1

Influence of Parsis and the Christianity on India

Preeti Awasthi

Hello Friends, Today I would like to share some information on two

religions- namely Zoroastrianism and Christianity. Though the birth place of both religions,

was not India, but, have played great role in the development of socio- cultural and religious

aspects of Indian History and its culture so far.

The biological mother of multitude religions, India has also

mothered religions from the world over with equal love and affection. Little wonder then, that

today, it is the boiling pot of copious religions, all existing in a cheerful harmony. The

religious tolerance of its people and the communal harmony that its democracy upholds

makes it a truly unique country on the face of earth. The Hindu religion forms the majority of

its population, while other faiths such as Sikhs, Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, Jains,

and other monastic faiths represent some of the most important minorities. All these

religions have contributed in their own way for the development of art, literature,

philosophy, spiritual consciousness, and the fabric of the society on the whole. [SLIDE 1]

The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all

the religions and cultures of India. Whether it's the rows of the faithful, bowing in prayer in

the courtyard of a mosque, or the rows of lamps that light up houses at Diwali, the good cheer

of Christmas or the bonhomie of Baisakhi, the festivals of India are celebrations of shared

emotion that bring people together. People from the different religions and cultures of India,

unite in a common chord of brotherhood and amity in this fascinating and diverse land

[SLIDE 2]

In the 1991 census, 82 percent of the population was enumerated as Hindu.

However, 12 percent of Indians are Muslim, a fact that makes this one of the largest Islamic

nations in the world. The next largest religious category is Christians, who make up only over

2 percent of the population and are closely followed in number by Sikhs. The only other

groups of numerical significance are the Buddhists (less than 1 percent) and the Jains (less

than half a percent). [Slide 3]

2

A community in whose religious ceremonies the invocation of fire occupies the central place,

who wear the sacred thread, whose ancestors worshipped gods named Mitra Vayu,

Veretraghna, whose society was traditionally divided into various orders of priests, warriors

and peasants, who consider themselves descendants of the Aryans - a race which originally

lived in the sub-Artic regions near the North Pole - this obviously is a description of the

Aryan settlers of India. Yes, but it applies equally well to the ancestors of the inhabitants of

Iran and the Zoroastrian Parsis who migrated from Iran and settled in India around 900 C.E.

Parsee), a member of one of the religious communities of India. ,number

more than 1,00,000 (1973). They live chiefly in Bombay and are descendants of the

Zoroastrians who fled Iran during the seventh to tenth centuries, after the conquest of Iran by

the Arabs, and who settled primarily in Gujarat. Their religion is Zoroastrianism. The Parsis

worship fire in their temples. They do not bury their dead but allow them to be torn to pieces

by vultures in “towers of silence,” in order not to defile the elements sacred to them: fire,

water, air, and earth. Material prosperity is considered the reward of religious virtue, and

therefore the majority of Parsis have long occupied themselves with money lending, trade,

banking, and entrepreneurial activity. The Tatas, a family of the largest monopolists in India,

are Parsis. The Parsis speak Gujarati, while their canonical literature is written in Avestan and

Pahlavi. The Parsi community is predominantly endogamous, although the young people

have begun to deviate from the ancient marriage regulations. The priests exert a great

influence not only upon the religious but also upon the secular life of the Parsis. [Slide 4]

ZOROASTRIANISM IN INDIA

India is richer today due to the contributions of a

tiny community. In the sciences, the arts and industry, Parsis have given back more than a

thousand-fold in return to the land that gave them shelter a thousand years ago. But, they are a

dying community. With UNESCO stepping in to help preserve their heritage, their story is one

that must be told, read and preserved. [Slide 5]

Parsis are of ancient Persian descent, and belong to the Indo-

European branch of the Aryans. The word 'Iran' itself derives from the Avestan Airyana,

3

Sanskrit Arya-yan or the 'way of the Aryans' that becomes Irya-an or Iran according to scholar-

historian, Piloo Nanavutty.Unlike other foreigners who came to India to plunder, loot and rule,

the Parsis assimilated with a quiet dignity into India's history and contributed their extraordinary

genius in every walk of life. As intelligent refugees, while guarding their own ethnic, cultural

and religious identity with fierce pride, they were always mindful of their status and made

friends wherever they went. As an ethnic group, Parsis have excelled in a way no

other community has and it would seem that their upbringing and strong religious belief may be

the reason for this. There is, in theZoroastrian creed, a simplicity that defies challenge. Be good,

do good, think good and fight evil. Be responsible for yourself and don't blame others. Listen to

your conscience but laugh and enjoy life. Look after your own people, and so on. From the time

a child is able to understand social dynamics, right and wrong are clearly defined and the child is

made responsible for his/her thoughts, words and deeds. No wonder that when a Parsi child goes

wrong (a rarity), the whole community hangs its head in sorrow and shame!

To discover their ancestry we have to retrace our steps all the

way to the Iranian Bronze Age, somewhere between 2600 and 2000 BC, taking the linguistic

similarities between the Rig Veda and the Zoroastrian Gathas as a benchmark. A fiery young

man named Spitama or Zarathustra was born in the beautiful city of Arak in Azerbaijan with the

divine sign. At the age of 15, Zarathustra turned away from worldly pleasures and devoted his

life to the worship of God. At 20 he went to meditate in a cave. The problems of evil, the

mystery of human existence and the riddle of the Universe were the questions that he sought to

answer. Zarathustra came face to face with his God, Ahura Mazda, and the Gathas, that formed

the verses of Zoroastrianism, came from his daily communion with Him. Fire is given pride of

place in the Gathas as a bright and powerful creation of Ahura Mazda, preferable to idols or

other objects symbolizing divinity. However, 'fire worship' is not mentioned anywhere despite a

common misconception of Parsis being fire worshippers.

[slide 6] Zoroastrianism is the world's oldest revealed religion

predating Christianity by more than a couple of millennia. Despite its birth in prehistory, the

religion survived. It has survived persecution, the destruction of close to 90 per cent of its

recorded history and tenets, migration to distant lands and the assimilation of alien customs and

languages. The core beliefs have remained intact because these beliefs are practical, life-driving

forces that Parsis have always lived by, no matter where they were forced to settle down over the

ages. 'Resist evil' is the credo of the true Zoroastrian. The Prophet demands his followers' active

4

participation in fighting evil wholeheartedly, a militancy that is absent in other creeds that preach

a turning of the blind eye and even forgiveness in the face of what is wicked. This constant

endeavor to remain on the side of the good and the just helped in building a character where

responsibility, effort, industry, courage, justice, truthfulness and self-sacrifice were traditionally

ingrained. [slide 7]

Parsism or Zoroastrianism is about 2600 years old and finds its origin in Persia. The

Parsis believe that the Ahura Mazda is eternally in conflict with Angra Mainyu or Ahirman, who

represents the evil force. Man has a free will to align himself to good or evil. Soul is immortal

and upon death, the good go to Heaven and evil fall into Hell. The Parsis believe in the coming

of the Saoshyant (Saviour) to the earth to defeat evil and further righteousness (Ashoi). They

belief that when the Saoshyant comes, the final spiritual battle between the forces of good and

evil will commence, resulting in the utter destruction of evil. Ristakhiz, the resurrection of the

dead will take place - the dead will rise, by the Will of Ahura Mazda. The Final Judgement of all

souls will commence, at the hands of Ahura Mazda the Judge (Davar) and all sinners punished,

then forgiven, and humanity made immortal and free from hunger, thirst, poverty, old age,

disease and death. [slide 8]

The Parsis place of worship is called the fire temple. Five

daily prayers, usually hymns or Gathas uttered by Prophet Zarathustra are said in the home or the

temple, before a fire, which symbolizes the realm of truth, righteousness and order. The fire-

temples and rituals of the Yasna are sacred and are necessary for the religion, such as the Nirang-

din ceremony, which creates the Holy Nirang. Fire is regarded as the son of Ahura Mazda, and

represents god. In Zorastriniasm, Dakhma-nashini is the only method of corpse-destruction. This

involves the destruction of the dead body in the stone-enclosed Dakhma, by the flesh-eating bird

or the rays of the Sun.

The religious book of the Parsis is called source the Avesta, which includes a

number of sections in archaic language attributed to Zoroaster and which preserve the cult of the

fire sacrifice as the focus of ritual life. The religious and ritual life of pious Parsis revolves

around sacred fires. The most important rite for most lay Parsis is the Navjote. It is performed

when a person is between the age group of seven and fifteen. It initiates the young person into

the adult community of the Parsis. The Navjote ceremony involves purifying bathing, reciting

Avesta -based scriptures, and being invested with a sacred shirt and waist thread (kusti) that

should always be worn after the ceremony. The dead Parsis are disposed of by exposure to

vultures Dakhmas (or towers of silence). [slide 9]

5

Religious Scriptures:

Zenda Avesta is the religious scripture of the Parsis. It contains the

teachings, sermons and prayers composed by Prophet Zoroaster himself and also by his disciples

and followers. Avestha is also the name of the language in which it is composed. It is divided

into five parts: the Yasna (worship with ceremony and offerings), the Videvdad (laws against

demons), the Yashts (worship), the Khordeh Avestha, which comprises of selected portions of

the Avestha and forms the book of daily prayers of the Zoroastrians, and the five Gathas -

Ahunavaiti, Ushtavaiti, Spenta-Mainyu, Vohu-Khshathra and Vashishta-Ishti, which contain the

17 hymns of God received by Prophet Zarathushtra by way of a Divine Revelation.

Sects:

There are three principle sects among the Parsis: Shahenshai, Kadmi and Fasli. The only

difference between the three sects is the calendar they adhere to. The Faslis follow

the traditional Persian calendar; the Shahenshais calculate their calendar from the last Sassanian

king, Yazdegard III and the Kadmis claim their calendar is the oldest and most accurate.

[slide 10]

PARSIS OF INDIA:

Though the total number of Zoroastrians in Indian population is very

less yet they continue to be one of the important religious communities of India. According

to the 2001 census, there were around 70,000 members of the Zoroastrian faith in India. Most

of the Parsis (Zoroastrians) live in Maharashtra (mainly in Mumbai) and the rest in Gujarat.

Zoroastrians or Parsis are mainly the descendants of the tenth-century immigrants from

Persia. Though the number of Zoroastrians in India is alarmingly low yet they wield great

influence because of their financial position. The level of Zoroastrian population is ascribed

to migration, low birth, late marriages, non-marriages, divorce and infertility. In the

beginning, the Parsis or Zoroastrians were engaged in shipbuilding and trade activities and

were located in the ports and towns of Gujarat. Slowly and gradually their entrepreneurial

skills saw them expanding and controlling trade and commerce. With colonial expansion

they got more trading opportunities and substantial number of Parsis moved to Bombay.

From then onwards Mumbai or Bombay served as a base for expanding their business

activities throughout India and abroad. Sanjan, Nausari and Udvada towns in Gujarat are of

great importance to Parsis as they served as community centers before the Zoroastrians or

6

Parsis migrated to Bombay in the nineteenth century. [slide 11]

The Zoroastrians enjoyed the benefit ofWestern commercial contacts and

English-language education and expanded their commercial dominance rapidly and

became the most cosmopolitan community in India during the British rule. In modern

India, Parsis are the most urban, elite, and wealthy of almost all the religious groups

of India. Parsis have played an important role in the development of trade, industry,

finance, and philanthropy, which has earned them an important place in the

India's social and economic life. Many of the Parsis or Zoroastrians have earned

accolades in government services and law.

The Parsis are India's smallest minority community, yet they have

exercised a huge influence on the country. As pioneers in education in nineteenth

century India, and as leading figures in banking and commerce, medicine, law and

journalism, they were at the forefront of India's industrial revolution. Parsis were also

at the heart of the creation of the Indian National Congress in the nineteenth century

and contributed some of the great leaders through into the twentieth century.

Dababhai Naoroji, Naoroji Furdonji and others set up the Rehnumai Mazdayasan

Sabha (Religious Reform Association) in 1851 to carry out campaigns against the

strict orthodoxy in Zoroastrianism. They laid special emphasis on � odernizing the

Parsis and raising the social status of women by providing for their education.The

first Zoroastrians to enter India arrived on the Gujarat coast in the 10th century and by

the 17th century, most of them had settled in Bombay. Today, there are approximately

90,000 Parsis in India and are concentrated largely in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

[slide 12] Starting with business and industry, through law and

literature, including the armed forces, and spanning the arts, music and nuclear

science, Parsis always gave more than they took from their adopted land. A large

number of Parsis settled in Bombay when famine struck Gujarat in 1790. The city's

cosmopolitan outlook and its dynamic vitality brought out the Parsi's natural zest for

life. And it became a springboard for some of the most talented men and women

from that community to take flight in their varied areas of expertise.

The names of eminent Parsis roll off like a veritable who's who of eminent Indians:

Dadabhai Naoroji, Sir Jamshedji Tata, JRD Tata, Ratan Tata, the Wadias, the Godrej

clan, Homi Bhabha, Sam Maneckshaw, Madam Bhikaji Cama, Zubin Mehta, Soli

7

Sorabji, Fali Nariman, and others too numerous to list.

In India, Parsis in general assimilated into the culture prevalent

in Gujarat without relinquishing their own traditions that were bequeathed orally

down the ages. This oral tradition included prayers, customs and rites of passage and

some heroic legends that are still extant, zealously guarded by the elders but not

extensively known by the younger generation. Most Parsis speak Gujarati and most

women choose to drape their saris the Gujarati way, with the pallau across the chest

from the right shoulder and tucked behind the waist on the left. Down the centuries,

many social and cultural customs of Gujarat have become intrinsic parts of Parsi

tradition, in dance, music and cuisine. But, their religion has remained pristine and

their core beliefs have kept them a people apart.

RITES OF PASSAGE: [slide 13]

Parsis have distinct rites of passage that start at birth and

solidify with theNavjote (literally, new light) ceremony (similar to the Jewish Bar

Mitzvah and the Hindu thread ceremony). The child (male or female) is blessed and

inducted into the Zoroastrian way by donning a sacred thread (kusti) and a soft

muslin undershirt (sudreh or Sudra), a tradition that pre-dates Zarathustra. She/he is

initiated into the faith through prayers and community blessings. There is a great

similarity here with the Jewish custom of initiation into the faith. The marriage

ceremony that always takes place after sunset, is a joyous affair and among some,

includes the western custom of the groom kissing the bride. Both the Navjote and

marriage ceremonies embody the spirit of free choice. In both ceremonies, the

individuals are asked if they embrace the faith or the partner freely, of their own

choice.

The final rite of passage is still the most authentic and considered truly alien because

Parsis take their dead to designated, enclosed places called Dokhma or Dakhama,

euphemistically known as 'Towers of Silence'. The corpse is left in the open for

scavenging birds to dispose of and emanates from the Parsi belief in doing good right

up to the end. A week or so later, the dried bones are lowered into a deep pit layered

with sand and charcoal, for decomposition. In all of the above ceremonies, the sacred

fire, fed with sandalwood and incense, plays a pivotal role.

8

A ZESTFUL PEOPLE: [slide 14]

Between birth and death, however, is where the real Parsi story takes place. Parsis are

a community of doers and givers. The authentic, life-celebrating philosophy of the

Zoroastrian makes the Parsi's zest for life a refreshing contrast to the moaning and

groaning interpretation that many Hindus, Muslims and Christians have given to their

own lively traditions. A Parsi will laugh and drink and party, but she/he will

also work hard to achieve and give and build. Despite its intrinsic gentleness, there is

nothing timid in the Zoroastrian way of life.

KILLER GENES: [slide 15]

Indian Parsis traveled to other parts of the world to settle down in every continent,

yet, the total number of Parsis today is an alarming 63,000. It was determined in a

long drawn legal battle that ended in 1908 that you had to be born a Parsi, you could

not convert to become one. You could become a Zoroastrian but not a Parsi. So,

Parsis married within their limited community and as happened with Egyptian

nobility thousands of years ago, the Parsi blood thinned and became a feeding ground

for genetic diseases. The killer genes simply got passed down the line until Parsis are

now a community prone to hemophilia, osteoporosis and cancer.

For many years, inter-community marriages were heavily frowned upon but today, it

may be the only means of saving a vibrant group of people from dying out on us. And

it is not just the race that is in jeopardy of extinction. The entire Parsi tradition, if you

recall, was orally transmitted down the ages. With a thinning number in the younger

generations and a larger group of elders, this tradition is in vital need of

documentation and preservation. The UNESCO has made a gesture in this direction

by creating a forum and giving a small donation as seed money for a project

(called Parjor) to retrieve and record what is left of the Parsi way of life. The project

coordinator, the dynamic Dr Shernaz Cama says: "The project is in desperate need of

help, from both Parsis and others who are interested in preserving this community's

history. We need men, materials and money. To travel to places, document stories,

legends and artifacts on film and even physically. We plan a museum, a library and

9

films."

[slide 17]

Zoroastrianism In Gujarat ...

Some Zoroastrian Persians migrated to India after the fall of the Sassanian Empire,

and gave rise to the modern Indian Parsi community. According to a chronicle

written in the 17th century, the Kissah-i-Sanjan, the Parsis first came to India in the

8th century. They landed in Diu, and were later given refuge in Sanjan (Gujarat) by

the local king, Jadi Rana. Five years after this they built the first fire temple, Atash

Behram, to shelter the holy fire rescued from Iran.

Over the years this community accultured to the new land. Gujarati became the

native language of the community and the sari the garment of the women. However

the Parsis preserved their separate cultural and religious identity.

Towards the end of the 10th century, the Parsis began to settle in other parts of

Gujarat. This gave rise to difficulties in defining the limits of priestly jurisdiction,

which were resolved in 1290 AD by the establishment of five panthaks or districts--

Sanjan, Nausari, Godareh-Ankleswar, Broach and Cambay. [slide 18]

Late in the 15th century Sanjan was attacked by a Muslim army, probably a war of

conquest by the sixth Sultan of Gujarat. The Parsis supported the local Hindu king

with 1400 men, and were annihilated. The survivors fled with the holy fire, which

was installed in Nausari in 1516. Later, due to disputes between priests, it was

transferred and came to its present location in Udvada in 1742.

... Bombay: [slide 19]

From the 16th century, Surat became a major centre of trade, and more and more

Parsis migrated to this town. The newly arrived European traders preferred to

conduct business through this community, since their status as a minority gave them

the necessary flexibility in their new role as brokers. The first record of a Parsi,

Dorabji Nanabhai, settling in Bombay dates from 1640.

After 1661, when Bombay passed to the British, there was a concerted effort to bring

artisans and traders to settle in the new town. Aungier wrote a letter to the Factor in

Surat on November 21, 1647,... to invite as many weavers as possible, ... where into

you will promise them such privileges, immunities, and exemptions from publique

duties as they shall reasonably desire from you...

10

A large part of the Parsi migrants to Bombay in these years was constituted of

weavers and other artisans. In 1673, the British handed over a piece of land

in Malabar Hill to the Parsi community for the establishment of their first Dakhma,

Tower of Silence.

In 1735 Lowjee Nusserwanji, a master shipbuilder, was granted land in Bombay

by the East India Company. He took the name of his trade, Wadia, and moved into

the developing town. Incidentally, the Wadias built the ship Minden, on board which

Francis Scott Key composed the US national anthem "Star Spangled Banner".

[slide 20]

In 1780, 9.2% of the population of Bombay was Parsis. A first wave of migration

followed a famine in Gujarat in 1790. By 1812 the number of Parsis in Bombay had

quadrupled. In 1837, a second large wave of migrations to Bombay followed a huge

fire in Surat. Today, more than 70% of all Parsis live in Bombay. The Parsis are

intimately connected with the history of Bombay. The cotton boom was largely

fuelled by Parsi entrepreneurs. The oldest newspaper in Bombay, "Bombay

Samachar", was run by Parsis. Congress stalwarts like Dadabhai

Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha were Parsis. One of India's biggest

industrial houses was founded by a Parsi, Jamshedji Tata. Even the physical shape of

Bombay was determined by donations to build causeways, roads and buildings by

members of theJeejeebhoy and Readymoney families. Since some of

the Avesta prayers contain references to the names of the month and some other

prayers are used only at specific times of the year, the issue of which calendar is

"correct" has theological ramifications as well.

To further complicate matters, in the late 1700s (or early 1800s) a highly influential

head-priest and staunch proponent of theKadmi calendar - Phiroze Kaus Dastur of

the Dadyseth Atash-Behram in Bombay - became convinced that the pronunciation

of prayers as recited by visitors from Iran was correct, while the pronunciation as

used by the Parsis was not. He accordingly went on to alter some (but not all) of the

prayers, which in due course came to be accepted by all adherents of

the Kadmi calendar as the more ancient (and thus presumably correct). However,

scholars of Avestan language and linguistics attribute the difference in pronunciation

to a vowel-shift that occurred only in Iran and that the Iranian pronunciation as

adopted by the Kadmis is actually more recent than the pronunciation used by the

11

non-Kadmi Parsis.

The calendar disputes were not always purely academic either. In the 1780s,

emotions over the controversy ran so high that violence would occasionally erupt. In

1783 a Shahenshahi resident of Bharuch named Homaji Jamshedji was sentenced to

death for kicking a young Kadmi woman and so causing her to miscarry.

Of the eight Atash-Behrams (the highest grade of fire temple) in India, three follow

the Kadmi pronunciation and calendar, the other five are Shahenshahi. The Fassalis

do not have their own Atash-Behram. [slide 21]

The Ilm-e-Kshnoom ('science of ecstasy', or 'science of bliss') is a

school of Parsi-Zoroastrian philosophy based on a mystic and esoteric, rather than

literal, interpretation of religious texts. According to the adherents of the sect, they

are followers of the Zoroastrian faith as preserved by a clan of 2000 individuals

called the Saheb-e-Dilan ('Masters of the Heart') who are said to live in complete

isolation in the mountainous recesses of the Caucasus (alternatively, in

the Alborz range, aroundMount Damavand).

The largest community of followers of the Kshnoom lives in Jogeshwari, a suburb of

Bombay, where they have their own fire temple (Behramshah Nowroji Shroff

Daremeher), their own housing colony (Behram Baug) and their own newspaper

(Parsi Pukar). There is a smaller concentration of adherents in Surat, where the sect

was founded in the last decades of the 19th century. [slide 22]

It has been traditional, in Mumbai and Karachi at

least, for dead Parsis to be taken to the Towers of Silence where the corpses would

quickly be eaten by the city's vultures. The reason given for this practice is that earth,

fire and water are all considered as sacred elements, which should not be defiled by

the dead. Therefore, burial and cremation have always been prohibited in Parsi

culture. The problem today though is that in Mumbai and Karachi the population of

vultures has been drastically reduced, due to extensive urbanization, as well as due to

poisoning by the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac which is often given to humans

and cattle. As a result, the bodies of the deceased are taking much longer to

decompose and this has upset certain sectors of the community. Solar panels have

been installed in the Towers of Silence to speed up the decomposition process but

this has only been partially successful. There is a debate raging among the

community as to whether the prohibition on burials and cremations should not be

12

lifted. The tower of silence in Mumbai is located at Malabar Hill. The residents of

Malabar Hill and surrounding areas have also complained against this practice. Parsis

are now given an option of burial versus the tower of silence death ritual. [slide 23]

The Parsis have made considerable contributions to the

history and development of India, all the more remarkable considering their small

numbers. As the maxim "Parsi, thy name is charity" reveals, their greatest

contribution, literally and figuratively, is their philanthropy (the term "Parsi" in

Sanskrit means "one who gives alms"). Gandhi would note in a much misquoted

statement, "I am proud of my country, India, for having produced the splendid

Zoroastrian stock, in numbers beneath contempt, but in charity and philanthropy

perhaps unequalled and certainly unsurpassed" .[slide 24]

Pioneers of modern India:

Modern India owes a large debt to the visionary Jamshedji Tata

who had the foresight to lay a firm foundation that would allow India to be

economically independent.

His descendant JRD Tata took over the running of Tata Sons and expanded the

business empire even further. A keen aviator, JRD was the first Indian to start a

national airline (Tata Airlines) that later became Air-India.

Parsis also established the first cotton mills in India, the first

newspaper, the first Indian owned bank. In the navy we had Admiral Jal Cursetji, in

the air force Air Marshal Engineer and the Indian army was commandeered by

another Parsi-Field Marshal Sam Maneckshaw. The late Prime Minister Rajiv

Gandhi's father Feroze Gandhi also came from the community. And of course there

is Zubin Mehta who belongs collectively to every Parsi mother.

[slide 25]

Dadabhai Naoroji ,The "Grand Old Man of India" was the first to formulate and

articulate the 'economic drain theory' in his book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in

India, published in 1901. He fought for the Indianisation of the Indian Civil Service

and protested vehemently against the extravagant expenditure on military expeditions

against Afghanistan, Burma and Egypt, undertaken at the Indian tax-payer's expense

for the glory of England. To educate the British public and to fight for Indian rights,

in 1892 he stood for elections to the British House of Commons as a liberal

from Central Fins bury, London. He won by three votes and his constituents

13

nicknamed him 'Mr. Narrow Majority'. He was the first Indian to beat the British at

their own game. The conservative press did their best to stir up racial prejudice

against him:

"Central Fins bury should be ashamed of itself at having publicly confessed that there

was not in the whole of the Division an Englishman, a Scotsman, a Welshman, or an

Irishman as worthy of their votes as this fire-worshipper from Bombay."

In 1893, Dadabhai Naoroji expressed the spirit of an emerging national identity when

he stated: "Whether I am a Hindu, a Mohammedan, a Parsi, a Christian, or of any

other creed, I am above all an Indian. Our country is India; our nationality

is Indian."In 1895 he was appointed to the royal commission on Indian expenditure.

He returned to India and was thrice elected to the post of the president of The Indian

National Congress - in 1886, 1893 and again in 1906.

In 1893, Dadabhai Naoroji expressed the spirit of an emerging national identity when

he stated: "Whether I am a Hindu, a Mohammedan, a Parsi, a Christian, or of any

other creed, I am above all an Indian. Our country is India; our nationality

is Indian."The Congress' demand for swaraj (independence) was first expressed

publicly by him in his presidential address in 1906.

Madame Bhikaji Cama: [slide 26]

Our radical firebrand, was exiled from India and Britain

and lived in France. Bhikaiji was a tireless propagandist for Indian Independence.

Russian comrades used to call her India's Joan of Arc. Lenin reportedly invited her to

reside in Russia but she did not accept the invitation.In 1907, she addressed an

audience of 1,000 Germans at the Stuttgart Conference. After her impassioned

speech she unfurled a flag, a tricolour, which became, with some changes, India's

national flag forty years later. As her activities grew more radical the British

requested the French to extradite her. The French refused. In 1936, alone and

seriously ill, wishing to die in her own country she petitioned the Britishgovernment

to be allowed to return home. Her request was granted, provided she sign what she

had refused to all her life; a statement promising she would take no part in politics.

She returned to Bombay and after an illness of eight months, died lonely, forgotten

and unsung in the Parsi General Hospital.

Pherozeshah Mehta: [slide 27]

In 1890, as President of the Indian National Congress,

14

Pherozeshah Mehta delivered the presidential address in which he said,"In speaking

of myself as a native of this country, I am not unaware that,incredible as it may seem,

Parsis have been both called and invited andallured to call themselves,

foreigners." He saw through the British tactics of binding Parsi loyalty to the crown.

They repeatedly made Parsis feel superior by showering them with decorations and

praise. Up until 1946, a total of sixty-three Parsis had been knighted; of the four

Indians who had been made hereditary baronets until 1908, three were Parsis. In

1877, Sir J. R. Carnac, Governor of Bombay, declared: "Then, gentlemen Parsis, I

would ask you to remember that you have what is called the very bluest blood in

Asia."Known as the "Father of Municipal Government in Bombay", he drafted the

Bombay Municipal Act of 1872. He was the Municipal commissioner in 1873 and

the Chairman in 1884-5 and again in 1905. A lawyer by profession, Mehta was

elected the president of the Indian National Congress in 1890. He founded the

newspaper Bombay Chronicle in 1910 and in the same year he was made the Vice

Chancellor of the Bombay University. Studied at Elphinstone College, Bombay, and

later went to England to study law. . He was called to the bar in 1868.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha – Scientist: [slide 28]

Homi Bhabha served as the President of the UN

conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy in 1955 and later as President of the

International Union of Pure and Applied Physics from 1960 to 63. Bhabha joined the

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1940 as a reader in physics. He then

established, with funds from JRD Tata, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in

Bombay in 1945. Son of a barrister, Homi Bhabha studied engineering at Cambridge.

He died in a plane crash on Mont Blanc on January 24, 1966. [slide 29]

Its historically proven now that Parsis have made

considerable contributions to the history and development of India, all the more

remarkable considering their small numbers. As the maxim "Parsi, thy name

is charity" reveals, their greatest contribution, literally and figuratively, is their

philanthropy (the term "Parsi" in Sanskrit means "one who gives alms"). Gandhi

would note in a much misquoted statement, "I am proud of my country, India, for

having produced the splendid Zoroastrian stock, in numbers beneath contempt, but in

charity and philanthropy perhaps unequalled and certainly unsurpassed" .

15

Christianity [slide 30]

By tradition, Christianity is said to have

arrived in India with Saint Thomas, one of the apostles of Jesus Christ, who spent some years

in South India and possibly died there. However, others believe that the first missionary to

arrive in the country was Saint Bartholomew. Historically, Christian missionary activity

started with the advent of Saint Francis Xavier in 1544. He was followed by Portuguese

missionaries at first and eventually by missionaries from other countries like Denmark,

Holland, Germany and Great Britain. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries Catholic as well

as Protestant missionaries preached Christian doctrines in India and also made important

contributions to social improvement and education in India.

Much of the modern influences in the Indian society can

be attributed to the role of Christianity in India. Christian missionaries helped in setting up

schools and colleges all over India and also spread the message of faith and goodwill in the

country. Christianity and its teachings influenced a number of intellectuals and thinkers in

India, including Mahatma Gandhi.Today, the Christians in India number about 30 million and

consist of people from every denomination of Christianity.

[slide 31] Christianity is India's third-largest

religion, with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3% of India's

population. The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that

Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas the Apostle, who visited Muziris in

Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements; however this is

widely disputed due to lack of credible historical evidence. Today Christians are

found all across India and in all walks of life, with major populations in parts

of South India, the Konkan Coast and theNorth-East. The Christian Church runs

thousands of educational institutions and hospitals and has contributed significantly

in the development of the nation. Most Christians in India are Catholic,. The Eastern

rites include the Syro-Malabar Catholic Churchand the Malankara Orthodox Syrian

Church, which are prominent in Kerala. Other churches include the Mar Thoma

Syrian Church, Church of South India (CSI), the Church of North

16

India (CNI), Presbyterian Church of India, Indian Pentecostal Church, The

Pentecostal Mission and other evangelical groups.

About 2.5% of India’s population are Christians.

Christianity arrived in India almost about the same period as it arrived in Europe,

meaning about 2000 years ago. Christianity originates in Israel. The first Christians

were Jews and in the beginning Christianity was seen as a Jewish cult. Most of the

Apostles of Christians acted in Europe to convert the Europeans to Christianity. But

one of the Apostles, St. Judas Thomas, arrived in India and converted Indians to

Christianity. St. Thomas was a carpenter and a disciple of Jesus. He was brought to

India by a merchant to build a temple. St. Thomas arrived in Kerala, in south India in

52 AD. He succeeded in converting local Indians to Christianity. His converts were

called Syrian Christians. One assumption says that some of the Syrian Christians

were actually Jews converted by St. Judas Thomas to Christianity. The disciples of

Jesus at first intended to convince the Jews to adopt the philosophy of Jesus as new

Judaism. Later on other Christian saints arrived to India as missioners. But most of

the Indian were converted to Christianity by the missionaries who arrived in India

with the European powers from 15th century. [slide 32]

The European powers arrived in India for commercial reasons, especially

spices. But they also started converting local Indians to Christianity. Five European

countries sent their representatives to India, Great Britain; France; Denmark;

Netherlands and Portugal. Of the five European powers the Portuguese were most

enthusiasts to baptize Indians. The Portuguese were the first European power to

arrive in India. Their first ship, under the leadership of Vasco DeGama, arrived in

south India in 1498 after it had circled the whole continent of Africa. [slide 33]

The Portuguese inspired by the Pope’s order to baptize people around the world not

only fought wars against the local Indian rulers, but they even tried to enforced their

Roman Catholic prayers on Syrian Christians. After many wars the Portuguese were

defeated by local rulers and they had only one big pocket of control in India, Goa.

The Portuguese not only fought the Indian rulers, but they also fought against other

European powers in India especially Dutch and English. Many Portuguese churches

in Kerala were turned into English and Dutch churches after they were captured by

these powers. The English missionaries started acting in India at a much later period.

The British, unlike the Portuguese, didn’t allow the missionaries to enter their

17

territory in the beginning. The British arrived in India in 1600 and they allowed the

missionaries to enter their territory only from 1813. [slide 34]

The British allowed different churches to establish missionaries in their territory.

The missionaries didn’t only spread Christianity, but they also did humanitarian

deeds giving the needy basic necessities of life like food, clothes and shelter. The

missionaries also built schools in India and many of them even today have Christian

or European originated name. The British church missionaries succeeded less than

the Portuguese in converting Indians to Christianity, but unlike the Portuguese who

tried to enforce Christianity, these Protestant converts were voluntary. The

Portuguese were also aware of the Indian custom according to which the wife

followed her husband’s faith and therefore married their men to Indian women. [slide

35]

There are about 30 million Christians in India. The major centers of Christianity in

India are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Manipur and Mizoram. There is also a big

community of Christians in Mumbai. The main division of Christians in India is like

in the Christian world, Protestants and Catholic. There are also different

denomination among them, Syrian Church, Armenian Church, Anglican Church and

others. Most of the India Christians were converted by the Portuguese. There is also

an Anglo-Indian community in India. [slide 36]

Christianity arrived in India much before it reached Europe,

and it is said that the first surviving church in the world is in India. Some scholars

argue that Jesus spent his twenties in India, and it is generally believed that "the wise

men from the East" were sages from India. So the intermingling of Christianity and

Indian religions has taken place ever since the birth of Christianity. [slide 37]

The Saint Thomas Christians are an ancient body of Christians in

southwestern India who trace their origins to the evangelical activity of Thomas in

the 1st century. Within India, members of these churches are sometimes known

as Syrian Malabar Nasrani. The four major groups, all centred on the Malabar

Coast of the Indian state of Kerala, are the Syro-Malabar, the Syro-Malankara,

the Syriac Orthodox and the Mar Thoma. Whatever their early history, from at least

the 6th century the Saint Thomas Christians were part of the Church of the East, also

known as the Nestorian Church, centred in Persia. In the 8th century the community

was organized as one of the church's Provinces of the Exterior. The Saint Thomas

18

Christians were greatly affected by the arrival of the Portuguese beginning in 1498.

The Portuguese attempted to bring the community under the auspices of Latin

Rite Catholicism, resulting in permanent rifts in the community. [slide 38]

Their traditions go back to the first century Christian thought, and the seven churches

established by St. Thomas the Apostle during his mission in Malabar. These are

at Kodungalloor (Muziris), Paravur, Palayoor, Kokkamangalam, Niranam, Chayal (N

ilackal) and Kollam. [slide 39]

Syrian Malabar Nasrani: The Nasranis are an ethnic people, and a single

community. As a community with common cultural heritage and cultural tradition,

they refer to themselves as Nasranis. However, as a religious group, they refer to

themselves as Mar Thoma Khristianikal or in English as Saint Thomas Christians,

based on their religious tradition flowing from the early Church of St. Thomas

Christians or Saint Thomas tradition of Christianity. [slide 40]

Throughout Kerala, one can find Christian families that

claim their descent from ancestors who were baptized by Apostle Thomas. St.

Thomas Christians were classified into the caste system according to their

professions with special privileges for trade granted by the benevolent kings who

ruled the area. After the eighth century when Hindu Kingdoms came to sway,

Christians were expected to strictly abide by stringent rules pertaining to caste and

religion. This became a matter of survival. This is why St. Thomas Christians had

such a strong sense of caste and tradition, being the oldest order of Christianity in

India. Their churches were modelled after Jewish synagogues. “The church is neat

and they keep it sweetly. There are mats but no seats. Instead of images, they have

some useful writing from the holy book.” In short, the St. Thomas Christians

of Kerala had blended well with the ecclesiastical world of the Eastern Churches and

with the changing socio-cultural environment of their homeland. Thus, the Malabar

Church was Hindu in culture, Christian in religion, and Judeo-Syro-Oriental in terms

of origin and worship. [slide 41]

Relationship of the Nasrani groups

According to the first century annals of Pliny the Elder and the author

of Periplus of the Erythraean sea, Muziris in Kerala could be reached in 40 days' time

from the Egyptian coast purely depending on the South West Monsoon winds.

The Sangam works Puranaooru and Akananooru have many lines which speak of the

19

Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports of the

great Chera kings in search of pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand

in the West. [slide 42]

The lure of spices attracted traders from the Middle East and Europe to the many

trading ports of Keralaputera (Kerala) — Tyndis, (Ponnani ?), Muziris, near

Kodungallur, Nelcynda (Niranam), Bacare, Belitha, and Comari (Kanyakumari) long

before the time of Christ. St. Thomas the Apostle in one of these ships, arrived

at Muziris in AD 52, from E’zion-ge’ber on the Red Sea .

During his stay in Kerala, the Apostle baptized the Jews and some of the wise

men who adored the Infant Jesus. The Apostle also preached in other parts of India.

He was martyred in AD 72 at Little Mount, a little distant from St. Thomas Mount,

and was buried at San Thome, near the modern city of Chennai. [slide 43]

The apostle established seven churches in Malabar

at Kodungalloor (Muziris), Paravur, Palayoor,Kokkamangalam, Niranam, Chayal (Ni

lackal) and Kollam. The visit of the Apostle Thomas to these places and

to Mylapore on the East coast of India can be read in the Ramban Songs of Thomas

Ramban, set into 'moc', 1500. Several ancient writers mention India as the scene of

St. Thomas’ labours. [slide 44]

There are other passages in ancient liturgies and martyrologies

which refer to the work of St. Thomas in India. These passages indicate that the

tradition that St. Thomas died in Indiawas widespread among the early churches.

[slide 45]

Aleixo de Menezes, Archbishop of Goa from 1595 until

his death in 1617 decided to bring the Kerala Christians to obedience after the death

of Bishop Mar Abraham (the last Syrian Metropolitan of Malabar, laid to rest at St.

Hormis church, Angamaly), an obedience that they conceived as complete

conformity to the Roman or ‘Latin’ customs. The Portuguese refused to accept the

legitimate authority of the Indian hierarchy and its relation with the East Syrians, and

in 1599 at the Synod of Diamper (held in Udayamperur), the Portuguese Archbishop

of Goa imposed a large number of Latinizations. [slide 46]

The Portuguese succeeded in appointing a Latin

bishop to govern the Thomas Christians, and the local Christians’ customs were

officially anathematised as heretical and their manuscripts were condemned to be

20

either corrected or burnt. The Portuguese padroado (’patronage’) was extended over

them. From 1599 up to 1896 these Christians were under the Latin Bishops who were

appointed either by the Portuguese Padroado or by the Roman Congregation

of Propaganda Fide. Every attempt to resist the latinization process was branded

heretical by them. Under the indigenous leader, archdeacon, the Thomas Christians

resisted, but the result was disastrous. [slide 47]

The oppressive rule of the Portuguese padroado provoked a violent reaction on the

part of the indigenous Christian community. The first solemn protest took place in

1653, known as the Koonan Kurishu Satyam (Coonan Cross Oath). Under the

leadership of Archdeacon Thomas, a part of the Thomas Christians publicly took an

oath in Matancherry, Cochin, that they would not obey the Portuguese bishops and

the Jesuit missionaries. In the same year, in Alangad, Archdeacon Thomas was

ordained, by the laying on of hands of twelve priests, as the first known indigenous

Metropolitan of Kerala, under the name Mar Thoma I[slide 48].

After the Coonan Cross Oath, between 1661 and 1662, out of the 116 churches, the

Catholics claimed eighty-four churches, and the Archdeacon Mar Thoma I with

thirty-two churches. [slide 49]

The arrival of Mar Gregorios in 1665 marked the beginning of the

association with the West Syrian Church.Those who accepted the West

Syriantheological and liturgical tradition of Mar Gregorios became known as

Jacobites. [slide 50]

St. Thomas Christians by this process got divided into East Syrians and West

Syrians

St. Joseph's Monastery, Mannanam,where mortal

remains Blessed Chavara are kept. St. Thomas cross is seen in the picture on the top

of church.In 1772 the West Syrians under the leadership of Kattumangattu Abraham

Mar Koorilose, Metropolitan of Malankara, formed the Malabar Independent Syrian

Church (Thozhiyur Sabha). In 1876, those who did not accept the authority of the

Patriarch of Antioch remained with Thomas Mar Athanasious and chose the

name Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church. They removed a number practices

introdued at The Synod of Diamper to the liturgy, practices and observances. In

1961, there was a split in this group with the formation of St. Thomas Evangelical

Church. [slide 51]

21

However, in 1912 due to attempts by the Antiochean Patriarch to gain temporal

powers over the Malankara Church, there was another split in the West Syrian

community. [slide 52]

This was not accepted by those who remained loyal to the Patriarch. The two sides

were reconciled in 1958 but again differences developed in 1975. Today the West

Syrian community is divided into Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (in Oriental

Orthodox Communion, autocephalous),Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church (in Oriental

Orthodox Communion, under Antioch).

In 1926 a section of West Syrians under the leadership of Mar Ivanios came into

communion with the Catholic Church, retaining all of the Church’s rites, Liturgy, and

autonomy. They are known as Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.

Christianity in India 40 years after Christ: [slide 53]

Christianity originally came to India

before it reached many of the West European Christian countries of today. It is

supposed to have reached India between the 1st and 3rd centuries of our era. But

these early attempts to introduce Christianity into the country could make any major

dent. Only small pockets in the South were converted and are today's Syrian

Christians mainly from Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu. [slide 54]

These Christians mostly come from the Namboodri Brahmin caste of Kerala. They

represent an interesting sociological entity. Devout Christians as they are, they are

also stout-hearted nationalists with a strong Malayali identity which translates to a

strong national (Indian) identity. Hypothetically speaking, if all Indians had been

converted by the Apostle St. Thomas to Christianity all Indians might have been like

(the prototype) Syrian Christian Community - Christian yet specifically national.

[slide 55]

Portuguese Bring Christianity (as Catholicism) into Goa:

Christianity (as

Catholicism) into Goa came into our country in a large way only after the 15th

century alongwith the Portuguese Colonists. The Portuguese were Roman Catholics

and when they reached Indian shores were still under the influence of the crusades

and. the inquisition. In the early centuries of their rule in Goa, Daman and Diu they

did make the use of force to effect conversions of the native Hindus to Christianity.

22

A part of the early converts to Christianity were a result of the taking of Indian wives

by the Portuguese officials. These converts were termed Mestizos (of mixed blood).

To these were added the progeny of extra-marital relations between the colonial

officials and the native womenfolk. The offspring of such relations were brought up

as Roman Catholics. These facts have been recorded in the Portuguese records of the

Colonial Period. The occurrence of aquiline features and fair skin in some Goan

Christian families seems to be an inheritance of such relations. [slide 56]

In the early part of Portuguese rule, the Colonialists are also recorded to have

forcibly converted temples into churches. As British and American missionaries

spread out from Delhi into the heartland of Punjab, their preconceived ideas about

Hinduism and Islam broke down rapidly as they established institutions requiring the

close cooperation of Indians. [slide 57]

Two-thirds of the foreign missionaries who entered the Punjab were women, and

issues of gender as well as race were central dilemmas in a cultural encounter that

featured numerous irresolvable conflicts. The missionaries’ commitment to Christian

universalism clashed with the visible realities of their imperial privileges. Although

determined to build multiracial institutions based on spiritual equality, missionaries

were the beneficiaries of an imperial racial hierarchy. Their social encounters with

Indians were exceedingly complex, involving intimacy and affection as well as

affronts and betrayals.[slide 58]

Missionaries were compelled to react to circumstances not of their own making, and

were forced to negotiate and compromise with Indian Christians, government

officials, Indian critics of the missionary movement, and the many non-Christian

students, patients, and staff at large and influential missionary schools, colleges, and

hospitals. In villages, university-educated clergymen who had hoped to convert the

Hindu and Muslim elite found themselves in the surprising position of advocating the

rights of stigmatized and oppressed rural laborers. The history of elite institution-

building took surprising turns during the rise of the national movement, as

missionaries struggled with the conflict between their own transparent entanglement

with imperialism and their attempts to foster new forms of indigenous Christianity

that would outlive British imperial rule.

It is well known generally that the Portuguese observed strict

racial segregation and followed a policy of discrimination against all native Indians

23

whether Hindus or Christians. The emigration of some families of Goan Christians to

Mangalore in the 16th century was a result of discriminatory treatment by the

Portuguese. Even today there exists a significant Konkani speaking Roman Catholic

community around Mangalore.[slide 59]

The third segment of Indian Christians are the Protestants. They form a minority

among the Christian community and are a result of the Protestant Missionaries. The

British colonialists largely kept away from proselytizing activities. Conversions to

Christianity during British rule were mostly due to the activities of missionaries.

Indian Christians have generally not lived a barrack-like existence like the Muslims.

There has been a significant social interaction between the Hindus and Christians and

the feeling of animosity that exists vis-a-vis the Muslims has been absent in the case

of the Christians. As almost all Indian Christians are converts from Hinduism they

display many traces of their pre-conversion culture.

Hindu Customs Among the Christian Community in India: [slide 60]

To begin with Indian Christians, especially the Protestants have still preserved the

surnames of their pre-conversion days. In many cases they also have Hindu first

names. This makes them completely identical with the Hindus, at least externally.

The reason could partly lie in the fact that many converts to Protestant Christianity

were voluntary one's and belonged to the upper echelons of Hindu society. The

conversion of the Rev . Vaman Narayan Tilak is one example. These voluntary

converts to Christianity turned to that religion consequent to philosophical

speculation. It is natural for such converts to preserve a strong nationalistic identity

in spite of the conversion.

Marriage Customs Among the Indian Christians: [slide 61]

But among all segments of Indian Christians the aspects of their social life, which has

preserved their Indian roots as the manner of celebrating Christian festivals

especially Christmas and their dress habits. [slide 62]

During Christmas and new Year festivities, it is common among Indian Christians to

burst crackers, light lamps, exchange sweetmeats, draw designs with coloured

powder outside their doorsteps, etc. All these practices have been a carryover from

the Hindu festival of Diwali. If one goes to a Roman Catholic wedding one would

see that a day before the wedding is to take place, the groom and his best man are

given a special bath by the groom's relatives. In this bath the groom and his best man

24

are smeared with milk, eggs yolk and scents. This custom is no doubt borrowed from

the Hinduism where the groom is given a bath with Sandal-wood paste and Turmeric

powder, a day before the wedding. The Christian practice of the best man pulling a

chord to release a shower of tiny coloured thermocole balls on the bride and groom

during the wedding festivities come very close to the Hindu custom of throwing

vermillion coloured grains of rice on the couple during a traditional Hindu wedding.

Even after the wedding, or after a death in the family, Christians in Goa follow the

practice of mass feeding of beggars and poor people, this custom seems to be a

carryover of the Hindu custom of feeding brahmins and poor people during any

important social and religious function.

Caste among Indian Christians: [slide 63]

Conversion to Christianity has not erased the caste

system from the Christians. Christians still privately continue to refer to themselves

by their caste affiliations like Prabhoos, Bamons, Kolis, Bhandaris, etc. and caste

considerations are rarely absent during matchmaking especially among Christians in

rural areas. Some Christian converts who were Brahmins originally still in some

cases, wear the sacred thread though their number is less. But Christians commonly

wear the black thread around their wrist as a good luck charm as do the Hindus. The

belief of an evil eye and other taboos persist among the Christians and the method of

warding off the effect of the evil eye i.e. Drishta as it is known among Hindus (or

Nazar as it is called among the Muslims) is by circling a pinch of salt and chilli

powder around the person who is believed to have been affected.

Indian culture treats guests as god and serves

them and takes care of them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. [slide 64]

“Respect one another” is another lesson that is taught from the books of Indian culture. All

people are alike and respecting one another is ones duty. It tells us that by all this we can

develop co-operation and better living amongst ourselves and subsequently make this world a

better place to live in.

Thus we have seen how there has been a massive socio-cultural

interchange between various religions in India. This interchange has given us our national

culture which is a complex pattern into which have gone many diverse elements, foreign as

25

well as indigenous. However, despite the composite nature of Indian culture, Hinduism

remains by far the most, powerful and pervasive element in Indian culture. Those who lay

great stress on the composite nature of Indian culture frequently ignore this basic fact.

Caught up in their enthusiasm for the idea of a cultural synthesis, usually with the best of

motives of strengthening communal harmony and national unity, they seem to suggest that

the cultural fusion is of a kind which might have resulted from the blending of the indigenous

and foreign element; in equal proportions. This of course, is simply not real. Donald Eugene

Smith, an American Scholar of Indian Secularism has observed, "Hinduism has indeed

provided the essential genius of Indian culture; this cannot be denied." Smith accepts the fact

that Indian culture has indigenous as well as non-Indian elements, in this context he says

thus, "While not denying the reality and importance of composite culture, we must be

prepared to deal with an Indian culture largely rooted in Hinduism.". That’s the reason we

have made all those people who came fro other countries like the followers of Christianity or

parsis as a part of our existing culture that they themselves consider them an integral part of

India.India is really following its uniqueness of “Vasudev Kutumbkam”

Thankyou.

Preeti Awasthi

References:

1)http://www.religioustolerance.org/zoroastr.htm

2)http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/galleries/worship/images/3.jpg

3)Traditional Zoroastrianism:Tenets of the Religionhttp://tenets.zoroastrianism.com/

4)The Parsishttp://www.religion-cults.com/Eastern/Zoroastrianism/parsis.html

5)Zoroastrian Flaghttp://www.fahnenversand.de/fotw/flags/rel-zoro.html

6) Charlton, SEM (2004). Comparing Asian Politics: India, China, and Japan.

7)Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984).

8) An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.). University of Calcutta.

9) Fowler, JD (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press.

10)Goldman, RP (2007). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Princeton

University Press.

26

11)Heehs, P (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and

Experience. New York: New York University Press.

12)Human Rights Watch (2006). Human Rights Watch World Report 2006. Seven Stories

Press. Ludden, DE (1996).

13) Contesting the Nation: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India.

University of Pennsylvania Press.

14)Makkar, SPS (1993). Law, Social Change and Communal Harmony. ABS Publications

15)Oberlies, T (1998). Die Religion des Rgveda. Wien

16)Olson, JS; Shadle, R (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood

Press.

17)Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton

University Press.

18)Rinehart, R (2004). Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-Clio.

19)Shepard, MA (1987). Gandhi Today: A Report on Mahatma Gandhi's Successors. Shepard

Publications.

***************************************************************************