Industrial Traning Report

8/13/2019 Industrial Traning Report

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INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree

Of

Bachelor of Technology

In

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

L.R INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGYOACHGHAT, SOLAN, HP (INDIA)

BY:-

SUMIT CHANDEL

45 !


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Acknowledgement

This project was one of the most productive &knowledgeable experience in my engineering carrier. I havelearned so many new things during this project like how towork in a group ,leadership, how to use different skills andknowledge, group discussion etc.

It provided me a golden opportunity to improve mybasic skills and practical aspects which is the primary

requirement of the today s companies and organi!ations. It gives me an immense pleasure to thank those peoplewho have contributed directly or indirectly during thecompletion of this project.

I would like to express my gratitude to "#. $% 'T(% %irfor all time cooperation in guiding this project into final shape.

)ast but not the least, I wish to thank our *ollege+rincipal and .(. . %ir to encourage me to complete thisproject.

-%'"IT * $ /)0


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CE"TI#ICATE

Thi i !" #e$!i% !ha! !he '$" e#! $e'"$! e !i!*e+ NET$%"& SYSTEM' S- /i!!e+

SU0IT CAHNDEL, i !he 'a$!ia* %-*%i**/e ! "% !he $e -i$e/e ! "% !he #"-$ e "%

NET$%"&IN( AND TECHN%L%(Y i IN#%"MATI%N TECHN%L%(Y

e/ "+ie !he "$ +" e !he/ - +e$ / g-i+a #e.

)ro*ec+ Incharge , ( ./e:

Mr. ASHUTOSH SHARMA

( PROJECT ASSISTANT)

DIT-SHIMLA


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INDE0

Sr1 No1 To2.c )age

1 T$ai i g O$ga i5a!i" +e!ai* 67 8 67

2 I !$"+-#!i" !" C"/'-!e$ Ne!9"$ i g P$i #i'*e

:-i*+i g :*"# ; The a i# #"/'" e ! "% a e!9"$

6< 8 1=

3 ( SI 0"+e* 1> 8 21

4 TCP?IP 22 8 27

7 Ci #" IOS 2< 8 36

< R"-!i g Ta *e 31 8 32

@ STP 33 8 34

= TCP?IP 37 8 3 LAN 3@ 8 3=

16 A##e 8Li ! 3> 8 46

11 Ne!9"$ A++$e T$a *a!i" 41 8 44

12 :i *i"g$a'h 47 8 47


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CHAPTER-

TRAINING ORGANISATION DETAIL

Department of Information Technology is the state level organization that provides all thesoftware needs to the state of Himachal Pradesh. It is a national level governmentorganization that provides training to young individuals in the field of Information Technologyand Computer Science field.

The entire software maintenance and development task is done y this veryorganization. DIT is a dynamic! growing institution! focused on the development ofcutting edge solutions in the following domains"

Health Informatics #ultilingual Technologies Software Technologies Cy er $orensics and Security #ultimedia Technologies

The organization inculcates the tangi le need of fle%i le nature of software market. It hasvarious plans to implement and to share with trainees. They make to work in some of the livepro&ects of the state. So this is overall training to an individual here at DIT

'ational Informatics Centre is the ma&or player for the spread of IT in the State andDistricts. The IT re(uirements at the District are eing fulfilled y the District InformaticsCentres of 'IC esta lished in each District.


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CHAPTER- !

Computer Network

) computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located at differentplaces. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium anddata communication devices for the purpose of communication data and sharing resources.The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server. Inthe network the individual computers! which access shared network resources! are known asnodes.

Ty2e3 of Ne+ or 3:

There are many different types of networks. However! from an end user*s point of viewthere are two asic types"

Local-Area Ne+ or 3 6LAN37The computers are geographically close together +that is! in the same uilding,.

$./e-Area Ne+ or 3 6$AN37The computers are farther apart and are connected y telephone lines or radio waves.

In addition to these types! the following characteristics are also used to categorize differenttypes of networks.

Other Definitions:

To2ology

The geometric arrangement of computer system is termed as a topology. Commontopologies include us! star! and ring.

)ro+ocol

The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the networkuse to communicate. -ne of the most popular protocols for )'s is called /thernet. )notherpopular )' protocol for PCs is the I0# token1ring network.

Arch.+ec+ re


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'etworks can e roadly classified as using either peer1to1peer or client2serverarchitecture. Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers and devicesthat allocate resources for a network are called servers.

LANs

)' is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. #ost )'s are confinedto a single uilding or group of uildings. However! one )' can e connected to other )'Sover any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. ) system of )'s connected in thisway is called a wide1area network +3)',.

#ost )'s as shown in $igure connect workstations and personal computers. /achnode +individual computer, in a )' has its own CP4 with which it e%ecutes programs! ut it isalso a le to access data and devices anywhere on the )'. This means that many users canshare e%pensive devices! such as laser printers! as well as data. 4sers can also use the )'to communicate with each other! y sending e1mail or engaging in chart sessions.

There are many different types of )'s1token1ring networks! /thernets! and )5Cnetseing the most common for PCs.

A Ty2.cal LAN

)'s are capa le of transmitting data at very fast rates! much faster than data can etransmitted over a telephone line6 ut the distance are limited! and there is also a limit on thenum er of computers that can e attached to a single )'.


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WANs

) 3)' is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically! ) 3)' consists of two or more local1area networks + )'s,. Computers connected to a wide1area network are often connected through pu lic networks! such as the telephone system.They can also e connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest 3)' in e%istence isthe Internet.

DCE DTE $AN Connec+.on

3)'s connect users and )'s spread etween various sites! whether in the same city!across the country! or around the world. 75emote access8 refers to a simple connection!usually dialled up over telephone lines as needed! etween an individual user or very smallranch office and a central network.

9our campus gains access to the Internet through some type of remote connection. )single user can use a modem to dial up an Internet service provider +ISP,. #ultiple users withina campus might choose to rely on a router to connect to the ISP! who then connects thecampus to the Internet.

In general! )' speeds are much greater than 3)' and remote access speeds. $ore%ample! a single shared1 /thernet connection runs at :; # ps +mega means 7million8,.Today kilo its per second +? ps, +kilo means 7thousand8,@less than one percent of the speed of an /thernet link. /ven the more e%pensive! dedicated3)' services such as T: lines don


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)eer-+o-2eer Arch.+ec+ re

This is a type of network in which each workstation has e(uivalent capa ilities andresponsi ilities. This differs from client2server architecture! in which some workstations arededicated to serving the others. Peer1to1peer networks are generally simpler and lesse%pensive! ut they usually do not offer the sameperformance under heavy loads.

Cl.en+8Ser9er Arch.+ec+ re

This is network architecture in which each computer or process on the network is eithera client or a server. Servers are powerful computers or processors dedicated to managing diskdrives +file servers,! printers +print servers,! or network traffic +network servers,. Clients areless powerful PCs workstationson which users run applications. Clients rely on servers for resources! such as files! devices!and even processing power.

Ne+ or )ro+ocol %9er9.eThe -SI model! and any other network communication model! provides only a

conceptual framework for communication etween computers! ut the model itself does notprovide specific methods of communication. )ctual communication is defined y variouscommunication protocols. In the conte%t of data communication! a protocol is a formal set ofrules! conventions and data structure that governs how computers and other network devicese%change information over a network. In other words! a protocol is a standard procedure andformat that two data communication devices must understand! accept and use to e a le totalk to each other.


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In modern protocol design! protocols are AlayeredA according to the -SI layer model ora similar layered model. ayering is a design principle which divides the protocol design into anum er of smaller parts! each part accomplishing a particular su 1task and interacting with theother parts of the protocol only in a small num er of well1defined ways. ayering allows theparts of a protocol to e designed and tested without a com inatorial e%plosion of cases!keeping each design relatively simple. ayering also permits familiar protocols to e adapted tounusual circumstances.

The header and2or trailer at each layer reflect the structure of the protocol. Detailedrules and procedures of a protocol or protocol group are often defined y a lengthy document.$or e%ample! I/T$ uses 5$Cs +5e(uest for Comments, to define protocols and updates to theprotocols.

) wide variety of communication protocols e%ists. These protocols were defined ymany different standard organizations throughout the world and y technology vendors overyears of technology evolution and development. -ne of the most popular protocol suites isTCP2IP! which is the heart of Internetworking communications. The IP! the Internet Protocol! isresponsi le for e%changing information etween routers so that the routers can select the

proper path for network traffic! while TCP is responsi le for ensuring the data packets aretransmitted across the network relia ly and error free. )' and 3)' protocols are also criticalprotocols in network communications. The )' protocols suite is for the physical and data linklayers of communications over various )' media such as /thernet wires and wireless radiowaves. The 3)' protocol suite is for the lowest three layers and defines communication overvarious wide1area media! such as fi er optic and copper ca les.

'etwork communication has slowly evolved. Today*s new technologies are ased onthe accumulation over years of technologies! which may e either still e%isting or o solete.0ecause of this! the protocols which define the network communication are highly inter1related.#any protocols rely on others for operation. $or e%ample! many routing protocols use othernetwork protocols to e%change information etween routers.

In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission! there are now alsointerface standards for different layers to talk to the ones a ove or elow +usually operatingsystem specific,. The protocols for data communication cover all areas as defined in the -SImodel. However! the -SI model is only loosely defined. ) protocol may perform the functionsof one or more of the -SI layers! which introduces comple%ity to understanding protocolsrelevant to the -SI layer model. In real1world protocols! there is some argument as to wherethe distinctions etween layers are drawn6 there is no one lack and white answer.

To develop a complete technology that is useful for the industry! very often a group ofprotocols is re(uired in the same layer or across many different layers. Different protocols often

descri e different aspects of a single communication6 taken together! these form a protocolsuite. $or e%ample! Boice over IP +B-IP,! a group of protocols developed y many vendorsand standard organizations! has many protocols across the top layers in the -SI model.

Protocols can e implemented either in hardware or software or a mi%ture of oth.Typically! the lower layers are implemented in hardware! with the higher layers eingimplemented in software.

Protocols could e grouped into suites +or families! or stacks, y their technicalfunctions! or origin of the protocol introduction! or oth. ) protocol may elong to one ormultiple protocol suites! depending on how you categorize it. $or e%ample! the Eiga it /thernet


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protocol I/// F;G. z is a )' + ocal )rea 'etwork, protocol and it can also e used in #)'+#etropolitan )rea 'etwork, communications.

#ost recent protocols are designed y the I/T$ for Internetworking communicationsand y the I/// for local area networking + )', and metropolitan area networking +#)',. TheIT41T contri utes mostly to wide area networking +3)', and telecommunications protocols.IS- has its own suite of protocols for internetworking communications! which is mainlydeployed in /uropean countries.

Co 2are +he Ne+ or )ro+ocol3

!roto ol C"#le Spee$ Topolog%

/thernet Twisted Pair! Coa%ial! $i er :; # ps inear 0us! Star! Tree

$ast /thernet Twisted Pair! $i er :;; # ps Star

ocal Talk Twisted Pair .G # ps inear 0us or Star

Token 5ing Twisted Pair # ps 1 :> # ps Star13ired 5ing

$DDI $i er :;; # ps Dual ring

)T# Twisted Pair! $i er :==1G FF # ps inear 0us! Star! Tree

INTE"NET BAC&B%NE

The Internet ack one refers to the principal data routes etween large! strategicallyinterconnected networks and core routers in the Internet . These data routes are hosted ycommercial! government! academic and other high1capacity network centers! the Internet e%change points and network access points that interchange Internet traffic etween thecountries! continents and across the oceans of the world. Traffic interchange etween theInternet service providers +often Tier : networks , participating in the Internet ack onee%change traffic y privately negotiated interconnection agreements ! primarily governed y theprinciple of settlement1free peering .

Infra3+r c+ re

The internet ack one is a conglomeration of multiple! redundant networks owned ynumerous companies. It is typically a fi er optic trunk line. The trunk line consists of many fi eroptic ca les undled together to increase the capacity. The ack one is a le to re route trafficin case of a failure. The data speeds of ack one lines have changed with the times. In : F!all of the 4nited States ack one networks had utilized the slowest data rate of = # ps.However the changing technologies allowed for : percent of ack ones to have data rates ofG! FF # ps or faster y the mid G;;;*s. The $CC currently defines Ahigh speedA as anyconnection with data speeds that e%ceed G;; kilo its per second. )n )zer ai&ani asedtelecommunication company! Delta Telecom! has recently developed a very efficient trunk linewith possi le speeds of to :.> tera its per second. Internet traffic from this line goes through
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_access_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_providerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_providerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tier_1_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnect_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_rateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_rateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_access_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_providerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tier_1_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnect_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_rateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network


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the countries of Iran! Ira( and Eeorgia. $i er1optic ca les are the medium of choice for internetack one providers for many reasons . $i er1optics allow for fast data speeds and largeandwidth 6 they suffer relatively little attenuation ! allowing them to cover long distances withfew repeaters 6 they are also immune to crosstalk and other forms of /# interference whichplague electrical transmission.

The B .l/.ng Bloc 3: Ba3.c Co 2onen+3 of Ne+ or 3E9ery ne+ or .ncl /e3:

J )t least two computers

J ) network interface on each computer +the device that lets the computer talk to the network@usually called a network interface card K'ICL or adapter,

J ) connection medium@usually a wire or ca le! ut wireless communication etweennetworked computers and peripherals is also possi le

J'etwork operating system software@such as #icrosoft 3indows = or 3indows 'T! 'ovell'et3are! )ppleShare etc. #ost networks@even those with &ust two computers! have a hu ora switch to act as a connection point etween

3hen their computers are &oined in a network! people can share files and peripheralssuch as modems! printers! tape ackup drives! and CD15-# drives. 3hen networks atmultiple locations are connected using services availa le from phone companies! people cansend e1mail! share links to the glo al Internet! or conduct videoconferences in real time withother remote users on the network.T .3+e/-2a.r
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeatershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeatershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference


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This wire comes in several 7standards.8 4nshielded twisted pair +4TP, Category wire+also called :;0aseT, is often used for your phone lines! and 4TP Category = +also called:;0aseG, wire is the current networking standards. Coa%ial resem les round ca le TB wiring.

#.;er-o2+.c

4sually reserved for connections etween ack one8 devices in larger networks! though

in some very demanding environments! highly fault resistant ca le is used to connect desktopworkstations to the network and to link ad&acent uildings. $i er1optic ca le is the most relia lewiring ut also the most e%pensive. $or instance! /thernet can use4TP Category wiring.However! $ast /thernet re(uires at least the higher1grade 4TP Category = wiring. )s a result!all new wiring installations should e Category =.

Ne+ or .n+erface car/3

'etwork interface cards +'ICs,! or adapters! are usually installed inside a computer


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Hubs, or repeaters! are simple devices that interconnect groups of users. Hu s forwardany data packets they receive over one port from one workstation@including e1mail! wordprocessing documents! spreadsheets! graphics! or print re(uests@to all of their remainingports. )ll users connected to a single hu or stack of connected hu s are in the samesegment! sharing the hu


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E+herne+ an/ #a3+ E+herne+/thernet has een around since the late : ;s and remains the leading network

technology for local1area networks + )'s,. /thernet is ased on carrier sense multiple accesswith collision detection +CS#)2CD,. Simply put! an /thernet workstation can send datapackets only when no other packets are travelling on the network! that is! when the network is7(uiet.8 -therwise! it waits to transmit! &ust as a person might wait for another to speak duringconversation. 'etworking Technologies -verview If multiple stations sense an opening andstart sending at the same time! a 7collision8 occurs. Then! each station waits a random amountof time and tries to send its packet again. )fter :> consecutive failed attempts! the originalapplication that sent the packet has to start again. )s more people try to use the network! the

num er of collisions! errors! and su se(uent retransmits grows (uickly! causing a snow alleffect. Collisions are normal occurrences! ut too many can start to cause the network to slowdown. 3hen more than =; percent of the network; percent or higher andwidth usage! the network can slowdramatically or even grind to a halt.

/thernet


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)lthough /thernet networks originally used thick or thin coa%ial ca le! most installationscurrently use unshielded twisted pair +4TP, ca ling. The 4TP ca le contains eight conductors!arranged in four twisted pairs! and is terminated with an 5 = type connector. ) normalstraight1through 4TP /thernet ca le follows the /I)=>F0 standard wiring as descri ed elow.Category = Ca le Quality Category = distri uted ca le that meets )'SI2/I)2TI)1=>F1) uildingwiring standards can e a ma%imum of GF feet +ft., or :;; meters +m, in length! divided asfollows" G; ft. +> m, etween the hu and the patch panel +if used, G = ft. + ; m, from thewiring closet to the wall outlet :; ft. + m, from the wall outlet to the desktop device The patchpanel and other connecting hardware must meet the re(uirements for :;;1# ps operation

+Category =,. -nly ;.= inch +:.= cm, ofuntwist in the wire pair is allowed at anytermination point. ) twisted pair /thernetnetwork operating at :; # its2second+:;0)S/1T, will often tolerate low1(ualityca les! ut at :;; # its2second +:;0)S/1T%, the ca le must e rated as Category =! orCat =! y the /lectronic Industry )ssociation+/I),. This rating will e printed on the ca le

&acket. ) Category = ca le will meet specifiedre(uirements regarding loss and crosstalk. Inaddition! there are restrictions on ma%imumca le length for oth :;1 and :;;1# its2second networks.

CHAPTER "


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OSI &ODEL

The -pen Systems Interconnection model +-SI model, was a product of the -pen Systems Interconnection effort at the International -rganization for Standardization . It is a wayof su 1dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers . Similarcommunication functions are grouped into logical layers. ) layer provides services to its upperlayer while receiving services from the layer elow. -n each layer! an instance providesservice to the instances at the layer a ove and re(uests service from the layer elow.

Layer !: )hy3.cal LayerThe Physical ayer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular! itdefines the relationship etween a device and a transmission medium ! such as a copper oroptical ca le. This includes the layout of pins ! voltages ! ca le specifications ! hu s ! repeaters !network adapters ! host us adapters +H0) used in storage area networks , and more.

The ma&or functions and services performed y the Physical ayer are"

/sta lishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium .

Participation in the process where y the communication resources are effectivelyshared among multiple users. $or e%ample! contention resolution and flow control .

#odulation or conversion etween the representation of digital data in user e(uipment

and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel . These aresignals operating over the physical ca ling +such as copper and optical fi er , or over aradio link .

Layer


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The Data ink ayer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer dataetween network entities and to detect and possi ly correct errors that may occur in thePhysical ayer. -riginally! this layer was intended for point1to1point and point1to1multipointmedia! characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. ocal area networkarchitecture! which included roadcast1capa le multi1access media! was developedindependently of the IS- work in I/// Pro&ect F;G . I/// work assumed su layering andmanagement functions not re(uired for 3)' use. In modern practice! only error detection! notflow control using sliding window! is present in data link protocols such as Point1to1Point Protocol +PPP,! and! on local area networks! the I/// F;G.G C layer is not used for mostprotocols on the /thernet! and on other local area networks! its flow control andacknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used.

Layer =: Ne+ or Layer

The 'etwork ayer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring varia lelength data se(uences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a differentnetwork! while maintaining the (uality of service re(uested y the Transport ayer +in contrastto the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network,. The 'etwork ayerperforms network routing functions! and might also perform fragmentation and reassem ly!and report delivery errors. 5outers operate at this layer@sending data throughout thee%tended network and making the Internet possi le. This is a logical addressing scheme Rvalues are chosen y the network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical.Careful analysis of the 'etwork ayer indicated that the 'etwork ayer could have at leastthree su layers"

Su network )ccess R that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks!such as M.G=6

Su network Dependent Convergence R when it is necessary to ring the level of atransit network up to the level of networks on either side6

Su network Independent Convergence R which handles transfer across multiplenetworks.

Layer 4: Tran32or+ LayerThe Transport ayer provides transparent transfer of data etween end users! providing

relia le data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport ayer controls the relia ility ofa given link through flow control! segmentation2segmentation! and error control. Someprotocols are state and connection1oriented. This means that the Transport ayer can keeptrack of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer also provides! theacknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the ne%t data if no errorsoccurred.

)lthough not developed under the -SI 5eference #odel and not strictly conforming tothe -SI definition of the Transport ayer! typical e%amples of ayer are the Transmission Control Protocol +TCP, and 4ser Datagram Protocol +4DP,.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Link_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublayerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_Link_Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Link_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublayerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_Link_Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol


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Layer 5: Se33.on LayerThe Session ayer controls the dialogues +connections, etween computers. It

esta lishes! manages and terminates the connections etween the local and remoteapplication. It provides for full1duple%! half1duple% ! or simple% operation! and esta lishes checkpointing! ad&ournment! termination! and restart procedures. The -SI model made this layer

responsi le for graceful close of sessions! which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol ! and also for session check pointing and recovery! which is not usually used in theInternet Protocol Suite. The Session ayer is commonly implemented e%plicitly in applicationenvironments that use remote procedure calls .

Layer : )re3en+a+.on LayerThe Presentation ayer esta lishes conte%t etween )pplication ayer entities! in which

the higher1layer entities may use different synta% and semantics if the presentation serviceprovides a mapping etween them. If a mapping is availa le! presentation service data unitsare encapsulated into session protocol data units! and passed down the stack.

This layer provides independence from data representation +e.g.! encryption , y translatingetween application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the formthat the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to e sent across a network.It is sometimes called the synta% layer.

Layer >: A22l.ca+.on Layer

The )pplication ayer is the -SI layer closest to the end user! which means that oth the-SI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layerinteracts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Suchapplication programs fall outside the scope of the -SI model. 3hen determining resourceavaila ility! the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the re(uestedcommunication e%ists. In synchronizing communication! all communication etweenapplications re(uires cooperation that is managed y the application layer. Some e%amples ofapplication layer implementations also include" -n -SI stack"

$T)# $ile Transfer and )ccess #anagement Protocol M. ;; #ail

Common management information protocol +C#IP,

CHAPTER #

TC!'I!
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In the TCP2IP model of the Internet! protocols are deli erately not as rigidly designed intostrict layers as the -SI model. However! TCP2IP does recognize four road layers offunctionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols! namelythe scope of the software application! the end1to1end transport connection! the internetworkingrange! and lastly the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.

/ven though the concept is different from the -SI model! these layers are neverthelessoften compared with the -SI layering scheme in the following way" The Internet )pplication ayer includes the -SI )pplication ayer! Presentation ayer! and most of the Session ayer.Its end1to1end Transport ayer includes the graceful close function of the -SI Session ayeras well as the -SI Transport ayer. The internetworking layer + Internet ayer , is a su set ofthe -SI 'etwork ayer +see a ove,! while the ink ayer includes the -SI Data ink andPhysical ayers! as well as parts of -SI*s 'etwork ayer. These comparisons are ased on theoriginal seven1layer protocol model as defined in IS- F! rather than refinements in suchthings as the internal organization of the 'etwork ayer document.

The presuma ly strict peer layering of the -SI model as it is usually descri ed does notpresent contradictions in TCP2IP! as it is permissi le that protocol usage does not follow the

hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such e%amples e%ist in some routing protocols +e.g.!-SP$,! or in the description of tunneling protocols ! which provide a ink ayer for anapplication! although the tunnel host protocol may well e a Transport or even an )pplicationayer protocol in its own right.

In+erne+ )ro+ocol 6I)7 A//re33e30ecause TCP2IP networks are interconnected across the world! each computer on the

Internet must have a uni(ue address +called an IP address , to make sure that transmitted datareaches the correct destination. 0locks of addresses are assigned to organizations y theInternet )ssigned 'um ers )uthority +I)'),. Individual users and small organizations may

o tain their addresses either from the I)') or from an Internet service provider +ISP,.TheInternet Protocol +IP, uses a G1 it address structure. The address is usually written in dotnotation +also called dotted1decimal notation,! in which each group of eight its is written indecimal form! separated y decimal points. $or e%ample! the following inary address"::;;;;:: ;;:;;;:; ;;;;::;; ;;;;;::: is normally written as" : =. .:G. The latterversion is easier to remem er and easier to enter into your computer. In addition! the G its ofthe address are su divided into two parts.

The first part of the address identifies the network! and the second part identifies thehost node or station on the network. The dividing point may vary depending on the addressrange and the application. There are five standard classes of IP addresses. These addressclasses have different ways of determining the network and host sections of the address!allowing for different num ers of hosts on a network. /ach address type egins with a uni(ueit pattern! which is used y the TCP2IP software to identify the address class. )fter theaddress class has een determined! the software can correctly identify the host section of theaddress. The figure elow shows the three main address classes! including network and hostsections of the address for each address type.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunneling_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_Layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunneling_protocol


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The five address classes are"

J Cl"ss A Class ) addresses can have up to :>! !G: hosts on a single network. They usean F1 it network num er and a G 1 it node num er. Class ) addresses are in this range":.%.%.% to :G>.%.%.%.

J Cl"ss ( Class 0 addresses can have up to >=! = hosts on a network. ) Class 0 addressuses a :>1 it network num er and a :>1 it node num er. Class 0 addresses are in this range":GF.:.%.% to : :.G= .%.%.

J Cl"ss C Class C addresses can have up to G= hosts on a network. ) Class C address usesa G 1 it network num er and an F1 it node num er. Class C addresses are in this range": G.;.:.% to GG .G==.G= .%.

J Cl"ss D Class D addresses are used for multicasts +messages sent to many hosts,. Class Daddresses are in this range" GG .;.;.; to G .G==.G==.G==.

J Cl"ss E Class / addresses are for e%perimental use.

Ne+ a3In each of the address classes previously descri ed! the size of the two parts +network

address and host address, is implied y the class. This partitioning scheme can also ee%pressed y a netmask associated with the IP address. ) netmask is a G1 it (uantity that!when logically com ined +using an )'D operator, with an IP address! yields the networkaddress. $or instance! the netmasks for Class )! 0! and C addresses are G==.;.;.;!G==.G==.;.;! and G==.G==.G==.;! respectively. $or e%ample! the address : G.:>F.: ;.G is aClass C IP address whose network portion is the upper G its. 3hen com ined +using an

)'D operator, with the Class C netmask! as shown here! only the network portion of theaddress remains" ::;;;;;; :;:;:;;; :;:;:;:; :::;::;: +: G.:>F.: ;.G , com ined with":::::::: :::::::: :::::::: ;;;;;;;; +G==.G==.G==.;, e(uals" ::;;;;;; :;:;:;;;:;:;:;:; ;;;;;;;; +: G.:>F.: ;.;, )s a shorter alternative to dotted1decimal notation! thenetmask may also e e%pressed in terms of the num er of ones from the left. This num er isappended to the IP address! following a ackward slash +2,! as 72n.8 In the e%ample! theaddress could e written as : G.:>F.: ;.G 2G ! indicating that the netmask is G onesfollowed y F zeros.


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Me/.a Acce33 Con+rol 6MAC7 A//re33e3 an/ A//re33 "e3ol +.on )ro+ocol )n IP address alone cannot e used to deliver data from one )' device to another. To

send data etween )' devices! you must convert the IP address of the destination device toits #)C address. /ach device on an /thernet network has a uni(ue #)C address! which is aF1 it num er assigned to each device y the manufacturer. The techni(ue that associates the

IP address with a #)C address is known as address resolution . Internet Protocol uses the )ddress 5esolution Protocol +)5P, to resolve #)C addresses. If a device sends data toanother station on the network and the destination #)C address is not yet recorded! )5P isused. )n )5P re(uest is roadcast onto the network. )ll stations +computers! for e%ample, onthe network receive and read the re(uest. The destination IP address for the chosen station isincluded as part of the message so that only the station with this IP address responds to the

)5P re(uest. )ll other stations discard the re(uest.

Do a.n Na e Sy3+e 6DNS7 Ser9er #any of the resources on the Internet can e addressed y simple descriptive namessuch as http://www.NETGEAR.com . This addressing is very helpful at the application level! utthe descriptive name must e translated to an IP address in order for a user to actually contactthe resource. ust as a telephone directory maps names to phone num ers! or as an )5Pta le maps IP addresses to #)C addresses! a D'S server maps descriptive names of networkresources to IP addresses. 3hen a computer accesses a resource y its descriptive name! itfirst contacts a D'S server to o tain the IP address of the resource. The computer sends thedesired message using the IP address. #any large organizations! such as ISPs! maintain theirown D'S servers and allow their customers to use the servers to look up addresses.

)r.9a+e I) A//re33e3If you


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Cis o Inter)network Oper"ting S%stemC.3co I%S Mo/e3 of %2era+.on

The Cisco I-S software provides access to several different command modes. /achcommand mode provides a different group of related commands.$or security purposes! the Cisco I-S software provides two levels of access to commands"user and privileged. The unprivileged user mode is called user /M/C mode. The privilegedmode is called privileged /M/C mode and re(uires a password. The commands availa le inuser /M/C mode are a su set of the commands availa le in privileged /M/C mode.The following ta le descri es some of the most commonly used modes! how to enter themodes! and the resulting prompts. The prompt helps you identify which mode you are in and!therefore! which commands are availa le to you

4ser /M/C #ode"

3hen you are connected to the router! you are started in user /M/C mode. The user/M/C commands are a su set of the privileged /M/C commands.

Privileged /M/C #ode"

Privileged commands include the following"

J Configure R Changes the software configuration.

J De ug R Display process and hardware event messages.

J Setup R /nter configuration information at the prompts.

/nter the command disa le to e%it from the privileged /M/C mode and return to user /M/Cmode.

Conf.g ra+.on Mo/e


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9ou are not re(uired to alter any of these parameters! ut some interface parameters must econsistent across all routers in an attached network.

Co an/ ) r2o3e ip ospf ost cost /%plicitly specify the cost of

sending a packet on an -SP$interface.

ip ospf retr"nsmit)inter8"l seconds Specify the num er of secondsetween link state advertisementretransmissions for ad&acencieselonging to an -SP$ interface.

ip ospf tr"nsmit)$el"% seconds Set the estimated num er ofseconds it takes to transmit a linkstate update packet on an -SP$interface.

ip ospf priorit% num er Set router priority to help

determine the -SP$ designatedrouter for a network.ip ospf hello)inter8"l seconds Specify the length of time! in

seconds! etween the hellopackets that a router sends on an-SP$ interface.

ip ospf $e"$)inter8"l seconds Set the num er of seconds that arouter


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RO9TING TA(LE

In computer networking a routing ta le! or 5outing Information 0ase +5I0,! is a data structure in the form of a ta le 1like o &ect stored in a router or a networked computer that liststhe routes to particular network destinations! and in some cases! metrics associated with thoseroutes. The routing ta le contains information a out the topology of the network immediatelyaround it. The construction of routing ta les is the primary goal of routing protocols . Static routes are entries made in a routing ta le y non1automatic means and which are fi%ed ratherthan eing the result of some network topology *discovery* procedure.

5outing ta les are generally not used directly for packet forwarding in modern routerarchitectures6 instead! they are used to generate the information for a smaller forwarding ta le which contains only the routes which are chosen y the routing algorithm as preferred routesfor packet forwarding ! often in a compressed or pre1compiled format that is optimized forhardware storage and lookup . The remainder of this article will ignore this implementationdetail! and refer to the entire routing2forwarding information su system as the Arouting ta leA.

Ba3.c3 ) routing ta le utilizes the same idea that one does when using a map in package

delivery. 3henever a node needs to send data to another node on a network! it must knowwhere to send it! first. If the node cannot directly connect to the destination node! it has to sendit via other nodes along a proper route to the destination node. #ost nodes do not try to figureout which route+s, might work6 instead! a node will send an IP packet to a gateway in the )' !which then decides how to route the ApackageA of data to the correct destination. /achgateway will need to keep track of which way to deliver various packages of data! and for this ituses a 5outing Ta le. ) routing ta le is a data ase which keeps track of paths! like a map!and allows the gateway to provide this information to the node re(uesting the information.

3ith hop1 y1hop routing! each routing ta le lists! for all reacha le destinations! theaddress of the ne%t device along the path to that destination6 the ne%t hop. )ssuming that therouting ta les are consistent! the simple algorithm of relaying packets to their destination*s ne%thop thus suffices to deliver data anywhere in a network. Hop1 y1hop is the fundamentalcharacteristic of the IP Internetwork layer and the -SI 'etwork ayer ! in contrast to thefunctions of the IP /nd1to1/nd and -SI Transport ayers . Current router architectureseparates the Control Plane function of the routing ta le from the $orwarding Plane function ofthe forwarding ta le.

D.ff.c l+.e3 .+h ro +.ng +a;le3The need to record routes to large num ers of devices using limited storage space

represents a ma&or challenge in routing ta le construction. In the Internet! the currentlydominant address aggregation technology is a itwise prefi% matching scheme calledClassless Inter1Domain 5outing +CID5,.

Since in a network each node presuma ly possesses a valid routing ta le! routingta les must e consistent among the various nodes or routing loops can develop. This isparticularly pro lematic in the hop1 y1hop routing model in which the net effect of inconsistentta les in several different routers could e to forward packets in an endless loop. 5outing
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oops have historically plagued routing! and their avoidance is a ma&or design goal of routingprotocols.

Con+en+3 of ro +.ng +a;le3The routing ta le consists of at least three information fields"1

The network id" i.e. the destination network id

Cost" i.e. the cost or metric of the path through which the packet is to e sent

'e%t hop" The ne%t hop! or gateway! is the address of the ne%t station to which the packet is toe sent on the way to its final destination

Depending on the application and implementation! it can also contain additional values thatrefine path selection"

Quality of service associated with the route. $or e%ample! the 4 flag indicates that an IP routeis up.

links to filtering criteria2access lists associated with the route

Interface" such as eth; for the first /thernet card! eth: for the second /thernet card! etc.

CHAPTER &

SWITC ES


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# nc+.onThe network switch plays an integral part in most modern /thernet local area networks

+ )'s,. #id1to1large sized )'s contain a num er of linked managed switches. Small

office2home office +S-H-, applications typically use a single switch! or an all1purpose

converged device such as a gateway to access small office2home road and services such asDS or ca le internet . In most of these cases! the end1user device contains a router and

components that interface to the particular physical road and technology. 4ser devices may

also include a telephone interface for BoIP .

)n /thernet switch operates at the data link layer of the -SI model to create a separate

collision domain for each switch port. 3ith computers +e.g.! )! 0! C! and D, on switch ports!

) and 0 can transfer data ack and forth! while C and D also do so simultaneously! and the

two conversations will not interfere with one another. In the case of a hu ! they would all sharethe andwidth and run in half duple% ! resulting in collisions! which would then necessitate

retransmissions. 4sing a switch is called micro segmentation . This allows computers to have

dedicated andwidth on a point1to1point connection to the network and to therefore run in full

duple% without collisions.

"ole of 3 .+che3 .n ne+ or 3Switches may operate at one or more layers of the -SI model! including data link !

network ! or transport +i.e.! end1to1end, . ) device that operates simultaneously at more thanone of these layers is known as a multilayer switch .

In switches intended for commercial use! uilt1in or modular interfaces make it possi le

to connect different types of networks! including /thernet ! $i re Channel ! )T# ! IT41T E.hn

and F;G.:: . This connectivity can e at any of the layers mentioned. 3hile ayer G

functionality is ade(uate for andwidth1shifting within one technology! interconnecting

technologies such as /thernet and token ring are easier at ayer .

Interconnection of different ayer networks is done y routers . If there are any

features that characterize A ayer1 switchesA as opposed to general1purpose routers! it tends

to e that they are optimized! in larger switches! for high1density /thernet connectivity. In some

service provider and other environments where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_office/home_officehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_office/home_officehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_gatewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Subscriber_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsegmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Modehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.hnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_ringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_office/home_officehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_office/home_officehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_gatewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Subscriber_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsegmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Modehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.hnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_ringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router


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network performance and security! switches may e connected etween 3)' routers as

places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall ! network intrusion detection ! and

performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may e

on com ined modules. In other cases! the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that

can go to an e%ternal device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirroredstream! network hu s can e useful for fanning out data to several read1only analyzers! such

as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers .

S .+ch

A S .+che/ Ne+ or

Ba3.c f nc+.on3 2erfor e/: )ddress learning

$orwarding ased on the learned addresses

CHAPTER 'ST!

STP is a ridge1to1 ridge protocol used to maintain a loop1free network.
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To maintain a loop1free network topology! STP esta lishes a root ridge! a root port! anddesignated ports.

3ith STP! the root ridge has the lowest 0ID! which is made up of the ridge priority andthe #)C address.

3hen STP is ena led! every ridge in the network goes through the locking state and the

transitory states of listening and learning at power up. If properly configured! the ports thensta ilize to the forwarding or locking state.

If the network topology changes! STP maintains connectivity y transitioning some lockedports to the forwarding state.

5STP significantly speeds the recalculation of the spanning tree when the network topologychanges.

ST) 2ro9./e3 a loo2-free re/ n/an+ ne+ or +o2ology ;y

2lac.ng cer+a.n 2or+3 .n +he ;loc .ng 3+a+e

-ne root ridge per roadcast domain

-ne root port per no root ridge

-ne designated port per segment

'o designated ports are unused

S2ann.ng Tree )ro+ocol "oo+ Br./ge Selec+.on


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0PD4 +default V sent every two seconds

5oot ridge V ridge with the lowest ridge ID

Spanning tree transits each port through several different states"

S2ann.ng Tree Con9ergence

Convergence occurs when all the switch and ridge ports have transitioned to either theforwarding or the locking state.

3hen the network topology changes! switches and ridges must recomputed STP! whichdisrupts user traffic.

CHAPTER (


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;LAN

) virtual local area network! virtual )' or B )'! is a group of hosts with a common setof re(uirements that communicate as if they were attached to the same roadcast domain !regardless of their physical location. ) B )' has the same attri utes as a physical local area network + )',! ut it allows for end stations to e grouped together even if they are not locatedon the same network switch . )' mem ership can e configured through software instead ofphysically relocating devices or connections.

To physically replicate the functions of a B )'! it would e necessary to install aseparate! parallel collection of network ca les and e(uipment which are kept separate from theprimary network. However unlike a physically separate network! B )'s must share andwidth6two separate one1giga it B )'s using a single one1giga it interconnection can suffer othreduced throughput and congestion. It virtualizes B )' ehaviors +configuring switch ports!tagging frames when entering B )'! lookup #)C ta le to switch2flood frames to trunk links!and untangling when e%it from B )'.,

U3e3B )'s are created to provide the segmentation services traditionally provided y

routers in )' configurations. B )'s address issues such as scala ility! security! and networkmanagement. 5outers in B )' topologies provide roadcast filtering! security! addresssummarization! and traffic flow management. 0y definition! switches may not ridge IP trafficetween B )'s as it would violate the integrity of the B )' roadcast domain.

This is also useful if someone wants to create multiple layer networks on the samelayer G switch. $or e%ample! if a DHCP server is plugged into a switch it will serve any host onthat switch that is configured to get its IP from a DHCP server. 0y using B )'s you can easilysplit the network up so some hosts won*t use that DHCP server and will o tain link1local

addresses ! or o tain an address from a different DHCP server.B )'s are layer G constructs! compared with IP su nets which are layer constructs.

In an environment employing B )'s! a one1to1one relationship often e%ists etween B )'sand IP su nets! although it is possi le to have multiple su nets on one B )'. B )'s and IPsu nets provide independent ayer G and ayer constructs that map to one another and thiscorrespondence is useful during the network design process.

0y using B )'s! one can control traffic patterns and react (uickly to relocations. B )'sprovide the fle%i ility to adapt to changes in network re(uirements and allow for simplifiedadministration.

E3+a;l.3h.ng ?LAN e ;er3h.23

The two common approaches to assigning B )' mem ership are as follows" Static B )'s Dynamic B )'s

Static B )'s are also referred to as port1 ased B )'s. Static B )' assignments arecreated y assigning ports to a B )'. )s a device enters the network! the device automaticallyassumes the B )' of the port. If the user changes ports and needs access to the same B )'!the network administrator must manually make a port1to1B )' assignment for the newconnection.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-local_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-local_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-local_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-local_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnets


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Dynamic B )'s are created through the use of software. 3ith a B )' #anagement Policy Server +B#PS,! an administrator can assign switch ports to B )'s dynamically ased oninformation such as the source #)C address of the device connected to the port or theusername used to log onto that device. )s a device enters the network! the device (ueries adata ase for B )' mem ership.

C.3co ?LAN Tr n .ng )ro+ocol 6?T)7-n Cis o De8i es ! BTP +B )' Trunking Protocol, maintains B )' configuration

consistency across the entire network. BTP uses ayer G trunk frames to manage the addition!deletion! and renaming of B )'s on a network1wide asis from a centralized switch in the BTPserver mode. BTP is responsi le for synchronizing B )' information within a BTP domain andreduces the need to configure the same B )' information on each switch.

BTP minimizes the possi le configuration inconsistencies that arise when changes aremade. These inconsistencies can result in security violations! ecause B )'s can crossconnect when duplicate names are used. They also could ecome internally disconnected

when they are mapped from one )' type to another! for e%ample! /thernet to )T# )'// )'s or $DDI F;G.:; B )'s. BTP provides a mapping scheme that ena les seamlesstrunking within a network employing mi%ed1media technologies.

BTP provides the following enefits" B )' configuration consistency across the network #apping scheme that allows a B )' to e trunked over mi%ed media )ccurate tracking and monitoring of B )'s Dynamic reporting of added B )'s across the network Plug1and1play configuration when adding new B )'s

)s eneficial as BTP can e! it does have disadvantages that are normally related to thespanning tree protocol +STP, as a ridging loop propagating throughout the network can occur.Cisco switches run an instance of STP for each B )'! and since BTP propagates B )'sacross the campus )'! BTP effectively creates more opportunities for a ridging loop tooccur.

0efore creating B )'s on the switch that will e propagated via BTP! a BTP domain mustfirst e set up. ) BTP domain for a network is a set of all contiguously trunked switches with

the same BTP domain name. )ll switches in the same management domain share their B )'information with each other! and a switch can participate in only one BTP managementdomain. Switches in different domains do not share BTP information.

4sing BTP! each Catalyst $amily Switch advertises the following on its trunk ports"

CHAPTER )

ACCESS)LISTS
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN_Management_Policy_Serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN_Management_Policy_Serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanning_tree_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN_Management_Policy_Serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN_Management_Policy_Serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanning_tree_protocol


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Standard )ccess Control ists +)C , is Cisco I-S 1 ased commands used to filter packets on Cisco routers ased on the source IP )ddress of the packet. /%tended )ccess Control ists have the a ility to filter packets ased on source and destination IP addresses.

N ;ere/ S+an/ar/ Acce33 Con+rol L.3+3'um ers etween : and ! : ;; and : or named e%plicitly with *ip access1list

standard name* can e used as a Standard )C . The num er used in this range doesn*t affecthow the )C is processed or which )C is more important to the router. ) standard )C isconcerned with only one factor! the source IP address of the packet. T he destination is notConsidered. The num er takes the place of a name you might give to a specific rule. Thenum er in no way corresponds to a list of pre1defined )C s

Na e/ S+an/ar/ Acce33 Con+rol L.3+3The difference etween 'amed and 'um ered )C s is that a name! not a num er! isassociated with a named )C . 'ames are easier to remem er than num ers. /ither way! thename of an )C is given as either a num er or a name.

Acce33 L.3+ " le35egardless of the type of access list you create! standard or e%tended! you must follow certainrules. $or instance! you must create and apply access lists se(uentially and must remem erthat they end with an implicit deny.

5outerW)+config, access1list : deny : G.:>.=.G ;.;.;.; 5outerW)+config, access1list : deny : G.:>.=. ;.;.;.; 5outerW)+config, access1list : permit any

The previous e%ample is a standard IP access list that denies the hosts : G.:>.=.G and

: G.:>.=. ! while allowing all other traffic. The list is applied se(uentially from the top down asthe router checks the packets arriving at the interface where this access list is applied! in orderto check if the packets match the permit and deny statements. In the process of applying theaccess list! the router first checks an arriving packet to determine if it matches the deny: G.:>.=.G ;.;.;.; statement. If it does! the router discards the packet. If it does not! the routerapplies the second statement! deny : G.:>.=. ;.;.;.;. If the packet matches the secondstatement! the router discards the packet. -nce again! if the packet does not meet the rules ofthe first two lines! the router applies the final permit any statement! and the packet is forwardedthrough the interface.

If you wish to remove an access1list! you use the no access1list +list , command. $or e%ample!to remove the a ove list! you enter glo al configuration mode and type the no access1listcommand. The information elow shows the correct procedure for typing this command.

Crea+.ng N ;ere/ S+an/ar/ Acce33 Con+rol L.3+3$rom Elo al Configuration mode! type in"

)ccess1list Kaccess1list1num erL Kdeny2permitL Ksource1ip1address interface Kinterface1num erL ip access1group Knum er of listL in2out
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciscohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_IOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extended_Access_Control_Lists&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciscohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_IOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extended_Access_Control_Lists&action=edit&redlink=1


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/%ample"

access1list = permit ::.;. .; ;.;.;.G== access1list = permit :;.;.=.; ;.;.;.G== int fa;2; ip access1group = in

The a ove e%ample permits traffic from two specific networks. 'ote that the access1list muste defined! and assigned an interface. )n access1list y itself +not assigned to an interface,doesn*t do anything at all.

AinA or AoutA refer to the traffic into! or out of! the router that is eing configured.

Crea+.ng Na e/ S+an/ar/ Acce33 Con+rol L.3+3$rom Elo al configuration mode type"

ip access1list standard KnameL deny Ksource ip or keyword anyL Kwildcard mask or keyword anyL -5

permit Ksource ip or keyword anyL Kwildcard mask or keyword anyL

)ro;le 3 .+h Acce33 L.3+3I. -ne of the most common pro lems associated with access lists is a lack of planning. 0eforeyou even egin the process of creating access lists on your router! you must plan e%actly whatneeds to e filtered and where it needs to e filtered.

II. )nother trou lesome area is the se(uential nature in which you must enter the lists into therouter. 9ou cannot remove individual statements once they are entered. 3hen makingchanges! you must remove the list! using the no access1list command! and then retype thecommands. G; permit :.:.:.G

III. $inally! many new network administrators find themselves in trou le when they Telnet into arouter and egin applying an access list. )n access list egins to work the second it*s appliedto an interface. It*s very possi le that many new administrators will find themselvesinadvertently locked from the same router on which they*re applying the access list.

CHAPTER Network "$$ress tr"nsl"tion In computer networking ! network address translation +')T, is the process of modifyingIP address information in IP packet headers while in transit across a traffic routing device .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_headerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_headerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router


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The simplest type of ')T provides a one to one translation of IP addresses. 5$C G>> refersto this type of ')T as asic ')T. It is often also referred to as one1to1one ')T. In this type of')T only the IP addresses! IP header checksum and any higher level checksums that includethe IP address need to e changed. The rest of the packet can e left untouched +at least forasic TCP24DP functionality! some higher level protocols may need further translation,. 0asic')Ts can e used when there is a re(uirement to interconnect two IP networks withincompati le addressing.

However it is common to hide an entire IP address space! usually consisting of private IP addresses ! ehind a single IP address +or in some cases a small group of IP addresses, inanother +usually pu lic, address space. To avoid am iguity in the handling of returned packets!a one1to1many ')T must alter higher level information such as TCP24DP ports in outgoingcommunications and must maintain a translation ta le so that return packets can e correctlytranslated ack. -ther names include P)T +port address translation,! IP mas(uerading! ')T-verload and many1to1one ')T. Since this is the most common type of ')T it is often referredto simply as ')T.

)s descri ed! the method ena les communication through the router only when the

conversation originates in the mas(ueraded network! since this esta lishes the translationta les. $or e%ample! a we rowser in the mas(ueraded network can rowse a we siteoutside! ut a we rowser outside could not rowse a we site in the mas(ueraded network.However! most ')T devices today allow the network administrator to configure translationta le entries for permanent use. This feature is often referred to as Astatic ')TA or port forwarding and allows traffic originating in the AoutsideA network to reach designated hosts inthe mas(ueraded network.

In the mid1: ;s ')T ecame a popular tool for alleviating the conse(uences of IPv address e%haustion . It has ecome a standard! indispensa le feature in routers for home andsmall1office Internet connections. #ost systems using ')T do so in order to ena le multiplehosts on a private network to access the Internet using a single pu lic IP address

'etwork address translation has serious draw acks on the (uality of Internetconnectivity and re(uires careful attention to the details of its implementation. In particular alltypes of ')T reak the originally envisioned model of IP end1to1end connectivity across theInternet and ')PT makes it difficult for systems ehind a ')T to accept incomingcommunications. )s a result! ')T traversal methods have een devised to alleviate the issuesencountered.
http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2663http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_forwardinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_forwardinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(network)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_address_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end_connectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAT_traversalhttp://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2663http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_IP_addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_forwardinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_forwardinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(network)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_address_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end_connectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAT_traversal


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The originating host may perform #a%imum transmission unit +#T4, path discovery todetermine the packet size that can e transmitted without fragmentation! and then set the don*tfragment +D$, it in the appropriate packet header field.

Conf.g r.ng S+a+.c Tran3la+.on5outer+config, ip nat inside source static local ip !lobal ip /sta lishes static translation etween an inside local address and an inside glo al address

5outer+config1if, ip nat inside

#arks the interface as connected to the inside

5outer+config1if, ip nat outside

#arks the interface as connected to the outside

Ena;l.ng S+a+.c NAT: A//re33 Ma22.ng E@a 2le
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_transmission_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_MTU_Discoveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_transmission_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_MTU_Discovery


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Conf.g r.ng Dyna .c Tran3la+.on

E0AM)LE:

WAN


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