Informal Settlements as Expression of Ineffective … Eldoret is not different from that of other urban centres in Kenya and the world over. With Eldoret Town’s increased growth

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International Journal of Basic Sciences & Applied Research. Vol., 6 (2), 188-200, 2017

Available online at http://www.isicenter.org ISSN 2147-3749 ©2017

Informal Settlements as Expression of Ineffective Planning for Sustainable

Urban Housing: Explainning the Prevalence of Informal Settlements in

Langas Estate, Eldoret Town-Kenya

Nyakeriga, K. E. Onsare

*

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Proliferation of Slums and Informal Settlements is one of the most enduring

physical manifestations of human indignity, perhaps, due to ineffectiveness

of urban planning systems as tools for human and environmental

improvement. The global assessment of slums shows that 828 million or

33% of the urban population of developing countries resides in slums, with

62% of the urban population in sub-Saharan Africa, residing in such

settlements. Residents of these areas are often excluded from participating

in social economic, political and cultural spheres of the city that create and

nurture capabilities for sustainable development. This paper examines

factors perceived to have the greatest influence on prevalence of slums and

informal settlements with respect to provision of sustainable housing- using

a case study of Langas Estate in Eldoret Town, Kenya. The paper utilized

data collected using household survey questionnaires, observation and

interviews. The factors identified include; indifference to transfer or

subdivide land which had a B1 value of -1.167 hence had the greatest

variance followed by lack of title deeds with a B1 value of 1.118, non-

recognition as residential area with a B1 value of 0.820, high cost of

construction with a B1 value of -0.721, low levels of income/poverty with a

B1 value of -0.280, and inadequate information on planning requirements

with a B1 value of 0.123. Finally, lack of physical development plan for

housing with a B1 value of 0.035, had the least variance. This paper

recommends integration of sustainable development principles into urban

housing policy and laws, encourage leasehold land tenure in order to

strengthen and regulate urban growth so as to reduce squalid conditions in

urban housing.

Keywords: Informality, Slums, Sub-Urbanization, Sustainable Urban

Development, Urbanization, Urban Planning.

Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 6 (2), 188-200, 2017

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Introduction

The global assessment of slums shows that 828 million or 33% of the urban population of developing countries

resides in slums, with 62% of the urban population in sub-Saharan Africa, residing in such settlements. Urban Slums

and Informal Settlements are regarded as physical manifestations of human indignity, often characterized by

inadequate water supply, squalid conditions of environmental sanitation, breakdown or non-existence of waste

disposal arrangements, overcrowded and dilapidated habitation, hazardous location, insecurity of tenure, and

vulnerability to serious health risks (UN-Habitat, 2010). Since its emergence about 100 years ago, urban planning

has, therefore, changed relatively little in most countries with the most obvious problem being the failure to

accommodate the ways of life of the majority of inhabitants in the rapidly growing and largely poor and informal

cities, and often directly contributing to social and spatial marginalization. Urban planning systems have often

contributed to urban problems rather than functioning as tools for human and environmental improvement.

Against this backdrop, it is clear that whereas governments need to adopt urban development management

systems that provide regulatory frameworks that would meet challenges of the 21st century cities and towns and,

therefore, sustainable urban housing. Future urban planning need to take place within an understanding of the factors

shaping 21st-century cities, including: the demographic challenges of rapid urbanization, rapid growth of towns as

well as increasing informality in urban activities; increasing socio-spatial challenges especially urban sprawl and

unplanned peri-urbanization; and the challenges and opportunities of increasing democratization of decision-making

and increasing awareness of social and economic rights among ordinary people (Arimah, 2005). The attention has

more often focused disproportionately on the rapid urban growth or rural-urban migration as the sole or major factor

determining the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements in developing countries (Tibaijuka, 2007). The UN-

HABITAT (2003b:195) notes that: “…public interventions on the phenomenon of slums and related problems

generally address the symptoms rather than the underlying causes”. Srivastava and Singh (1996) emphatically state

that… “Migration from rural areas is the root cause of increasing slums”.

In Kenya, conventional urban planning approaches applied are often inadequate since they adopted planning

laws and regulations from the colonial administration. These approaches set standards that are too high when it

comes to development while in some cases, some of the prepared urban plans focused only on the built up zones of

the townships instead of seeing the town as a unit (Cheserek et al., 2012). While the rapid pace of urbanization

experienced by African countries over the last three decades certainly plays an important role in the prevalence of

slums, there are other economic, social, political, institutional and historical factors whose impacts need

investigation.

This paper contends that provision of sustainable housing must be preceded by a proper appreciation of the

factors that underlie the formation and proliferation of slums and informal settlements. Sustainable development

principles are hinged on the principles; economically viability, social acceptability and environmental friendly

developments. This paper adopts Sustainable Housing to refer to development of durable spacious housing

connected with basic essential services that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs. The paper draws on an earlier research on planning of informal

settlements for sustainable urban housing undertaken in Langas Estate, Eldoret Town- Kenya. The housing situation

in Eldoret is not different from that of other urban centres in Kenya and the world over. With Eldoret Town’s

increased growth rate, the towns housing facilities continue to record increased constrains and development of

informal settlements including Langas, Munyaka, Kamukunji, Huruma and Maili Nne. The demand for residential

housing seem to have grown faster than the supply with the resultant effect being the development of informal and

sometimes squalid structures being occupied by the low-income groups as houses in informal settlements. About

half of the population in Eldoret Town lives in these structures, which are unplanned, with high-density and

inadequately serviced. This paper utilized data drawn from responses of residents of Langas Estate using household

survey questionnaires, observation and interviews. The choice of Langas Estate as the study site was deemed

appropriate because it is the largest informal settlement in Eldoret Town covering an area estimated to measure 1050

acres (425 ha.), and a population of approximately 93,436. Located in the southern part of Eldoret Municipality

about 7 km. from the town centre, Langas Estate is indeed a typical physical manifestation of an informal settlement

characterized by squalid conditions of environmental sanitation, non-existence of waste disposal arrangements,

overcrowded and dilapidated habitation, insecurity of tenure, and vulnerable to serious health risks (Arimah, 2004).

This paper embarked on determining factors that residents perceived to be having the greatest influence to the

development of the informal settlements- thus hindering provision of sustainable urban housing. This study,

therefore, undertook to identify typologies of housing; nature of linkages between land tenure status and household

income levels with housing typologies and finally, examine factors perceived to be having the greatest influence on

the typologies of housing in the informal settlements.


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The paper discusses the various typologies of housing and the factors perceived to be having the greatest

influence on the typologies of the housing. The purpose is to identify housing typologies and also account for the

major factors perceived to have the greatest influence on the housing typologies- thus the greatest magnitude of

influence to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements using data drawn from responses of residents of

Langas Estate, Eldoret Town. In this respect, the paper addresses the following questions. What is the typology of

your housing in terms of material used for wall, floor, and roof? What is the link between land tenure status and the

housing typologies? What is the nature of the linkages between the housing typologies and the income levels of the

household? What are the major factors that have had the greatest influence on housing typology in Langas Estate?

Apart from improved understanding of factors that drive the proliferation of slums and informal housing, the

answers to these questions are central to identifying the challenges that urban areas face in stemming the

development of new slums and providing adequate alternatives to slum formation and informal housing. The

answers to these questions should also provide useful insights on how to increase provision of sustainable housing to

the urban poor. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Following this introduction, the methodology used in

measuring the incidence of slums and informal settlements. The third section presents the results and discussion

explaining the prevalence of slums and informal settlements based on the study objectives. This is followed by the

study conclusion.

Methodology

Langas Estate is located to the southern part of Eldoret town bordering the high income Elgon View estate to

the East, Pioneer/ Kipkaren estate to the north across to the north western region, and the Kapseret to the southern

part (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of the Study area showing the four zones.

Source: Researcher (2013)


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To facilitate random sampling, the study area was subdivided into four blocks (Figures 1) defined on the basis of

physical boundaries guided by the tarmac road loop running in the middle of the settlement and enclosing a large

junk of the estate naturally separating the enclosed part from one to the left, another part to the right hand side and

the other part on the lower side. These formed the clusters for data collection whereby 26 households were sampled

from each study block.

Figure 2 shows a sketch map of the study area illustrating the four zones.

Figure 2. The Four Study Area Blocks used during the study.

Source: Researcher (2013)

A combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques were applied concurrently, permitting a

triangulation of the data. The methods used included review of secondary data, household surveys, key informant

interviews, and observations. The household samples were distributed proportionately to the household population

in all the four study area blocks. Household survey questionnaires, observation and interview guides were used to

collect data.

Results

This section of the paper presents results and discussion of the findings on the basis of the study questions. The

first study question was to identify typologies of housing vis-a-viz the planning controls for the development of

housing in Langas Estate. To address this objective, various attributes spelt out in the shelter goal 1 of Housing

Agenda (HA) and the Housing for Human International (HFHI) that define nature of housing on the basis of size,

building materials, spacing, lighting, water, sanitation and human waste disposal (UN HABITAT, 2003; UN

HABITAT: The Forum, 2010) were considered and recorded (Tables 1 and 2).


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Table 1. Aspects of Housing in the Study Area.

Characteristic BLOCK I & II BLOCK III & IV

Frequency %age Frequency %age

Human waste disposal

Pit Latrine shared by

many

36 34.6 40 38.5

Own cesspit Flush

toilet

14 13.5 6 5.8

EMC sewer line

Flush toilet

8 7.7 0 0.0

Source of water

Spring in the

neighbourhood

4 3.8 11 10.6

Piped water in own

house

6 5.8 4 3.8

Communal piped

water point

14 13.5 11 10.6

Well shared among

many

40 38.5 14 13.5

Source of lighting

Electricity) 40 38.5 22 21.2

Paraffin 18 17.3 24 23.1

Provision of setbacks for the houses

(viz; Standard 6metres and 9metres

for plots fronting roads of 12metres

and 12-25metres, respectively).

Yes 8 7.7 20 19.2

No 50 48.1 26 25.0

The type of house

Permanent 28 26.9 20 19.2

Semi- permanent 12 11.5 13 12.5

Temporary 8 7.7 9 8.7

Mixed nature 10 9.6 6 5.8

Size of house (no. of rooms)

Single room/Bedsitter 31 29.8 23 22.1

One Bedroom 17 16.3 13 12.5

Two Bedrooms 4 3.8 8 7.7

More than 2

bedrooms

3 2.9 5 4.8

Size of the house in m2

Below 38.5 m2 40 38.5 24 23.1

About 38 m2 and

above

10 9.6 30 28.8

Source: Field study in Langas Estate- Eldoret town, 2013

This study was carried out in four blocks (Figures 2 & 3) that make up Langas Estate, where blocks I & II of the

study area (Original) fall within the original Langas Farm LTD (LFL) before the official EMC boundary extension

of 1988 while blocks III &IV of the study area (Extension) were outside before the 1988 Eldoret Municipality

Council (EMC) boundary extension.

The study findings show that the main source of lighting in Langas Estate was electricity (59.7%); though, the

area within the original Langas estate recorded a higher connection (38.5%) than the area of boundary extension

(21.2%). The findings, too, indicated that shared wells were the main water source (52%) for both blocks I &II, and

III & IV of the study area. However, the EMC piped water connection show higher connection level for block I &II

(22.1%) than in block III & IV (11.6%). Only 7.7% respondents were connected to the main EMC sewer line in

block I& II of the study area. There were no EMC sewer connections to block III & IV- (areas that were initially

outside the original Langas farm). These study findings indicate that the main source of water is the shallow wells.

Of the few connections (33.7%), only a small percentage (11.6%) is made to block III & IV (extension). This

finding suggests that the EMC has not properly addressed provision of pipe water to the slum poor.

In regards to the Physical Planning Act standard spacing for housing (6metres and 9metres for plots fronting

roads of 12metres and 12-25metres, respectively), only a small number of respondents- 26.9%- had the required

spacing. Majority of those lacking the recommended spacing were in the original Langas Estate - an indication that


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those in areas of extension (block III &IV) is better spaced. The findings also reveal that the areas in blocks III & IV

suffer more from lack of service provision by the EMC. This can be seen from the lower connectivity to piped

water, sewage and electricity in those areas of extension. Data findings were corroborated by information from

interviews with both landlords and key informants that no section of Langas Estate has serviced land for housing-

with some landlords occupying freehold agricultural land [However, Langas Estate benefited from a tarmac road

loop linking the settlement with the Kisumu-Eldoret highway funded by the World Bank Third Urban Project (Phase

1) in the late 1980s that also provided piped water and electricity]. Currently, the services are provided to those who

apply privately and pay quoted fees upfront. Such service provision policy, though, is an outright contradiction of

article 42 of Sessional Paper No.3 of the National Housing Policy for Kenya (2004), which envisages that

development or expansion of settlement is preceded by installation and maintenance of infrastructure services.

Similarly, the findings reveal that a large number of respondents (51.9%) occupied single rooms and that

majority (61.6%) live in small houses measuring below the recommended minimum measurement of 38.5 m2.

Based on the internationally recognized average of two persons per room (Tibaijuka, 2007), the minimum

appropriate and decent size of housing for households in Langas estate should be a two-room dwelling because of

the current average household/ family size of 4.6. Besides the connectivity of the infrastructure services that define

the general nature of the settlement, this study looked at the shelter goal 1 of the Housing Agenda (HA) on the basis

of durability of the housing structures. The responses revealed that 46.2% of respondents lived in permanent houses

while only 22.1% had temporary houses. The semi-permanent and mixed development housing was 16.3% and

15.4%, respectively. This study finding indicates that even in informal settlements, many houses are permanent;

which means that even the poor can afford to invest in improved shelter. The various typologies of housing on the

basis of building/construction material revealed the following; (Table 2).

Table 2. Typologies of Housing in the Study Area.

Nature of Housing Frequency Percent

Mud wall 35 33.7%

Mabati wall 16 15.4%

Brick/stone wall 51 49.0%

Polythene/carton/tin wall 2 1.9%

Total 104 100%

Earthen floor 33 31.7%

Concrete floor 71 68.3%

Total 104 100%

Mabati or tile roof 94 90.4%

Tin/Grass-thatched roof 8 7.7%

Polythene/carton/tin roof 02 1.9%

Total 104 100%


On the basis of construction materials used, 49.0% of the houses had brick or stone wall, 68.3% with concrete floor,

and 90.4% of the houses having mabati or tile roof (Table 2)- the conventionally recommended construction

standard materials (UN-HABITAT, 2006). However, other building materials like Mud/ Mabati/Polythene/tin/

carton wall, earthen floor, and Grass-thatched/Polythene/carton/tin roof are being used. The study findings indicate

that majority of housing are informal when considered on the basis of construction materials and access to

infrastructure and social services (Tables 1 and 2). Further, those outside the original Langas area register lower

levels of connection to the essential social infrastructural facilities like piped water and sewage.

Linkages between tenure status and household income with Typologies of Housing

The second study question was to investigate the nature of linkages between land tenure status and household

income levels with the typologies of housing in Langas Estate. To address this question, the researcher provided

aspects as set out by the Urban Inequalities Survey Manual for Global Urban Observatory Monitoring and Research

(UN-HABITAT, 2006) and the Housing for Human International (HFHI) (UN HABITAT: The Forum, 2010) for

consideration to which the respondents gave responses (Table 3).


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Table 3. Factors Perceived to have Influence on Typologies of Housing in Langas Estate.

Statement Percentage

Recognition of estate as residential area 13.6%

Tenure status of the area 26.2%

High poverty levels/low income levels 25.7%

Cost of construction 14.8%

Indifference in government response to land transfer and subdivision 19.7%

TOTAL 100%


Selected factors including recognition of Langas Estate as a residential area (13.6%), tenure status of the area

(26.2%), High poverty levels/low income levels (25.7%) and indifference in response to transfer or subdivision of

land (19.7%) are also perceived to influence housing (Table 3). The findings show that 26.2% of respondents

perceived tenure status of the area as the major factor that affect the typologies of housing. One interviewee

responded that “...we do not know when the claimants to this land would descend on us pulling down our

structures... so we opt to build temporary houses hoping the court will make a declaration to legitimize our stay on

the land”.

The response is an indicator that some families would not want to invest in improved housing when the land in

question is clouded in ownership tussle. This finding is also corroborated by data on Table 1 showing that permanent

houses are only 46.2 present of respondents and Table 2 which shows that 49.0% of houses are built with brick or

stone wall. The findings are similar to those recorded by Darshini (2011) that tenure security was a major factor

influencing typologies of India’s urban housing. The finding, however, also indicate that 46.2% of respondents had

permanent housing. This is a large number considering the insecure land tenure status in the area, which suggests

that some residents would be overlooking the insecurity status of their land when putting up houses.

Further, 25.7% respondents perceived high poverty levels/low income levels as the other major factor that

influences the typologies of housing in Langas Estate. The perception by the respondents regarding poverty/income

levels and the nature of housing suggest that it is possible that as income levels rise (thus lowering poverty levels)

the typologies of housing would improve. However, a close scrutiny of the finding contradicts such perception as

46.2% have permanent housing despite the low incomes or high poverty levels.

The cross tabulation about typologies of housing and land tenure indicates that despite the tenure concerns,

some residents still invest in improved housing (Table 4).

Tale 4. Cross tabulation of typologies of housing vs. land having title deed.

Nature of House With Title Without Title No Response Total

Mud wall 06(5.8%) 16(15.4%) 13(12.5%) 35(33.7%)

Mabati wall 02(1.9%) 08(7.7%) 06(5.8%) 16(15.4%)

Brick/stone wall 08(7.7%) 20 (19.2%) 23 (22.1%) 51(49.0%)

Polythene/carton wall 00(0%) 2(1.9%) 00(0%) 2(1.9%)

Total 16(15.4%) 46(44.2%) 42(40.4%) 104(100%)

Earthen floor 04(3.8%) 16 (15.4%) 13(12.5%) 33(31.7%)

Concrete floor 10(9.6%) 39 (37.5%) 22 (21.2%) 71(68.3%)

Total 14(13.4%) 55(52.9%) 35(33.7%) 104(100%)

Mabati/tile roof 18(17.3%) 54(51.9%) 22 (21.2%) 94(90.4%)

Grass-thatched roof 03(2.9%) 2 (1.9%) 3(2.9%) 8(7.7%)

Polythene/carton roof 00(0%) 2(1.9%) 00(0%) 02(1.9%)

Total 21(20.2%) 58(55.7%) 25(24.1%) 104(100%)

Source: Field Study in Langas Estate- Eldoret town, 2013

The cross tabulation showed relatively smaller numbers of houses with Brick or stone wall, Concrete floor, and

Mabati or tile roof as having title deeds (7.7%, 9.6%, and 17.3%, respectively), compared to those with similar

typology of houses but without title deeds (19.2%, 37.5%, and 51.9%, respectively).

These findings show that the typologies of housing was influenced by other factors, too, because residents

seem to have invested in construction of housing using the conventionally recommended material despite lacking


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secure tenure- an indication that contradicts arguments by Durand (2006) and Agevi (2011) that lack of secure

tenure hinders household investments in housing aiming to improve shelter conditions for the urban poor. The

contradiction could arise from the fact that urban areas have difficulties getting alternative construction materials

like grass thatch-roofs.

Linkages between land tenure status and income levels with housing typologies

Hypothesis testing for the differences in land tenure status and household income levels with typologies of

housing in Langas Estate were tested using the ANOVA (Tables 4 and 5). Two Null Hypotheses were tested.

Testing of Null Hypothesis on the association of Tenure Status and Key Elements relating to Typologies of

Housing in Langas Estate

The null hypothesis tested is ‘there is no significant relationship between land tenure and the typologies of

housing in Langas Estate’. The hypothesis was used to determine the association of land tenure status and key

elements relating to typologies of housing by use of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (Table 5).

Decision Rule

Given the level of significance as α= 0.05, if the sig. value is less than or equal to 0.05 accept the Null

Hypothesis; whereas values greater than 0.05 reject the Null Hypothesis.

Table 5. ANOVA for relationship between Tenure Status and Typologies of housing.

Tenure v House typologies

Source of Variation Sum of Squares(SS) df Mean Square(MS) F Sig.

Between Groups variance 0.176 2 0.088 0.152 0.859

Within Groups variance 58.583 101 0.580

Total 58.760 103

Land Tenure Vs Roofing



Total 58.760 103

Land Tenure Vs Wall



Total 58.760 103

Land Tenure Vs Floor



Total 58.760 103

The null hypothesis sought to test the relationship of land tenure with house type and other key elements that

characterize the typologies of housing. The findings revealed values of 0.859 for the relationship of land tenure

status with house type and a value of 0.061 for land tenure status with house floor. The researcher does not reject the

null hypothesis; i.e. accept the null hypothesis that ‘there is no significant relationship between land tenure and the

typologies of housing in Langas estate’, as the values for the two elements were greater than the level of significance

0.05 (Table 5).The findings thus, implies that there was significant relationship between land tenure status and house

type (with a sig.-value of 0.859).

The findings, similarly, show that there was no significant relationship between land tenure status and the type

of house Floor (with a sig.-value of 0.061). The two findings imply that the type of house and the house floor type

for housing in Langas estate are not dependent on the tenure status. Permanent, temporary, or semi-permanent

houses with- or without concrete floor or earthen floors are constructed without necessarily consideration of the

tenure status of the land on which the construction takes place. This finding however differs with findings of


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Darshini (2011) that lower levels of tenure security for the urban poor in the informal settlements directly

discourages investment on improvement on housing, thus lowering access to good (read- permanent) housing.

The land tenure status in relationship with roofing type (sig.-value=0.028) and that with type of wall (sig.-

value=0.000) show sig. values less than the level of significance 0.05(Table 5), therefore the researcher rejected the

null hypothesis stating that there is no significant relationship between land tenure with roofing and wall type of

housing in Langas estate. The findings suggest that there is significant relationship in land tenure status with the type

of roofing and type of wall for housing in the study area. This finding may imply that increased security of tenure

gives the residents the confidence to improve their housing in terms of roofing and wall materials.

The cross tabulation between residents’ income levels and the typologies of housing showed the following

(Table 6).

Tale 6. Cross tabulation of income levels vs. typologies of housing.

Income

bracket

(in kshs)

The Nature of House

Roof Floor Wall

Tile/ma

bati

Grass Polythe

n/carton

Concret

e

Earthen Mud Mabati Polyt/

carton

Brick/st

one

Below 1,000

1,000-2,500

2,501-5,000

5,001-10,000

10,001-20,000

Above 20,000

3.8

13.4

46.1

12.5

8.7

5.8

4.8

1.9

1.0

1.0

0.0

0.0

1.0 0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

5.7

14.4

42.3

12.5

8.7

5.8

3.8

1.0

4.8

1.0

0.0

0.0

3.8

2.9

8.1

1.9

0.0

0.0

2.9

1.9

5.4

1.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.9

10.6

33.6

12.5 8.7

5.8

TOTAL 90.3% 8.7% 1.0% 89.4% 10.7% 16.7% 11.2% 1.0% 68.3%

Source: Field studies in Langas Estate- Eldoret town, 2013

The cross tabulation ontypologies of housing and income levels of the respondents (Table 6) indicate that those who

earn over kshs. 5,000 live in houses built using the conventionally stipulated materials with brick/stone wall,

concrete floor, and Mabati/tile roof. This is suggested by only 1.0% of the respondents earning above kshs. 5,000

live in grass thatched roof/earthen floor and 1.9% mabati wall house. This study finding suggests that higher

incomes and as such lower levels of poverty for the residents positively influence the typologies of housing in

Langas estate. On the other hand, 21.7% of respondents perceived indifference in government response to transfer

and subdivision of land as a major factor that influence typologies of housing. This is in agreement with Malombe

(1997) that indifference leads to substandard settlements.

Similarly, recognition (or lack of it) of Langas Estate as a residential area was identified by 15.6% of the

respondents as a reason for missing out on planning for infrastructural facilities and other amenities required for

sustainable housing in the area while 14.8% pointed out that cost of construction influence the typologies of housing

in Langas estate. Landlords and the EMC key informants also indicated that construction materials like cement, sand

and other hardware materials required for construction are, not only expensive, but are also sourced from far- raising

the cost of construction.

One landlord interviewed was quoted as saying that “... a bag of cement bought at Kshs. 400.00 five years ago

is now selling at Kshs. 900; ... a 32 gauge mabati going for Kshs. 600. up from Kshs. 270., and standard building

stones selling at ksh. 60 per foot up from ksh. 25; over the same period. The increasing costs coupled with low

incomes which mainly come from informal sources hinder residents from investing in improved housing”.

The findings in this study show that the large informal housing market is a response to numerous factors

including a general low economic power, poor land tenure security and high cost of formal real estate. The findings

also indicate that low purchasing power hinder residents from investing on development of their housing. However,

data from Table 1 presented earlier provides that not all residents in informal settlements are low-income earners as

7.7 present of respondents earn over Kshs. 10,000; and 19.2 present live in two-bed roomed-and-above houses

(Table 2). This concurs with Dafe (2009) who found out that the well-to-do individuals live in slums and suggested

that as a business this could be without paying land rates or evade being accountable to the Physical Planning Act

Regulations. This finding indicate that some informal housing have been put up deliberately by those who would

otherwise afford to comply but have chosen to set up their housing disregarding the EMC housing guidelines like

obtaining approved building plans perhaps to avoid the costs such as land rates that come with the approval.


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Testing of Null Hypothesis on the association of Income levels of Households and Key Elements relating to

Typologies of Housing in Langas Estate

The null hypothesis tested the significance of difference between household income and the typologies of

housing in Langas Estate. The hypothesis was used to determine the association of different levels of household

income and key elements relating to typologies of housing by use of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (Table 7).

Decision Rule

Given the level of significance as α= 0.05, if the sig. values is less than or equal to 0.05 accept the Null

Hypothesis; whereas sig. values greater than 0.05 reject the Null Hypothesis.

Table 7. ANOVA for relationship between Household Income and Typologies of housing.

Income level V House type

Source of variation Sum of Squares(SS) df Mean Square(MS) F Sig.



Total 159.385 103

Income levels lvl Roofing



Total 159.385 103

Income levels lvl Wall



Total 159.385 103

Income levels lvl Floor



Total 159.385 103

The null hypothesis sought to test the relationship of household income levels with the typologies of housing. The

relationship of household levels of income with roofing type (sig.-value=0.040), type of wall (sig.-value=0.003),

and the type of house floor (sig.-value=0.0469) show sig. values less than the level of significance 0.05. The

researcher, therefore, accepted the null hypothesis that there was no significant relationship between household

income level and roof, floor or wall type. The findings show there is no significant relationship between different

household income levels and the type of roofing, type of house floor and type of wall for housing in the study area.

These findings concur with Tibaijuka (2007) that majority of houses in urban areas are permanent, though the

majority of the houses do not attain the minimum appropriate and decent housing. In testing the relationship of

household income levels with house type the study showed a sig.-value of 0.062. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected. The finding suggests that there was significant relationship between household levels of income and house

type. By rejecting the null hypothesis it means that house type is perceived to be dependent on household income

levels and that many residents in the informal settlements of Langas Estate live in house types depending on income

levels.

Factors perceived to have the greatest influence on housing typology in Langas Estate

To determine how the dependent variable (typology of housing) varied with every one of the independent

variables, the study used model coefficients to undertake the test. The paper sought to identify whether coefficients

were significantly different from zero (Table 8). Indifference to transfer or subdivide land had a B1 value of -1.167

hence had the greatest variance followed by lack of title deeds with a B1 value of 1.118, non-recognition as

residential area with a B1 value of 0.820, high cost of construction with a B1 value of -0.721, low levels of


198

income/poverty with a B1 value of -0.280, and inadequate information on planning requirements with a B1 value of

0.123. Finally, lack of physical development plan for housing with a B1 value of 0.035, had the least variance.

Table 8. Model Coefficients.

Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. 95.0% Confidence

Interval for B

B Std.

Error

Beta Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

1 (Constant) 3.554 1.393 2.551 0.014 0.756 6.351

Non-recognition as

residential area

0.820 0.821 0.216 0.999 0.323 -0.829 2.469

Lack of physical

development plan for

housing

0.035 0.487 0.013 0.072 0.943 -0.944 1.014

Lack of title deeds 1.118 0.699 0.239 1.601 0.116 -0.285 2.521

Indifference to

transfer or subdivide

land

-1.167

0.952

-0.197

-1.226

0.226

-3.078

0.744

High cost of

construction

-0.721 0.664 -0.229 -1.086 0.282 -2.055 0.612

Low levels of

income/poverty

-0.280 0.404 -0.106 -0.692 0.492 -1.090 0.531

Inadequate

information on

planning

requirements

-0.123 0.475 -0.046 -0.258 0.797 -1.077 0.831

a. Dependent Variable: Factors influencing sustainable housing

Discussion and Conclusion

This paper arrived at various conclusions. The findings showed that the study area is faced with two scenarios

relating to land tenure status- where land within the original Langas Farm Ltd (LFL) (Study area block I & II) has no

title deed, while most plots in study area III & IV (Extension) have freehold agricultural land title deeds. The study

site of Langas Estate is on a sub-urban fringe that may be referred to as sub-urbanization. This study revealed that

informality affects even those whose building plans and housing structures were duly approved by the relevant

authorities, besides having undisputed title deeds- but are informal in the legal sense based on zoning requirements

(Dinesh, 2011). This is mainly due to sub-urbanization, especially where their housing initially complied with

planning guidelines but due to boundary extensions they now fall under different jurisdiction with different building

codes.

According to Herrington (1984) suburbanization brings about the concept of a rural-urban fringe. This is an

area which has a distinctive characteristic which is only partly assimilated into the growing urban complex but is

still partly rural. This is the case with Langas Estate that is on the fringes of the Eldoret Municipal Council with the

rural agricultural land around the area. Carter (1995) noted three important aspects for this area namely: the notion

of the fringe as a distinctive physical region of the city primarily designated by characteristic land use associations;

the notion of the fringe as that area where urbanization impinges on reality and where conflict between ways of life

is generated; the impact of urban expansion on agricultural land. This manifestation leads to the conclusion that

successful planning controls is low compared to standards envisaged on Sessional Paper No.3 Article 42 (2004) on

National Housing Policy for Kenya which sets the standards and requirements for housing or settlements to be

declared as habitable or liveable.

Factors that had the greatest influence on typologies of housing in Langas Estate were identified on the basis of

whether their coefficients were significantly different from zero. The factors were; Indifference to transfer or


199

subdivide land which had a B1 value of -1.167 hence had the greatest variance, followed by lack of title deeds with a

B1 value of 1.118, non-recognition of Langas Estate as residential area with a B1 value of 0.820, high cost of

construction with a B1 value of -0.721, low levels of income and/or high incidence of poverty with a B1 value of -

0.280, and inadequate information on planning requirements with a B1 value of 0.123. Finally, lack of physical

development plan for housing with a B1 value of 0.035, had the least variance.

The EMC is often indifferent in providing essential public services to the extent that any spatial development is

unplanned for, haphazard and without compliance to planning controls of the EMC guidelines. Indifference in

subdivision or transfer may, perhaps, result into non-issuance of title deeds, which in turn implies that the land in

question is not recognized for housing development. Non-recognition would mean non-inclusion in any proposed

development plan hence, the haphazard and informal nature of housing and lack of essential social services and

increased non-compliance. Similarly, non-recognition leads to sort-of reactionary provision of essential services to

the magnitude of development taking place, as happened during the Third World Bank funded Urban upgrading

Project in the late 1980s (Phase 1) (UN Habitat, 2003). The seemingly reactionary development corroborated

Syagga and Associates ltd (2010) that planning seems to follow development.

Finally, whereas the factors identified affected or hindered successful planning for provision of sustainable

housing in Langas estate, none of them may be attributed as a single influencer or hindrance to planning standards;

rather a combination of all the factors under consideration- perhaps together with other factors not considered for

this study. On the overall, the conclusions of this study agree with Dormann (2010) that despite much emphasis on

town planning, “...the master plan...has been unable to respond to the continuing urban growth...was incapable to

deliver on an appropriate scale and rate affordable housing for the urban poor”.

This paper recommends for continuous improvement of the dwellings from their physical fragility and

deprivation by consistent retrofitting and upgrading of infrastructure. In this respect, the study proposes retrofitting

of infrastructural services as recommended by the UN Habitat (2003); or otherwise, the infrastructural services

precede the extension of EMC boundary as envisaged by article 42 of Sessional Paper No.3 (2004) on National

Housing Policy for Kenya. This would forestall a situation implied by the UNCHS/HABITAT of 1991 that whereas

provision of basic services to slums may appear to be prohibitively expensive, the health and environmental

consequences of allowing these populations to live in squalor will eventually prove even more expensive.

Conflict of Interest

The researchers hereby declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Documents

Informal Settlements as Expression of Ineffective … Eldoret is not different from that of other urban centres in Kenya and the world over. With Eldoret Town’s increased growth