Inequality within Schools: Ability Grouping and Tracking Sociology 20228 September 5,2004

Inequality within Inequality within Schools: Ability Schools: Ability

Grouping and TrackingGrouping and Tracking

Sociology 20228Sociology 20228

September 5,2004September 5,2004

How Does the Allocation How Does the Allocation System in America Work in System in America Work in

Practice?Practice?

SOCIAL ORIGINS

SOCIAL DESTI-NATIONS

EDUCA-TIONAL SUCCESS

?

LEARNING OPPOR-TUNITIES

EFFORT

ACADEMIC ABILITY

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

Both Between School and Within School Differences

SOCIAL ORIGINS

SOCIAL DESTI-NATIONS

EDUCA-TIONAL SUCCESS

?

LEARNING OPPOR-TUNITIES

EFFORT

ACADEMIC ABILITY

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

To what extent is grouping a source of inequality in outcomes?

What are the relative importance of ability and social origins in shaping track placement?

How is tracking related to students’ academic experiences?

The Role of Tracking in The Role of Tracking in America’s Allocation SystemAmerica’s Allocation System

Grouping Practices in Grouping Practices in SchoolsSchools

Elementary SchoolsElementary Schools– ABILITY GROUPING WITHIN CLASSES ABILITY GROUPING WITHIN CLASSES

(e.g., Reading groups)(e.g., Reading groups)– ABILITY GROUPING ACROSS CLASSES ABILITY GROUPING ACROSS CLASSES

(e.g., “pullouts”)(e.g., “pullouts”) Middle SchoolsMiddle Schools

– ““TRACKS” – Students grouped together TRACKS” – Students grouped together in several classes across academic in several classes across academic subjects with differing levels of subjects with differing levels of academic content/rigoracademic content/rigor

Grouping Practices in Grouping Practices in SchoolsSchools

High SchoolHigh School– COURSE TAKING PATTERNSCOURSE TAKING PATTERNS

Different types of classes within a given Different types of classes within a given subject (e.g., Honors, Advanced Placement, subject (e.g., Honors, Advanced Placement, College Prep, Remedial, General)College Prep, Remedial, General)

Advanced Classes (e.g., Calculus, Physics, Advanced Classes (e.g., Calculus, Physics, Fourth Year English, Third Year Language) Fourth Year English, Third Year Language) that are not requiredthat are not required

The label of “Track” is difficult to apply to The label of “Track” is difficult to apply to the High School curriculum – students’ the High School curriculum – students’ course taking experiences may vary across course taking experiences may vary across subjects (e.g., “high” in math, but “regular” subjects (e.g., “high” in math, but “regular” or “low” English).or “low” English).

Rationale of Ability Grouping Rationale of Ability Grouping and Trackingand Tracking

Intended to address a fundamental Intended to address a fundamental problem of schooling:problem of schooling:– Students do not come to school with the Students do not come to school with the

same level of knowledge and/or “ability.”same level of knowledge and/or “ability.”

Key Assumption:Key Assumption: Teachers are Teachers are more effective at instructing students more effective at instructing students when the level of knowledge and/or when the level of knowledge and/or “ability” in a class is homogeneous. “ability” in a class is homogeneous.

What is Academic “Ability?”What is Academic “Ability?”

Can the student exhibit mastery over Can the student exhibit mastery over the material?the material?

Ex – Can the student learn calculus? Can Ex – Can the student learn calculus? Can the student derive proofs on their own?the student derive proofs on their own?

How much How much timetime and and efforteffort is is necessary for a given student to exhibit necessary for a given student to exhibit mastery over the material?mastery over the material?

Ex – How long does it take the student to Ex – How long does it take the student to learn calculus? How much attention from learn calculus? How much attention from the teacher is needed to learn calculus? the teacher is needed to learn calculus?

Research on Academic Research on Academic Ability Ability

Do most students have the ability to master Do most students have the ability to master the K-12 curriculum?the K-12 curriculum?– Research says, “YES.”Research says, “YES.”

Do most students require the same inputs Do most students require the same inputs (time, effort, instruction) to learn the same (time, effort, instruction) to learn the same material?material?– Research says, “NO.”Research says, “NO.”

KEY POINT: Most students KEY POINT: Most students can learncan learn the the material, but the material, but the inputs required differinputs required differ markedly depending on the student.markedly depending on the student.

Ability vs. KnowledgeAbility vs. Knowledge

KEY DIFFERENCEKEY DIFFERENCEABILITYABILITY – suggests a – suggests a capacitycapacity for for learning something.learning something.

LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE (“Achievement”) (“Achievement”) – indicates whether – indicates whether one has one has actually learnedactually learned the material. the material.

** It is possible to lack ** It is possible to lack knowledgeknowledge in a in a given area but to still possess an given area but to still possess an abilityability to to learn it.learn it.

How Do Schools Assess How Do Schools Assess Student “Ability?” Student “Ability?”

Intelligence TestsIntelligence Tests– Have Grown Less Popular over TimeHave Grown Less Popular over Time– Problems:Problems:

Persistent Group Differences in Tests are Persistent Group Differences in Tests are Likely NOT Due to Ability; Rather they are Likely NOT Due to Ability; Rather they are due to constricted Opportunities and Caste due to constricted Opportunities and Caste StatusStatus

Group Differences in Tests Have and Could Group Differences in Tests Have and Could Be Deemed Discriminatory in CourtBe Deemed Discriminatory in Court

IQ tests measure something – but is it IQ tests measure something – but is it “ability?” (E.g., “The Flynn Effect”)“ability?” (E.g., “The Flynn Effect”)

How Do Schools Assess How Do Schools Assess Student “Ability?”Student “Ability?”

Prior Test Scores, Prior GradesPrior Test Scores, Prior Grades– Most Commonly Used Indicators of Most Commonly Used Indicators of

AbilityAbility– Problems:Problems:

Content based assessments that are Content based assessments that are dependent on (1) prior learning dependent on (1) prior learning opportunities (both inside and outside opportunities (both inside and outside schools), (2) prior student effort, and (3) schools), (2) prior student effort, and (3) students’ academic ability. students’ academic ability.

Conflates the issues of Conflates the issues of how much students how much students knowknow with with their ability to know ittheir ability to know it..

How Do Schools Assess How Do Schools Assess Student “Ability?”Student “Ability?”

Teacher Recommendations Teacher Recommendations – Often used alongside grades and test Often used alongside grades and test

scoresscores– Problems: Problems:

Teachers can be biased in their assessments Teachers can be biased in their assessments (e.g., same behavior or performance may be (e.g., same behavior or performance may be seen differently depending on ascriptive seen differently depending on ascriptive characteristics).characteristics).

Teachers may confuse “ability” with effort or Teachers may confuse “ability” with effort or help from home. help from home.

Assessing AbilityAssessing Ability Is it possible or necessary to assess Is it possible or necessary to assess

student ability when organizing student ability when organizing students for instruction?students for instruction?

– It is possible to assess It is possible to assess somesome aspects of aspects of ability (what ability (what inputsinputs are needed) but are needed) but not not allall ( (capacitycapacity).).

– It is It is notnot necessary but it necessary but it COULDCOULD be be helpful.helpful.

Sorting by TracksSorting by Tracks

Track Placement

Test Scores and/or Grades

Socioeconomic Status

Race/Ethnicity+ + +

+

+ + +

+ +

+ +

A Direct Effect of SES on Track Placement Remains Even after Controlling for Academic Performance

All of the Race/Ethnicity Relationship and much of the SES relationship is INDIRECT


If test scores and grades are the If test scores and grades are the primary means of sorting students primary means of sorting students into tracks, can we conclude that the into tracks, can we conclude that the tracking system is meritocratic?tracking system is meritocratic?

** Equal opportunities, but unequal ** Equal opportunities, but unequal outcomes outcomes Consistent with Consistent with MERITOCRATIC MODELMERITOCRATIC MODEL


KEY PROBLEM KEY PROBLEM

– Where do inequalities in prior Where do inequalities in prior achievement come from?achievement come from?

UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES, ABILITY, OR UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES, ABILITY, OR EFFORT?EFFORT?

* If UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES are to blame, * If UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES are to blame, then the argument for MERITOCRATIC then the argument for MERITOCRATIC allocation is allocation is weakenedweakened..


RACIAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC SEGREGATION RACIAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC SEGREGATION AT THE CLASSROOM LEVEL IF WE SORT ON AT THE CLASSROOM LEVEL IF WE SORT ON THE BASIS OF ACHIEVEMENT THE BASIS OF ACHIEVEMENT

Is this acceptable, or should we take Is this acceptable, or should we take concerns about diversity into account when concerns about diversity into account when sorting students?sorting students?

Should we judge a sorting regime on the Should we judge a sorting regime on the basis of the process, the outcomes, or a mix basis of the process, the outcomes, or a mix of both? of both?


What role should “choice” – students What role should “choice” – students own preferences – play in assigning own preferences – play in assigning students to ability groups, tracks, students to ability groups, tracks, and/or courses?and/or courses?

Does increased choice by students Does increased choice by students have implications for inequality of have implications for inequality of opportunities (and perhaps opportunities (and perhaps outcomes)?outcomes)?

How Does Tracking Affect How Does Tracking Affect Learning Opportunities?Learning Opportunities?

CURRICULUM DIFFERENTIATIONCURRICULUM DIFFERENTIATION

Instructional Time – Total time, Time Instructional Time – Total time, Time “on task,” homework time“on task,” homework time Content Coverage – What is Covered? Content Coverage – What is Covered? How Much is Covered?How Much is Covered? Instructional Quality – What types of Instructional Quality – What types of skills are developed? (Writing, Creativity, skills are developed? (Writing, Creativity, Problem solving?) More engaging Problem solving?) More engaging pedagogy, classroom climate? pedagogy, classroom climate? Teacher Quality – Level of experience, Teacher Quality – Level of experience, qualifications, teaching “in-field,” etc.qualifications, teaching “in-field,” etc.

Track MobilityTrack Mobility

Can students move from one track to Can students move from one track to another?another?

YesYes, there is a good deal of track , there is a good deal of track mobility. mobility.

BUTBUT . . . . . .

There is more movement downward (from There is more movement downward (from higher to lower tracks) than upward.higher to lower tracks) than upward.

Track MobilityTrack Mobility

““TOURNAMENT MOBILITY” in TOURNAMENT MOBILITY” in tracking:tracking:

Student compete for positions at Student compete for positions at each level: each level: – Winners continue in their track positionWinners continue in their track position– Losers are eliminated from the Losers are eliminated from the

“tournament” and do not have the “tournament” and do not have the opportunity to move back up opportunity to move back up

How Homogeneous are Tracks How Homogeneous are Tracks with Regard to Prior with Regard to Prior

Achievement?Achievement? There is a good deal of overlap in prior There is a good deal of overlap in prior

achievement across tracks achievement across tracks becausebecause::

Non-academicNon-academic factors play factors play too largetoo large a role in placing students in tracks. a role in placing students in tracks.

(E.g., Favoritism based on social (E.g., Favoritism based on social class, class, scheduling constraints, scarce scheduling constraints, scarce

resources, etc.)resources, etc.)

How Homogeneous are Tracks How Homogeneous are Tracks with Regard to Prior with Regard to Prior

Achievement?Achievement?

LOW

HIGH

TRACKMED

PRIOR ACHIEVE-MENT

HI

LOW

LOW

MED

HIGH

In Theory In Practice

What Effect Does Tracking What Effect Does Tracking Have on Student Outcomes?Have on Student Outcomes?

Achievement gains are roughly equal Achievement gains are roughly equal for students in tracked and for students in tracked and untracked schoolsuntracked schools

BUTBUT The distribution of gains differs in The distribution of gains differs in

important ways in tracked and important ways in tracked and untracked school.untracked school.


LOW

TIME 1

ACHIEVE-MENT

HI

LOW

TIME 2

MED

HIGH

TRACKED

UNTRACKED


High achieversHigh achievers learn morelearn more in a in a trackedtracked system than an untracked system.system than an untracked system.

Middle achieversMiddle achievers learn learn about the sameabout the same in tracked and untracked classes.in tracked and untracked classes.

Low achieversLow achievers learn morelearn more in an in an untrackeduntracked system than in a tracked system than in a tracked system.system.

Why Does Ability Why Does Ability Grouping/Tracking Affect the Grouping/Tracking Affect the Distribution of Achievement ?Distribution of Achievement ?

THREE THEORIES ABOUT THE THREE THEORIES ABOUT THE SOURCE OF EFFECTS:SOURCE OF EFFECTS:

(1)(1) InstructionalInstructional

(2)(2)Social Social

(3)(3) InstitutionalInstitutional


INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTS:INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTS:

– Group placements influences the Group placements influences the quantity, quality, and pace of quantity, quality, and pace of instruction and hence learning.instruction and hence learning.

** WELL-SUPPORTED BY RESEARCH** WELL-SUPPORTED BY RESEARCH


SOCIAL EFFECTS:SOCIAL EFFECTS:

– Ability groups constitute social settings Ability groups constitute social settings in which individual children evaluate in which individual children evaluate their performance and internalize their performance and internalize academic norms academic norms Forms expectations Forms expectations for academic performance.for academic performance.

** EITHER WEAK OR NO EVIDENCE ** EITHER WEAK OR NO EVIDENCE


INSTITUTIONAL EFFECTS:INSTITUTIONAL EFFECTS:

– Group placements symbolize certain Group placements symbolize certain shared understandings of the qualities shared understandings of the qualities and capacities of group members and capacities of group members (independent of actual skills) and affect (independent of actual skills) and affect how teacher and parent expectations for how teacher and parent expectations for performance.performance.

** SOME EVIDENCE, BUT IT IS ONLY ** SOME EVIDENCE, BUT IT IS ONLY SUGGESTIVESUGGESTIVE

Student Effort and TrackingStudent Effort and Tracking

STUDENT EFFORTSTUDENT EFFORT

Higher track students exert more effort Higher track students exert more effort than comparable students in low track than comparable students in low track classes.classes.

Effort is a strong predictor of achievement.Effort is a strong predictor of achievement.

Differences in effort across tracks explain Differences in effort across tracks explain only a modest portion of track differences only a modest portion of track differences in learning.in learning.

Documents

Inequality within Schools: Ability Grouping and Tracking Sociology 20228 September 5,2004