INS 800: RESEARCH INS 800: RESEARCH METHODSMETHODSTopic One: Introduction

What is Research?What is Research?Research can be defined as a scientific

and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) define research as carrying out a diligent inquiry or critical examination of a given phenomenon following some logical sequence.

In other words, research is a systemized effort to gain new knowledge.

Research is an academic activity that contribute original knowledge to existing stock of knowledge.

What is Research?What is Research? Kothari, C.R. (2004) state that research refers to

the systematic method of defining the problem, formulating objectives, research questions or hypothesis; collecting data, analyzing and drawing some conclusions and recommendations.

Research is the systematic investigation into and study of human behaviour, information, seeking behaviour, application and use of ICTs, Records Management etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to newly discovered facts.

It is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problem through systematic process.

Purpose of ResearchPurpose of ResearchTo discover new knowledge.

Research remains the most efficient and reliable source of knowledge.

To describe a phenomenon in order to achieve insights.

Research enables prediction to be made. Prediction in research fulfills one of the basic desires of humanity, to discern the future and know what fate holds.

Purpose of ResearchPurpose of ResearchTo enable control through

experimental design. One manipulate one phenomenon to estimate its’ impact on another phenomenon.

Research enables explanation of a phenomenon through accurate observation.

To enable theory development.

Motivation of ResearchMotivation of ResearchDesire to fulfill the requirements

of obtaining a degree to improve professional development

To provide practical solutions to solve problems in society

Desire to be creative and innovative in intellectual pursuit.

Desire to obtain respect among the peers/researchers

Types of ResearchTypes of ResearchResearch can be classified by the purpose

it intends to achieve and can be categorized as follows:

Basic ResearchAlso referred to as ‘pure’ or ‘fundamental’

research.Primary concern of basic research is to

generate new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. The purpose is to add to universe of scientific knowledge.

In basic research, there is no consideration of the practical applications of the findings to actual problems or situations.

Basic ResearchBasic ResearchIs concerned with generalization

and formulation of theory.Basic research may focus on

human behaviour such as information seeking, information need with the view of generalizing the findings.

Applied ResearchApplied ResearchApplied research focuses on developing

knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners.

It aims at finding solution for an immediate problem facing society, industry or business organization.

It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems.

For example testing effectiveness of different educational methods, customer care services, quality of services with the view of introducing new ways.

Action ResearchAction ResearchAction research is conducted with the

primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a local setting.

It is not concerned with whether the results can be generalized to any other setting and is limiting in contribution to theory.

Example of action research is investigate ways of overcoming water shortage in a given geographical area.

Evaluative ResearchEvaluative ResearchEvaluative research is systematic

process of collecting and analyzing data in order to assess a service or a product.

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) there are various evaluation models:

Model 1: Evaluation to assess the worth or usefulness of a programme or project. This include manpower and resources.

Evaluative ResearchEvaluative ResearchModel II: Evaluation of performance

relative to objective. The success of such programme depends on how well the objectives of the programme are achieved by users or learners.

Model III: Evaluating a programme as it is being developed to assess viability and help in decision making. Evaluating the input (resources) needed to accomplish the programme.

Types of evaluation Types of evaluation ResearchResearchNeeds assessment: A need can be

defined as a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and the desired set of conditions. Assist in developing new programmes.

Formative Evaluation: The purpose is to collect data or assess the programme as it is being developed (during formative stages). The findings can be used to terminate or modify the project/programme.

Summative evaluationSummative evaluationThis type of evaluation occurs

after the programme has been fully developed. It is used to evaluate the worthiness of the final product.

Basic Terms in ResearchBasic Terms in ResearchFor purposes of understanding the

research process, it is important to grasp the meaning of terms in research:

1.Problem Statement• A problem statement is specific

statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the research study.

• The statement should be focused, explaining and describing the phenomenon

2. Objectives of the study2. Objectives of the studyThe objectives in research refers

to aspects that the researcher would like to bring out at the end of the study. The objectives should guide the study.

Each objective should be SMARTSpecific; Measurable; Achievable;

researchable; and Time bound.

3.Theory3.TheoryA theory is a set of concepts or constructs and

the interrelations that are assumed to exist among these concepts.

A theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon

It provide systematic view of a phenomenon. In research a theory guides and inform the

study. Theories generate new knowledge that can be

confirmed and contested through research.Research can reveal a weaknesses in a theory

and compel researchers to develop a new theory.

It provides the basis for establishing hypothesis to be tested in the study.

4. Models4. ModelsA model is simplified representation of

the real world.They are human constructs that help us

better understand the real world systems.

It can be in many shapes, sizes and stylesA model is simplified representation of

real situation including the main features it represents.

It is an abstract of the real world.It can be descriptive, conceptual,

mathematical or statistical.It helps in analysis, prediction and

identifying research focus.

Criteria of a good modelCriteria of a good model

A good model has a clearly specified purpose and contributes to the realization of that purpose.

It should be clear and simple A good model is extensible and

reusable. It has been designed to evolve and be used beyond the original purpose.

Should be realistic and consistentA good model should be predictive

5.Population5.PopulationPopulation refers to the entire group of

individuals, events or objects having a common observable characteristics.

It is an aggregate of all that conforms to a given specification.

Example of populations in research:◦All engineering undergraduate students in

public universities in Kenya.◦All research scientists at KARI.◦All lecturers in private universities in the

country.

PopulationPopulationA researcher defines the population to

which she or he wants to generalize the results.

The target population is the absolute population that the researcher would like to generalize his/her results.

Question for class- in a study to examine records management practices in Referral Hospitals in Kenya, who are the target population?

Accessible populationAccessible populationThe target population is often large

and it is impossible to select all the respondents.

A representative sample is therefore selected from a target population.

This sample is referred to as accessible population, for example:◦All 5th year Telecommunication

engineering students in Public Universities

◦All agronomist researchers in KARI

6. Sample & Sampling6. Sample & SamplingIt is often impractical to involve all

respondents in accessible population and this requires further selection.

A sample is therefore drawn from accessible population.

The selected sample is referred to as “respondents” or “subjects”.

Sampling is therefore the process of selecting number of respondents as a representative sample of larger population.

SamplingSamplingThe purpose of sampling is to

secure a representative group to enable the researcher to gain information about a population.

There are various sampling techniques and these will be discussed later.

7.Independent and 7.Independent and Dependent VariableDependent VariableAccording to Kothari (2004), a variable in

research is referred to as a measurable characteristic that may take different quantitative values. Concepts like age, height, income, gender are therefore examples of variable.

An independent variable is just like it sounds. It is variable that cannot be changed by the other variable you are trying to measure such as Age. Age is not changed by how much someone eats.

Independent and Dependent Independent and Dependent VariableVariableWhen measuring variables you look at

whether independent variable causes some kind of change on dependent variable.

In other words, an independent variable is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect or influence on dependent variable. For example:

The influence of age on career choicesThe influence of gender on career choices.

Dependent and Independent Dependent and Independent VariableVariableDependent variable is a variable that

depends on other factors (variables).In other words, it can change

depending on these factors.A dependent variable attempts to

indicate the total influence arising from effects of independent variable.

Independent variable causes change in dependent variable. Dependent variable not possible to cause change in independent variable.

What is hypothesisWhat is hypothesisHypothesis simply means assumption or

supposition to be proved or disapproved.Hypothesis states what the researcher is

investigating and it is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity.

Research hypothesis is predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates to independent variable to some dependent variable.

Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability

Research ProcessResearch ProcessResearch process consists of

series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

The steps followed in research are not mutually exclusive nor they are separate and distinct.

Steps in Research ProcessSteps in Research Process• The following steps provides a useful procedural

guidelines regarding research process:• Step one: Formulating the research

problem. The formulation of a general topic into a specific problem constitute the first step in research.

• The researcher must examine all available literature to get himself/herself acquainted with the selected problem.

• Both conceptual literature and empirical literature should be reviewed.

• The review will enable the researcher to state the problem in meaningful context.

Steps in Research Steps in Research ProcessProcess• Step Two: Extensive Literature Survey.

• It is necessary that after formulation of research problem, the researcher (in context of Moi University) would prepare a concept paper for approval by School Graduate Board.

• Once approval is given the candidate extensively review literature in order to develop objectives, research questions and hypothesis (whichever is applicable)

Step three: Development Step three: Development of hypothesis/objectivesof hypothesis/objectivesThe objectives, research questions or

hypothesis should be developed to guide the study by delimiting the area of research.

Step Four: Theoretical Considerations and Literature Review

It is important to review theories and models that will inform the study and identify the one that is applicable to your study.

Prepare your literature review based on the objectives of your study.

Step Five: Prepare the Step Five: Prepare the research design research design Research design chosen depends

on the purpose of the study, this may be categorized under the following: Descriptive; exploration; Diagnosis; experimental etc.

Factors to consider in choosing a research design: Data required and means of obtaining this from the respondents; Time available and cost factor.

Determining Sample Determining Sample designdesignThis step entails deciding the way of

selecting sample size for the study.Samples can either be probability or

non-probability samples. In probability samples each element

has known probability of being included in a sample.

Non-probability the researcher is not allowed to determine this probability.

Probability and Non-Probability and Non-Probability SampleProbability SampleProbability Sample are those

based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling.

Non-probability sampling include: convenience sampling, purposive sampling and snowball sampling.

Stage Six: Collecting DataStage Six: Collecting DataCollecting primary and secondary

data through:ObservationPersonal interviews/ interview

schedulesTelephone interviewsFocus group discussionsQuestionnairesDocument review

Stage seven: Analysis of Stage seven: Analysis of datadataAnalysis of data requires a number of

closely related operations such as classifying raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.

Editing of raw data to improve the quality for coding purposes.

Coding is done to enable the data to be tabulated

Relationships among the variables or differences supporting or conflicting original or new hypothesis should be subjected to further tests.

8. Hypothesis testing8. Hypothesis testingAfter analyzing the data the researcher is

in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, had been formulated.

Various statistical methods of testing such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test may be used.

The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of the above tests, depending on the nature of inquiry.

Testing of hypothesis result in either accepting or rejecting it.

9. Generalization and 9. Generalization and interpretationinterpretationThe findings will reveal ability to

arrive at certain generalization.In case the researcher had some

hypothesis which is tested and upheld several times it may also be possible to arrive at generalization.

The process of interpretation often trigger new questions which leads to further research.

Conclusions and Recommendations