’s tropical cyclones. About 71% of this area falls in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Nicobar


and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones. On an average, about five or six tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the coast every year. When a cyclone approaches to coast, a risk of serious loss or damage arises from severe winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges and river floods. Using appropriate models and satellite data, ISRO is supporting the efforts of India Meteorological Department to predict the tropical cyclone track, intensity and landfall. After the formation of cyclone, its future tracks are regularly monitored and predicted on an experimental basis using a mathematical model, developed at Space Application Centre, ISRO. These experimental track predictions are regularly posted on departmental web portal (http://www.mosdac.gov.in/scorpio/) as part of information dissemination. Using the wind pattern generated by the Oceansat-2 Scatterometer data models have been developed for predicting the formation of a cyclone even before the depression turns into a cyclone. Such cyclogenesis predictions are being carried out for all the global cyclones and uploaded to the portal.


Agricultural Drought

With more than 70 percent of India’s population relying directly or indirectly on agriculture, the impact of agricultural drought on human life and other living beings is critical. In India, around 68% of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. Of the entire area, 35% receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm, which is considered as drought prone and 33%, receives rainfall less than 750 mm, which is considered to be chronically drought prone. Coarse resolution satellite data, which covers larger areas, is used to monitor the prevalence, severity level and persistence of agricultural drought at state/ district/ sub district level during kharif season (June to November). The operational methodology developed by ISRO over the years is now institutionalized by setting up Mahalanobis National Crop Forecasting Centre (MNCFC) under the Ministry of Agriculture. Currently, ISRO is concentrating on upgrading the methodology for monitoring the drought and efforts are on to develop early warning systems for agricultural drought.

Forest Fire

Nearly 55% of the total forest cover in India is prone to fires every year. An estimated annual economic loss of Rs.440 crores is reported on account of forest fires over the country. Forest fires in India have environmental significance in terms of tropical biomass burning, which produces large amounts of trace gases, aerosol particles, and play a pivotal role in tropospheric chemistry and climate. Active forest fires are detected from the satellite images and the information is uploaded daily to the Indian Forest Fire Response and Assessment System (INFFRAS) website during the forest fire season – February to June (www.inffras.gov.in).


Landslide

Remote sensing data have been proved to be useful for landslide inventory mapping both at local and regional level. It is also used for generating maps such as lithology, geological structure, geomorphology, land use / land cover, drainage, landslide scarp, etc. These maps can be combined with other terrain maps like slope, slope aspect, slope morphology, rock weathering and slope-bedding dip relationship in GIS environment to map the vulnerable areas for landslides. Department of Space has prepared Landslide Hazard Zonation maps (LHZ) along tourist and pilgrim routes of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh, Himalayas and in Shillong-


Silchar-Aizwal sector. As a part of the DSC activity all the major Landslides are being monitored for damage estimation.

Earthquakes

Remote Sensing and GIS provide a database from which the evidences left behind by disaster can be combined with other geological and topographical database to arrive at hazard map. The area affected by earthquakes are generally large, but they are restricted to well-known regions (Plate contacts). Satellite data gives synoptic overview of the area affected by the disaster. These data can be made use to create a very large scale base information of the terrain for carrying out the disaster assessment and for relief measures.


Satellite Navigation Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based Navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the Civil Aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based Navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the Civil Aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)

GAGAN Stability tests were successfully completed in June 2013. The overall performance of the systems was reviewed by the

review committee. As part of certification activity, DGCA personnel visited GAGAN complex, Kundalahalli in Bengaluru and

carried out final inspection activities on Indian Land Uplink Station (INLUS), Indian Master Control Centre (INMCC), Indian

Reference Earth Station (INRES) and other facilities.

The implementation of GAGAN has numerous benefits to the aviation sector in terms of fuel saving, saving in equipment cost,

flight safety, increased air space capacity, efficiency, enhancement of reliability, reduction in work load for operators, coverage

of oceanic area for air traffic control, high position accuracy, etc. The quantum of benefits in the aviation sector would depend on

the level of utilisation of such benefits.

Some of the benefits GAGAN is expected to bring for Civil Aviation sector are:

• Safety benefits – Vertical guidance improves safety, especially in adverse weather conditions • Reduction of circling approaches • Environmental benefits–Approach with Vertical Guidance procedures will help facilitate better

energy and descent profile management during the final approach • Global seamless navigation for all phases of flight including arrival, departure, oceanic and en route


• Allow direct routings, multiple approaches resulting in considerable fuel savings to airlines and provide for capacity enhancement of airports and airspace

In addition to aviation sector, GAGAN is expected to bring benefits to other sectors like:

• Navigation and Safety Enhancement in Railways, Roadways, Ships, Spacecraft • Geographic Data Collection • Scientific Research for Atmospheric Studies • Geodynamics • Natural Resource and Land Management • Location based services, Mobile, Tourism, etc

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)

IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which is provided to all the users and Restricted Service (RS), which is an encrypted service provided only to the authorised users. The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area.

Some applications of IRNSS are:

• Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation • Disaster Management • Vehicle tracking and fleet management • Integration with mobile phones • Precise Timing • Mapping and Geodetic data capture • Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers • Visual and voice navigation for drivers


Satellites for Navigation

LaunchDate LaunchVehicle OrbitType Application Remarks

IRNSS-1I Apr12,2018 PSLV-C41/IRNSS-1I GSO Navigation

IRNSS-1H Aug31,2017 PSLV-C39/IRNSS-1HMission

Navigation LaunchUnsuccessful

IRNSS-1G Apr28,2016 PSLV-C33/IRNSS-1G GEO Navigation

IRNSS-1F Mar10,2016 PSLV-C32/IRNSS-1F GEO Navigation

IRNSS-1E Jan20,2016 PSLV-C31/IRNSS-1E GSO Navigation

GSAT-15 Nov11,2015 Ariane-5VA-227 GEO Communication,Navigation

IRNSS-1D Mar28,2015 PSLV-C27/IRNSS-1D GSO Navigation

IRNSS-1C Oct16,2014 PSLV-C26/IRNSS-1C GEO Navigation

IRNSS-1B Apr04,2014 PSLV-C24/IRNSS-1B GSO Navigation

IRNSS-1A Jul01,2013 PSLV-C22/IRNSS-1A GSO Navigation

GSAT-10 Sep29,2012 Ariane-5VA-209 GEO Communication,Navigation

GSAT-8 May 21, 2011

Ariane-5 VA-202 GEO Communication, Navigation


Climate and Environment

ISRO has designed and developed indigenous systems for ground based observations of weather parameters. It includes (i) Automatic Weather Station (AWS) to providing hourly information on critical weather parameters such as pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind and radiation from remote and inaccessible areas; (ii) Agro Metrological (AGROMET) Towers to measure soil temperature, soil moisture, soil heat and net radiation, wind speed, wind direction, pressure and humidity; (iii) Flux Tower for multi-level micrometeorological observation as well as subsurface observations on soil temperature and moisture over the vegetative surfaces; (iv) Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) to monitor severe weather events such as cyclone and heavy rainfall; (v) GPS Sonde and Boundary Layer LIDAR (BLL) for observing vertical profiles of atmospheric parameters.

he fourth Assessment Report (2007) of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected an alarming picture of the earth’s future. The report estimated an increase of 0.74oC in global mean temperatures from 1906 to 2005. Studies have also indicated that there is steady increase in the concentration of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in Earth’s atmosphere. In summary, some of the facts and figures related to climate change are:

• surface air temperature for the period 1901 - 2000 indicates a significant warming of 0.4oC for 100 years;


• it is projected that by the end of the 21st century, rainfall will increase by 15 - 31% and the mean annual temperature by 3oC to 6oC;

• accelerated melting of glaciers with intensification of monsoon can lead to flood disasters in the Himalayan catchments;

• a trend of sea level rise of 1 cm per decade has been recorded along the Indian coast; • deltas will be threatened by flooding, erosion and salt intrusion; • loss of coastal mangroves will have impact on fisheries; and • increased temperatures will impact the agricultural production.

Cloud cover over India as seen by INSAT-3D

Climate is the long term average of the weather parameters. Climate varies from place to place due to the geographical setup of our country. Thus, India is divided into a number of agro-climatic regions, and the economic activities of the country are highly dependent on the climatic characteristics. There are several Essential Climate Variables (ECVs), which are important for understanding and monitoring the global climate system and these can be best observed using space based systems.

Issues related to natural environment and climate change needs understanding of the interactive physical, chemical and biological processes that regulate the total Earth System, the changes that are occurring in the system, and the manner in which they are influenced by the natural forces and human activities.

The ISRO/ DOS Centres are engaged in various research studies and activities related to the Earth’s climate system, designing sensors and satellites, and established ground based observations systems for studying the climate and environmental parameters.

ISRO has designed and developed indigenous systems for ground based observations of weather parameters. It includes (i) Automatic Weather Station (AWS) to providing hourly information on critical weather parameters such as pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind and radiation from remote and inaccessible areas; (ii) Agro Metrological (AGROMET) Towers to measure soil temperature, soil moisture, soil heat and net radiation, wind speed, wind direction, pressure and humidity; (iii) Flux Tower for multi-level micrometeorological observation as well as subsurface observations on soil temperature and moisture over the vegetative surfaces; (iv) Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) to monitor severe weather events such as cyclone and heavy


rainfall; (v) GPS Sonde and Boundary Layer LIDAR (BLL) for observing vertical profiles of atmospheric parameters. GPS Sonde provides temperature, pressure, humidity and wind parameters; and BLL provides vertical concentrations of aerosols and boundary layer height.

Climate change has strong influence on natural systems. Monitoring and assessment of impact requires long-term databases of parameters, gathered employing remote sensing and ground based methods; and suitable models for forecasting the changes. ISRO, with strong constellation of geostationary and polar orbiting satellites, has been actively pursuing climate change research with a focus on specific indicators, like, Glacier melt, desertification, Land use and land cover change and agents, like, GHGs, Aerosols, etc.

With a view to understand the science aspects of changing climate, ISRO, through its ISRO Geosphere Biosphere Programme (ISRO-GBP), with multi-institutional participation, has been pursuing studies on climate over the past two decades. The studies have addressed atmospheric aerosols, trace gases, GHGs, paleoclimate, land cover change, atmospheric boundary layer dynamics, energy and mass exchange in the vegetative systems, National Carbon Project (NCP) and Regional Climate Modelling (RCM).

A programme on National Information system for Climate and Environment Studies (NICES) has been initiated in September 2012 at National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad. This new national initiative would contribute towards specific needs of climate change, which would be evolved through research needs and national imperatives. The core strength on design, production and operation of Earth observing tools would be imbibed in order to generate valuable synoptic information on climatic variables through atmospheric, oceanic and terrestrial observations. The programme would build strong interface with International and National climate research community for achieving the objectives of climate change and environment studies.


One of the landmark discoveries of the twentieth and twenty-first centuriesso far is the discovery of Gravitational Waves (GW). The existence of GWwas predicted exactly 100 years ago by Albert Einstein based on his General

Theory of Relativity. It is interesting to know that he did not believe that the GWwill be discovered in the laboratory. Why? It is because the amplitude of the GWwill be so small (10-21m) that no experiments will be able to measure this smalldisplacement, corresponding to about 1 millionth of the diameter of proton.

The beauty of the theory made the experimentalists design appropriateexperiments to detect such a small displacement. For the last 25 years, about 1000scientists from more than 25 countries are actively involved in this task. In thisteam, there are 37 Indian scientists working in various academic and researchinstitutions in India. On 14 September, 2015, scientists were able to detect the arrivalof a GW that originated about 1.3 billion years ago. They were able to observe GWusing the facilities at two Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatories (LIGO)in the US. They got the wave pattern exactly as predicted by Albert Einstein usinghis General Theory of Relativity.

Einstein showed that the space time surrounding a massive object is curved.And any particle moving in the vicinity of this object will trace a curved path insteadof a straight line. The curved path taken up by the particle will appear as though itis being attracted by a force from the massive object. This generates what is calledgravitational field. The curvature of the space surrounding a massive object willdepend on the mass of the object. Any significant event in the universe will generatedisturbances in the gravitational field and will produce GW. There are 37 Indianscientists from IISER Thiruvananthapuram and Kolkata, IIT Ahmedabad, TIFR,Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai, Inter University Consortium forAstronomy and Astrophysics ( IUCAA) Pune , Raman Research Institute , Bangaloreand Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, who are active participants in this globalinitiative of LIGO experiments.

Discovery of Gravitational Waves - The

Indian Contributions11


Discovery of Gravitational Waves - The Indian 83

The machines that gave scientists their first-ever glimpse at GW are the mostadvanced detectors ever built for sensing tiny vibrations in the universe. The twoUS-based underground detectors are known as the Laser InterferometerGravitational-wave Observatory or LIGO for short. India is aiming to get the world’sthird LIGO at an estimated cost of 1,000 crore. As part of the ongoing Indo–UScooperation in science and technology, America will provide India with nearly$140 million worth of equipment. Professor C. S. Unnikrishnan from TIFR is theleader of Indian LIGO experiment. He is one of the 137 authors of the researchpaper published in Physical Review Letters in February 2016. It is hoped that theIndian LIGO will be functional within a couple of years.

The GW opens up another window for astronomy. The observatory will beoperated jointly by IndIGO and LIGO and would form a single network along withthe LIGO detectors in the USA and Virgo in Italy. The design of the detector will beidentical to that of the Advanced LIGO detectors in the USA.

***


Science in the medieval Arab world is the science developed and practiced in the medieval Arab world during the Arab Golden Age (8th century CE –c. 1258 CE, sometimes considered to have extended to the 15th or 16th century). During this time, Indian, Assyrian, Iranian and Greek knowledge was translated into Arabic. These translations became a wellspring for scientific advances, by scientists from the Muslim ruled areas, during the Middle Ages. The roots of Arab science drew primarily upon Arab, Persian, Indian and Greek learning. The extent of Arab scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but it is extremely vast.

These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas; most notably

• Mathematics • Astronomy • Medicine

Other notable areas, and specialized subjects, of scientific inquiry include

• Physics • Alchemy and chemistry • Cosmology • Ophthalmology • Geography and cartography • Sociology • Psychology

Mathematics

The history of mathematics during the Golden Age, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, building on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta), saw important developments, such as the full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra (named for the work of scholar Al-Kwarizmi), and advances in geometry and trigonometry. Arabic works also played an important role in the transmission of mathematics to Europe during the 10th to 12th centuries.

Shastra Pratibha 2015 (Juniors) 74 | P a g e

The Dream and Realization of Space Flight

For thousands of years, humans have curiously gazed at the night sky anddreamt of travelling to space and explore the distant heavenly bodies there.But that long cherished dream became a reality only after they developed

large rockets capable of carrying satellites and humans to space. After reachingspace, those rockets were powerful enough to make satellites, robotic spacecraft orspacecraft carrying humans to either circle the earth or proceed towards the otherworlds of our solar system. Besides satisfying the human urge to explore space,devices launched into space by humans have made our lives here on Earth easierand safer. Thus, benefits offered by space are truly revolutionary.

Now, let us understand the term ‘space’. When we talk of space research orspace flight today, the word ‘space’ refers to the region which is outside the Earth’satmosphere. Today, many scientists agree that space begins at an altitude of about100km from the Earth’s surface. Thus, all heavenly bodies including the sun, moon,planets, stars and galaxies are in space. Artificial satellites revolve round the Earthin space. Humans living in the huge International Space Station today are circlingthe Earth in space.

The Uniqueness of the Indian Space Programme

India is one of the few countries that have taken up the challenge of exploringspace and utilizing space for the benefits of the common man. For this, the countryhas developed various technologies which few other countries have done.

India’s achievements in space today are the result of the far-sightedness of DrVikram Sarabhai, one of the greatest sons of India. Sarabhai was a great dreamerand showed the path to realize those dreams. He had firm belief in the power ofspace technology to bring about rapid and overall development of India.

Professor Satish Dhawan, who succeeded Dr Sarabhai as the head of the Indianspace programme, made immense contributions to the Indian space programme

India in Space : A Remarkable Odyssey1012 Arab Sciences


Astronomy

Arab astronomy comprises the astronomical developments made in the Arab world, particularly during the Arab Golden Age (8th–15th centuries), and mostly written in the Arabic language. These developments mostly took place in theMiddle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, and North Africa, and later in the Far East and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other Arab sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with Arab characteristics. These included Greek, Sassanid, and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon. In turn, Arab astronomy later had a significant influence on Byzantine and European astronomy as well as Chinese astronomy and Malian astronomy.

Medicine

In the history of medicine, Arab medicine, Arabic medicine, Greco-Arabic and Greco-Arab refer to medicine developed in the Arab Golden Age, and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of Arab civilization. The emergence of Arab medicine came about through the interactions of the indigenous Arab tradition with foreign influences. Translation of earlier texts was a fundamental building block in the formation of Arab medicine and the tradition that has been passed down.

Latin translations of Arabic medical works had a significant influence on the development of medicine in the high Middle Ages and early Renaissance, as did Arabic texts which translated the medical works of earlier cultures.

Physics

The natural sciences saw various advancements (from roughly the mid 8th to the mid 13th centuries, adding a number of innovations to the Transmission of the Classics (such as Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, and Neoplatonism). Thinkers from this period included Al-Farabi, Abu Bishr Matta, Ibn Sina, al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn Bajjah. These works and the important commentaries on them were the wellspring of science during the medieval period. They were translated into Arabic, the lingua franca of this period.



Abbas Ibn Firnas

Abbas Ibn Firnas (810-887) was polymath—an inventor, physician, engineer, musician and poet. He is also also known as Abbas Abu Al-Qasim Ibn Firnas Ibn Wirdas al-Takurini. He was born in Izn-Rand Onda, Al-Andalus (today’s Ronda, Spain). He lived in Emirate of Cordoba. He devised a chain of rings that enabled to simulate the motions of the planets and stars and a means of manufacturing colourless ; designed a water clock called Al-Maqata; invented various glass planispheres; and made corrective lenses. He also developed a process for cutting rock crystals. Apparently he had designed a room in his house in which spectators could witness stars, clouds, thunder, and lightning. The mechanisms which produced these were located in a basement laboratory. He also devised ‘some sort of metronome’ , an instrument with an inverted pendulum that can be set to beat so many times a minute, the loud ticking giving the right speed of performance for a piece of music.

Al Idrisi

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply Al Idrisi (1099–1165 or 1166) was born in the city of Ceuta then belonging to Moroccan Almoravids. He lived Sicily and served in the court of King Roger II. He was a geographer, cartographer, and Egyptologist. Al-Idrisi is best known for his map, Tabula Rogeriana. It was prepared for King Roger II. Al-Idrisi’s work exerted strong influence on geographers like Ibn Battuta, Ibn Khaldum and Piri Reis. He also inspired Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama.

Al-Idrisi produced a compendium of geographical information titled Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi'khtiraq al-'afaq (The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands or The pleasure of him who longs to cross the horizons. His book Nuzhatul Mushtaq was also often cited.

Al-Battani

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Sinan al-Raqqi al-Harrani al-Sabi al-Battani (c.858-c.929) was born in Harran near Urfa in Upper Mesopoamia (now in Turkey). He lived and worked in the city of Ar-Raqqah in north central Syria. In Latin literature he is referred to as Albategnius, Albategni or Albatenius. He was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician. He extended a number of trigonometric relations which were transmitted from India and Greco-Rome. His book, Kitab az-Zij was frequently quoted by many medieval European astronomers including by Copernicus.



Al-Battani refined the existing values for the length of the year as 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds against Ptolemy’s 365 days, 5 hours, 55 minutes and 12 seconds. Based on his observations he compiled new tables of the Sun and Moon and indoing so he corrected some of Ptomey’s results. In mathematics al-Battānī produced a number of trigonometrical relationships; discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants.

Alhazen

Abu al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan al-Haytham (c. 965-c.1040), often referred to as ibn al-Haytham was an Arab polymath. He is also known as by his Latinised name Alhazen or Alhacen. He was born in Basra, then part of Buyid emirate. He lived mainly in Cairo, Egypt.

He made significant contributions to the priciples of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology, visual perception and scientific method. He is regarded as father of modern optics, ophthalmology, experimental physics and scientific methodology. He is also regarded as the first theoretical physicist. In medieval Europe, he was nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy the Second")] or simply called "The Physicist".

Alhazen made significant improvements in optics, physical science, and the scientific method. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with

contributing a new emphasis on experiment.Jim Al-Khalili, a British-Iraqi terms Alhazen as be the "first true scientist" based on Alhazen's pioneering work on scientific method. Alhazen's most famous work was his seven-volume treatise on optics titled Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics). Its Latin version was published in 1572 with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus.

Scientific method

The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all he reads, and… attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. Alhazen is often regarded as founder of experimental psychology and also founder of psychophysics.

Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi

Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936–1013), was an Arab Muslim physician. He is also known as Albucasis. He was born in the city El-Zahra, Andalusia. He lived most of his life in Córdoba. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon. Many regard him as the father of modern surgery. His greates work on medicine was a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices titled Kitan al-Tasrif. He made pioneering contributions to the field of surgical procedures and instruments and some of his discoveries are still applied in medicine to this day.



He was the first physician to describe an ectotopic pregnancy. He was also first to identify the hereditary nature of haemophilia. He was the first to draw hooks with a double tip for use in surgery. He illustrated various cannuale for the first time and treated wart with an iron and caustic metal as a boring instrument. He used and described over 200 surgical instruments and he used foreceps in vaginal deliveries. He pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His works were translated into Latin. It has been said that Al-Zahrawi was the "most frequently cited surgical authority of the Middle Ages".

Abu Ishak Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash al-Zarqali

Abu Ishak Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash al-Zarqali (1029-1087) was one of the leading astronomers of his time. He was also an instrument maker and astrologer. Although he is usually called as al-Zarqālī but his correct name was al-Zaqalluh. In Latin he is referred to as Arzachel or Arsechieles. He was born in born in a village near the outskirts of Toledo, then the capital of the Taifa of Toledo. He was trained as metalsmith.

He was well-versed in geometry and astronomy. In fact he was the one of the foremost astronomers of his time. He was an inventor and his works helped Toledo to become an intellectual centre of Al-andalus. He is also referred to in the works of Chaucer, as 'Arsechieles'. Al-Zarqali’s works were translated into Latin in the 12th century. In his "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium", Nicolaud Copernicus quotes the works of al-Zarqali. Al-Zarqālī wrote two works on the construction of an instruments.He also invented a perfected kind of astrolabe known as "the tablet of the al-Zarqālī" (al-ṣafīḥā al-zarqāliyya). This became famous in Europe under the name Saphaea.

Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān

Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (fl.c.721–c.815) was a prominent Muslim polymath. In Europe, Jabir was known as Geber (Latinised version of Jabir).He has been entitled differently as al-Azdi al-barigi or al-Kufi or al-Tusi or al-Sufi. An anonymous European writer produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name ‘Geber’ (referred to as pseudo-Geber) in the 13th century. It is generally believed that Jabir was born in Tus, Khorasan in Iran (then Persia) and later moved to Kufa. However, some suggest that he was of Syrian origin and later lived in Persia and Iraq.

The seeds of the modern classification of elements into metals and non-metals could be seen in Jabir’s chemical classification where he proposed the following three categories:

• "Spirits" which vaporise on heating, like camphor, sulphur and ammonium chloride. • “Metals” like gold, silver, lead, tin copper and iron and khar-sini (Chinese iron). • Non-malleable substances that can be converted into powders such as stones.



He made use of over twenty types of now-basic chemical laboratory equipment, such as the alembic and retort, and described many chemical processes like crystallisation and distillation. He described many substances like citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, sulphur and mercury.

Jabir was a foremost alchemist of his time. He paved the way for most of the later Muslim alchemists, who lived in the 9th–13th centuries. As Max Meyerhoff observed Jabir’s influence may also be traced throughout the entire historic course of European alchemy and chemistry. Jabir's treatises on alchemy were translated into Latin and became standard texts for European alchemists. In fact according to Erick John Holmyard, a historian of chemistry, Jabir developed alchemy into an experimental science and his influence is equal to that of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier.

The Banu Musa brothers namely Abu Ja’far, Muhammad ibn Musa Ibn Shakir, Abu al-Qasim Ahmad ibn Musa ibn Shakir and Al-Hasan ibn Musa ibn Shakir were three 9th-century scholars of Baghdad.

They made many observations and contributions to the field of astronomy, writing nearly a dozen publications over their astronomical research. They made many observations on the sun and the moon. Al-Ma’mun had them go to a desert in Mesopotamia to measure the length of a degree. They also measured the length of a year to be 365 days and 6 hours

Ibn al-Nafis

Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi,(1231-1288) was an Arab physician. He is also called Ibn al-Nafis. He was born in Damascus. He is mostly known for being the first to describe the pulmonary circulation of the blood. He made original contributions to ophthalmology. His book Kitab al-Mukhtarfi al-Aghdhiya describes his studies on the effects of diet on health. He was an expert on the Shafi School of jurisprudence. He planned a 300-volume encyclopedia titled Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb but he could not complete it. His Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah translated in Latin under the title Theologus Autodidactus is regarded as by some as the first theological novel and the first science fiction novel.

Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani

Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani (826-901) lived in Baghdad. He was born in Harran in Higher Mesopotamia/Assyria (Modern-day Turkey). He was a mathematician, physician, astronomer and translator. He made significant contributions to algebra, geometry, and astronomy. He was one of the first persons to reform the Ptolemaic system. He published his own observations of the Sun. He is regarded as a founder of statics in mechanics. Among his discoveries in mathematics was an equation for determining amicable numbers. He transformed mathematics by introducing the use of numbers to describe the ratios between geometrical quantities. He described a Pythaforas theorem. He also worked out the solution to chessboard problem which involved an exponential series. He translated many Greek works into Arabic including those of Apollonius, Archimedes, Euclid and Ptolemy.



Omar Khayyam

Ghiyath ad-Din Abu’l Fath Umar ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam Nishapuri (1048 – 1131) was one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is popularly known Omar Khayyam. He was born in Nishapur in North Eastern Iran. After studying at Samarkand he moved Bukhara. He was a polymath—philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also studied mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music and Islamic theology.

His book on algebra, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, was a major contribution. It described geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He is also famous as a poet and he is best known for Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq

Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was a famous scholar, physician and scientist. He was born in al-Hira in southern Iraq and worked in Baghdad. In Latin he is known as Johannitis. He is sometimes referred to as Hunain or Hunein. He is known for his translation of Greek scientific and medical works into Arabic and Syriac, his method of translation and his contributions to medicine. He was arguably the chief translator of his time. He translated 116 works including Plato’s Timaeus, Aristotle’s Metaphysics and the Old Testament into Syriac and Arabic. Among the Arabs he was call “Sheikh of the translators”. His method of translation was followed by later translators. Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the "Sheikh of the translators." He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. His translations did not require corrections. Hunayn’s method was widely followed by later translators. He himself wrote about 26 original treatises most of which were related to medicine. He laid the foundations of the Arabic medicine.

Ibn Sina

Ibn Sina (c. 980 – 1037) also known as Pur Sina or Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah ibn Al-Hasanibn Ali ibn Sina. Ibn Sina, whose Latinised name is Avicenna, was a Persian polymath. Regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of Golden Age, Ibn Sina wrote on mathematics, physics, medicine, philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, logic, theology and poetry. He wrote almost 450 works on a variety of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine. The Canon of Medicine was a standard medical text at many medieval universities.



Tūsī

Khawaja Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Hasan Tūsī (1201– 1274) was born in the city of Tus in mediaval Khorasan (in north-eastern Iran). In the west he is usually known as Nasir al-Din or simply as Tusi. He was a plymath---astromer, biologist, chemist, mathematician, philosopher, physician, physicist and theologian.

Tusi is considered as one of the most eminent astronomers of his time. Based on his observations made at Rasad Khaneh Observatory Tusi made very accurate tables of planetary movements and which were presented in his book Zij –I ilkhani (Ilkhanic Tables) . This book contains astronomical tables for calculating the positions of the planets and the names of the stars. The model for the planetary system developed by Tusi was the most advanced of his time. It was used extensively until the development of the heliocentric model. For preparing his planetary models he introduced a geometrical technique called Tusi-couple.

Tusi proposed a theory of evolution of species in his book, Akhlaq-i-Nasri. He discussed how organisma were able to adapt to their environment. He recognized three types of living things: plants, animals, and humans and attempted to explain how humans evolved from advanced animals. He wrote a book on trigonometry independently of astronomy and he was the first person to do so. In his Treatise on the Quadrilateral, Al-Tusi presented an extensive exposition of spherical trigonometry distinct from astronomy. It was Al-Tusi who developed trigonometry as an independent branch of pure mathematics distinct from astronomy. He was the first to list the six distinct cases of a right triangle in spherical trigonometry. He also stated the law of sines for spherical triangles.

Mohhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

Mohhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (854-925/935), in Latin he is known as Rhazes or Rasis. He was a plymath—physician, alchemist, chemist and philosopher. He occupies an important place in history of medicine. He is regarded as the discoverer of alcohol and vitriol (sulphuric acid).

Rhazes made fundamental contributions to various fields of science. He wrote over 200 manuscripts. He is known for his contribution which led to numerous advances. He was an early advocate of experimental medicine. He was one of the first persons to use Humoralism to distinguish one contagious disease from another. He is regarded as the father of paediatrics and a pioneer of ophthalmology. In his important book about smallpox and measles Rhazes described clinical characterisation. His numerous medical works were translated into Latin. Edward Granville Browne termed hin as “probably the greates and most original of all the physicians and one of the most prolific as an author.”



Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c.780-c.850) was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He has also been mentioned in Latin literature as Algoritmi or Algaurizin. He was bron in a Persian family, probably in Chorasmia. It has been argued by D. M. Dunlop that Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was in fact the same person as Muhammad ibn Shakir, the eldest of the three Banu Musa.

Latin translation of his work on Indian numerals, On the Calculation with Numerals (written about 825), introduced the decimal positional number system to the western world. He presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic in his treatise, Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and balancing. He is regarded as inventor of algebra. It was his systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations that led to algebra. The word ‘algebra’ is derived from ‘al-jabr’, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equation. He revised Ptolemy’s Geography. He also wrote on mechanical devices like astrolabe and sundial.



Ahmed Hassan Zewail

Ahmed Hassan Zewail (born February 26, 1946) is an Egyptian scientist, known as the "father of femtochemistry", he won the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on femtochemistry and became the first Egyptian scientist to win a Nobel Prize in a scientific field. He is the Linus Pauling Chair Professor Chemistry, Professor of Physics and the director of the Physical Biology Centre for the Ultrafast Science and Technology (UST) at the California Institute of Technology. Zewail's key work has been as a pioneer of femtochemistry—i.e. the study of chemical reactions across femtoseconds. Using a rapid ultrafast laser technique (consisting of ultrashort laser flashes), the technique allows the description of reactions on very short time scales - short enough to analyse transition states in selected chemical reactions.

The results of his experiment revealed the significance of coherence and its

existence in complex molecular systems. The finding of coherence were significant

because it showed that through the expected chaotic motions in molecules, ordered motion can be found,

despite the presence of a "heat sink", which can destroy coherence and drain energy. Coherence in molecules

had not been observed before not because of a lack of coherence, but because of a lack of proper probes. In

the anthracene experiments, time and energy resolutions were introduced and correlated.

Dr. Hulusi Behçet

Dr. Hulusi Behçet (1889-1948) is a famous Turkish dermatologist. He was born in Istanbul on February 20, 1889. His father was Ahmet Behçet and his mother Ayqse Behçet was also Ahmet's cousin. After the Turkish Republic was established and the "Family Name Law" was accepted, his father Ahmet Behçet, who was among the friends of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkish Republic, received private permission to use his father's name Behçet.Dr. Hulusi Behçet pursued his education at Gülhane Military Medical Academy. After he had become a medical doctor, he specialized in dermatology and venereal disease at Gülhane Military Medical Academy and he completed his specialization in 1914. His first observations on Behçet's Disease started with a patient he met between 1924-1925. Dr. Behçet followed the symptoms of three patients whom he had had for years, then he decided that they were the symptoms of a new disease (1936). He published these cases in the Archives of Dermatology and Veneral Disease. He died from a sudden heart attack on March 8, 1948. Today, this disease is universally called Behçet's Disease in medical literature.



Lev Davidovich Landau

Lev Davidovich Landau (January 22, 1908 – April 1, 1968) was a prominent Soviet physicist, from Baku, Azerbaijan, who made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics. His accomplishments include the independent co-discovery of the density matrix method in quantum mechanics (alongside John von Neumann), the quantum mechanical theory of diamagnetism, the theory of superfluidity, the theory of second-order phase transitions, the Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductivity, the theory of Fermi liquid, the explanation of Landau damping in plasma physics, the Landau pole in quantum electrodynamics, the two-component theory of neutrinos, and Landau's equations for S matrix singularities. He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity that accounts for the properties of liquid helium II at a temperature

below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C).



CSEM UAE Innovation Center

It is s joint venture between CSEM of Switzerland (www.csem.ch), and the government of the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah. CSEM or Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology is a Swiss Research and Development company with expertise in Micro Nano Technologies, Microelectronics, Systems Engineering und Communication Technologies. CSEM founds an innovation center in the United Arab Emirates. Neuchâtel, March 15, 2005 – CSEM and the government of the emirate of Ras Al Khaimah (RAK) signed an agreement for the establishment of an innovation center in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The aim of this new center is to promote innovation and the incubation of new technologies. The center is being set up as the culmination of close collaboration between CSEM and the government of Ras Al Khaimah (RAK). This ambitious strategic partnership is intended to enhance the UAE’s presence in the field of high technology, allow local and regional businesses access to innovation and strengthen the links between universities and industry in the Middle East. In keeping with its mission, CSEM will develop high technology in this part of the world, actively supporting innovative projects from initial concept to commercialization. Particular emphasis will be paid to key areas for the region, such as water purification, desalination, and applications in the solar energy and petrochemical industries.

International centre for Biosaline Agriculture, UAE (ICBA)

The International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) is a not-for-profit, international center of excellence for research and development in marginal environments. ICBA was established in 1999 through the visionary leadership of the Islamic Development Bank , the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Fund, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development and the Government of United Arab Emirates. The host country, through the Ministry of Water and Environment and the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi extended the agreement with IDB in 2010 and increased their financial support to the Center. The Center originally focused on the problems of salinity and using saline water for irrigated agriculture. Over the last 13 years, ICBA has evolved into a world-class modern research facility with a team of international scientists conducting applied research to improve the well-being of poor farmers in marginal environments. In 2013, the Center developed a new strategic direction addressing the closely linked challenges of income, water, nutrition, and food security.

King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia

KAUST was founded in 2009 and focuses exclusively on graduate education and research, using English as the official language of instruction. It offers programs in Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering; Computer, Electrical, and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering; and Physical Sciences and Engineering. It was recently announced that KAUST has one of the fastest growing research and citation records in the world right now. KAUST officially opened on 23 September 2009, in Thuwal, Saudi Arabia. King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud invited more than 3,000 distinguished Saudi and international guests, including heads of state and Nobel laureates, to join him for the KAUST inauguration ceremony on Saudi



National Day. KAUST’s core campus, located on the Red Sea at Thuwal, is sited on more than 36 square kilometres (14 sq mi), encompassing a marine sanctuary and research facility. KAUST was Saudi Arabia's first LEED certified project and is the world's largest LEED Platinum campus. Designed by international architecture firm HOK, it was also chosen by the American Institute of Architects (AIA) Committee on the Environment (COTE) as one of the 2010 Top Ten Green Projects.

Masdar Institute of Science and Technology

Masdar Institute of Science and Technology is an independent, research-driven graduate-level university focused on advanced energy and sustainable technologies.

The main aim of establishing the IEEE GRSS chapter is to foster remote sensing research in the UAE, said Dr. Prashanth Marpu, Chair, UAE Chapter of the IEEE GRSS. Masdar Institute has established itself as a leading organization in this region in the field of remote sensing. It has a strong group of professors who are actively involved in remote sensing research. We are proud to take a leadership role in this initiative. The IEEE GRSS chapter will help in bringing together the remote sensing researchers and professionals in the UAE. Faculty members that are part of the Institute's Earth-Observation and Hydro-Climatology Lab (EOHCL) have spearheaded key remote sensing research projects. . The EOHCL faculty are also presently involved in a joint four-year pilot study with the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to understand how the level of soil moisture affects dust emission in desert and dry environments. It had been selected by NASA in 2011 to be one of seven global pre-launch test sites for a new earth observation Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) satellite, which was launched by NASA in January 2015.

Qatar Biomedical Research Institute

Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI) was established to tackle diseases prevalent in Qatar and the Middle East, with a focus on developing translational biomedical research and biotechnology.

Research: Qatar National Vision 2030 is the objective of an entire nation, one that is dedicated to ensuring its transition from a carbon-based economy to one built upon knowledge and innovation. Yet what is seldom focused upon in Qatar’s future vision is the most important factor behind ensuring innovation, intellectual property (IP). Aims for for building the infrastructure and the capacity to identify and protect new inventions arising from supported research within QF and to help transform these innovations through commercialization for the benefit of Qatar, the region, and the global community.

Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute

Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), a principal constituent of Qatar Foundation Research and Development (QF R&D), conducts research to support Qatar’s energy independence, water sustainability, and food self-sufficiency goals. The institute will play a pivotal role at the conference by bringing together global leaders to discuss and debate issues in these critical areas, and by sharing its own innovations in energy and water security.

World-renowned experts will come together at the conference under the theme of ‘Qatar’s Cross-cutting Research Grand Challenges’ to debate issues and combine efforts in order to forge ahead and address the


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