INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS · 2018. 6. 28. · P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 39. IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87 Table 1. Synonyms and trade names, registry numbers,

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

Metallic lead and several inorganic and organic lead compounds have been considered

by previous working groups convened by IARC (IARC, 1972, 1973, 1976, 1980, 1987).

New data have since become available, and these are included in the present monograph

and have been taken into consideration in the evaluation. The agents considered in this

monograph are some inorganic and organic lead compounds.

1. Exposure Data

1.1 Chemical and physical data

1.1.1 Nomenclature, synonyms, trade names, molecular formulae, chemical andphysical properties

Synonyms, trade names and molecular formulae for lead and some inorganic and

organic lead compounds are presented in Table 1. The lead compounds shown are those for

which data on carcinogenicity or mutagenicity are available or which are commercially

most important. The list is not exhaustive.

Selected chemical and physical properties of the lead compounds listed in Table 1 are

presented in Table 2.

Lead (atomic number, 82; relative atomic mass, 207.2) has a valence +2 or +4. The

alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated it with the planet Saturn.

Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright lustre, is very soft, highly malleable, ductile and a

poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia

of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service (Lide, 2003). Natural

lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.4%), 206Pb (25.2%), 207Pb (21.7%) and208Pb (51.7%) (O’Neil, 2003). Lead isotopes are the end-products of each of the three series

of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the acti-

nium series and 208Pb for the thorium series. Forty-three other isotopes of lead, all of which

are radioactive, are recognized (Lide, 2003).

–39–

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 39

IAR

C M

ON

OG

RA

PH

S V

OL

UM

E 8

740Table 1. Synonyms and trade names, registry numbers, molecular formulae, and molecular weights for lead and lead

compounds

Chemical name Synonyms and trade names (Chemical Abstracts Service name in italics) CAS registry

numbera

Molecular formula Molecular

weightb

Calcium plumbate Pigment Brown 10 12013-69-3 Ca2PbO4 [351.4]

Lead, lead powder C.I. 77575; C.I. Pigment Metal 4; Lead element; Lead Flake; Lead S 2;

Pb-S 100; SSO 1

7439-92-1 Pbc 207.2

c

Lead acetate Acetic acid, lead(2+) salt; acetic acid lead salt (2:1); dibasic lead acetate; lead bis(acetate); lead diacetate; lead dibasic acetate; lead(2+)

acetate; lead(II) acetate; neutral lead acetate; normal lead acetate;

plumbous acetate; salt of Saturn; sugar of lead

301-04-2 Pb(C2H3O2)2 325.3

Lead acetate

trihydrate

Acetic acid, lead(2+) salt, trihydrate; lead diacetate trihydrate; lead(II) acetate trihydrate; plumbous acetate trihydrate; sugar of lead

6080-56-4 Pb(C2H3O2)2·3H2O 379.3

Lead arsenate Arsenic acid (H3AsO4), lead(2+) salt (2:3); lead(2+) orthoarsenate (Pb3(AsO4)2); Nu Rexform; trilead diarsenate

3687-31-8 Pb3(AsO4)2 899.4

Lead azide Lead azide (Pb(N3)2); lead azide (PbN6); lead diazide; lead(2+) azide; RD 1333

13424-46-9

[85941-57-7]

Pb(N3)2 291.2

Lead bromide Lead bromide (PbBr2); lead dibromide 10031-22-8 PbBr2 367.0

Lead carbonate Carbonic acid, lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead carbonate (PbCO3); basic lead carbonate; dibasic lead carbonate; lead(2+) carbonate; plumbous

carbonate; cerussite; white lead

598-63-0 PbCO3 267.2

Lead chloride Lead chloride (PbCl2); lead dichloride; lead(2+) chloride; lead(II) chloride; plumbous chloride; natural cotunite

7758-95-4 PbCl2 278.1

Lead chromate Chromic acid (H2CrO4), lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead chromate(VI); lead chromate (PbCrO4); lead chromium oxide (PbCrO4); plumbous

chromate; Royal Yellow 6000; chrome yellow

7758-97-6

[8049-64-7]

PbCrO4 323.2

Lead fluoride Lead fluoride (PbF2); lead difluoride; lead difluoride (PbF2); lead(2+) fluoride; plumbous fluoride

7783-46-2

[106496-44-0]

PbF2 245.2

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 40

INO

RG

AN

IC A

ND

OR

GA

NIC

LE

AD

CO

MP

OU

ND

S4

1

Table 1 (contd)


numbera


weightb

Lead fluoroborate Borate(1-), tetrafluoro-, lead(2+) salt (2:1); borate(1-), tetrafluoro-,

lead(2+); lead fluoborate; lead tetrafluoroborate; lead boron fluoride;

lead fluoroborate (Pb(BF4)2); lead(II) tetrafluoroborate

13814-96-5

[35254-34-3]

Pb(BF4)2 380.8

Lead hydrogen

arsenate

Arsenic acid (H3AsO4), lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead arsenate (PbHAsO4); acid lead arsenate; arsenic acid lead salt; lead acid arsenate; lead

arsenate; lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4); lead(2+) monohydrogen

arsenate

7784-40-9

[14034-76-5;

37196-28-4]

PbHAsO4 347.1

Lead iodide Lead iodide (PbI2); C.I. 77613; lead diiodide; lead(II) iodide; plumbous iodide

10101-63-0

[82669-93-0]

PbI2 461.0

Lead naphthenate Naphthenic acids, lead salts; lead naphthenates; naphthenic acid, lead salt; Naphthex Pb; Trokyd Lead

61790-14-5 Unspecified

Lead nitrate Nitric acid, lead(2+) salt; lead dinitrate; lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2); lead(2+) bis(nitrate); lead(2+) nitrate; lead(II) nitrate; plumbous nitrate

10099-74-8

[18256-98-9]

Pb(NO3)2 331.2

Lead dioxide Lead oxide (PbO2); C.I. 77580; lead brown; lead oxide brown; lead peroxide; lead superoxide; lead(IV) oxide; plumbic oxide; Thiolead A

1309-60-0

[60525-54-4]

PbO2 239.2

Lead monoxide Lead oxide (PbO); C.I. 77577; C.I. Pigment Yellow 46; lead monooxide; lead oxide yellow; lead protoxide; lead(2+) oxide; lead(II) oxide; litharge; Litharge S; Litharge Yellow L-28; plumbous oxide;

yellow lead ochre

1317-36-8

[1309-59-7;

12359-23-8]

PbO 223.2

Lead trioxide Lead trioxide (Pb2O3); C.I. 77579; lead sesquioxide; lead sesquioxide (Pb2O3); plumbous plumbate

1314-27-8 Pb2O3 462.4

Lead phosphate Phosphoric acid, lead(2+) salt (2:3); lead phosphate (Pb3P2O8); C.I. 77622; C.I. Pigment White 30; lead diphosphate; lead orthophosphate; lead phosphate (3:2); lead(2+) phosphate (Pb3(PO4)2); lead(II) phosphate

(3:2); Perlex Paste 500; Perlex Paste 600A; Trilead phosphate; lead

phosphate dibasic

7446-27-7 Pb3(PO4)2 811.5

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 41

IAR

C M

ON

OG

RA

PH

S V

OL

UM

E 8

742

Table 1 (contd)


numbera


weightb

Lead phosphite,

dibasic

Dibasic lead phosphite; lead dibasic phosphite; dibasic lead

metaphosphate; C.I. 77620; lead oxide phosphonate, hemihydrate

1344-40-7 2PbO·PbHPO3·1/2H2O [743]

Lead molybdate Lead molybdate(VI); lead molybdate oxide (PbMoO4) 10190-55-3 PbMoO4 367.1

Lead stearate Octadecanoic acid, lead(2+) salt; 5002G; lead distearate; lead(2+) octadecanoate; lead(2+) stearate; lead(II) octadecanoate; lead(II)

stearate; Listab 28ND; Pbst; SL 1000 (stabilizer); SLG; Stabinex NC18;

stearic acid, lead(2+) salt

1072-35-1

[11097-78-2;

37223-82-8]

Pb(C18H35O2)2 774.1

Lead stearate,

dibasic

Dibasic lead stearate; Listab 51; lead, bis(octadecanoato)dioxodi-;

stearic acid, lead salt, dibasic

56189-09-4 2PbO·Pb(C17H35COO)2 1220

Lead styphnate 1,3-Benzenediol, 2,4,6-trinitro-, lead(2+) salt (1:1); 2,4-dioxa-3-plumbabicyclo[3.3.1]nona-1(9),5,7-triene, 3,3-didehydro-6,8,9-trinitro-;

lead, [styphnato(2-)]-; lead tricinate; lead trinitroresorcinate; Tricinat;

2,4,6-trinitroresorcinol, lead(2+) salt (1:1)

15245-44-0

[4219-19-6;

6594-85-0;

59286-40-7;

63918-97-8]

Pb(C6H3N3O8) [452.3]

Lead subacetate Lead, bis(acetato-êO)tetrahydroxytri-; lead acetate (Pb3(AcO)2(OH)4); lead, bis(acetato)-tetrahydroxytri-; lead, bis(acetato-O)tetra-hydroxytri-;

bis(acetato)dihydroxytrilead; lead acetate hydroxide (Pb3(OAc)2(OH)4);

lead acetate, basic; monobasic lead acetate

1335-32-6 Pb(CH3COO)2·2Pb(OH)2 807.7

Lead sulfate Sulfuric acid, lead(2+) salt (1:1); Anglislite; C.I. 77630; C.I. Pigment White 3; Fast White; Freemans White Lead; HB 2000; Lead Bottoms;

lead monosulfate; lead(II) sulfate (1:1); lead(2+) sulfate; lead(II) sulfate;

Milk White; Mulhouse White; TS 100; TS 100 (sulfate); TS-E;

sublimed white lead

7446-14-2

[37251-28-8]

PbSO4 303.3

Lead sulfide Lead sulfide (PbS); C.I. 77640; lead monosulfide; lead sulfide (1:1); lead(2+) sulfide; lead(II) sulfide; natural lead sulfide; P 128; P 37;

plumbous sulfide

1314-87-0

[51682-73-6]

PbS 239.3

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 42

INO

RG

AN

IC A

ND

OR

GA

NIC

LE

AD

CO

MP

OU

ND

S4

3

Table 1 (contd)


numbera


weightb

Lead tetraoxide Lead oxide (Pb3O4); Azarcon; C.I. 77578; C.I. Pigment Red 105; Entan; Gold Satinobre; Heuconin 5; lead orthoplumbate; lead oxide (3:4); lead oxide red; lead tetroxide; Mennige; Mineral Orange; Mineral red; Minium; Minium Non-Setting RL 95; Minium red; Orange Lead; Paris

Red; red lead; red lead oxide; Sandix; Saturn Red; trilead tetraoxide; trilead tetroxide; plumboplumbic oxide

1314-41-6

[12684-34-3]

Pb3O4 685.6

Lead thiocyanate Thiocyanic acid, lead(2+) salt; lead bis(thiocyanate); lead dithiocyanate;

lead(2+) thiocyanate; lead(II) thiocyanate

592-87-0

[10382-36-2]

Pb(SCN)2 323.4

Tetraethyl lead Plumbane, tetraethyl-; lead, tetraethyl-; TEL; tetraethyllead; tetraethylplumbane

78-00-2 Pb(C2H5)4 323.5

Tetramethyl lead Plumbane, tetramethyl-; lead, tetramethyl-; tetramethyllead; tetramethylplumbane; TML

75-74-1 Pb(CH3)4 267.3

From IARC (1980); Lide (2003); National Library of Medicine (2003); O’Neil (2003); STN International (2003) a Deleted Chemical Abstracts Service numbers shown in square brackets

b Values in square brackets were calculated from the molecular formula.

c Atomic formula; atomic weight

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 43

IAR

C M

ON

OG

RA

PH

S V

OL

UM

E 8

744

Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of lead and lead compounds

Chemical name Physical form Melting-point (°C) Boiling-point

(°C)

Density

(g/cm3)

Solubility (per 100 g H2O)

Lead, lead powder Soft silvery-gray metal; cubic 327.5 1749 11.3 Insol. in water; sol. in conc. acid

Lead acetate White crystal 280 Dec. 3.25 44.3 g at 20 °C; sl. sol. in

ethanol

Lead acetate trihydrate Colourless crystal 75 (dec) – 2.55 45.6 g at 15 °C; sl. sol. in

ethanol

Lead arsenate White crystal 1042 (dec) – 5.8 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid

Lead azide Colourless orthorhombic needle ~350 (expl) – 4.7 23 mg at 18 °C; v. sol. in acetic

acid

Lead bromide White orthorhombic crystal 371 892 6.69 975 mg at 25 °C; insol. in

ethanol

Lead carbonate Colourless orthorhombic crystal ~315 (dec) – 6.6 Insol. in water; sol. in acid and

alkaline solutions

Lead chloride White orthorhombic needle or

powder

501 951 5.98 1.08 g at 25 °C; sol. in alkaline

solutions; insol. in ethanol

Lead chromate Yellow-orange monoclinic

crystals

844 – 6.12 17 µg at 20 °C; sol. in dilute acids

Lead fluoride White orthorhombic crystal 830 1293 8.44 67 mg at 25 °C

Lead fluoroborate Stable only in aqueous solution – – – Sol. in water

Lead hydrogen arsenate White monoclinic crystal 280 (dec) 5.94 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid

and alkaline solutions

Lead iodide Yellow hexagonal crystal or

powder

410 872 (dec) 6.16 76 mg at 25 °C; insol. in ethanol

Lead molybdate Yellow tertiary crystal ∼1060 – 6.7 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid and sodium hydroxide

Lead naphthenate No data available

Lead nitrate Colourless cubic crystal 470 – 4.53 59.7 g at 25 °C; sl. sol. in

ethanol

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 44

INO

RG

AN

IC A

ND

OR

GA

NIC

LE

AD

CO

MP

OU

ND

S4

5

Table 2 (contd)

Chemical name Physical form Melting-point (°C) Boiling-point

(°C)

Density

(g/cm3)

Solubility (per 100 g H2O)

Lead monoxide (PbO);

litharge

Red tetrahedral crystal Transforms to

massicot at 489 °C

– 9.35 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.

in dilute nitric acid

Massicot Yellow orthorhombic crystal 897 – 9.64 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.

in dilute nitric acid

Lead trioxide (Pb2O3) Black monoclinic crystal or red

amorphous powder

530 (dec) – 10.05 Insol. in water; sol. in alkaline

solutions

Lead phosphate White hexagonal crystal 1014 – 7.01 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.

in alkali and nitric acid

Lead phosphite, dibasic Pale yellow powder 6.1

Lead stearate White powder ~100 – 1.4 Insol. in water; sol. in hot

ethanol

Lead styphnate No data available

Lead subacetate White powder Dec. – – 6.3 g at 0 °C; 25 g at 100 °C Lead sulfate Orthorhombic crystal 1087 – 6.29 4.4 mg at 25 °C; sl. sol. in

alkaline solutions; insol. in acids

Lead sulfide Black powder or silvery cubic

crystal

1113 – 7.60 Insol. in water; sol. in acids

Lead tetraoxide Red tetrahedral crystals 830 – 8.92 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.

in hot hydrochloric acid

Lead thiocyanate White to yellowish powder – – 3.82 50 mg at 20 °C

Tetraethyl lead Liquid –136 200 (dec) 1.653 at

20 °C

Insol. in water; sol. in benzene;

sl. sol. in ethanol and diethyl

ether

Tetramethyl lead Liquid –30.2 110 1.995 at

20 °C

Insol. in water; sol. in benzene,

ethanol and diethyl ether

From IARC (1980); Lide (2003); Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory (2004)

Abbreviations: conc., concentrated; insol., insoluble; sl. sol., slightly soluble; sol., soluble; v. sol., very soluble; dec, decomposes; expl., explodes

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 45

1.1.2 Technical products and impurities

Lead is produced in purity greater than 99.97% in many countries. Lead oxides and

mixtures of lead and lead oxides are also widely available. Tables 3 and 4 show the

specifications for metallic lead and some lead compounds, respectively, from selected

countries.

IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 8746

Table 3. Specifications for metallic lead from selected countries

Country % Pb (min.) Contaminants with limits (% max.a) Reference

Argentina 99.97 Fe, 0.002; Sb, 0.004; Zn, 0.001; Cu, 0.002;

Ag, 0.0095; Bi, 0.035; Cd, 0.001; Ni, 0.001

Industrias Deriplom

SA (2003)

Australia 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.001; As, 0.001; Bi, 0.005–0.029; Cu,

0.001; Sb, 0.001; Zn, 0.001; Cd, 0.001

Pasminco Metals

(1998)

Belgium 99.9–99.95 (ppm) Bi, 90–250; Ag, 10–15; Cu, 5–10;

As, 5; Sb, 3; Sn, 3; As+Sb+Sn, 8; Zn, 3–5;

Fe, 3; Cd, 3–10; Ni, 2–3

Umicore Precious

Metals (2002)

Bulgaria 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.001–0.005; Cu, 0.0005–0.003; Zn,

0.0002–0.0015; Fe, 0.001; Cd, 0.0002–

0.001; Ni, 0.0005–0.001; As, 0.0005–0.002;

Sb, 0.0005–0.005; Sn, 0.0005–0.001; Bi,

0.005–0.03

KCM SA (2003)

Canada 99.97–99.99 NR Noranda (2003);

Teck Cominco

(2003)

Kazakhstan 99.95–99.9996 NR Southpolymetal

(2003)

Mexico 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.0015; Cu, 0.0005; Zn, 0.0005; Fe,

0.0010; Bi, 0.0250; Sb, 0.0005; As, 0.0005;

Sn, 0.0005; Ni, 0.0002; Te, 0.0001

Penoles (2003)

Republic

of Korea

99.995 Ag, 0.0003; Cu, 0.0003; As, 0.0003; Sb,

0.0003; Zn, 0.0003; Fe, 0.0003; Bi, 0.0015;

Sn, 0.0003

Korea Zinc Co.

(2003)

USA 99.995–

99.9999

(ppm) Sb, 1; As, 1–5; Bi, 0.2–4; Cu, 1–4;

Ag, < 0.1–2; Tl, 1–2; Sn, 0.3–1; Fe, < 0.1–

0.3; Ca, 0.1–0.4; Mg, 0.1–0.3

ESPI Corp. (2002)

NR, not reported a Unless otherwise specified

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 46

INO

RG

AN

IC A

ND

OR

GA

NIC

LE

AD

CO

MP

OU

ND

S4

7

Table 4. Specifications for some lead compounds from selected countries

Country Compound Contaminants with limits (% max.) Gradea Reference

Argentina Lead oxide Fe, 0.003; Sb, 0.001–0.004; Zn, 0.0005–

0.001; Cu, 0.0005–0.002; Ag, 0.001–0.0095;

Bi, 0.003–0.035; Cd, 0.0008–0.001; Ni,

0.0008–0.001

5 grades of red lead (Pb3O4 + PbO2 + PbO);

3 grades of yellow litharge (PbO, 99.65–

99.96%; free Pb, 0.03–0.30%; Pb3O4,

0.0048–0.05%); 1 grade of green powder

(PbO + Pb, 80%+20% or 62%+38%)

Industrias

Deriplom SA

(2003)

Australia Lead oxide Bi, 0.05–0.06; Ag, 0.001; Cu, 0.001; Sn,

0.0005–0.001; Sb, 0.0001–0.0002; As,

0.0001; Se, 0.0001; S, 0.0007; Cd, 0.0005;

Ni, 0.0002–0.0003; Zn, 0.0005; Fe, 0.0002–

0.0005; Mn, 0.0003–0.0005; Te, 0.00003–

0.0001; Co, 0.0001–0.0002; Cr, 0.0002;

Ba, 0.0005; V, 0.0004; Mo, 0.0003–0.0005

VRLA-refinedTM and MF-refinedTM Pasminco

Metals (2000)

USA Lead acetate

Lead bromide

Lead chloride

Lead fluoride

Lead iodide

Lead molybdate

Lead monoxide

Lead tetraoxide

Lead sulfide

NR 5N

3N and 5N

3N and 5N

3N

3N and 5N

3N

3N and 5N

3N

3N and 5N

ESPI Corp.

(2002)

VRLA, valve-regulated lead acid; MF, maintenance-free; NR, not reported a 3N, 99.9%; 5N, 99.999%

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 47

1.2 Production

Commercial lead metal is described as being either primary or secondary. Primary

lead is produced directly from mined lead ore. Secondary lead is produced from scrap lead

products which have been recycled.

1.2.1 The ores and their preparation

The most important lead ore is galena (lead sulfide). Other important ores such ascerussite (lead carbonate) and anglesite (lead sulfate) may be regarded as weatheredproducts of galena and are usually found nearer to the surface of the earth’s crust. Leadand zinc ores often occur together and, in most extraction methods, have to be separated.

The most common separation technique is selective froth flotation. The ore is first

processed to a fine suspension in water by grinding in ball or rod mills — preferably to a

particle size of < 0.25 mm. Air is then bubbled through this pulp contained in a cell or tank

and, following the addition of various chemicals and proper agitation, the required

mineral particles become attached to the air bubbles and are carried to the surface to form

a stable mineral-containing froth which is skimmed off. The unwanted or gangue particles

are unaffected and remain in the pulp. For example, with lead–zinc sulfide ores, zinc

sulfate, sodium cyanide or sodium sulfite can be used to depress the zinc sulfide, while

the lead sulfide is floated off to form a concentrate. The zinc sulfide is then activated by

copper sulfate and floated off as a second concentrate (Lead Development Association

International, 2003a).

Around 3 million tonnes of lead are mined in the world each year. Lead is found all

over the world but the countries with the largest mines are Australia, China and the United

States of America, which together account for more than 50% of primary production. The

most common lead ore is galena (lead sulfide). Other elements frequently associated withlead include zinc and silver. In fact, lead ores constitute the main sources of silver, contri-

buting substantially towards the world’s total silver output (Lead Development

Association International, 2003b). Table 5 shows mine production of lead concentrate by

country in the year 2000. Table 6 shows the trends in lead mine production by geographic

region from 1960 to 2003.

1.2.2 Smelting

(a) Two-stage processesThe first stage in smelting consists of removing most of the sulfur from the lead con-

centrate. This is achieved by a continuous roasting process (sintering) in which the lead

sulfide is largely converted to lead oxide and broken down to a size convenient for use in

a blast furnace — the next stage in the process. The sinter plant gases containing sulfur

are converted to sulfuric acid (Lead Development Association International, 2003a).


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 48

The graded sinter (lead oxide) is mixed with coke and flux, such as limestone, and fed

into the top of the blast furnace, where it is smelted using an air blast (sometimes pre-

heated) introduced near the bottom. The chemical processes that take place in the furnace

at about 1200 °C result in the production of lead bullion (lead containing only metallicimpurities) which is tapped off from the bottom of the furnace and either cast into ingots

or collected molten in ladles for transfer to the refining process. In the Imperial Smelting

Furnace process, a very similar procedure is used for the simultaneous production of zinc

and lead.

These traditional two-stage processes largely favour the release of hazardous dusts and

fumes. They necessitate the use of extensive exhaust ventilation and result in large volumes

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 49

Table 5. Mine production of lead concentrate in 2000a

Country Production

(tonnes)

Country Production

(tonnes)

Algeria 818 Mexico 137 975

Argentina 14 115 Morocco 81 208c

Australia 739 000 Myanmar 1 200b

Bolivia 9 523 Namibia 11 114c

Bosnia and Herzegovina 200b Peru 270 576

Brazil 8 832 Poland 51 200c

Bulgaria 10 500 Republic of Korea 2 724

Canada 152 765 Romania 18 750c

Chile 785c Russian Federation 13 300

China 660 000b Serbia and Montenegro 9 000

Colombia 226 South Africa 75 262

Democratic People’s 60 000b,c Spain 40 300

Republic of Korea Sweden 106 584c

Ecuador 200b Tajikistan 800b

Georgia 200b Thailand 15 600

Greece 18 235b The former Yugoslav 25 000b

Honduras 4 805 Republic of Macedonia

India 28 900 Tunisia 6 602

Iran 15 000b Turkey 17 270

Ireland 57 825 United Kingdom 1 000b

Italy 2 000 USA 465 000

Japan 8 835 Viet Nam 1 000b

Kazakhstan 40 000 World totald 3 180 000c

From Smith (2002)

In addition to the countries listed, lead is also produced in Nigeria, but information is

inadequate to estimate output. a Data available at 1 July 2003 b Estimated c Revised d Data from the USA and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant

digits, so that values may not add to total shown.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 49

of lead-laden exhaust gases which are usually cleaned before they are discharged into the

atmosphere. The collected dusts are returned to the smelting process (Lead Development

Association International, 2003a).

(b) Direct smelting processesThe environmental problems and inefficient use of energy associated with the sinter/

blast furnace and Imperial Smelting Furnace processes have led to a considerable amount

of research into more economical and less polluting methods for the production of lead.

Most of this research has been aimed at devising processes in which lead is converted

directly from the sulfide to the metal without producing lead oxide. As a result, a number


Table 6. Trends in lead mine production worldwide

Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona Year

Ab B C Db E Fb Total

1960 370 207 822 84 306 583 2372

1965 366 250 984 99 361 724 2784

1970 476 210 1341 120 441 855 3443

1975 435 165 1340 140 395 1085 3560

1980 482 278 1298 112 382 1030 3582

1985 412 261 1197 155 474 1076 3575

1990 727 175 1184 545 556 NRS 3187

1995 382 186 1047 715 424 NRS 2753

2000 360 178 1053 805 650 NRS 3046

2003 218 123 1043 770 666 NRS 2821

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990, 2004)

NRS, not reported separately a Data from following countries:

A, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany before

reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom and

former Yugoslavia

B, Algeria, Congo, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia

C, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,

Nicaragua, Peru and USA

D, Myanmar, India, Iran, Japan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Turkey

E, Australia

F, Bulgaria, China, former Czechoslovakia, Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea,

Poland, Romania and the former Soviet Union; values for the latter four countries are estimates. b From 1990 onwards, data from region F are included in region A (for Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech

Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation,

Slovakia and Ukraine) or region D (for all former Soviet Republics, China and People’s Demo-

cratic Republic of Korea); lead mine production for 1991 in the former Soviet Union is split as

follows: Europe, 19%; Asia, 81%.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 50

of direct smelting processes now exist, although at varying stages of development (Lead

Development Association International, 2003a).

Direct smelting processes offer several significant advantages over conventional

methods. The first and most obvious advantage is that sintering is no longer necessary. As

a result, the creation of dust, a major occupational and environmental problem, is avoided.

Moreover, the heat evolved during sintering (for the oxidation of the ore) is no longer

wasted but is used in the smelting operation, thus providing a considerable saving of fuel.

The volumes of gas that require filtering are largely reduced and, at the same time, the

sulfur dioxide concentration of the off-gases is greater and these are therefore more

suitable for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. The major difficulty in all direct smelting

processes lies in obtaining both a lead bullion with an acceptably low sulfur content and

a slag with a sufficiently low lead content for it to be safely and economically discarded.

In several cases, further treatment of the crude bullion or the slag or both is required in a

separate operation. There are several direct smelting processes which come close to

meeting the desired criteria — the Russian Kivcet, the QSL (Queneau–Schuhmann–

Lurgi), the Isasmelt and the Outokumpu processes are examples. The use of these newer

processes will probably increase.

At present, the relative importance of the different smelting methods in terms of

amounts of metal produced is as follows: conventional blast furnace, 80%; Imperial

Smelting Furnace process, 10%; and direct processes, 10% (Lead Development Asso-

ciation International, 2003a).

1.2.3 Hydrometallurgical processes

With the prospect of even tighter environmental controls, the possibilities of utilizing

hydrometallurgical techniques for the treatment of primary and secondary sources of lead

are being investigated. Several processes have been described in the literature, but most

are still in the developmental stage and probably not yet economically viable in compa-

rison with the pyrometallurgical (smelting) processes. The goal of the hydrometallurgical

processes in most cases is to fix the sulfur as a harmless sulfate and to put the lead into a

solution suitable for electrolytic recovery. Most of these processes recirculate leach

solutions and produce lead of high purity. For example, the Ledchlor process can be used

on primary materials; other methods such as Rameshni SO2 Reduction (RSR) and the

processes developed by Engitec (CX-EW) and Ginatta (Maja et al., 1989) are moreconcerned with recovery of lead from secondary sources, in particular from battery scrap

(Lead Development Association International, 2003a).

1.2.4 Primary lead refining

Apart from gold and silver, lead bullion contains many other metallic impurities

including antimony, arsenic, copper, tin and zinc. Copper is the first of the impurities to

be removed. The lead bullion is melted at about 300–600 °C and held just above its


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 51

melting-point when solid copper rises to the surface and is skimmed off. Sulfur is stirred

into the melt to facilitate the operation by producing a dry powdery dross which is more

readily removed. Once copper has been removed, there are a number of processes

available for the extraction of the other impurities from the bullion. These include pyro-

metallurgical techniques, in which elements are removed one or more at a time in several

stages, and electrolytic processes that remove most of the impurities in one operation.

Although electrolytic methods are used in large-scale production, pyrometallurgical

techniques account for the larger portion of the world’s refined lead production (Lead

Development Association International, 2003c). Table 7 shows the trends in production of

refined lead by geographic region from 1960 to 2003.


Table 7. Trends in refined lead production worldwide

Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona Year


1960 950 70 1114 164 211 718 3227

1965 1046 124 1296 202 223 823 3714

1970 1412 147 1619 301 217 992 4688

1975 1354 124 1661 296 198 1195 4828

1980 1514 156 1776 397 241 1331 5415

1985 1613 159 1708 539 220 1416 5655

1990 2323 150 1900 924 229 NRS 5525

1995 1796 141 2102 1474 243 NRS 5756

2000 1882 125 2216 2163 263 NRS 6650

2003 1606 144 2043 2499 311 NRS 6603


NRS, not reported separately

a Data from the following countries:

A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany

before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia

B, Algeria, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia

C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Peru, USA and Venezuela

D, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, China (Province

of Taiwan), Thailand, and Turkey

E, Australia and New Zealand

F, Bulgaria, China, former Czechoslovakia, Germany (former Democratic Republic of),

Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea, Poland, Romania and former Soviet Union;

values for Bulgaria, former German Democratic Republic, Romania, former Soviet Union, China

and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea are estimates. b From 1990 onwards, data from region F are included in region A (Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech

Republic, Estonia, Germany (former German Democratic Republic), Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,

Poland, Romania, Russian Federation and Ukraine) or in region D (China, all other former Soviet

Republics and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea); refined lead production in the former

Soviet Union for 1991 is split as follows: Europe, 24%; Asia, 76%.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 52

(a) Pyrometallurgical processes(i) Removal of antimony, arsenic and tin

After the removal of copper, the next step is to remove antimony, arsenic and tin.

There are two methods available — the softening process (so-called since these elements

are standard hardeners for lead) and the Harris process. In the softening process, the lead

bullion is melted and agitated with an air blast, causing preferential oxidation of the

impurities which are then skimmed off as a molten slag. In the Harris process, the molten

bullion is stirred with a flux of molten sodium hydroxide and sodium nitrate or another

suitable oxidizing agent. The oxidized impurities are suspended in the alkali flux in the

form of sodium antimonate, arsenate and stannate, and any zinc is removed in the form

of zinc oxide (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).

(ii) Removal of silver and goldAfter the removal of antimony, arsenic and tin, the softened lead may still contain

silver and gold, and sometimes bismuth. The removal of the precious metals by the Parkes

process is based on the fact that they are more soluble in zinc than in lead. In this process,

the lead is melted and mixed with zinc at 480 °C. The temperature of the melt is graduallylowered to below 419.5 °C, at which point the zinc (now containing nearly all the silverand gold) begins to solidify as a crust on the surface of the lead and can be skimmed off.

An alternative procedure, the Port Pirie process, used at the Port Pirie refinery in Australia,

is based on similar metallurgical principles (Lead Development Association International,

2003c).

(iii) Removal of zincThe removal of the precious metals leaves zinc as the main contaminant of the lead.

It is removed either by oxidation with gaseous chlorine or by vacuum distillation. The

latter process involves melting the lead in a large kettle covered with a water-cooled lid

under vacuum. The zinc distils from the lead under the combined influence of temperature

and reduced pressure and condenses on the underside of the cold lid (Lead Development

Association International, 2003c).

(iv) Removal of bismuthAfter removal of zinc, the only remaining impurity is bismuth, although it is not

always present in lead ore. It is easily removed by electrolysis and this accounts for the

favouring of electrolytic methods in Canada (see below), where bismuth is a frequent

impurity. When pyrometallurgical methods of refining are used, bismuth is removed by

adding a calcium–magnesium alloy to the molten lead, causing a quaternary alloy of

lead–calcium–magnesium–bismuth to rise to the top of the melt where it can be skimmed

off (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 53

(b) Electrolytic processesIn the Betts process, massive cast anodes of lead bullion are used in a cell containing

an electrolyte of acid lead fluorosilicate and thin cathode ‘starter sheets’ of high-purity lead.

The lead deposited on the cathodes still contains tin and sometimes a small amount of

antimony, and these impurities must be removed by melting and selective oxidation. For

many years, the Betts process was the only process to remove bismuth efficiently. A more

recent electrolytic process, first used in the 1950s in Italy, employs a sulfamate electrolyte.

It is claimed to be an equally efficient refining method, with the advantage that the

electrolyte is easier to prepare (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).

By combining the processes described above to build up a complete refining scheme,

it is possible to produce lead of very high purity. Most major refiners will supply bulk

quantities of lead of 99.99% purity and, for very specific purposes, it is possible to reach

99.9999% purity by additional processing (Lead Development Association International,

2003c).

1.2.5 Secondary lead production

Much of the secondary lead comes from lead batteries, with the remainder originating

from other sources such as lead pipe and sheet. Lead scrap from pipes and sheet is ‘clean’

and can be melted and refined without the need for a smelting stage. With batteries, the lead

can only be obtained by breaking the case open. This is commonly done using a battery

breaking machine which, in addition to crushing the case, separates out the different com-

ponents of the battery and collects them in hoppers. Thus, the pastes (oxide and sulfate),

grids, separators and fragmented cases are all separated from one another. The battery acid

is drained and neutralized, and the other components are either recycled or discarded (Lead

Development Association International, 2003d).

Table 8 shows trends in recovery of secondary lead by geographic region from 1970

to 1988. Three million tonnes of lead are produced from secondary sources each year, by

recycling scrap lead products. At least three-quarters of all lead is used in products which

are suitable for recycling and hence lead has the highest recycling rate of all the common

non-ferrous metals (Lead Development Association International, 2003a). Almost 50% of

the 1.6 million tonnes of lead produced in Europe each year has been recycled. In the

United Kingdom, the figure is nearer 60% (Lead Development Association International,

2003d).

(a) Secondary lead smeltingThe workhorse of the secondary lead production industry used to be the blast furnace.

Conversion from blast to rotary-furnace technology in Europe began in the 1960s and was

largely complete by the 1990s, driven by the high price of metallurgical coke and the

relative difficulty of preventing the escape of dust and fume. The blast furnace was used to

provide a low-grade antimonial lead, which was softened. The high-antimony slags were

accumulated for a subsequent blast furnace campaign to produce a high-antimony bullion


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 54

for blending into lead alloys. Although a few secondary smelters today still use furnaces

based on blast furnace technology, most companies now use rotary furnaces in which the

charge can be tailored to give a lead of approximately the desired composition. Alter-

natively, a two-stage smelting procedure can be employed, which yields crude soft lead and

crude antimonial lead. In the latter process, for example, battery plates are first melted and

crude soft lead is tapped off after a few hours while the antimonial slag and lead oxide and

sulfate are retained in the furnace. Further plates are charged and more soft lead is with-

drawn until sufficient slag has accumulated for the slag reduction stage. Then, coke or

anthracite fines and soda ash are added, lead and antimony oxides and lead sulfate are

reduced and the cycle ends with the furnace being emptied of antimonial lead and of slag

for discarding. As with primary smelting, large volumes of gas are produced, carrying

substantial quantities of dust. On leaving the smelter, the gases are cooled from about

900 °C to about 100 °C using air and/or water cooling, and pass into a baghouse where thedust is collected and eventually fed back into the smelter. The gases subsequently are

released into the atmosphere. In the course of processing one tonne of lead, as much as 100

tonnes of air have to be cleaned in this way (Lead Development Association International,

2003d).

In the semi-continuous Isasmelt furnace process used for secondary lead production,

the furnace is fed with a lead carbonate paste containing 1% sulfur. This is obtained as a

result of the battery paste having gone through a desulfurizing process after battery

breaking. Over the following 36 h, wet lead carbonate paste and coal as a reductant are

continuously fed into the furnace. The soft lead that is produced is tapped every 3 h and


Table 8. Trends in recovery of secondary lead (refined lead and lead alloys produced from secondary materials)

Recovery (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona Year

A B C D E Total

1970 619 21 532 78 37 1287

1975 617 29 610 115 39 1410

1980 742 44 798 192 39 1815

1985 766 44 747 258 20 1835

1988 800 48 921 310 23 2102

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990) a Data from the following countries:

A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of

Germany before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,

Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia

B, Algeria, Morocco and South Africa

C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, USA and Venezuela

D, India, Japan and China (Province of Taiwan)


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 55

contains 99.9% lead. After 36 h, the paste feed is stopped and the slag is reduced to

produce antimonial lead alloy. As with the two-stage process described above, off-gases

from the furnace are first cooled and then passed into a baghouse for fume and dust

control (Lead Development Association International, 2003d).

(b) Secondary lead refiningThe principal impurities that are removed in secondary lead refining are copper, tin,

antimony and arsenic. Zinc, iron, nickel, bismuth, silver and other impurities may also be

present. These impurities are generally removed using the same basic techniques as

described above (Lead Development Association International, 2003d).

1.2.6 Lead production by compound and country

Table 9 summarizes the available information on the number of companies in various

countries producing metallic lead and some lead compounds in 2002.

1.3 Use

Over the centuries the unique properties of lead have resulted in its use in many

different applications. These properties are mainly its high resistance to corrosion, its

softness and low melting-point, its high density and its relatively low conductivity (Lead

Development Association International, 2003b).

Large quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage

batteries. Lead is also used for cable covering, plumbing and ammunition. The metal is

very effective as a sound absorber and as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and

nuclear reactors. It is also used to absorb vibration. Lead, alloyed with tin, is used in

making organ pipes. Lead carbonate (PbCO3), lead sulfate (PbSO4), lead chromate

(PbCrO4), lead tetraoxide (Pb3O4) and other lead compounds (see Table 1 for synonyms)

have been applied extensively in paints, although in recent years this use has been curtailed

to reduce health hazards. Lead oxide (usually lead monoxide) is used in the production of

fine ‘crystal glass’ and ‘flint glass’ with a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses.

Lead nitrate and acetate are soluble salts that serve as intermediates and in specialty

applications. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but in recent

years this use has been almost eliminated (Lide, 2003).

In most countries, lead is predominantly used as the metal and it may be alloyed with

other materials depending on the application. Lead alloys are made by the controlled

addition of other elements. The term ‘unalloyed lead’ implies that no alloying elements

have been added intentionally; this may mean that the lead is of high purity, but the term

also covers less pure lead containing incidental impurities (Lead Development Asso-

ciation International, 2003e).


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 56


Table 9. Lead production by compound and country

Compound No. of

companies

Countries

Metallic lead 10 Japan

6 USA

5 China, Mexico

4 Belgium, Canada

3 Brazil, Germany, Peru, Russian Federation

2 Kazakhstan

1 Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Bulgaria, China (Province of

Taiwan), Egypt, India, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Republic of

Korea, Spain, Sweden, Turkey

Lead acetate 10 China

8 India

7 Mexico

6 USA

5 Brazil, Japan

3 Spain

2 Germany, Italy

1 Australia, China (Province of Taiwan), France, Romania, Russian

Federation

Lead arsenate 3 Japan

1 Peru

Lead azide 2 Brazil

1 Japan

Lead bromide 1 Germany, India, Japan, United Kingdom, USA

6 India Lead carbonate

2 China, China (Province of Taiwan), Germany, USA

1 Argentina, Australia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Republic of Korea,

Romania, Ukraine and United Kingdom

Lead chloride 5 India

4 USA

1 Australia, Belgium, China, China (Province of Taiwan),

Germany, Japan, Mexico, Romania, Spain

22 China

8 India

6 USA

Lead chromate

(Pigment

Yellow 34)

5 China (Province of Taiwan), Japan, Spain

3 Germany, Italy

2 Brazil, Republic of Korea, Netherlands, United Kingdom

1 Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, France, Mexico,

Peru, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey, Venezuela

Lead fluoride 4 China

3 India, Japan, USA

1 Argentina, Canada, France, Germany

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 57


Table 9 (contd)

Compound No. of

companies

Countries

7 China, India Lead fluoroborate

5 USA

3 Japan

2 Australia, China (Province of Taiwan), France, Germany

1 Argentina, Brazil, Russian Federation, Spain

Lead iodide 2 Japan, United Kingdom

1 China, India, USA

6 China Lead naphthenate

5 Japan, Mexico

3 Argentina, USA

2 France, India, Peru, Spain

1 Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China (Province of Taiwan),

Germany, Italy, Romania, Thailand, Turkey

Lead nitrate 12 India

8 China

7 USA

6 Japan

4 Brazil, Mexico

3 Spain

2 Belgium, Germany

1 Australia, Italy, Russian Federation, Tajikistan

24 China Lead monoxide

7 Japan

6 India

4 China (Province of Taiwan), Germany, Mexico, USA

3 France, Spain

2 Brazil, Italy, Peru, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation

1 Argentina, Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Portugal,

South Africa, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom

Lead dioxide 6 India

4 Japan

3 USA

2 Germany

1 Australia, Italy, South Africa, Spain, United Kingdom

6 China Lead phosphate

2 India

1 Japan, Russian Federation

Lead stearate 25 China

17 India

9 China (Province of Taiwan)

4 Japan

3 Germany, Spain, Thailand

2 Mexico, Peru, Philippines, Republic of Korea, USA

1 Albania, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Indonesia, Italy, Portugal,

Romania, South Africa, Turkey

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 58


Table 9 (contd)

Compound No. of

companies

Countries

15 India Lead stearate,

dibasic 8 China


2 Japan, Philippines, Spain, Thailand, USA

1 Belgium, Germany, Indonesia, Peru, Republic of Korea, South

Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom

Lead styphnate 2 Brazil

1 Japan

4 India Lead subacetate

3 Mexico

2 China

1 Australia, Brazil, China (Province of Taiwan), Romania, Spain,

USA

Lead sulfate 6 India

4 Mexico

3 Germany

2 Spain

1 China, Japan, Romania, USA

Lead sulfide 4 India

2 France, Japan

1 Austria, China, Germany, USA

Lead tetraoxide 22 China

5 India, Japan


3 Mexico, Spain

2 Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, Russian Federation, USA

1 Argentina, Kazakhstan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Republic of

Korea, South Africa, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom

Lead thiocyanate 2 USA

Lead trioxide 1 China

Tetraethyl lead 1 Germany, Italy

Tetramethyl lead 2 Russian Federation

1 Italy

From Chemical Information Services (2003)

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 59

Trends in the reported consumption of lead by geographical region between 1960 and

2003 are shown in Table 10. Tables 11 and 12 show the trends in total lead consumption

by country and by major use category, respectively, in selected countries between 1985

and 2001.

For six of the major lead-consuming countries (France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the

United Kingdom, USA), detailed historical data are available from 1960 to 1990 (Tables

13–19). In this period, total consumption of lead reported by these countries rose from 2.06

to 2.94 million tonnes, an overall increase of 43% and an average annual increase of 1.2%.

During those three decades, however, there were marked changes in the rates of lead

consumption. These included: (1) the rapid expansion of consumption during the 1960s

and early 1970s leading to peak levels in 1973 prior to the onset of the first world energy

crisis; (2) the steep reduction in 1974–75 and the subsequent revival in 1977–79, with lead

consumption recovering to its 1973 level; (3) the decrease in 1980–82 during the second

energy crisis; and (4) the sustained growth from 1983 until 1990 in the industrialized world

as a whole, supported by rapid advances in some of the newly-industrializing countries, but

with much more restricted progress in the fully-industrialized countries where the rates of

economic expansion and industrial activity slowed down compared with those previously

achieved (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992).

1.3.1 Lead–acid batteries

By far the largest single application of lead worldwide is in lead–acid batteries. The

most common type of lead–acid battery consists of a heavy duty plastic box (normally

polypropylene) containing grids made from a lead–antimony alloy (commonly containing

0.75–5% antimony) with minor additions of elements such as copper, arsenic, tin and

selenium to improve grid properties. For the new generation of sealed, maintenance-free

batteries, a range of lead–calcium–tin alloys is used. These contain up to 0.1% calcium and

0–0.5% tin. The tin-containing alloys are used in the positive grids to protect against

corrosion. Grids are still manufactured in pairs on special casting machines, but production

of grids in strip form by continuous casting or expansion of rolled sheet is becoming

increasingly popular as it facilitates automation and minimizes the handling of plates. The

spaces in the grids are filled with a paste consisting largely of lead dioxide. When

immersed in sulfuric acid, these pasted grids (plates) form an electric cell that generates

electricity from the chemical reactions that take place. The reactions require the presence

of lead dioxide and lead metal and each cell produces a voltage of 2V. These reactions are

reversible and the battery can therefore be recharged. A rechargeable cell is known as a

secondary cell and provides a means of storing electricity. Lead is well suited for this

application because of its specific conductivity and its resistance to corrosion. The addition

of antimony or calcium gives the lead an increased hardness to resist the mechanical

stresses within the battery caused, for example, by the natural vibration of road vehicles

and by the chemical reactions taking place (Lead Development Association International,

2003e).


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 60

The most common form of lead–acid battery is the so-called SLI battery (starting,

lighting and ignition) used in road vehicles such as cars and trucks. Another form, the

traction battery, is used to power vehicles such as golf carts and airport support vehicles.

Other uses of lead power include larger stationary batteries for stand-by emergency power

storage in hospitals and other critical facilities, and for some electricity utilities to help

meet peak power demands and to maintain a stable electricity supply (Lead Development

Association International, 2003e).


Table 10. Trends in total industrial consumption of refined lead

Consumption (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona Year


1960 1152 19 986 204 65 654 3080

1965 1306 33 1229 270 70 762 3670

1970 1517 46 1488 360 72 1019 4502

1975 1403 76 1454 413 86 1310 4742

1980 1652 102 1476 600 85 1446 5361

1985 1614 98 1510 735 69 1470 5496

1990 2439 114 1648 1193 59 NRS 5454

1995 1948 112 2017 1718 84 NRS 5879

2000 2022 130 2332 1989 46 NRS 6519

2003 2030 154 2012 2471 45 NRS 6712


NRS, not reported separately a Data from the following countries:

A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany

before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia

B, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia

C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Peru, USA and Venezuela

D, India, Iran, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, China (Province of Taiwan),

Thailand and Turkey


F, Albania, Bulgaria, China, Cuba, former Czechoslovakia, Germany (the former German

Democratic Republic), Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea; Poland, Romania,

former Soviet Union; values for Albania, Cuba, China, Germany (the former German Democratic

Republic), Peoples’ Democratic Republic of Korea, Romania and former Soviet Union are

estimates. b From 1990 onwards, data from countries in region F are included in region A (Albania,

Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, the former German Democratic Republic, Poland,

Romania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine) or in region D

(all other former Soviet Republics, China, Cuba and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea).

Lead metal consumption for 1991 in the former Soviet Union was split as follows: Europe, 86%,

Asia, 14%.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 61

Since 1960 the manufacture of lead–acid batteries has remained the largest single use

of lead in nearly all countries, accounting for an ever-increasing percentage of total lead

consumption (see Tables 12, 14 and 15) (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992).


Table 11. Total industrial lead consumption

Consumption (thousand tonnes) in year Country or region

1985 1990 1996 2001

Australia 49.5 45.9 67.0 41.0

Austria 58.0 65.5 58.0 59.0

Belgium 66.8 67.7 50.6 40.3

Brazil 79.6 75.0 110.0 112.0

Canada 104.5 71.7 93.4 71.8

China NA NA 470.1 700.0

Czech Republic NA NA 25.0 80.0

Finland 22.0 13.4 3.5 2.0

Francea 234.3 261.6 273.8 282.5

Germanya 348.2 375.3 331.0 392.6

India 51.3 51.8 85.0 127.0

Italya 235.0 259.0 268.0 283.0

Japan 397.4 417.0 329.9 284.7

Mexico 90.6 66.8 141.0 205.0

Netherlands 45.1 65.0 57.0 30.0

New Zealand 8.6 8.0 7.0 5.0

Republic of Korea 81.0 150.0 289.8 314.7

Romania NA NA 22.0 20.0

Scandinaviab 55.6 36.3 49.0 13.0

South Africa 48.2 65.9 63.1 59.1

South-East Asiac 125.2 185.0 413.0 427.0

Spain 125.3 126.7 144.0 246.0

Switzerland 10.5 8.7 10.5 12.6

United Kingdoma 303.2 334.0 309.2 266.5

USAa 1148.3 1288.4 1554.4 1587.3

Total 3688.2 4038.7 5225.3 5662.1


NA, not available a Data for these countries include total metal usage in all forms, i.e. refined

lead and alloys (lead content), plus re-melted lead recovered from secondary

materials. Data for other countries include refined lead and alloys only. b Denmark, Norway and Sweden c China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Province of

Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 62


Table 12. Trends in uses of lead in selected countriesa

Percentage of total usage in year Use

1985 1990 1996 2001

Batteries 57.7 63.0 72.5 76.7

Cable sheathing 5.6 4.5 2.1 1.4

Rolled and extruded productsb 7.6 7.7 5.9 6.0

Shot/ammunition 2.8 2.8 2.3 2.1

Alloys 4.2 3.3 3.2 2.5

Pigments and other compounds 14.2 12.8 10.0 8.1

Gasoline additives 3.7 2.1 0.9 0.4

Miscellaneous 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.8

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1992, 2003) a Countries include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China (Hong Kong

Special Administrative Region), China (Province of Taiwan), Denmark, Finland, France,

Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand,

Norway, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, United Kingdom and USA.

b Including lead sheet

Table 13. Trends in total lead consumption in six major consuming countries

Consumption (thousand tonnes) in year Country

1960 1973 1979 1990

France 196 240 233 262

Germany 281 342 342 375

Italy 108 259 280 259

Japan 162 347 368 417

United Kingdom 385 364 336 334

USA 926 1398 1358 1288

Total 2058 2950 2917 2935

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1992)

The data include refined metal and direct use of lead in scrap form.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 63


Table 14. Trends in principal uses of lead in six major consuming countries

a

Percentage of total use in year Use

1960 1979 1990

Batteries 27.7 50.8 64.4

Cable sheathing 17.9 5.9 3.8

Rolled/extruded products 18.0 7.7 7.8

Shot/ammunition 3.2 3.2 3.8

Alloys 10.5 6.7 3.5

Pigment/compounds 9.9 12.3 10.9

Gasoline additives 9.1 9.8 2.7

Miscellaneous 3.7 3.6 3.1

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1992) a France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and USA

Table 15. Trends in consumption of lead for batteries in six major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 45.0 90.0 110.7 163.5

Germanya 73.2 132.9 158.3 195.2

Italy 25.5 68.0 93.0 113.2

Japan 30.0 163.1 191.8 294.6

United Kingdom 76.2 106.5 113.9 103.7

USA 320.4 698.0 814.4 1019.6

Total 570.3 1258.5 1481.2 1889.8

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1992) a Excludes consumption by some independent producers of lead oxides

for batteries.

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 64


Table 16. Trends in consumption of lead for rolled/ extruded products in six major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 43.7 31.0 27.2 22.4

Germany 44.3 31.1 32.7 39.1

Italy 29.1 50.3 40.8 21.5

Japan 35.9 39.6 26.7 10.9

United Kingdom 88.0 57.7 48.9 98.6

USA 130.1 90.2 47.7 35.8

Total 371.1 299.9 224.0 228.3


Table 17. Trend in consumption of lead for cable sheathing in six major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 60.8 41.1 21.4 16.3

Germany 83.9 54.6 31.5 12.2

Italy 24.0 44.8 40.0 48.7

Japan 47.0 28.7 36.8 4.9

United Kingdom 97.0 45.8 26.6 10.4

USA 54.7 39.0 16.4 18.3

Total 367.4 254.0 172.7 110.8


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 65


Table 18. Trends in consumption of lead for alloys in six major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 17.3 14.8 9.3 3.2

Germany 22.7 22.8 16.5 9.0

Italy 6.0 6.0 5.7 3.5

Japan 7.1 24.2 18.3 18.7

United Kingdom 37.0 35.0 24.5 22.0

USA 125.3 128.8 120.0 46.4

Total 215.4 231.6 194.3 102.8


Table 19. Trends in consumption of lead for pigments and compounds in six major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 11.9 34.5 33.0 29.4

Germany 38.4 69.6 76.8 100.3

Italy 10.1 45.2 60.4 40.0

Japan 17.2 64.2 62.4 64.0

United Kingdom 35.9 38.8 34.1 28.6

USA 89.3 98.7 90.8 56.5

Total 202.8 351.0 357.5 318.8


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 66

1.3.2 Lead sheet

The use of lead sheet has increased dramatically over recent years, particularly for the

building industry. Lead sheet has been produced for decades by traditional wide lead mills

in which lead slabs are fed through large drum-like rollers, sometimes several times, to

produce lead sheets of the desired thickness. The traditional wide lead mill is being

replaced by more sophisticated rolling mills producing coils of lead 1.2–1.5 m wide. Most

lead sheets in building applications are between 1.3 and 2.2 mm thick, but sheets of

2.6–3.6 mm are used for roofing prestige buildings. Thick sheet alloys are rolled for

applications such as anodes for electrowinning and thin foils are used for sound atte-

nuation. A manufacturing technique other than milling is continuous casting in which a

rotating, water-cooled drum is partly immersed in a bath of molten lead. The drum picks

up a solid layer of lead, which is removed over a knife edge adjacent to the drum as it

rotates. The thickness is controlled by varying the speed of rotation and the temperature of

the drum (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).

In the building industry, most of the lead sheet (or strip) is used as flashings or

weatherings to prevent water from penetrating, the remainder being used for roofing and

cladding. By virtue of its resistance to chemical corrosion, lead sheet is also used for the

lining of chemical treatment baths, acid plants and storage vessels. The high density of

lead sheet and its ‘limpness’ make it a very effective material for reducing the trans-

mission of sound through partitions and doors of comparatively lightweight construction.

Often the lead sheet is bonded adhesively to plywood or to other building boards for con-

venience of handling. A particular advantage of the high density of lead is that only rela-

tively thin layers are needed to suppress the transmission of sound (Lead Development

Association International, 2003e).

Lead sheet is the principal element in the product category ‘rolled and extruded

products’. In many countries, the demand for rolled and extruded lead products declined

in the 1960s and 1970s, due in part to a rapid decline in the use of lead pipe (see Tables

14 and 16). Nevertheless, in a number of countries (see Table 12), lead sheet remains the

third largest use of lead at about 6% of the total reported consumption (International Lead

and Zinc Study Group, 1992, 2003).

1.3.3 Lead pipes

Lead piping, once a substantial use in the ‘rolled and extruded products’ category, has

been replaced progressively by copper tubes for the transport of domestic water and the

supply of gas and by plastic tubing for disposal of wastewater. Lead pipes have not been

used in new supplies of domestic water for about 30 years. However, due to their

corrosion-resistant properties, they are still used for transport of corrosive chemicals at

chemical plants. Also, lead pipe of appropriate composition is extruded for cutting into

short-length ‘sleeves’ used in the jointing of lead-sheathed cables (see below) (Inter-

national Lead and Zinc Study, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 67

1.3.4 Cable sheathing

Because of its corrosion resistance when in contact with a wide range of industrial and

marine environments, soils and chemicals, lead was one of the first materials to be used to

provide an impervious sheath on electric cables. Lead can be applied to the cable core in

unlimited lengths by extrusion at temperatures that do not damage the most sensitive

conductors (optical fibres) or insulating materials (paper or plastics). Lead is pliable and

withstands the coiling, uncoiling, handling and bending operations involved in the

manufacturing and installation of the cable. A lead sheath can be readily soldered at low

temperatures when cables need to be jointed or new cables installed. With modern screw-

type continuous extruders, unjointed submarine power cables as long as 100 km have been

produced (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).

Until 1960 sheathing of electrical cables was the largest single use of lead in many

countries including France, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom, representing

25–30% of total lead consumption in these four countries. It was used much less exten-

sively in the USA where, during the late 1950s, lead was replaced by alternative materials,

generally plastics, as the sheathing material for telephone cables. Since the mid-1960s,

however, there has been a gradual decline in the use of lead for cable sheathing in most

countries (Table 17). By 1990, lead consumption for cable sheathing had fallen to 4.5%

of total consumption and, by 2001, to 1.4% (Table 12) (International Lead and Zinc Study

Group, 1992, 2003).

1.3.5 Lead alloys

(a) Lead–antimony alloysBy far the largest use of lead–antimony alloys is in batteries. At one time, antimony

contents of ∼10% were common, but the current generation of lead–acid batteries has amuch lower antimony content. Alloys with 1–12% antimony are used widely in the

chemical industry for pumps and valves, and in radiation shielding both for lining the

walls of X-ray rooms and for bricks to house radioactive sources in the nuclear industry.

The addition of antimony to lead increases the hardness of the lead, and therefore its resis-

tance to physical damage, without greatly reducing its corrosion resistance (Lead Deve-

lopment Association International, 2003e).

(b) SoldersSoldering is a method of joining materials, in which a special metal (solder) is applied

in the molten state to wet two solid surfaces and join them on solidification. Solders are

classified according to their working temperatures. Soft solders, which have the lowest

melting-points, are largely lead–tin alloys with or without antimony, while fusible alloys

contain various combinations of lead, tin, bismuth, cadmium and other low melting-point

metals. Depending on the application, lead–tin solders may contain from a few per cent

to more than 60% tin.


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 68

A substantial proportion of solder is used in electrical or electronic assemblies. The

advances made in the electronics industry have required the development of fast and

highly-automated methods of soldering. Printed circuit assemblies can be soldered by

passing them across a standing wave of continuously-circulating molten solder (Lead

Development Association International, 2003e).

The use of lead solder in plumbing has declined with the replacement of lead piping

by copper tubing and, more recently, as a result of concerns of potential leaching of lead

into water supplies. Similarly, concerns of possible danger to health have restricted the

use of lead solders in the canning industry, formerly an important market.

(c) Lead for radiation shieldingLead and its alloys in metallic form, and lead compounds, are used in various forms

of radiation shielding. The shielding of containers for radioactive materials is usually

metallic lead (see above). Radioactive materials in laboratories and hospitals are usually

handled by remote control from a position of safety behind a wall of lead bricks. X-ray

machines are normally installed in rooms lined with lead sheet; lead compounds are

constituents of the glass used in shielding partitions to permit safe viewing; and lead

powder is incorporated into plastic and rubber sheeting materials used for protective

clothing (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).

(d) Other uses of lead alloysA variety of lead alloys are produced for a wide range of applications in various

industries. In the 1990s, these alloys accounted for 130–150 000 tonnes of lead used in

industrialized countries (Table 18). However, the trend in this sector had been one of steady

decline during the previous three decades (Table 14), as some uses have been overtaken by

technological changes or have been restricted by health and environmental regulations.

The use of terne metal (a thin tin–lead alloy coating) for corrosion protection, and the

addition of lead to brass and bronze to assist in free machining, and in bearing metals to

reduce friction and wear in machinery, have declined slowly due to competition from alter-

native materials such as aluminum and plastics. The market for type metal in the printing

industry has largely disappeared as hot metal printing has been replaced by new techno-

logy. In the USA, this use peaked at 30 000 tonnes in 1965 but had fallen to 1–2000 tonnes

by the mid-1980s and is similarly low in other developed countries (International Lead and

Zinc Study Group, 1992).

1.3.6 Lead pigments and compounds

The market for lead pigments and compounds constitutes the second largest use of lead

after lead–acid batteries. The market peaked in the mid-1980s, when over 500 000 tonnes

of lead were used in lead pigments and compounds, mainly by the plastics, glass and

ceramics industries, and accounting for 14% of total lead consumption (Table 14). Since


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 69

then these uses have been restricted by health and environmental concerns while still

remaining the second largest use of lead (8% of total lead consumption) (Table 12).

Besides the six major consuming countries (Table 19), pigments and compounds are

also the second most important use of lead in other countries including Brazil, Canada, the

Republic of Korea, South Africa, Spain and countries of South-East Asia (International

Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992, 2003).

(a) Lead pigmentsThe use of lead in paints for domestic purposes and in some commercial and industrial

applications is now severely restricted or banned in view of the potential health risks

caused by exposure to weathered or flaking paint. However, lead tetraoxide (Pb3O4) still

retains some of its traditional importance for rust-inhibiting priming paints applied directly

to iron and steel in view of its anti-corrosion properties, but faces growing competition

from zinc-rich paints containing zinc dust and zinc chromate. The use of lead carbonate

(white lead) in decorative paints has been phased out. Calcium plumbate-based paints are

effective on galvanized steel. Lead chromate (yellow) and lead molybdate (red orange) are

still used in plastics and to a lesser extent in paints. Lead chromate is used extensively as

the yellow pigment in road markings and signs, which are now commonplace in most

European countries and in North America (Lead Development Association International,

2003e).

(b) Lead stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride (PVC)Lead compounds are used in both rigid and plasticized PVC to extend the temperature

range at which PVC can be processed without degradation. In the building industry, the

widespread adoption of PVC materials for corrosion-resistant piping and guttering in

industrial facilities, for potable water piping (lead content, < 1%), and for windows and

door frames provides a major market for lead sulfate and lead carbonate as stabilizers to

prevent degrading of PVC during processing and when exposed to ultraviolet light.

However, concerns over potential health hazards are limiting the use of lead in PVC water

piping in some countries. Dibasic lead phosphite also has the property of protecting

materials from degradation by ultraviolet light. Normal and dibasic lead stearates are

incorporated as lubricants. All these compounds are white pigments that cannot be used

when clear or translucent articles are required (International Lead and Zinc Study Group,

1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e). The levels of lead in 16

different PVC pipes used for water supplies in Bangladesh were found to be in the range

of 1.1–6.5 mg/g (Hadi et al., 1996).

(c) Lead in glassDecorative lead crystal glass was developed in England in the seventeenth century.

Normally added in the form of lead monoxide (PbO) at 24–36%, lead adds lustre, density

and brilliance to the glass. Its attractiveness is further enhanced by decorative patterns that


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 70

can be cut on the surface and by the characteristic ring associated with lead crystal. There

is now a substantial market for a cheaper form of ‘semi-crystal’ containing 14–24% lead

oxide, and such glasses are usually moulded with the decorative pattern rather than being

hand-cut later. Lead is also used in optical glass (e.g. telescopes, binoculars), ophthalmic

glass (e.g. spectacles), electrical glass (e.g. lamp tubing, cathode ray tubes) and radiation

protection glass (e.g. for windows in remote-handling boxes, television tubes) (Lead

Development Association International, 2003e).

(d) Lead for ceramicsLead is used in a wide range of glaze formulations for items such as tableware

(earthenware and china), wall and floor tiles, porcelain and sanitary-ware and electrical

transistors and transducers. The lead compounds used are mainly lead monoxide (litharge,

PbO), lead tetraoxide and lead silicates. The properties offered by lead compounds are

low melting-points and wide softening ranges, low surface tension, good electrical

properties and a hard-wearing and impervious finish. Lead compounds are also used in

the formulation of enamels used on metals and glass.

Another important application for lead compounds is in a range of ceramics (other than

the glazes) used in the electronics industry. Typical of these are piezoelectric materials such

as the lead zirconate/lead titanate range of compositions known generally as PZI. These

materials have a wide range of applications, such as spark generators, sensors, electrical

filters, gramophone pick-ups and sound generators (International Lead and Zinc Study

Group, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).

1.3.7 Gasoline additives

Tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead have been used as anti-knock additives in gasoline, at

concentrations up to 0.84 g/L, as an economic method of raising the ‘octane rating’ to

provide the grade of gasoline needed for the efficient operation of internal combustion

engines of high compression ratio (Thomas et al., 1999). However, increasing recognitionof the potential health effects from exposure to lead has led to the reformulation of gasoline

and the removal of lead additives. In addition, lead in gasoline is incompatible with the

catalytic converters used in modern cars to control nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other

‘smog’-producing agents. The use of lead in gasoline in the USA has been phased out

gradually since the mid-1970s, and moves to phase it out in the European Community

began in the early 1980s. Since 1977 in the USA and 1991 in Europe, all new cars are

required to run on unleaded gasoline. By the end of 1999, forty countries or regions had

banned the use of lead in gasoline (Table 20), although it is still permitted in some of these

countries for certain off-road and marine vehicles and for general aviation aircraft (Smith,

2002). Numerous other countries are planning the phase-out of lead in gasoline in the near

future. About 79% of all gasoline sold in the world in the late 1990s was unleaded

(International Lead Management Center, 1999). The market for tetraethyl and tetramethyl

lead has declined considerably (Table 21) and will continue to do so (Lead Development


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 71

Association International, 2003e). In 2001, less than 0.5% of lead consumption was for

gasoline additives (Table 12) (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2003).

1.3.8 Miscellaneous uses

About 150 000 tonnes of lead are employed each year in a variety of other uses, of

which about 100 000 tonnes are consumed in the production of lead shot and ammunition

in the major consuming countries (excluding Japan where this use is not reported


Table 20. Countries or regions that had phased out the use of lead in gasoline

a by the end of 1999

Argentina

Austria

Bahamas

Bangladesh

Belize

Bermuda

Bolivia

Brazil

Canada

Colombia

Costa Rica

Denmark

Dominican Republic

El Salvador

Finland

Germany

Guam

Guatemala

Haiti

Honduras

Hong Kong SAR

Hungary

Iceland

Japan

Luxembourg

Malaysia

Mexico

Netherlands

New Zealand

Nicaragua

Norway

Portugal

Puerto Rico

Republic of Korea

Singapore

Slovakia

Sweden

Thailand

USA

US Virgin Islands

From International Lead Management Center (1999) a See Section 1.3.7 for permitted uses of leaded gasoline.

Table 21. Trends in consumption of lead for gasoline additives in five major consuming countries


1960 1973 1979 1990

France 6.1 13.5 15.1 9.8

Germany NA 9.4 10.8 NA

Italy 4.8 11.8 13.0 3.7

United Kingdom 27.1 54.4 58.9 45.1

USA 148.6 248.9 186.9 20.7

Total 186.6 338.0 284.7 79.3


NA, not available

P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 72

separately). Globally, this use has remained relatively stable since the 1960s, at around

3–4% of total lead consumption (Tables 12 and 14).

Lead cames have long been a feature of stained-glass windows in churches and

cathedrals. They consist of H-shaped sections of lead which hold together the individual

pieces of glass. They are now being used more widely in modern homes both in the tradi-

tional way and in the form of self-adhesive strips stuck on to a larger piece of glass to

simulate an integral came.

Lead weights for fishing have been largely phased out but lead stampings, pressings

and castings are widely used for many weighting applications, for example curtain

weights, wheel balance weights, weights for analytical instruments and yacht keels.

Lead wool is made by scratching fine strands from the surface of a lead disc. It is used

for the caulking of joints in large pipes like gas mains and in some specialty batteries.

Lead-clad steel is a composite material manufactured by cold rolling lead sheet onto

sheet steel that has been pretreated with a terne plate. A strong metallurgical bond is

formed between the lead and the steel, which provides a material that combines the

physical and chemical properties of lead with the mechanical properties of steel. Although

primarily aimed at the sound-insulation market, lead-clad steel has also found use in

radiation shielding and in the cladding of buildings.

Lead powder is incorporated into a plasticizer to form sheets of lead-loaded plastic.

This material is used to make radiation-protective clothing and aprons for the medical,

scientific and nuclear industries (see Section 1.4.5.c). It also has sound-insulating

properties. Lead powder is also used as the basis for some corrosion-resistant paints (see

Section 1.4.6).

Smaller amounts of lead are used in galvanizing, annealing and plating (International

Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).

1.4 Occurrence

1.4.1 Environmental occurrence

Lead was one of the first metals used by man; there is evidence that it has been used

for approximately 6000 years (Hunter, 1978). As a result, although both natural and anthro-

pogenic processes are responsible for the distribution of lead throughout the environment,

anthropogenic releases of lead are predominant. Industrial releases to soil from nonferrous

smelters, battery plants, chemical plants, and disturbance of older structures containing

lead-based paints are major contributors to total lead releases. Lead is transferred conti-

nuously between air, water, and soil by natural chemical and physical processes such as

weathering, run-off, precipitation, dry deposition of dust, and stream/river flow; however,

soil and sediments appear to be important sinks for lead. Lead is extremely persistent in

both water and soil. Direct application of lead-contaminated sludge as fertilizers, and

residues of lead arsenate used in agriculture, can also lead to the contamination of soil,

sediments, surface water and ground water. In countries where leaded gasoline is still used,


P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 73

the major air emission of lead is from mobile and stationary sources of combustion.

Besides environmental exposures, exposure to lead may arise from sources such as foods

or beverages stored, cooked or served in lead-containing containers, food growing on

contaminated soils, and traditional remedies, cosmetics and other lead-containing products.

The ubiquity of lead in the environment has resulted in present-day body burdens that

are estimated to be 1000 times those found in humans uncontaminated by anthropogenic

lead uses (Patterson et al., 1991), but exposures have decreased substantially over the past10–30 years in countries where control measures have been implemented.

The estimated contributions of the common sources and routes of lead exposure to total

lead intake vary from country to country and over time. In 1990, the estimated daily intake

of lead from consumption of food, water and beverages in the USA ranged from 2 to

9 µg/day for various age groups and was approximately 4 µg/day for children 2 years ofage and younger (ATSDR, 1999). For many young children, the most important source of

lead exposure is through ingestion of paint chips and leaded dusts and soils released from

ageing painted surfaces or during renovation and remodeling (CDC, 1997a; Lanphear

et al., 1998). Compared with nonsmokers, smokers have an additional lead intake ofapproximately 6 µg/day, based on an estimated exposure of 14 µg/day and absorption of30

Documents

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS · 2018. 6. 28. · P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 39. IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87 Table 1. Synonyms and trade names, registry numbers,