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Mycotoxins: Mycotoxins: Managing a Unique Managing a Unique

Obstacle to Successful Obstacle to Successful Dairy ProductionDairy Production

Lon W. WhitlowNorth Carolina State University

Raleigh

Contact:CASTCouncil for AgriculturalScience and Technology4420 W. Lincoln WayAmes, Iowa 50014

Telephone515-292-2125

Report # 139

The MycotoxinBlue Book

Nottingham University Press

Edited by Dr. Duarte Diaz

SUMMARYSUMMARY1. Mycotoxins are prevalent in feeds

2. Mycotoxins are toxic to dairy cattle

3. High levels cause acute effects in cattle, including death

4. Low levels cause the greatest economic loss - chronic losses in milk production & more disease

5. Mycotoxins can be the root cause of health and production problems.

6. Prevention is important

7. Treatments are effective

Mycotoxin:PoisonProduced By Molds(Filamentous Fungi)

Mycotoxins are a diverse group of fungal metabolites (chemicals produced by a mold) that cause an undesirable effect in exposed animals.

Primary Toxigenic Molds and Mycotoxins* Those Thought Most Prevalent and Toxic to Dairy Cattle

Aspergillus*AflatoxinOchratoxinSterigmatocystinFumitremorgensFumigaclavinesFumitoxinsCyclopiazonoic AcidGliotoxin

PenicilliumOchratoxin *PR Toxin Patulin Roquefortine CMycophenolic AcidPenicillic AcidCitrininPenetremCyclopiazonic Acid

Fusarium*Deoxynivalenol*Zearalenone*T-2 Toxin *FumonisinMoniliforminNivalenolDiacetoxyscirpenolButenolideNeosolaniolFusaric AcidFusarochromanoneWortmannin

Alternaria ClavicepsStachybotrys AAL toxin ErgotsStachybotryotoxin Lupinosis Fescue Alkaloids

2

Primary Toxigenic Molds and Mycotoxins* Those Thought Most Prevalent and Toxic to Dairy Cattle

Aspergillus*AflatoxinOchratoxinSterigmatocystinFumitremorgensFumigaclavinesFumitoxinsCyclopiazonoic AcidGliotoxin

PenicilliumOchratoxin PR Toxin PatulinPenicillic AcidCitrininPenetremCyclopiazonic acid

Fusarium*Deoxynivalenol*Zearalenone*T-2 Toxin *FumonisinMoniliforminNivalenolDiacetoxyscirpenolButenolideNeosolaniolFusaric AcidFusarochromanoneWortmannin

Known PostulatedMold Species 1,100 1,500,000 Secondary Metabolites 3,200 3,000,000Mycotoxins > 300 30,000

Alternaria ClavicepsStachybotrys AAL toxin ErgotsStachybotryotoxin Lupinosis Fescue Alkaloids

Why do fungi produce mycotoxins?

As a secondary metabolite, mycotoxins have no direct function in fungal metabolism.

Main theories for their production are:

1. Protection of the fungus

2. Assist the fungus in creating an environment for survival and growth.

John Deere Co.

Do mycotoxins also assist fungi to infect animals?

Fungal infections in animals are termed mycoses.Fungal pneumonia, abortions, mastitis and intestinal infectionsAnimals resist mycoses unless immune suppressed.

Mycotoxins produced by fungi cause immune suppression, and thus may assist fungi in infecting animals.

Hemorrhagic bowel syndromeCaused by A. fumigatus

Forsberg





Forsberg

In studies of A. fumigatusinfections in ruminants, gliotoxin and/or T-2 toxin, which are both potent immune suppressing mycotoxins, were always present, when analysed.





Forsberg

In studies of A. fumigatusinfections in ruminants, gliotoxin and/or T-2 toxin, which are both potent immune suppressing mycotoxins, were always present, when analysed.A mycotoxin binder may prevent HBS

Mycotoxin Occurrence and Concentrations in Feeds From North Carolina Producers Over 13 Years

Aflatoxin Deoxynivalenol Fumonisin T-2 Toxin Zearalenone

Number 3266 5053 822 5136 4563

Total Positive, % 10 46 42 8 15

Low, % 6 18 33 2 7(<20 ppb) (<500 ppb) (<5000 ppb) (<100 ppb) (<300 ppb)

High, % 4 28 9 7 8(>20 ppb) (>500 ppb) (>5000 ppb) (>100 ppb) (>300 ppb)

3

Mycotoxin Contamination of 1988 Corn Collected from July to December from 82

Feed Manufacturers in 7 Midwestern States

Russel et al., 1991

State N Aflatoxin, % T-2, %

Iowa 40 5 18 Nebraska 22 0 18 Minnesota 27 0 15 Illinois 46 13 7 Indiana 5 0 7Ohio 27 7 11 Michigan 9 0 33

TOTAL 186 5% 13%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Percent of Total

Dairyland Laboratories 2002 Mold Counts

10-10,000 44% 50%10,000-100,000 15% 14%100,000-10,000,000 37% 33%>10,000,000 4% 3%

2001 - 1987 samples 2002 - 2303 samples

Mold Count Interpretations*

Safe Levels < 10,000 CFU/g

Questionable Levels 10,000 - 100,000 CFU/g

Caution Levels 100,000 - 1,000,000 CFU/g

Problem Levels > 1,000,000 CFU/g

Significance of mold counts are highly subjective, depending on mold identification, mycotoxin formationand feed deterioration.

Mycotoxins & Molds Occur in Most Feeds Including Grain, Hay and Silage

John Deere Co.

Unique Concerns about Ruminant Mycotoxicoses

Consumption of a variety of feedstuffs, including grains, by-product feeds, pasture, hay and silage, results in potential exposure of ruminants to a broad array of mycotoxins and multiple mycotoxin exposure.

This array of mycotoxins includes some not normally found in grains and not routinely analyzed, and results in toxicities notseen in monogastric animals.

Mycotoxin degradation and transformation in the rumen may reduce the incidence of acute toxicity, but may increase the problem of chronic, sub-clinical toxicity.

Rumen transformation of mycotoxins may alter expected symptoms.

Primary Mechanisms Through Which Mycotoxins Affect Animals

• Reduction of feed intake

• Reduced nutrition of the animal – reduced nutrient content of the feed, – reduced nutrient absorption and – alter/block nutrient metabolism

• Suppression of immunity

• Hormonal effects - primarily estrogenic

• Antibiotic effects on rumen fermentation

• Cellular death - various target tissues

• Increased stress - interactions with other stress

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Mycotoxins and ImmunityAflatoxin T-2 Toxin

Mechanisms

Inhibition of Protein Synthesis +++ +++

Thymus Atrophy +++ +++

Necrosis of Gut-associated Lymph Tissue +++

Cell Mediated Immunity +++ +++

Humoral effects,Antibody production + +++

+ to +++ lesser to greater effect Pier, 1994

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

NeutrophilFunctionLymphocyteFunction

Normal Immune System Function Around Parturition in the Dairy Cow as Indicated by

Neutrophil and Lymphocyte Function

Week Around Parturition

Imm

une

Func

tion

(% o

f Con

trols

)

Kehrli et al., 1989.

Calving

Mycotoxin Concerns Have Increased

• Learned more about mycotoxins & their toxicity• Better analytical methods – cheaper & faster

• High producing cows are more susceptible– More stress - more disease– Nutrient deficiencies

• Low ruminal mycotoxin degradation - increases toxicity– Higher feed (and grain) consumption increases rumen turnover– Lower fiber diets - low rumen pH - fewer protozoa

Fescue fungus Ergot alkaloidsRyegrass staggers lolitrems-tremorgensPaspalum (Dalisgrass) staggers paspalitrems (ergots)Diplodiosis D. maydis toxin

(Grazed corn fields)Photosensitization

(Facial Eczema-NZ) sporidesmin (Geeldikkop-Africa) ?(Lupinosis - Europe) phomopsin

Slobber Syndrome slaframine (red clover)Locoism swainsonine------------------------------------------------------------------Common mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, DON, ZEN, T-2, and others.

Pasture Associated Mycotoxins

ERGOTS

Univ NebraskaFGIS

Univ. Georgia

Fescue Fungus

NCSU

Claviceps

LamenessNecrosis of extremitiesFescue footFat necrosisAgalactiaSummer toxicosis

LamenessNecrosis of extremitiesReduced performanceAgalactia Reduced fertility Tolerance

< 0.3% sclerotia

Fusarium verticillioides, formerly moniliforme

Fumonisin is produced by

5

Penn State University

Fumonisin Induced Equine Leucoencephalomalacia

Penn State

Penn State

Effects of Fumonisin on Dairy Cattle

AST= Aspartate Amino Transferase

GGT= Gamma glutamyl trranspeptidase Diaz et al. 2000. North Carolina State University

Diets fed during the last week of the dry period and for 70 days in milk. Fumonisin was supplied from corn screenings. Cows per treatment = 13 (14 Holsteins, 12 Jerseys).

Diet Daily Daily Feed AST GGTFumonisin Milk Intake (ppm) (Lb) (Lb) (IU/L) (IU/L)

<5 70.6 41.6 80 31100 53.2 30.1 156 93*P < 0.05 * * * *

Daily Milk Production of Dairy Cows (Holsteins and Jerseys) Consuming Diets With or Without Corn

Naturally Contaminated With Fumonisin Diets Contained <1 ppm or 100 ppm Fumonisin

0102030405060708090

1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66

Days

Milk

Yie

ld (l

b)

FBCON

20 lb

Diaz et al. 2000. North Carolina State University

FDARecommends< 15 ppm fordairy cows

36 kg

27 kg

Fusarium graminearum or roseum and also labeled Gibberillium

Scab on WheatUSDA

Pink Ear Rot

Deoxynivalenol SymptomsAltered feed consumptionDigestive disorders – diarrheaReduced milk productionWeight lossReduced immunityIncreased incidence of disease

Early (1979) Field Report of Cattle Affected by DON and ZEN, Minnesota

Mirocha, C. J. 1979.

Case Mycotoxins Symptoms Source

A 110 ppb Zen1000 ppb DON Unthriftiness Corn

B 245 ppb Zen65 ppb DON Unthriftiness Corn

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Effect of Corn Infected by Gibberella Zeae on Dairy Cattle

N.S. = not significant, a & b, p < .05Actual corn not analyzed, but corn form the same field which reduced intake in swine contained DON. 3x3 Latin Square. 18 cows total. Periods of 21 days.

Noller, et al., 1979. J. Dairy Sci. 62:1003

DietsInfected corn in diet, % 0% 20% 40%Diet Zen (ppb) 0 100 200Diet DON (ppb)* 0 2400 4800D.M. Intake (% BW) 2.90 2.85 2.79 n.s.Milk, (kg/day) 22.7 22.9 23.2 n.s.4% FCM, (kg/day) 22.1 22.2 22.6 n.s.Bodyweight Gain, (kg/d) 0.87a 0.60b 0.49b

Relationship of Deoxynivalenol to Change in Rolling Herd Average Milk

-1800-1600-1400-1200-1000

-800-600-400-200

0200

100

300

500

700

900

Rolling HerdAve. Milk

Deoxynivalenol level in Concentrate, ppb

Rol

ling

Her

d av

erag

e M

ilk, L

b.

300 HERDS 50,000 COWS

Whitlow et al. 1991. North Carolina State University, 1982-1983

Effect of DON on First Lactation Dairy Cows in Mid-lactation (6 cows/group)

Statistics: Only linear and quadratic effects were tested. There was a sign. Quadratic effect for fat.

Means for diet A vs B or A vs C were not tested.

Means for diet A vs B+C were tested only for milk, which was not sign. at p> .16

The effect on fat and FCM were much greater than on milk alone.

Charmley, et al. 1993. J. Dairy Sci. 76:3580.

Diet Mean DifferenceA B C B+C A-(B+C) P>

DON, ppb 36 2686 6393 4539DMI, lb 35.9 35.0 35.9 35.5 0.4 n.s.Milk, lb 50.2 47.1 47.4 47.2 3.0 .16Fat Test, % 3.9 2.8 3.3 3.0 0.9 .054% FCM, lb 47.6 39.9 42.7 41.3 6.3 ND

Effect of DON on Ruminal Protein SynthesisRumen ammonia levels post-feeding a control diet or DON contaminated diet

186225RUP, g/day

8711091MetabolizableProtein, g/day*

680862Microbial Protein, g/day

9501180Crude Protein, g/day

DON3.1 ppm

ControlDuodenal Flow of:

Danike et al., 2005 J Animal Physiol. and Animal Nutrition 89:303-315.

* 20% less MP A second study confirmed the reduced flow of metabolizable protein.Danike et al., 2006 J Animal Physiol. and Animal Nutrition 90:103-115.

Toxicity of Deoxynivalenol in Dairy Cattle5 ppm DON Reduces FCM 2.6 kg or 5.7 lb

40414243444546474849

DON Control 2.5 ppm 5.0 ppm 5.0 ppmMTB-100 0 0 0 10 g/cow/d

4% FCMlb/d

Acosta, Mieres, and La Manna, Uruguay, Unpublished

Milk Production (lb/d) for Dairy Cows (Holsteins and Jerseys) Consuming Diets Naturally

Contaminated With 2500 ppb DON and 270 ppb ZEN, With and Without a Clay Sorbant (0.5 lb/cow daily)

51.85

55.04

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

All Cows

Ave

rage

Dai

ly M

ilk (l

b)

ControlSorbant

P < 0.05

3.2 lb Milk

N = 83 N = 82

North Carolina State University

No Adsorbent

Added Adsorbent

7

Fusarium graminearum or roseum and also labeled Gibberillium

ZearalenoneEstrogenic effects

Competes with estrogen for binding sites

Reduces reproductive performance

Pigs most susceptible - swollen reproductive organs

Sheep - rectal prolapse

Zearalenone Affected Open Heifers Showing Mammary Enlargement

Zearalenone Affected Open Heifers Showing Mammary Enlargement

A Field Report of Zearalenone Toxicosis

Ration Contents: Zearalenone 660 ppbDeoxynivalenol 440 ppbAflatoxin 88 ppb

Herd Effects Diarrhea in 1/3 of cowsIrregular estrus cyclesPregnant cows in estrusFailure to conceiveVaginitisLow erratic milk productionMammary gland enlargement in heifers

Coppock et al., 1990. Vet. Human Toxicol. 32:246

Conception rate for dairy heifers administered pure zearalenone at 250 mg1 daily for one estrous

cycle prior to insemination plus 45 days afterward.

Conception Rate, %

Control 87

Zearalenone 62

n = 36 P < .065

Based on expected DM intake, Zen was approx. 25,000 ppb.

Weaver et al., 1986. Am J. Vet Res. 47:1395.

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Zearalenone: Reproductive Effects in Dairy Heifers Fed Zearalenone Contaminated Hay (~ 500 ppb) or Clean Control Hay

Services/Pregnancy MeanLocation Pregnancy

Unit 1 Unit 2 Mean Rate %

Clean Hay 1.23 1.54 1.38 72

ZEN Hay 1.90 2.00 1.95 51

n = 40North Carolina State University, Unpublished

Relationship of herd fertility with dietary “zearalenone” and urinary “zearalenone” in pastured dairy cows in New Zealand

Sporsen and Towers 1995. Ruakura Research Center, New Zealand

Dietary BloodFarms ZEN (est.) “ZEN”

n ppb ppbLow Fertility 8 400 1.14

High Fertility 6 220 0.27

Low fertility = 10-30% of cows failing to conceive after multiple servicesSymptoms included mammary enlargement and swollen and redden vulvas“Zen” = Zearalenone and derivatives reactive to custom ELISA

Theoretical Response of Heifer Conception Rate to Dietary Zearalenone

20304050607080

0 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34Dietary Zearalenone, ppm

ConceptionRate, %

Fusarium sporotrichoides University of California, Davis

T-2 Toxin Symptoms

Digestive disorders-Lower intake and production-Acidosis-Ulcers-Intestinal hemorrhage-Diarrhea (Bloody)

Poor fresh cow transitionIncreased disease (Metabolic & Infections) Reduced fertility

Effect of 350 ppb Dietary T-2 Toxin on Daily Milk Production at the Randleigh Jersey Research Farm

Da i

ly M

il k, L

b.

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

44

46

1 5 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58

Days

Binder Added

Binder Removed

Whitlow, NCSU, 1986

Binder Added

9

Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome associated with T-2 toxin

Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin

Example of aflatoxin effects on the liver of the guinea pig, from high to low levels of aflatoxin

Richard, USDA, ARS, National Disease Center, Ames, Iowa and CAST, 1989.

Estimated Milk Production Loss in Dairy Cattle Following a One Month Exposure to Aflatoxin.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Milk Loss, lb.

Dietary aflatoxin, ppbLegal limitOf 20 ppb

Mycotoxin Excretion Via Milk

Excretion, % of diet conc.Aflatoxin 1.7 Range 1 – 2Deoxynivalenol < 0.02Zearalenone < 0.70T-2 toxin < 0.20Fumonisin < 0.01Ochratoxin < 0.03

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

AFM1

.. . . ....

.. .......

. ....

.

...

.

.....

..

.

.

Relationship Between Aflatoxin B1 Intake (mg/day) and Milk Concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (µg/L), Van Egmond, 1989

MilkAflatoxin

M1

(µg/L)

Aflatoxin B1 Intake (mg/day)

Milk aflatoxin concentration = 1.7% diet conc.

Van Egmond, 1989

10

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Percent of Total

Specific Molds

Dairyland Laboratories 2002 Mold Identification

2001-581 30% 6% 18% 8% 18% 17% 3%

2002-665 35% 10% 20% 8% 12% 11% 3%

Penicillium Aspergillus Mucor Rhizopus Fusarium Cladosporium Other

N=2200N=1950

Selected Penicillium Mycotoxins• PR Toxin - Related to reduced intake, rumen stasis,

intestinal irritation, abortion and retained placenta in dairy cattle. A marker for problem silages (Seglar)

• Roquefortine C - Implicated in toxic silage

• Mycophenolic Acid - Implicated in toxic silage

• Ochratoxin - Kidney Toxin, toxic to calves but, not toxic to functional ruminants -adults

• Patulin - A common mycotoxin in silage. Effects ruminal fermentation. Has been implicated in deaths of cows (Lacey), but has received little study.

Managing A Mycotoxin Problem• Diagnosis

– Observe for general symptoms

– Process of elimination (Rule out other possible causes such as nutrition, disease, and management)

– Add a mycotoxin binder (sorbant) to the diet

– Test feeds for common mycotoxins (DON, T-2, ZEN, FB, AF)

• Prevention– Manage feed to reduce spoilage

– Use mold inhibitors

– Use transition rations – reduce stress

Managing A Mycotoxin Problem• Treatment

– Encourage feed intake

– Remove or dilute contaminated feeds

– Feed “CLEAN” feed to transition cows

– Evaluate nutrients:Antioxidants: Vitamin E, Cu, Zn, Mn, Se

Vitamin A and/or caroteneProtein, Fat, Adequate Effective Fiber

– Feed additives: buffers, microbials

– Mycotoxin binders are shown to be effective

Potential Methods for Treatment & Prevention of Aflatoxin Toxicity

PHYSICAL

•Grain Cleaning/Seperation

Effective

Reduces fines where concentration of aflatoxin is high

•Heating - peanuts

40-80% reduction

•Irradiation

Exposure to UV light

Practical?

•Adsorbents

Clays, carbons, glucans, inorganic polymers

CHEMICAL

•Ammoniation

Commonly used on cottonseed and corn

Irreversible if done properly

Can be used in the feed mill or on the farm

•Sodium Bisulfite

Decreased palatability

BIOLOGICAL

•Microbial

Enzymatic degradation of specific mycotoxins

Potential treatment

•Non-Toxic strains

May compete with or exclude toxic strains of aflatoxin

(Eaton and Groopman, 1994)

Clearance and Appearance of Aflatoxin in Milk Associated With Consumption of Aflatoxin

Contaminated Corn in Diets With or Without the Addition of Clay Products

0.00.10.20.30.40.5

0.60.70.80.91.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16Days

Milk Aflatoxin,

ppb

NO CLAY

CLAYADDED(mean of 3clays)

Aflatoxinremoved

Aflatoxin removed

Aflatoxinadded

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Effect of Feed Additives on % Reductionin Milk Aflatoxin Residues

54.1

67.361.2

64.6

31.4

58.5

5.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Myc

roso

rbBentonites

added at 1.2%

Mycosorb 0.05% Activated Carbon 0.25%

%

46*33* 39* 35*

69*

41*

95

0102030405060708090

100

Milk

Afla

toxi

n %

of C

ontr

ol

MS FG AB-20

AB-20

RC MTB-100

AC-A

Adsorbent Product

Study AStudy B

Efficacy of Adsorbents Added Diets at at Different Inclusion Rates (Clay at 1.2%, Glucan at 0.05% and Carbon at 0.25%) to Reduce Milk Aflatoxin Concentrations in Diets Containing 55 ppb Aflatoxin

Type Amount In VitroProduct % Binding, %MS - Mycrosorb - Clay - 1.2% 98.4FG - Flowguard - Clay - 1.2% 95.1AB-20 - Clay - 1.2% 98.0RC - Red Crown- Clay - 1.2% 98.5MTB-100 - - Glucan - 0.05% 96.6AC-A - - Carbon - 0.25% 99.9

* P < 0.05

Diaz et al., 2004, Mycopathologia 156:223-226 & 157:233-241

100 104 92 93

58 6587

52 55

020406080

100120

Milk Aflatoxin

% ofControl

Control

MTB-100

Ultrasorb

Mexsil

Novasil+

Toxinil+

Condition Ade

Astra Ben 20

Milbond-TX

Stroud, J.S., et al. 2006. J Dairy Sci. (abstr.)

Efficacy of Various Adsorbents Added to Diets at 0.5% to Reduce Milk Aflatoxin Concentrations When Diets Contain 170 ppb Aflatoxin B1

* * * *

* Significant P < .05

Sampling &Testing Feeds for Mycotoxins

Mold spore count - Reflects deterioration but not mycotoxinsMold I.D. - Suggests potential mycotoxins

Mycotoxins - AF, DON, ZEN, FB and T-2.

Sampling - Imprecise and difficult.Occurs in unevenly distributed spots Blend feed prior to sampling Take numerous subsamples and composite

Labs -Identify accurate, fast, and cost effective lab

Mailing -Freeze wet samples, dry samples in paper bags-Use overnight delivery

The problem of sampling a non-uniform lot of feed

Protein Aflatoxin12 12 11 13

12 13 12 13

12 13 11 12

12 11 12 13

13 12 11 12

Average = 12

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 8000 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

Average = 400

Effect of Sample Size on Estimated 95% Confidence Interval

of Test Results for Cottonseed Containing 100 ppb Aflatoxin95% Confidence Interval

Sample Size Sub-samples Low Highlb. No. ppb ppb

2 4 0 2714 9 0 2229 20 13 187

18 41 37 16335 78 53 14770 159 64 136Whitaker, Dickens,Giesbrecht. 1991. In: Mycotoxins and Animal Foods. CRC Press.

12

What concentrations of mycotoxins are safe?No amount of mycotoxin can be considered safe

Errors in sampling and analysis may be misleading

Only a few mycotoxins are analyzed

Presence of one mycotoxin suggests presence of othersand many mycotoxins exist

Mycotoxins interact with other mycotoxins and other factors such as nutrition and stress producing variable results

Conditions in Silage Leading to Deterioration, Mold Growth and Mycotoxin Formation

Yeast Growth

Aeration

Consumption of Lactic Acid Increased pH

Mold Growth

Mycotoxin Formation

Other AerobicMicroorganisms

Deterioration

Ethanol

Starch and Sugars

Listeria

Penicillium Other Molds

Mold Mushrooms Moisture

Silos need to be sized to the herd for rapid feed out

Silage Management – SummaryChoose appropriate hybridsHarvest At Proper Stage of Maturity

and MoistureConsider ProcessingFill the Silo Fast (Not too fast)Pack for Good Density Cover WellUse Effective Fermentation AidManage the Feeding FaceDiscard the Spoilage

SUMMARYSUMMARY1. Mycotoxins are prevalent in feeds

2. Mycotoxins are toxic to dairy cattle

3. High levels cause acute effects in cattle - death

4. Low levels cause the greatest economic loss - chronic effects – milk loss – greater disease

5. Mycotoxins can be the root cause of various problems.

6. Prevention is important

7. Treatments are effective

8. Adsorbents are the best treatmentThanks

Final Question: How much poison is acceptable in a dairy ration?

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