Integration of ICT into an adult education program for indigenous communities

7/25/2019 Integration of ICT into an adult education program for indigenous communities

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Detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ deth me mluit fluomtdheprhjrma chr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs

\bf omsf hc Jumdem, Ohiha`dm

Ifdly Sdvdmem Lmzm Pmahs

Amstfr hc ^bdihshpby deOhapmrmtdvf mel Detfremtdhemi Fluomtdhe

Lfpmrtafet chr Fluomtdhemi PfsfmrobVedvfrsdty hc Hsih

Ehvfa`fr 0>=6


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DDD

Detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ deth me mluit fluomtdhe

prhjrma chr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs

\bf omsf hc Jumdem, Ohiha`dm.


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DS

Chrcmttfr Ifdly Sdvdmem Lmzm Pmahs

r 0>=6

Detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ deth me mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma chr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs. \bf omsf hc

Jumdem, Ohiha`dm

Sdvdmem Lmzm Pmahs

Chrcmttfr

bttp;//www.luh.udh.eh/

\rygg; Pfprhsfetrmife, Vedvfrsdtftft d Hsih
http://www.duo.uio.no/http://www.duo.uio.no/http://www.duo.uio.no/


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S

M`strmot

\bds stuly fxpihrfs tbf detfjrmtdhe hc Dechramtdhe mel Ohaauedomtdhe \fobehihjdfs (DO\s)

deth mluit fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif. Dt lhfs sh tbrhujb tbf memiysds hc m omsf stuly tbmtchousfs he me mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma dapifafetfl de Jumdem, Ohiha`dm de 0>=?. \bf

hvfrmrobdej purphsf hc tbds stuly ds th prhvdlf m oifmr uelfrstmeldej hc tbf pmrtdodpmets

pfrofptdhes rfjmrldej DO\s detfjrmtdhe deth `htb tbfdr fluomtdhe mel tbfdr ohaauedtdfs. \bds

stuly usfs m qumidtmtdvf rfsfmrob mpprhmob mel aftbhls de hrlfr th fxpihrfpmrtdodpmets vdfws

mel fxpfrdfeofs wdtb tbf prhjrma. De lhdej sh, cdeldejs mrf fxmadefl de idjbt hc Fvfrftt

Phjfrs ldccusdhe hc deehvmtdhe tbfhry mel Pdobmrl Pymes mel Flwmrl Lfods oheofpt hc

ahtdvmtdhe de fluomtdhe.

\bds stuly bms chuel tbmt pmrtdodpmets pfrofdvf tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s deth tbf mluit

fluomtdhe prhjrma ms deehvmtdvf thhis tbmt phsdtdvfiy febmeof tbfdr tfmobdej mel ifmredej

prhofssfs. Ohesfqufetiy, tbds stuly rfvfmis tbmt `htb prhjrmas tfmobfrs mel stulfets vdfw

tbf usf hc DO\s de mel hutsdlf tbf oimssrhha ms me deehvmtdhe tbmt prhahtf detfrmotdvf mel

lyemado oimssfs. De mlldtdhe, cdeldejs sujjfst tbmt pmrtdodpmets pfrofptdhes hc tbf detfjrmtdhe

mel usf hc DO\s de tbf fluomtdhe prhjrma oihsfiy rfimtfs th tbfdr ahtdvmtdhes th tfmob, stuly

mel ifmre. Mish pmrtdodpmets pfrofdvf tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s deth tbf fluomtdhe prhjrma mel

tbfdr ohaauedtdfs ms me hpphrtuedty th moofss gehwifljf mel dechramtdhe ms wfii ms th

ohaauedomtf wdtb htbfrs mel tbfrfhc fetfr tbf ldjdtmi whril.

Lfspdtf cdeldejs jfefrmiiy sbhw tbmt pmrtdodpmets vdfws mrf imrjfiy phsdtdvf, tbfrf mrf mish

htbfr ohecidotdej mspfots tbmt rfvfmi pmrtdodpmetsefjmtdvf pfrofptdhes. Chr destmeof, tbf DO\

thhis detfjrmtfl de tbf prhjrma mrf ohesdlfrfl ms vfry ldccdouit lfvdofs th bmelif `y shaf hc

tbf pmrtdodpmets, wbdob ohesdlfrm`iy idadt tbf usf hc tbfsf thhis chr tbfdr tfmobdej mel ifmredej

prhofss. De mlldtdhe, cdeldejs sujjfst tbmt pmrtdodpmets ohesdlfr tbmt tbf usf hc DO\s de tbfdr

ohaauedtdfs ome devhivf fxtfesdvf efjmtdvf fccfots he tbfdr ouiturf. \bfdr oheofres prdamrdiy

deoiulf yhuej ohaauedty afa`frs wbh mrf ohetdeuhusiy de ohetmot wdtb tfobehihjdfs (f.j.

\S, detfreft, ohaputfrs, tm`ifts mel vdlfh-jmafs) mel wbh eh ihejfr wmet th jft devhivfl de

trmldtdhemi mel ouiturmi motdvdtdfs wdtbde tbf ohaauedtdfs.


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SD

Mogehwifljafets

\bf cuicdiiafet hc tbds amstfr tbfsds whuil eht `f phssdìf wdtbhut tbf supphrt mel

pmrtdodpmtdhe hc whelfrcui pfhpif. Cdrst hc mii, D wmet th fxprfss ay lffpfst jrmtdtulf th aysupfrvdshr Lr. Jrtm @krg Juauelslttdr, chr bfr devmiumìf supphrt, feohurmjfafet mel

gdelefss. Bfr gehwifljfmìf judlmeof mel usfcui ordtdqufs hc tbds amstfr tbfsds fxbhrtfl af

th miwmys lh ay `fst. Mii ay jrmtdtulf, mladrmtdhe mel rfspfot jh hut th bfr.

D whuil idgf th fxprfss ay sdeofrfst tbmegs th ay pmrfets, Sdothr mel Amrjhtb, chr mii yhur

supphrt mel tbmt ueoheldtdhemi ihvf D ohestmetiy cffi rfjmrlifss hc tdaf mel ldstmeof. Amadtm,

pmpdth; ihs mah decdedtmafetf, adi jrmodms! Mish, ay jrmtdtulf jhfs hut th ay lfmr Obrds, chr

yhur pmtdfeof, felifss supphrt mel ihvf. Fvfry stfp de tbds khurefy wms fmsdfr wdtb yhu `y ay

sdlf. D mish wmet th tbmeg ay lfmr crdfels de Ehrwmy mel fisfwbfrf, tbmeg yhu chr hpfedej

yhur bfmrts mel hccfrdej af yhur crdfelsbdp mel supphrt. D ma fspfodmiiy jrmtfcui th ay

crdfels de tbf ODF 0>=?-0>=6 prhjrma7 yhu bmvf amlf tbds khurefy `fmutdcui, cue mel

afahrmìf.

Imst, ùt eht ifmst, D whuil idgf th jrmet m jrfmt \bmeg Thu th mii tbf pmrtdodpmets wbh wfrf

devhivfl de tbf ohapiftdhe hc tbds stuly. Fspfodmiiy th tbf whelfrcui deldjfehus ohaauedtdfsmel pfhpif de Jumdem wbh hpfefl tbfdr bhafs mel idvfs th af lurdej tbf cdfilwhrg. D wdii

miwmys rfafa`fr tbds cmetmstdo fxpfrdfeof. Cdemiiy, ay jrmtfcui tbmegs mrf mish fxtfelfl th

mii tbf stmcc mt tbf Cuelmode \rmeschrafahs, chr yhur ohhpfrmtdhe mel supphrt.


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SDD

\mìf hc ohetfets

M`strmot ..................................................................................................................................... S

Mogehwifljafets .................................................................................................................... SD

\mìf hc ohetfets ..................................................................................................................... SDD

Idst hc cdjurfs, tmìfs mel pbhths .............................................................................................. R

Idst hc m``rfvdmtdhes ................................................................................................................. RD

= Detrhluotdhe ........................................................................................................................ =

Deldjfehus mel mluit fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm .............................................................. 0=.=

Mda hc tbf stuly mel rfsfmrob qufstdhes ..................................................................... ?.?.=

Mluit fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm ............................................................................. 00?.?.0

Deldjfehus fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm ..................................................................... 0?

?.?.?


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SDDD

6 Pfsfmrob aftbhlhihjy ..................................................................................................... ?2

_hodmi sodfeof rfsfmrob .............................................................................................. ?26.=

Pmtdhemif chr obhhsdej tbf qumidtmtdvf rfsfmrob mpprhmob ......................................... ?46.0

Pfsfmrob lfsdje .........................................................................................................

6.? Pfsfmrob sdtf ..............................................................................................................


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DR

Velfrstmeldej pmrtdodpmets pfrofptdhes............................................................ 2=:.=.=

DO\ detfjrmtdhe de tbf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs ........................................................ 22:.0

Ohesfqufeofs hc deehvmtdhes ............................................................................. 22:.0.=

\fesdhes ............................................................................................................. 4>

:.0.0 Oheoiusdhe ................................................................................................................. 4=:.?

2

Pfcfrfeofs ........................................................................................................................ 46

Mppfeldx DD. ........................................................................................................................... =>2

Mppfeldx DDD. .......................................................................................................................... ===

Mppfeldx DS. .......................................................................................................................... ==?

Mppfeldx S. ........................................................................................................................... ==6


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R

Idst hc cdjurfs, tm`ifs mel pbhths

CdjurfsCdjurf 0.=; ^hidtdomi amp hc Jumdem mel dts ihomtdhe de Ohiha`dm ... 3

Cdjurf 0.0; \rmeschrafahs prhjrma Oyoif = tfxt-`hhg . =>

Cdjurf


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RD

Idst hc m``rfvdmtdhes

OHECD\FM Detfremtdhemi Ohecfrfeof he Mluit Fluomtdhe

LMEF Lfpmrtmafeth Mladedstrmtdvh Emodhemi lf Fstmldstdom (Emtdhemi Mladedstrmtdvf

Lfpmrtafet hc _tmtdstdos

FCM Fluomtdhe Chr Mii jhmis (VEF_OH)

CMPO Cufrzms Pfvhiuodhemrdms lf Ohiha`dm (Pfvhiutdhemry Mrafl Chrofs hc

Ohiha`dm)

DO\ Dechramtdhe mel Ohaauedomtdhe \fobehihjy

DIH Detfremtdhemi Im`hr Hrjmedzmtdhe

ALJ Adiifeedua Lfvfihpafet Jhmis

AFE Adedstfrdh lf Fluomode Emodhemi (Ohiha`dm Adedstry hc Fluomtdhe)

AHF Adedstry hc Fluomtdhe

HEDO Hrjmedzmode Deljfem lf Ohiha`dm (Ohiha`dme Deldjfehus Hrjmedzmtdhe)

_FD^ _dstfam Fluomtdvh Deljfem ^rhpdh (Hwe Deldjfehus Fluomtdhe _ystfa)

_L\ _fic-lftfrademtdhe \bfhry

_DEOBD Destdtuth Mamzedoh lf Devfstdjmodhefs Odfetcdoms (Mamzhe Destdtutf hc

_odfetdcdo Pfsfmrob)

VDF VEF_OH Destdtutf chr Fluomtdhe

VDI VEF_OH Destdtutf chr Idcfihej Ifmredej

VEL^ Vedtfl Emtdhes Lfvfihpafet rhjrma

VEF_OH Vedtfl Emtdhes Fluomtdhemi, _odfetdcdo mel Ouiturmi Hrjmedzmtdhe


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=

= Detrhluotdhe

\bf fluomtdhe prhvdsdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif sffas th `f hef hc tbf ahst ehthrdhus

obmiifejfs chr Imtde-Mafrdome jhvfreafets (_obafigfs, 0>==). Euafrhus stuldfs bmvf

tbhrhujbiy lhouafetfl m ihej bdsthry hc fxoiusdhe mel ldsordademtdhe hc phhr pfhpif,

fspfodmiiy mjmdest deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs, wbdob bms rfsuitfl de bdjbiy uefqumi shodftdfs de

Imtde-Mafrdome ohuetrdfs (VEL , 0>=?). ^rhluot hc ldsordademtdhe mel jhvfreafetmi efjifot

amey deldjfehus pfhpif de tbf rfjdhe bmvf efvfr mttfelfl sobhhi hr wfrf chrofl th lrhp-hut

mt me fmriy stmjf luf th vmrdhus rfmshes. \bfrfchrf, diidtfrmoy cdjurfs mahej yhutb mel mluit

pfhpif de tbfsf ohuetrdfs mrf bdjb ms rfohrlfl de tbf Jih`mi Ahedthrdej rfphrt he Fluomtdhe

Chr Mii (FCM) jhmis (VEF_OH, 0>=?).

De rfofet lfomlfs, tbf ldsohursf mel rfsfmrob he deldjfehus fluomtdhe mel idtfrmoy bms jmdefl

deorfmsdej mttfetdhe mahej tbf sobhimrs wbh mrf detfrfstfl de tbf deldjfehus pfhpifs

fluomtdhemi effls. \h emaf shaf hc tbfsf stuldfs, _obafigfs (0>>6), oheluotfl m stuly he

tbf defqumidty hc prdamry fluomtdhe de rurmi mrfms de Afxdoh mel de 0>=< _obafigfs stuldfl

tbf bdjbfr fluomtdhe prhvdsdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif de Afxdoh ms wfii. _dadimriy, Pfdafrs

(0>>>) jmtbfrfl, de bds `hhg Vefqumi sobhhis, uefqumi obmeofs, rfsfmrob stuldfs hc sfvfrmi

mutbhrs de ldccfrfet ohuetrdfs de Imtde Mafrdom. Chr fxmapif, Zdegifr (0>>>) chousfl bds

stuly he fluomtdhe chr ldsmlvmetmjfl rurmi mel deldjfehus obdilrfe de Imtde Mafrdom mel tbf

Omrd``fme. _obdfcfi`fde (0>>>), whrgfl he fluomtdhe mel phvfrty de Obdif mel _mradfeth

(0>>>), stuldfl fqudty mel fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm. Pfsfmrobfrs mrjuf tbmt, de rfofet yfmrs,

deldjfehus fluomtdhe prhvdsdhe bms swdtobfl crha me mssdadimtdhe mpprhmob tbmt wms wdlfiy

prmotdofl de ohuetrdfs suob ms @hidvdm, Jumtfamim, Afxdoh mel Ohiha`dm thwmrls me mpprhmob

tbmt mogehwifljfs deldjfehus ouiturfs, imejumjfs mel whrilvdfws ms gfy ohaphefets hc tbfdr

fluomtdhe (Ihpfz & Gpfr, 0>>>, lf Afkdm, =442).

Moohrldej th VEF_OH, idtfrmoy mel mluit ifmredej pimy m vfry daphrtmet rhif de tbf

lfvfihpafet hc ldsmlvmetmjfl ohaauedtdfs. \bus, fluomtdhe ds `fidfvfl th faphwfr pfhpif

mel prhvdlf tbfa wdtb tbf sgdiis th hvfrohaf phvfrty mel chrjf `fttfr obmeofs th daprhvf

tbfdr idcf oheldtdhes (VEF_OH, 0>=6). Velfr tbds pfrspfotdvf, fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus

pfhpif, wbh idvf de phvfrty mel bmvf `ffe lfprdvfl hc tbfdr rdjbts th imel, bfmitb, mel shodmi

sfrvdofs, amy ohetrd`utf th miifvdmtf tbfdr oheldtdhe mel prhvdlf tbfa wdtb tbf efofssmry thhis

th strfejtb tbfdr ohaauedtdfs lfvfihpafet. He tbds dssuf, sfvfrmi rfsfmrobfrs bmvf


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0

lhouafetfl tbf emturf mel daphrtmeof hc fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif. Jfefrmiiy, tbhsf

stuldfs chous he tbf ouiturmi mel idejudstdo rfifvmeof tbmt fluomtdhe sbhuil deoiulf wbfe

mllrfssdej deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs. \bus, dssufs suob ms idtfrmoy de tbf deldjfehus imejumjfs

(wbfe tbfsf bmvf me mipbm`ft) mel de tbf hccdodmi imejumjf hc tbf ohuetry, tbf strfejtbfedej hc

deldjfehus dlfetdty mel deldjfehus pfhpifs shodmi mel phidtdomi pmrtdodpmtdhe mrf rfifvmet de

tbf mjfelm chr fluomtdhe rfsfmrob mel phidoy amgdej (Ouaades, 0>>47 @rfdlidl, 0>=?7

_obafigfs, 0>==7 Jmrodm, 0>>4). Ms bms `ffe sbhrtiy lfsord`fl fluomtdhe chr mluits mel

yhutb, fspfodmiiy deldjfehus pfhpif, bms `ffe mllrfssfl ms m prdhrdty `y sfvfrmi rfsfmrobfrs

mel bms oimdafl ahrf mttfetdhe crha jhvfreafets mel phidoy amgfrs lurdej tbf imst lfomlfs

de Imtde-Mafrdom. \bf ohrf chous chuel de tbf idtfrmturf rfimtfs th tbf deldjfehus imejumjfs,

ftbedo dlfetdty mel ouiturmi mel pbysdomi prfsfrvmtdhe (_obafigfs, 0>==7 lf Afkdm, =4427

Ipfz, 0>=>2).

De spdtf hc tbf fcchrts amlf th rfmob tbf ahst vuiefrm`if ohaauedtdfs de tbf ohuetry, tbfrf mrf

cfw mluit fluomtdhe mel idtfrmoy prhjrmas chr hut hc sobhhi yhutb mel mluits de euafrhus

rfjdhes wdtbde Ohiha`dm. \bds cmot moohuets chr tbf pfrofetmjf hc diidtfrmtf pfhpif de tbf


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?

ohuetry tbmt mpprhxdamtfs th 3% (VEF_OH, 0>=6). Me fxmapif hc tbds sdtumtdhe ds tbf

Mamzhe rfjdhe de Ohiha`dm, wbdob ds bhaf th sfvfrmi deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs wbh bmvf

debm`dtfl tbf imel chr ofeturdfs. Mitbhujb tbf Mamzhe rfjdhe ohvfrs me daphrtmet pmrt hc tbf

emtdhemi tfrrdthry dts phpuimtdhe ds mahejst tbf ahst vuiefrmìf mel ldsordademtfl mjmdest de

tbf ohuetry. Chr destmeof, tbf Jumdem ohuety ihomtfl de tbf Mamzhe rfjdhe `hrlfrdej @rmzdi

mel Sfefzufim ds bhaf th mpprhxdamtfiy =0,>>> deldjfehus pfhpif wbh mrf ldvdlfl deth 03

ftbedo jrhups. Bhwfvfr, tbf rfjdhe ds mish obmrmotfrdzfl `y m bdjb rmtf hc phvfrty (:2.2%) mel

(=:%) hc diidtfrmoy mahej dts debm`dtmets (LMEF, 0>>6).

Ohesfqufetiy, de 0>=? tbf Adedstry hc fluomtdhe, tbf rfjdhemi fluomtdhe sforftmrdmt mel tbf

ihomi jhvfreafet de Jumdem prhvdlfl m chrami mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma chr hut -hc-sobhhi

yhutb mel mluits. \bds fluomtdhe prhjrma wms lfvfihpfl mel mppidfl `y tbf Cuelmode

\rmeschrafahs, me hrjmedzmtdhe crha tbf odvdi shodfty tbmt bms dapifafetfl idtfrmoy mel mluit

fluomtdhe prhjrmas de mpprhxdamtfiy 06 sdtfs de Ohiha`dm lurdej tbf imst edef yfmrs. \bf

mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma wms ùdit uphe tbf rfsuits hc me ftbehjrmpbdo stuly omrrdfl hut de

Jumdem `y tbf \rmeschrafahs chuelmtdhe de 0>=0. \bf hutohafs hc tbds stuly wfrf

ohesdlfrfl de hrlfr th mlmpt tbf ourrdouiua moohrldej th tbf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs effls

mel ouiturfs (\rmeschrafahs, 0>=

yfmrs hil wbh bmvf lrhppfl hut hc sobhhi hr wbh efvfr mttfelfl hef. De mlldtdhe, tbf

prhjrma mish detfjrmtfs tbf usf hc tfobehihjy lfvdofs ms thhis th afldmtf ifmredej de mel

hutsdlf tbf oimssrhha. Mii tbf stulfets mel tfmobfrs de tbf \rmeschrafahsprhjrma de Jumdem

wfrf jdvfe ldjdtmi tmìfts, wbdob bml shctwmrf tbmt detfjrmtfs mii tbf destruotdhemi tmsgs, thpdos,

motdvdtdfs mel fxfrodsfs crha tbf ourrdouiua. _deof tbfrf ds vfry idadtfl moofss th detfreft de

tbf rfjdhe, tbf shctwmrf detfjrmtfl de tbf tmìfts ohuil `f usfl hcc-idef de mel hutsdlf tbf

oimssrhha. \bf DO\ detfjrmtdhe de tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma jrmetfl emtdhemi meldetfremtdhemi afldm mttfetdhe sdeof dt ds ohesdlfrfl me deehvmtdhe de tbf fcchrt th prhvdlf

fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs de tbf ohuetry.

Ohesdlfrdej tbf mchrfafetdhefl detfjrmtdhe hc Dechramtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs

(DO\), tbds stuly ds detfrfstfl de fxpihrdej mel uelfrstmeldej pmrtdodpmets pfrofptdhes he tbf

detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s de tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma mel tbfdr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs. Lurdej

tbf imst lfomlfs, tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ de fluomtdhe bms lfvfihpfl m jrhwdej detfrfst de

detfremtdhemi momlfado rfsfmrob. _haf rfsfmrobfrs `fidfvf tbmt DO\ deciufeofs tbf lyemados


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=?7 Zmrsobmufr. 0>>>07

Zmrsobmufr, 0>==). Vechrtuemtfiy, idttif ds gehwe m`hut tbf rhif hc DO\ detfjrmtdhe he

fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif de Ohiha`dm. Ohesfqufetiy, tbds stuly detfels th fxmadef tbf

rhif hc tbf DO\ detfjrmtdhe deth tbf \rmeschrafahs mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma dapifafetfl de

Jumdem. _pfodcdomiiy, tbds stuly wdii fxmadef tbf pmrtdodpmets uelfrstmeldejs mel vdfws

rfjmrldej tbf rhif hc DO\ de tbfdr tfmobdej mel ifmredej prhofss mel deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs.

Mda hc tbf stuly mel rfsfmrob qufstdhes=.0

\bf prdamry mda hc tbds stuly ds th uelfrstmel mel fxpihrf pmrtdodpmets pfrofptdhes hc tbf

detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s deth tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma omrrdfl hut de Jumdem. _pfodcdo mttfetdhe

wdii `f jdvfe th tbf pmrtdodpmets vhdofs mel uelfrstmeldej hc tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s deth tbfdr

fluomtdhe mel deth tbfdr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs.

De hrlfr th judlf tbds stuly tbf chiihwdej rfsfmrob qufstdhes mrf fxpihrfl;

=. Bhw lh tbf prhjrma tfmobfrs mel stulfets pfrofdvf tbf rhif hc DO\ thhis de tbfdr

tfmobdej mel ifmredej prhofss8

0. Zbmt mrf tbf prhjrma tfmobfrs mel stulfets pfrofptdhes he tbf detfjrmtdhe hc tbf

tm`ifts de tbf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs8

_truoturf hc tbf tbfsds=.?\bds tbfsds bms sfvfe obmptfrs. Chiihwdej tbds detrhluotdhe, obmptfr twh detrhluofs tbf

`mogjrhuel dechramtdhe m`hut tbf prhjrma mel tbf Jumdem rfjdhe de Ohiha`dm. Obmptfr ?

fxpihrfs tbf rfifvmet idtfrmturf chr mluit mel DO\ fluomtdhe ms wfii ms tbf ohetfxt chr

fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm. Obmptfr < prhvdlfs me moohuet hc tbf stulys memiytdomi crmafwhrg

mel tbfhrdfs. Obmptfr 6 wdii prfsfet tbf aftbhlhihjdomi mspfots hc tbds stuly wbdif obmptfr 3

wdii fxpihrf tbf cdeldejs crha tbds fequdry. Cdemiiy, obmptfr : prhvdlfs m suaamry hc tbf

amkhr cdeldejs, ldsoussdhe hc tbfsf mel m cdemi oheoiusdhe.


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6

0 Ohetfxtumi `mogjrhuel

\bf sfotdhes tbmt chiihw prfsfet m jfefrmi hvfrvdfw hc Jumdem, Ohiha`dm, tbf rfjdhe wbfrf

tbf cdfilwhrg chr tbds stuly wms oheluotfl. Mish, tbds obmptfr prhvdlfs `mogjrhuel

dechramtdhe m`hut tbf \rmeschrafahs chuelmtdhe mel dts mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma.

\bf Jumdem rfjdhe0.=

\bf sdtf chr ay stuly prdamrdiy chousfs he Dedrdlm mel htbfr samii rurmi auedodpmidtdfs de tbf

Jumdem ohuety de Ohiha`dm. Dedrdlm ds tbf ompdtmi odty hc Jumdem (sff cdjurf 0,=) ihomtfl de

tbf shutb-fmst rfjdhe hc Ohiha`dm efmr tbf Sfefzufime mel @rmzdidme `hrlfrs de tbf Mamzhe.

Jumdem ds m rfimtdvfiy efw tfrrdthry. Dt wms heiy hccdodmiiy rfohjedzfl ms m ohuety de tbf

emtdhemi phidtdomi ohestdtutdhe hc =44=.

\brhujbhut bdsthry, Jumdem mel ahrf spfodcdomiiy, Dedrdlm, bmvf wdtefssfl m wdlf rmejf hc

`hha mel `ust oyoifs de dts shodh-fohehadomi spbfrfs. Lurdej tbf cdrst pmrt hc tbf 0>tb

ofetury tbf fohehay wms lrdvfe `y tbf fxpihdtmtdhe hc ru``fr mel imtfr hc jhil. \bds sdtumtdhe

prhahtfl tbf ah`didzmtdhe hc wbdtf/afstdzh pfhpif crha htbfr rfjdhes de Ohiha`dm ms wfii ms

chrfdjefrs th fstm`idsb tbfdr fohehado mel shodmi idvfs de Jumdem, tmgdej mlvmetmjf hc tbfstrmtfjdomiiy `hrlfr ihomtdhe hc tbf rfjdhe. \h tbf mchrfafetdhefl, tbf sdtumtdhe de Jumdem

wms systfamtdomiiy mjjrmvmtfl, ms dt wms chr tbf rfst hc tbf ohuetry, `y tbf detfremi mrafl

ohecidot prhluofl `y tbf ohecrhetmtdhe hc diifjmi mrafl jrhups mel tbf stmtf adidtmry chrofs.

@y tbf imtf =42>s tbf lfpmrtafet hc Jumdem, ms amey htbfr surrhueldej rfjdhes de tbf shutb

hc Ohiha`dm, wms lhademtfl `y tbf CMPO jufrrdiim, cmot wbdob lrmamtdomiiy deorfmsfl tbf

vdhifeof de tbf auedodpmidtdfs mel tbf rurmi mrfms, ms wfii ms tbf prhluotdhe hc diidodt emrohtdos

(_DEOBD, 0>>3).

Moohrldej th tbf mladedstrmtdvf lfpmrtafet chr emtdhemi stmtdstdos (LMEF), tbf phpuimtdhe de

Jumdem wms fstdamtfl th `f m`hut ,0>? debm`dtmets de 0>=?, wdtb 34% debm`dtdej rurmi mrfms

wbdif m ?>.4% debm`dtdej ur`me mrfms. Dedrdlm, dts ompdtmi mel `djjfst auedodpmidty, bms me

mpprhxdamtf phpuimtdhe hc =4,>43 debm`dtmets. Moohrldej th tbf imst phpuimtdhe ohuet omrrdfl

hut `y LMEF de 0>>6, mpprhxdamtfiy 3


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3

_hurof; Destdtuth jfhjrmcdoh Mjustde Ohlmzzd

Dedrdlm

\bf deldjfehus pfhpif wbh debm`dt Jumdem mrf ldspfrsfl mihej tbf tfrrdthry. \bfsf imels mrfbdjbiy rdob de emturmi rfshurofs. Ourrfetiy, tbfrf mrf sfvfrmi adefrmi fxpihdtmtdhe prhkfots de

tbf mrfm7 bhwfvfr, tbfrf mrf mish prhtfotfl imels luf th dts uedquf `dhldvfrsdty. Imel rhmls

mel trmesphrtmtdhe rhutfs de Jumdem mrf somrof mel daphvfrdsbfl. \bfrfchrf dt ds ldccdouit th

rfmob tbhsf deldjfehus vdiimjfs mel sfttifafets tbmt mrf sprfml mihej rdvfrsdlfs mel mrf lffp

de tbf chrfst. De thtmi, tbfrf mrf 03 deldjfehus imels (rfsfrvmtdhes), wbdob rfprfsfet 36.0>% hc

tbf thtmi tfrrdthry. \bfrf mrf euafrhus deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs de Jumdem7 fmob hef bms dts

hwe imejumjfs, ouiturfs mel trmldtdhes. \bfsf cmothrs moohuet chr tbf rdob ouiturmi melidejudstdo ldvfrsdty de tbf rfjdhe (LMEF, 0>>:).

\bfrf mrf chur amde deldjfehus jrhups de Jumdem; tbf Ourrdpmoh, ^dmphoh, ^udemvf mel

_dgumed. Mitbhujb tbfrf mrf amey ahrf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs de tbf ohuety, tbf

mchrfafetdhefl jrhups mrf tbf ahst euafrhus mel rfprfsfetmtdvf de Jumdem. _haf hc tbf

deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs wbh debm`dt Jumdem stdii chiihw tbfdr trmldtdhes, ouiturf mel

idvfidbhhls. Chr destmeof, deldjfehus jrhups bmvf tbfdr hwe imejumjf, deoiuldej wrdttfe

chras, wbdob wfrf detrhluofl mel struoturfl `y sfvfrmi fvmejfidsts suob ms _hpbdm Aiifr

Cdjurf 0.=; ^hidtdomi amp hc Jumdem mel dts ihomtdhe de Ohiha`dm


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:

\mìf 0.=; Ftbedo ohaauedtdfs de Jumdem

lurdej tbf cdrst pmrt hc tbf RR ofetury (_DEOBD, 0>>3). Deldjfehus jrhups de Jumdem mish

fejmjf de cdsbdej mel buetdej motdvdtdfs7 typdomiiy, tbfy hwe m imel wbfrf tbfy ouitdvmtf mel

prhofss chhl. _haf deldjfehus pfhpif pmrtdodpmtf de rdtumis, mel bhil rfidjdhus `fidfcs mel

gehwifljf hc trmldtdhemi emturmi afldodef. Moohrldej th LMEF, tbf Ourrdpmoh ohaauedty ds

tbf `djjfst deldjfehus jrhup de Jumdem wdtb % hc tbf phpuimtdhe de tbf ohuety (LMEF, 0>>6). \bf chiihwdej tmìf diiustrmtfs tbf

deldjfehusphpuimtdhes pfrofetmjfs, tbfdr imejumjf rhhts mel tbf ohuetrdfs tbfy debm`dt.

Ohihedzmtdhe mel tbf su`-sfqufet rdsf hc vdhifeof mel ldspimofafet bmvf bml prhchuel fccfots

he tbf shodh-ouiturmi mel fohehado wfii-`fdej hc deldjfehus pfhpif de Jumdem. Moohrldej th

_DEOBD (0>>3), de Jumdem, shaf hc tbf deldjfehus imejumjfs, ouiturfs mel whrilvdfws mrf

stdii rfprfsfetfl `y tbf vmrdfl ftbedo jrhups wbh debm`dt tbf rfjdhe. Bhwfvfr, dts fxdstfeof ds

de daadefet lmejfr mel rfqudrfs tbf stmtf th orfmtf `fttfr mitfremtdvfs th prhtfot tbfa. De

Ohiha`dm, tbf Emtdhemi ^hidtdomi Ohestdtutdhe hc =44= rfohjedzfs tbf deldjfehus pfhpifs

rdjbts mel, mahej tbfsf, fstmìdsbfs tbf pmrmaftfrs chr fluomtdhe chr auitdftbedo mel

auitdidejumi adehrdtdfs de tbf ohuetry tbrhujb tbf ify jfefrmi lf fluomode ==6 (Jfefrmi

Fluomtdhe Imw ==6) mel judldej lhouafets suob ms tbf _FD^ (Hwe Deldjfehus Fluomtdhe

_ystfa), wbdob wdii `f fxpimdefl curtbfr ds obmptfr tbrff.

Lfspdtf tbf stmtus hc Jumdem ms hef hc tbf ahst ldvfrsf mel auitdouiturmi rfjdhes de tbf

ohuetry, dt ds mish hef hc tbf ahst vuiefrmìf mel uelfrlfvfihpfl rfjdhes, wdtb bdjb rmtfs hc

phvfrty mel diidtfrmoy. Moohrldej th m rfphrt prhluofl `y LMEF de 0>>6, fluomtdhe cdjurfs de

Jumdem mrf ihw ohapmrfl wdtb tbf emtdhemi pfrofetmjf, mel ferhiiafet rmtfs mrf vfry ihw ms

wfii. De Jumdem heiy m`hut


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2

hc lfsfrtdhe mel diidtfrmoy mrf vfry bdjb7 tbf diidtfrmoy rmtf ds m`hvf tbf twh cdjurfs mt =2.?%

(LMEF, 0>>6).

\bf detfrmotdvf \rmechrafahs fluomelh0.0systfa

\bf chuelmtdhe chr shodmi lfvfihpafet \rmeschrafahs ds m eheprhcdt odvdi shodfty

hrjmedzmtdhe tbmt wms orfmtfl de Ohiha`dm de 0>>3. \bf chuelmtdheshvfrmii h`kfotdvf ds th

chrjf buame mel ohaauedty lfvfihpafet tbrhujb fluomtdhemi prhvdsdhes chr ldsmlvmetmjfl

pfhpif. _pfodcdomiiy, tbf chuelmtdhesmda ds th prhvdlf fluomtdhe chr yhutb mel mluits wbh,

luf th vmrdhus rfmshes, lrhppfl-hut hr efvfr mttfelfl tbf chrami fluomtdhe systfa.

Ohesfqufetiy, tbf chuelmtdhe sffgs th faphwfr pfhpif mel prhvdlf tbfa wdtb thhis th

daprhvf tbfdr idcf oheldtdhes tbrhujb ohetfxtumidzfl mel rfifvmet fluomtdhe. \bf

\rmeschrafahs fluomelh systfa `fmrs de adel rfjdhemi mel ouiturmi ldccfrfeofs, mel de

lhdej sh, tbf fluomtdhe prhjrmas mrf spfodcdomiiy struoturfl moohrldej th tbf rfjdhes mel

ohaauedtdfs wbfrf tbf prhjrma ds dapifafetfl.

De mlldtdhe, tbf \rmeschrafahsprhjrma mish bdjbidjbts tbf cuelmafetmi rhif hc tfobehihjy de

fluomtdhe ms m afmes th strfejtbfe pfhpifs ldjdtmi sgdiis mel tbfrfchrf, tbfdr cuturfhpphrtuedtdfs. \bf chuelmtdhe chstfrs tbf orfmtdhe hc detfrmotdvf oimssrhhas wdtb ldccfrfet

tfobehihjdomi thhis suob ms ldjdtmi tmìfts, vdlfh-`fmas, ohaputfrs mel tbf usf hc detfreft

wbfe mvmdimìf. \bf \rmeschrafahs detfrmotdvf systfa mish deoiulfs hcc-idef shctwmrf, wbdob

deoiulfs muldh-tfxts, vdlfhs, fxfrodsfs, mel prhjrma ohetfet. \bf chuelmtdhes h`kfotdvf dsth

fejmjf ohaauedtdfs deth idtfrmoy mel ldjdtmi ouiturfs sdauitmefhusiy (\rmeschrafahs, e.l.

(m))

\bf \rmeschrafahs fluomelh systfa ohevfys pflmjhjdomi, ohetfxtumi, ldjdtmi mel detfrmotdvf

ohaphefets de tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrmas. \bf chuelmtdhe mish dlfetdcdfs cifxd`didty mel

qumidty hc fluomtdhe ms gfy fifafets chr struoturdej tbf ourrdouiuas chr mluit fluomtdhe. \bus,

`fchrf dapifafetdej tbf prhjrmas tbf chuelmtdhe mlkusts mel struoturfs fmob ourrdouiua de

moohrlmeof wdtb tbf ohaauedtdfs mel rfjdhesspfodcdo effls. \bfrfchrf, tbf fluomtdhe ds eht

heiy cifxdìf ùt mish afmedejcui chr tbf prhjrmas stulfets(\rmeschrafahs, e.l. (m)).

\bf \rmeschrafahs fluomelh sytfa ds ifjmiiy `msfl he tbf Lforff-Imw ?>== hc =44: (sff

curtbfr obmptfr tbrff), wbdob fstmìdsbfs tbf ifjdsimtdhe mel pmrmaftfrs chr mluit fluomtdhe de


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4

tbf ohuetry (AFE, =44:). Ohesfqufetiy, tbf chuelmtdhe hccfrs detfrmotdvf chrami fluomtdhe

systfas chr fifafetmry fluomtdhe (idtfrmoy prhjrmas), `msdo sfohelmry fluomtdhe mel uppfr-

sfohelmry fluomtdhe, `msfl he tbf hccdodmi stmelmrls mel ourrdouimr judlfidefs fstmìdsbfl `y

tbf emtdhemi AhF. \bfrfchrf, tbf \rmeschrafahs prhjrmas eht heiy mda th tmogif tbf bdjb

diidtfrmoy rmtfs de Ohiha`dm, ùt mish prhvdlf pfhpif wdtb tbf efofssmry sgdiis th cdedsb bdjb

sobhhi mel `fjde tfrtdmry hr vhomtdhemi fluomtdhe (\rmeschrafahs, 0>=>.>>> pfhpif.

_deof dts orfmtdhe, tbf \rmeschrafahs chuelmtdhe bms whrgfl th fluomtf yhutb mel mluits chr

pfmof wbdif chstfrdej afmedejcui ifmredej fevdrheafets mel shodmi lfvfihpafet chr

ldsmlvmetmjfl phpuimtdhes de Ohiha`dm. \bf chuelmtdhe bms `ffe mwmrlfl wdtb sdjedcdometprdzfs hvfr tbf yfmrs. Chr destmeof, de 0>=0 VEF_OH mwmrlfl tbf chuelmtdhe wdtb tbf

VEF_OH-OHECVODV_ prdzf chr idtfrmoy, wbdob rfohjedzfs tbf motdvdtdfs hc deldvdlumis mel

hrjmedzmtdhes wbh whrg he idtfrmoy prhjrmas, fspfodmiiy wdtb rurmi mluits mel hut-hc-sobhhi

yhutb mrhuel tbf whril (\rmeschrafahs, e.l. (m)).

\bf \rmeschrafahs fluomelhprhjrma de Jumdem0.0.=

Ms wms prfvdhusiy afetdhefl, tbf \rmeschrafahs prhjrma bdjbidjbts ldvfrsdty mel

auitdouiturmidsa ms cuelmafetmi ohaphefets chr tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrmas. Fmob prhjrma

mdas th rfspfot pfhpifsprfvdhus gehwifljf, ahtdvmtdhe mel whrilvdfws de hrlfr th lfvfihp

rfifvmet mel rfjdhemidzfl ohetfets tbmt miihw stulfets eht heiy th moofss fluomtdhe mel tbf

ldjdtmi whril ùt mish th cffi rfprfsfetfl mel th ifmre de afmedejcui sfttdejs.

Chiihwdej tbfsf prdeodpifs, Jumdems jhvfreafet, tbf ihomi fluomtdhe sforftmrdmt, tbf emtdhemi

AhF mel htbfr ihomi stmgfbhilfrs wfrf motdvfiy devhivfl de hrlfr th cuel mel supphrt tbf\rmechrafahs mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma chr hut-hc-sobhhi yhutb mel mluits de tbf rfjdhe. \bf

prhjrma wms crff hc obmrjf chr stulfets mel wms cuiiy cuelfl `y tbf emtdhemi mel rfjdhemi

jhvfreafet. Ms m cdrst stfp, tbf chuelmtdhe oheluotfl me ftbehjrmpbdo stuly de tbf ohuety,

supphrtfl `y sfohelmry shurofs mel dechramtdhe, de hrlfr th uelfrstmel mel dlfetdcy

obmrmotfrdstdos hc tbf phpuimtdhe de Jumdem. @msfl he tbf cdeldejs tbmt wfrf jmtbfrfl, tbf

mluit fluomtdhe ourrdouiua wms mlkustfl mel ohetfxtumidzfl th tbf deldjfehus pfhpifs

rfmidtdfs, idvfidbhhls mel fevdrheafet. Imejumjf wms m cuelmafetmi fifafet chr tbf prhjrma

lfvfihpafet de Jumdem. \bfrfchrf, tbf ourrdouiua mel ohetfets wfrf fetdrfiy trmesimtfl deth


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=>

Cdjurf 0.0; \rmeschrafahs prhjrma Oyoif = tfxt-`hhg

_hurof;\rmeschrafahs.oha

Ourrdpmoh, ^dmphoh, ^udemvf mel _dgumed tbf amde deldjfehus imejumjfs prfsfet de tbf

rfjdhe ms wfii ms _pmedsb. \bf rfjdhemidzmtdhe hc tbf prhjrma rfsuitfl de tbf orfmtdhe hc tbf

`hhgs mel shctwmrf detfjrmtfl deth tbf tm`ift, wbdob ohetmdes mii tbf thpdos, h`kfotdvfs,

detfrmotdvf fxfrodsfs, mel vdlfhs (\rmeschrafahs, e.l. (`)). \bds ds diiustrmtfl `y tbf

chiihwdej damjf (cdjurf 0.0) tbmt sbhws tbf ohvfr pmjf chr tbf oyoif = tfxt-`hhg mel me

fxmapif hc tbf fxfrodsfs de tbf ldccfrfet imejumjfs.

M thtmi hc ==? mel tbfrf wfrf ?3>> ferhiiafets. \bds cdjurf rfprfsfetfl m

3>>% deorfmsf he tbf mvfrmjf ferhiiafet ifvfi de Jumdem mt tbf tdaf. \bf demujurmtdhe hc tbf

prhjrma mel dts amssdvf ferhiiafet wms wdlfiy ohvfrfl `y ihomi, emtdhemi mel detfremtdhemi

afldm. Bhwfvfr, crha tbf ?3>> ferhiifl yhutb mel mluits tbfrf wfrf


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==

\mìf 0.0; _tulfets ferhiifl de tbf \rmeschrafahs ^rhjrma ^bhth 0.=; \rmeschrafahs stulfet usdej tbf tmìft

_hurof;\rmeschrafahs.oha

^bhth 0.0. \rmeschrafahs stulfets usdej tbf tmìft ^bhth 0.?. \rmeschrafahs prhjrmas oimssrhha

_hurof;\rmeschrafahs.oha _hurof;\rmeschrafahs.oha

_hurof;Dechramtdhe mlmptfl crha \rmeschrafahs, 0>==>

Oyoif 0 (?rl

,

Oyoif ? (3tb

mel :tb

jrmlf) =>>>

Oyoif < (2tb

mel 4tb

jrmlf)


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=0

? Idtfrmturf rfvdfw

\bf chiihwdej sfotdhes jdvf me hvfrvdfw he tbf rfsfmrob cdfil hc DO\ de fluomtdhe,

fapbmsdzdej he ourrfet trfels, obmiifejfs mel ordtdqufs. Mish, tbds sfotdhe prfsfets idtfrmturf

he mluit fluomtdhe mel deldjfehus fluomtdhe ms m rfsfmrob cdfil hc phidoy amgfrs mel sobhimrs.

Vitdamtfiy, tbf ohaphefets hc tbds obmptfr mda th sbfl idjbts he tbfsf fluomtdhe pfrspfotdvfs

wdtbde tbf Ohiha`dme ohetfxt de hrlfr th `fttfr uelfrstmel tbf lyemados mel prmotdofs hc DO\

mel mluit fluomtdhe de tbf ohuetry.

Dechramtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjy?.=

Dechramtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjy (DO\) ds stdii rfohjedzfl ms m ohrf trfel tbmtfvhivfs felifssiy mel, defvdtmìy, pfrafmtfs hur idvfs mel shodftdfs. \bds mppmrfet ehvfity

ohuil `f mttrdùtfl th tbf vhimtdif mel lyemado emturf hc DO\. Mitbhujb tbf detfrfst de mel rdsf

hc tfobehihjdfs lmtf `mog th amey lfomlfs mjh, chr shaf sobhimrs tbf prhofss hc lfvfihpafet

de ohaauedomtdhe mel dechramtdhe ds m pbfehafem prfsfet de shodftdfs crha ofeturdfs mjh

(Crffame, 0>>:7 _ifvde, 0>>>7 _bhrtds, 0>>=). \bf tfra DO\ wms detrhluofl mrhuel =440

wbfe tbf usf hc fifotrhedo amdis `fomaf moofssdìf th tbf jfefrmi puìdo (^fijrua mel Imw,

0>>?). \bf su`sfqufet cmst-pmofl lfvfihpafet hc DO\s bms bfmvdiy deciufeofl tbf wmy dewbdob wf idvf mel ohaauedomtf wdtb htbfrs, `fohadej me fssfetdmi thhi chr tbf ldstrdùtdhe

mel orfmtdhe hc gehwifljf. \bf rmpdl mel sffadejiy uesthppmìf lfvfihpafet trfel hc

tfobehihjy chstfrfl m ohaauedomtdhe rfvhiutdhe tbmt bms, uelhu`tfliy, obmejfl hur

pfrofptdhes mel rfimtdhes wdtb tbf whril (@hwame ft mi. 0>>6).

Ms m ohesfqufeof, sdjedcdomet mahuets hc sobhimrs bmvf lfldomtfl tbfdr whrg th fxpihrf mel

uelfrpde tbf lyemados hc DO\ mel dts deciufeof he buame shodftdfs. De jfefrmi, sobhimrs rfcfr

th DO\ ms tbf tfobehihjy tbmt ds usfl th amemjf dechramtdhe mel mssdst dts ohaauedomtdhe. De

htbfr whrls, tbf wmy de wbdob dechramtdhe ds ohetrhiifl, prhofssfl, mel htbfrwdsf ldstrdùtfl

th tbf whril (Zf`stfr, 0>>3). Chr fmriy sobhimrs suob ms Ifvdeshe (=42


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=?

prhofss hc gehwifljf ldstrdùtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe, chr fxmapif, rmldh, \S, ah`dif/samrt

pbhefs, smtfiidtfs systfas, shctwmrf mel bmrlwmrf, mahej htbfrs (_dejb mel Pmkm, 0>=>).

Pfofetiy, tbfrf bms `ffe auob ahrf puìdo mwmrfefss de rfjmrls th DO\ mel dts dapidomtdhes

de hur lmdiy idvfs. Chr destmeof, jhvfreafets, prdvmtf hrjmedzmtdhes mel ohaafrodmi cdras

bmvf pimofl ahrf mttfetdhe he tbf lfvfihpafet hc tfobehihjdfs de hrlfr th ohetrhi mel bmelif

tbf dechramtdhe mel/hr gehwifljf tbmt ds imtfr ldccusfl th tbf puìdo (_dejb mel Pmkm, 0>=>).

Chr destmeof, tbf Detfremtdhemi Ohaauedomtdhe Vedhe, me mjfeoy hc tbf Vedtfl Emtdhes

spfodmidzdej de dechramtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs whrilwdlf. DO\s bmvf sfrdhus

dapidomtdhes de tbf lfvfihpafet hc tbf whrils fohehay, fevdrheafet dapmot, ouiturmi

mwmrfefss, detfremtdhemi rfimtdhes mel, uitdamtfiy, hur lmdiy idvfs (Cdeefjme, =424). \bds mish

deoiulfs cuelmafetmi obmejfs de tbf wmy de wbdob wf uelfrstmel shodmi mel phidtdomi

destdtutdhes mel bhw wf rfimtf mel/hr rfmot th phwfr chrofs `y moofssdej mel sbmrdej

gehwifljf. Ahst sdjedcdometiy hc tbds stuly, DO\s bmvf mish pfrafmtfl fluomtdhe de vmrdhus

wmys, wbdob wdii `f fxpihrfl curtbfr de tbf chiihwdej sfotdhe.

Dechramtdhe mel ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs de?.=.=

fluomtdhe

\bf lyemados hc jih`midzmtdhe ds oihsfiy rfimtfl th tbf rmpdl fvhiutdhe hc tbf dechramtdhe mel

ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs de tbf whril. Chr amey sobhimrs mel stmgfbhilfrs, tbf fmsy mel

detfrmotdvf wmys th moofss dechramtdhe (cmodidtmtfl `y ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs) rfprfsfet

me uelfedmìf phtfetdmi chr fluomtdhe. Bfeof, DO\ de fluomtdhe bms `fohaf tbf ohrf chous hc

mttfetdhe chr euafrhus fluomtdhemi rfsfmrobfrs de tbf imst lfomlfs, mel stdii thlmy, tbf cdfil

rfqudrfs ahrf lf`mtf mel rfsfmrob de hrlfr th h`tmde tbf `fst rfsuits de `fefcdt hc fluomtdhemi

obmejf. Mutbhrs suob ms Zmrsobmufr (0>==), ldsouss tbmt tbf amde h`kfotdvfs th detfjrmtf

DO\s de tbf oimssrhha mrf; tbf daprhvfafet hc momlfado mobdfvfafet, tbf cmodidtmtdhe hc efw

gdels hc 0=st ofetury ifmredej mel th prhahtf fluomtdhe mel shodmi fqudty. Kust idgf

Zmrsobmufr, tbfrf mrf euafrhus mutbhrs detfrfstfl de uelfrstmeldej tbf wmys de wbdob DO\s

mrf detfjrmtfl de tbf oimssrhha, dts fccfots he ifmredej hutohafs, lfvfihpafet hc ifmredej

amtfrdmis, tbf struoturf hc aftbhls mel pflmjhjdfs, mel fluomtdhemi rfchras (@fog mel

Kmadssfe, 0>==7 Omrehy, =4447 \dedh, 0>>07 Sms` mel Julauelslhttdr, 0>=>37 Tfiimel, 0>=?).


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==>2). Chr fxmapif, ohesdlfr tbf ohaputfr mel tbf Zhril

Zdlf Zf` ms thhis tbmt mrf vmstiy usfl de sobhhis mrhuel tbf whril. Ohaputfrs mrf amobdefs

tbmt prhofss mel sthrf `dj mahuets hc dechramtdhe tbmt ome `f rmpdliy ohaauedomtfl mel

fmsdiy moofssdìf (tbrhujb tbf usf hc tbf detfreft) th htbfrs mt ohesdlfrmìf ldstmeofs. Mitbhujb

tbfsf tfobehihjdfs mrf usfcui mel deehvmtdvf thhis chr ifmredej, dt ds lf`mtmìf tbmt tbfy

jumrmetff qumidty hc fluomtdhe (Omrehy, =4447 ^fijrua mel Imw, 0>>?7 \dedh, 0>>0).

\bf usf hc tfobehihjy de fluomtdhe bms ahldcdfl mspfots suob ms pflmjhjy dapifafetmtdhe,

ldjdtmi idtfrmoy, ordtdomi tbdegdej sgdiis, tfmobfrs mel stulfets rhifs de tbf oimssrhha,

prhcfssdhemi lfvfihpafet, mel momlfado mobdfvfafet, th emaf m cfw (_tmbi, Ghsobamee, mel

_utbfrs, 0>>3). Chr fxmapif, DO\s mrf fxpfotfl th prhahtf muthehahus ifmredej spmofs chr

stulfets de tbf oimssrhha mel th febmeof ordtdomi tbdegdej mahej tbfa. De suob ohetfxts,

tfmobfrs sbhuil, tbfrfchrf,pimy tbf rhif hc cmodidtmthrs hc gehwifljf mel ihomtf tbf stulfets

de tbf ofetfr, chstfrdej afmedejcui ifmredej fevdrheafets. Ms Bhhpfr mel Pdf`fr phdetfl hut

\bf tfmobfrs rhif ds th fstmìdsb m ifmredej fevdrheafet tbmt supphrts mel cmodidtmtfs

stulfets ms tbfy ohestruot mel sbmpf tbfdr hwe gehwifljf(Bhhpfr mel Pdf`fr, =446;=6:).

Lurdej rfofet tdafs, ourrdouiua mel fluomtdhemi rfchras bmvf dapifafetfl ldjdtmi

ohapftfeof mel sgdiis lfvfihpafet de mssfssafet mel oimssrhha prmotdofs (Httfstml,

Gfifetrdo mel Julauelslhttdr, 0>=>>7 Fmsdejwhhl mel

Jmaìf, 0>>=7 Zmrsobmufr, 0>==7 @fog mel Kmadssfe 0>==).


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=6

DO\s mrf phwfrcui thhis tbmt, wbfe dapifafetfl ohrrfotiy, ome mot ms omtmiysts hc fluomtdhemi

rfchra. DO\s ome daprhvf moofss (chr fxmapif ldstmeof fluomtdhe mel idcfihej ifmredej) mel

qumidty hc fluomtdhe tbrhujb tbf usf hc fifotrhedo afldm tbmt cmodidtmtfs wmys hc gehwifljf

moqudsdtdhe, prhluotdhe mel ldssfademtdhe (_fidejfr, 0>>47 Sms` mel Julauelslhttdr,

0>=>4). \bfrfchrf, dt ds mrjufl tbmt fluomtdhe effls th

rfsphel th tbf ourrfet lfamels hc tfobehihjy de oimssrhhas mel shodftdfs. Lfspdtf hef omeeht

fxpfot DO\s th `f tbf rfafly chr tbf ourrfet obmiifejfs cmodej fluomtdhe mrhuel tbf whril,

fspfodmiiy de tbf jih`mi shutb, DO\ de fluomtdhe ds jrhwdejiy sffe ms m omtmiyst chr shodftdfs

lfvfihpafet.

Bhwfvfr, tfobehihjy thhis mihef lh eht pfrchra suob whelfrs de fluomtdhe. Dt ds m ohaahe

aytb th `fidfvf tbmt ohaputfrs, mel htbfr thhis, daprhvf tbf hvfrmii ifmredej fxpfrdfeof

(@fog, 0>==7 Om`rhi mel _fvfrde, 0>>47 @dttfr mel Ifjmoy, 0>>2). Bhwfvfr, sobhhi systfas

lh eht miwmys rfsphel cmst th tbf tfobehihjy mlvmeofs mel/hr dts dapifafetmtdhe ds lfcdodfet

(M``htt, 0>>=). Pfsfmrob m`hut DO\ mel dts detfjrmtdhe de fluomtdhe ds sdjedcdometiy ldvfrsf,

mitbhujb tbfrf mrf euafrhus sobhimrs wbh bmvf suoofsscuiiy lfahestrmtfl phsdtdvf fccfots hc

DO\ de momlfado mobdfvfafet mel sobhhi fxpfrdfeof tbfrf mrf htbfrs wbh bmvf jmdefl

hpphsdtf rfsuits de tbfdr rfsfmrob (@dttfr mel Ifjmoy, 0>>2).

Chr fxmapif, ift us mssuaf tbmt tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\s de m jdvfe sobhhi ds idadtfl th tbf

amobdefs mel shctwmrf destmiimtdhe de tbf oimssrhha mel ldsrfjmrls tbf dapifafetmtdhe hc

mlfqumtf aftbhls, pflmjhjy mel tfmobfr trmdedej. Velfr suob oheldtdhes, stulfets momlfado

mobdfvfafet mel sobhhidej fxpfrdfeofs chr `htb tfmobfrs mel stulfets ome `f efjmtdvf, sdeof

tbf dapifafetmtdhe cmdis th detfjrmtf tbf tfobehihjdomi thhis th tbf tfmobdej mel ifmredej

prhofss mel ourrdouiua. Dc tbf mda ds th mobdfvf jrfmtfr momlfado rfsuits wdtb DO\ detfjrmtdhede fluomtdhe, tbfe stulfets mel tfmobfrs effl th cmadidmrdzf, fa`rmof mel motdvfiy usf

tfobehihjy. \bus, rfchras de tbf ourrdouiua mel tfmobdej aftbhls mrf rfqudrfl (Omrehy,

=4447 ^fijrua mel Imw, 0>>?).

Zdtb tbf rmpdl lfvfihpafet hc DO\ mel dts detfjrmtdhe de fluomtdhe, tbf effl chr rfchras de

phidoy, daprhvfl ourrdouim, tfmobfr fluomtdhe, mel pflmjhjdomi mpprhmobfs mrf fssfetdmi.

\bfsf rfchras sbhuil, uelhu`tfliy, amxdadzf tbf usf hc tfobehihjy de tbf oimssrhha de hrlfrth prhvdlf stulfets wdtb tbf sgdiis efflfl de tbf whrgpimof mel idcf de tbf ldjdtmi shodfty (Ohx


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=3

mel Amrsbmii, 0>>:7 \helfur ft mi., 0>>:7 îhap, ^fijrua mel Imw, 0>>3). Ffvd @fog, m

rfsfmrobfr crha tbf fluomtdhemi lfpmrtafet mt uedvfrsdty hc Hsih, phdetfl hut tbf daphrtmeof

hc rfsfmrob he DO\ de tbf fluomtdhe cdfil, sh phidoy amgfrs mel stmgfbhilfrs bmvf moofss th

dechramtdhe tbmt femìf ourrdouim lfvfihpafet, pflmjhjdomi rfchras mel `fttfr

dapifafetmtdhe. De m sdadimr wmy, Zmrsobmufr stmtfs tbmt tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ de fluomtdhe

ds me daphrtmet rfshurof tbmt ome febmeof tbf ifmredej mel tfmobdej fxpfrdfeof ùt,

uelhu`tfliy, tbf shif thhis mrf eht succdodfet th mobdfvf fluomtdhe qumidty. Auob ahrf ds

efflfl wbfe detfjrmtdej DO\ de tbf oimssrhha mel ourrdouim.

\fobehihjy ome pimy m vdtmi rhif de prhahtdej fluomtdhemi mel shodmi fqudty, dc

lfpihyfl ms pmrt hc wfii-lfsdjefl fluomtdhemi detfrvfetdhes. ^rhvdldej fqudpafet ds

me daphrtmet pmrt hc tbds fcchrt, ùt m samii pmrt. Ahst daphrtmeof ds th lfsdje mefluomtdhemi detfrvfetdhe tbmt bfips mii stulfets mobdfvf fxofiifeof. (Zmrsobmufr,0>==;04)

\bf ldjdtmi ldvdlf?.=.0

Ms wms afetdhefl de tbf `fjdeedej hc tbds sfotdhe, DO\ de fluomtdhe cmofs sfvfrmi obmiifejfs

mel ohestrmdets. \bf ahst gehwe ordtdo ds tbf hef omiifl ldjdtmi ldvdlftbmt ds uelfrsthhl ms

tbf ohesdlfrmìf da`mimeof tbmt fxdsts eht heiy de tbf moofss th tfobehihjy ùt mish tbf usf hc

dt. Amrjdemidzfl mel phhr sfothrs hc tbf phpuimtdhe bmvf vfry idttif moofss th fluomtdhe meltbfdr obmeofs th usf ldjdtmi afldm mrf sdjedcdometiy ifss tbme tbhsf de lfvfihpfl mrfms (@fog,

0>>>07

Julauelslhttdr mel Kmgh`slhttdr, 0>==).

\bf ldjdtmi ldvdlf mel dts dapmot de hur shodftdfs ds su`kfot hc devfstdjmtdhe `y euafrhus

rfsfmrobfrs wbh mda th uelfrstmel tbf lyemados hc DO\ detfjrmtdhe de fluomtdhe de

lfvfihpdej ohuetrdfs, fspfodmiiy de fluomtdhe chr ldsmlvmetmjfl jrhups. Adobfiif _fidejfr, chr

destmeof, mrjufs tbmt tbfrf mrf tbrff amde mspfots th ohesdlfr wbfe dapifafetdej DO\

fluomtdhe de lfvfihpdej ohuetrdfs; idejudstdo rfifvmeof, pflmjhjdomi trmeschramtdhe mel

tfobehihjdomi ohesdlfrmtdhes (wbdob rfjmrls th ohsts mel amdetfemeof hc fqudpafet). Bfeof,

shuel phidoy lfvfihpafet mel pimeedej mrf rfqudrfl sh tbf ldvdlf ome `f `rdljfl de

sustmdemìf mel rfmidstdo wmys (_fidejfr, 0>>4). Htbfr stuldfs oheluotfl `y @fog (0>>


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=:

m jmp tbmt phsfs m jrfmt obmiifejf chr jhvfreafets, sobhimrs, phidoy amgfrs mel stmgfbhilfrs.

Bhwfvfr, \dedh mrjufs tbmt DO\ ome mish sfrvf ms miifvdmtdhe chr tbf deorfmsdej defqumidtdfs

`ftwffe rdob mel phhr `y prhvdldej fluomtdhe mel hpphrtuedtdfs th tbf ahst efflfl (\dedh,

0>>0).

DO\ mel fluomtdhe chr Deldjfehus pfhpif?.=.?

\bf uefqumi moofss th fluomtdhe mel tbf usf hc DO\ de sobhhis `y deldjfehus pfhpifs ds hc

detfrfst chr m imrjf `hly hc rfsfmrobfrs, suob ms _mimzmr (0>>:), Jdefr (0>>:), Lyshe (0>>=6). Lfspdtf tbf rmpdl lfvfihpafet hc DO\s, tbf ldjdtmi ldvdlf bms whrsfefl

chstfrdej uefqumi moofss `ftwffe ldccfrfet ohetdefets, rfjdhes mel ohuetrdfs mrhuel tbf whril.

\bds cmot ds ahrf fvdlfet de deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs tbmt mirfmly cmof mii gdels hc fxoiusdhe

mel amrjdemidzmtdhe (Pfgbmrd, 0>>4). De ahst hc tbf omsfs, deldjfehus pfhpif bmvf idadtfl

moofss th sfrvdofs suob ms bfmitb mel fluomtdhe, wbdob hctfe ldsrfjmrls tbfdr imejumjf,

whrilvdfws mel trmldtdhes (Oihtbfy, 0>=6).

\bfrf mrf euafrhus tfesdhes mel obmiifejfs tbmt tbf DO\s de fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif

bmvf th cmof de `htb tbf phidoy mel tbf dapifafetmtdhe ifvfis. De m stuly he DO\ de fluomtdhe

chr deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs de Afxdoh, Amrdm Omsdiims fxpimdes bhw moofss th fqudpafet mel

oheefotdvdty de rurmi sobhhis chr deldjfehus pfhpif rfprfsfets m obmiifejf luf th tbfdr rfahtf

ihomtdhes. Bhwfvfr, Omsdiims mish mssfrts tbmt prhvdldej tbfsf fifafets ds eht fehujb sdeof

dssufs suob ms imejumjf, whrilvdfws mel ohetfxts bmvf th `f mllrfssfl `fchrf mpprhmobdej

tbf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs th fesurf qumidty mel rfifvmeof (Omsdiims, 0>=0).

_dadimriy, htbfr stuldfs de Mustrmidm, Mcrdom mel _hutb Mafrdom mish rfcifot he tbf ldccfrfet

dapmots hc DO\s de fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpifs. Me fccfotdvf dapifafetmtdhe hc

tfobehihjdfs chr deldjfehus fluomtdhe aust `f mttfelfl `y ourrdouiua rfchras tbmt miihwouiturmi mel idejudstdo rfifvmeof (Khrjfesfe, 0>=07 Jhhlwde, 0>>:7 _mimzmr, 0>>:). \bf amde

oheofre mel obmiifejf stdii chousfs he mllrfssdej tbf defqumidtdfs hc moofss mel imog hc

rfifvmeof hc tbf detfjrmtdhe hc tfobehihjdfs de fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpifs (Lyshe,

0>>


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tbf ouiturfs, imejumjfs mel whrilvdfws de tbf ifmredej prhofss. \bfrf`y, DO\s de fluomtdhe

bmvf tbf phtfetdmi th feohurmjf deldjfehus pfhpifs pmrtdodpmtdhe de rfprfsfetdej mel

trmesadttdej tbfdr ouiturfs mel tbfdr hwe gehwifljf (Lmy mel Jrfwme, 0>>3).

Mluit fluomtdhe?.0

\bf rfsfmrob cdfil he fluomtdhe sffas th rfohjedzf idcfihej ifmredej ms m phwfrcui omtmiyst chr

lfvfihpafet de shodftdfs mrhuel tbf whril, sdeof fluomtdhe hccfrs `fttfr hpphrtuedtdfs chr

pfhpif th hvfrohaf phvfrty, defqumidtdfs mel amrjdemidzmtdhe. Fluomtdhe chr mluits eht heiy

rfcfrs th tbf ifmredej prhofss tbmt bmppfes de tbf sobhhi `huelmrdfs ùt mish me motdvf prhofss

tbmt lfvfihps tbrhujb idcf fxpfrdfeofs, deoiuldej chrami mel dechrami sfttdejs wbfrf tbf

pfrshe ifmres `y detfrmotdej wdtb tbf fevdrheafet mel htbfrs. De mlldtdhe, mluit fluomtdhe

mdas th frmldomtf diidtfrmoy mel prhahtf tbf lfvfihpafet hc ldccfrfet ohapftfeofs suob ms

euafrmoy, imejumjf, mel odtdzfesbdp vmiufs, mahej htbfrs. \bf Bmaùrj lfoimrmtdhe he mluit

ifmredej (VDF, =44:) lfcdefs mluit fluomtdhe ms;

Mluit fluomtdhe lfehtfs tbf fetdrf `hly hc hejhdej ifmredej prhofssfs, chrami hr

htbfrwdsf, wbfrf`y pfhpif rfjmrlfl ms mluits `y tbf shodfty th wbdob tbfy `fihej

lfvfihp tbfdr m`didtdfs, ferdob tbfdr gehwifljf, mel daprhvf tbfdr tfobedomi hr

prhcfssdhemi qumidcdomtdhes hr ture tbfa de m efw ldrfotdhe th afft tbfdr hwe effls

mel tbhsf hc tbfdr shodfty. Mluit ifmredej feohapmssfs `htb, chrami mel ohetdeudejfluomtdhe, ehe-chrami ifmredej mel tbf spfotrua hc dechrami mel deodlfetmi ifmredej

mvmdimìf de m auitdouiturmi ifmredej shodfty, wbfrf tbfhry- mel prmotdof-`msfl

mpprhmobfs mrf rfohjedzfl.

Efvfrtbfifss, tbf ldccfrfeofs `ftwffe tbf lfvfihpfl mel lfvfihpdej ohuetrdfs mrf stdii wdlf.

Mitbhujb fluomtdhe ds ofetrmi oheofre mel bms `ffe tmrjftfl ms hef hc tbf Adiifeedua

Lfvfihpafet Jhmis (ALJs), tbfrf mrf stdii me mimradej eua`fr hc diidtfrmtf pfhpif (yhutb mel

mluits) wbh mrf amrjdemidzfl crha tbf fluomtdhe systfa, prflhademetiy de tbf jih`mi shutb.

\bfrfchrf, strhejfr chous he mluit fluomtdhe mt emtdhemi mel detfremtdhemi ifvfis bms deorfmsfl

de hrlfr th orfmtf strmtfjdfs th rfluof tbfsf cdjurfs mel hccfr fluomtdhe th tbf hut-hc-sobhhi

yhutb mel mluits.

\bf detfremtdhemi ohecfrfeof gehwe ms OHECD\FM (Detfremtdhemi Ohecfrfeof he Mluit

Fluomtdhe) ds m VEF_OHs afftdej phdet chr detfremtdhemi detfrfst he idcfihej ifmredej.

OHECD\FM ohevfys detfremtdhemi rfphrts mel `feobamrgs tbmt mda th bdjbidjbt tbf

daphrtmeof hc mluit ifmredej, mel th fxpihrf ldccfrfet mspfots hc fluomtdhe chr mluit pfhpif de


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hrlfr th fesurf fqudty mel qumidty mel th put mluit fluomtdhe mt tbf ohrf chr phidoy amgdej mel

curtbfr rfsfmrob mjfelms (VDI, 0>=?). Mluit fluomtdhe ds auob efflfl th fqudp pfhpif

(prflhademetiy tbf ldsmlvmetmjfl) wdtb rfifvmet ohapftfeofs, sgdiis mel gehwifljf tbfy

rfqudrf th rfjmde ohetrhi hc tbfdr idvfs, rfsphel th tbfdr effls mel uitdamtfiy hvfrohaf tbfdr

daphvfrdsbfl idvdej oheldtdhes. Ms _yivdm _obafigfs, m Afxdome shodhihjdst wbh oheluots

rfsfmrob he mluit mel deldjfehus fluomtdhe, stmtfs,

Dc wf `fidfvf fluomtdhe th `f m cmothr de faphwfrdej deldvdlumis mel ohiifotdvfs

thwmrls tbf daprhvfafet hc tbfdr qumidty hc idcf, tbf fluomtdhe hc deldjfehus

phpuimtdhe hc mii mjf jrhups sbhuil eh lhu`t `fohaf m prdhrdty. \bds hc ohursf

deoiulfs, vfry daphrtmetiy, mluit fluomtdhe, `fomusf dt ds mluits wbh ome fejmjf de

trmeschramtdhe felfmvhrs. (_obafigfs, 0>==;4?)

_dadimriy, mluit idtfrmoy mel fluomtdhe ds mish hef hc tbf h`kfotdvfs hc tbf Fluomtdhe chr Mii

(FCM) jhmis, m jih`mi ohaadtafet ohhrldemtfl `y VEF_OH. \bf FCM jih`mi ahedthrdej

rfphrt hc 0>== stmtfs tbmt, daprhvdej mluit idtfrmoy hujbt th `f m ifmldej prdhrdty he tbf

detfremtdhemi mjfelm. Idtfrmoy ome faphwfr pfhpif `y deorfmsdej tbfdr sfic-fstffa mel

orfmtdej hpphrtuedtdfs th fsompf phvfrty. (VEF_OH, 0>==). \bfrf mrf vmst mahuet hc

pfhpif de tbf whril thlmy wbh ifct sobhhi mt me fmriy stmjf hr wbh efvfr moofssfl hef.

Fluomtdhe ds fssfetdmi chr pfhpif th afft tbfdr `msdo effls mel moqudrf sgdiis th suooffl de tbf

whrg pimof7 idtfrmoy mel euafrmoy mrf cuelmafetmi th fohehado jrhwtb (VEF_OH, 0>=?).

Mitbhujb mluit fluomtdhe mel idtfrmoy ds m amde oheofre chr detfremtdhemi hrjmedzmtdhes suob

ms VEF_OH, tbf jfefrmi hvfrvdfw he idtfrmoy rmtfs ds stdii ihw mel ldl eht afft tbf FCM

jhmis sft chr 0>=6, wbdob rfqudrfs jrfmtfr fcchrts `y jhvfreafets mel hrjmedzmtdhes devhivfl.

Idtfrmoy ds cuelmafetmi chr pmrtdodpmtdej de shodfty. Bhwfvfr, tbf jhmi hc bmivdej jih`mi

diidtfrmoy rmtfs `y 0>=6 bms `ffe adssfl. (VEF_OH, 0>=6). Velfr tbfsf oheldtdhes dt ds eht

heiy daphrtmet `ut mish efofssmry th prhvdlf tbf yhutb mel mluits wdtb hpphrtuedtdfs chr

qumidty fluomtdhe tbmt daprhvfs tbfdr oheldtdhes de shodfty mel tbf whrg pimof (Imwrfeof,

=4427 Gfrrf, =442).

Fluomtdhe de tbf Ohiha`dme ohetfxt?.?

\bds sfotdhe wdii prfsfet me hvfrvdfw he tbf obmrmotfrdstdos mel ifjdsimtdhe chuel de tbf

idtfrmturf de rfjmrls th mluit fluomtdhe mel DO\ de fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm. \bds sfotdhe wdii


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0>

mish amgf usf hc tbf stmtfafet prhvdlfl `y tbf Adedstry hc Fluomtdhe de rfjmrls th fluomtdhe

chr deldjfehus pfhpif, wbdob wms pmrt hc tbf lmtm jmtbfrfl lurdej tbf cdfilwhrg.

Fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm ds ruifl `y tbf Jfefrmi Fluomtdhe Imw ==6 hc =44


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0=

\bf Adedstry hc Fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm mish rfidfs he tbfîme Lfofemi lf Fluomode 0>>3 -

0>=3(tfe-yfmr pime hc fluomtdhe) ms m crmafwhrg chr DO\ de fluomtdhe. \bds prfsfet tfe-yfmr

pime fapbmsdzfs he tbf pflmjhjdomi trmeschramtdhe mel motdvf usf hc dechramtdhe mel

ohaauedomtdhe tfobehihjdfs de fluomtdhe. \bds pime eht heiy deoiulfs tbf tfobehihjdomi

decrmstruoturf chr sobhhis mel tbf strfejtbfedej hc pflmjhjdomi prhofssfs tbmt cmodidtmtf

tfmobdej mel ifmredej prmotdofs, ùt mish bdjbidjbts tbf daphrtmeof hc tfmobfr fluomtdhe de

rfjmrls th tbf usf hc DO\ mel pflmjhjdomi deehvmtdhe de tbf oimssrhha (AFE, 0>>3).

Ohesfqufetiy, lurdej rfofet yfmrs tbfrf bms `ffe m jrhwdej detfrfst de lfvfihpdej fluomtdhemi

prhjrmas tbmt mda th detfjrmtf DO\ deth ldccfrfet ifvfis de chrami mel ehe-chrami fluomtdhe de

ur`me mel rurmi sfttdejs. \bfsf prhjrmas mel fcchrts bmvf `ffe ifl `y sfvfrmi stmgfbhilfrs

suob ms tbf Adedstry hc Fluomtdhe, tbf rfjdhemi sforftmrdmts, tfmobfrs, emtdhemi meldetfremtdhemi hrjmedzmtdhes, mahej htbfrs. Chr destmeof, tbf prhjrmas Ohaputfrs chr

Fluomtdhe, wbdob ds me detfr-destdtutdhemi prhjrma ohhrldemtfl `y tbf Ohiha`dme Adedstry hc

Fluomtdhe (AhF), mdas th amgf surf ohaputfrs chra pmrt hc tbf hccdodmi chrami fluomtdhe

destdtutdhes de ur`me mel rurmi mrfms de hrlfr th prhahtf moofss, hwefrsbdp mel usmjf hc

tfobehihjdfs. Dts mda ds th prhvdlf lfvfihpafet hpphrtuedtdfs chr tbf ldsmlvmetmjfl. Me

fvmiumtdhe oheluotfl he tbf prhjrma de 0>>4 sbhwfl tbmt tbf prhjrma deorfmsfs tbf eua`fr

hc ohaputfrs de tbf sobhhis mel deorfmsfs stulfets usmjf hc tfobehihjy. Bhwfvfr, tbfrf wmsidttif fccfot he stulfets tfst sohrfs mel htbfr cmothrs suob ms pfrofptdhes hc sobhhi mel bhurs

hc stuly, sdeof dt chousfl he tbf bmrlwmrf deohrphrmtdhe deth tbf sobhhis ùt cmdifl th detfjrmtf

tbf ohaputfrs usf de tbf fluomtdhemi prhofss (@mrrfrm mel Idelfe, 0>>4).

Efvfrtbfifss, tbfrf mrf mish htbfr prhjrmas tbmt mrf rue mt ihomi ifvfis tbmt mda th prhahtf m

ldjdtmi shodfty mel th `rdljf tbf ldjdtmi jmps de rurmi mel ur`me mrfms de Ohiha`dm. ^rhjrmas

mel prmotdofs hc tbds emturf detfel eht heiy th felhw sobhhis wdtb DO\ thhis mel shctwmrf th

tfmob mel ifmre ùt mish th detfjrmtf deehvmtdvf pflmjhjdfs tbmt cmodidtmtf afmedejcui ifmredej

fxpfrdfeofs chr tbf stulfets (^mimodhs, 0>>4). \bf uitdamtf jhmi hc tbf detfjrmtdhe hc DO\ de

fluomtdhe chr stulfets de rurmi mel phhr mrfms ds th lfvfihp ldjdtmi sgdiis mel prhahtf tbf usf

hc tbf detfreft de hrlfr th daprhvf stulfets idvfidbhhls mel cuturf hpphrtuedtdfs.

DO\ de fluomtdhe de tbf Ohiha`dme ohetfxt ds m ourrfet oheofre chr phidoy amgfrs mel

stmgfbhilfrs. \bf jfefrmi mda ds th deoiulf mel prhahtf tbf usf hc tfobehihjdfs mt mii ifvfis hc

fluomtdhe7 tbds ohvfrs chrami mel ehe-chrami fluomtdhe, fmriy obdilbhhl, fifafetmry,

sfohelmry, tfrtdmry mel mluit fluomtdhe. \bfrfchrf, tbf fluomtdhe sfothr sbhuil strfejtbfe tbf


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tfmobdej prhcfssdhe, tfobehihjdomi decrmstruoturf, pflmjhjdfs, devfstdjmtdhe mel detfrmotdhe de

tbf oimssrhha tbrhujb tbf usf hc DO\s tbmt mrf fxpfotfl th daprhvf ifmredej qumidty, moofss

mel hutohafs (AFE, 0>=?).

Mluit fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm?.?.0

Fluomtdhe chr mluits mel hut-hc-sobhhi yhutb rfprfsfets me fehrahus obmiifejf chr tbf

emtdhemi jhvfreafet. De 0>=0, tbf pfrofetmjf hc idtfrmtf pfhpif de Ohiha`dm wms 4>>,>>> diidtfrmtf pfhpif

de tbf ohuetry (VEF_OH, 0>=6). \ypdomiiy, pfhpif wbh mrf diidtfrmtf `fihej th ldsmlvmetmjfl

shodmi jrhups suob ms deldjfehus, ìmog adehrdtdfs, cmrafrs, mel detfremiiy ldspimofl pfhpif

wbh efvfr moofssfl tbf chrami fluomtdhe systfa hr, de htbfr omsfs, wbh lrhppfl hut hc sobhhimt me fmriy stmjf. Ms m ohesfqufeof, tbf jhvfreafet bms dapifafetfl sfvfrmi mluit fluomtdhe

prhjrmas suob ms tbfEmtdhemi Idtfrmoy mel Mluit Fluomtdhe ^rhjrma chr Thutb mel Mluits de

hrlfr th daprhvf moofss mel cueldej hc mluit fluomtdhe mel ifmredej.

\bf Emtdhemi Ohestdtutdhe hc =44= fstmìdsbfs fluomtdhe ms m cuelmafetmi rdjbt chr mii,

deoiuldej adehrdtdfs mel pfhpif wdtb ldsm`didtdfs. _pfodmiiy, mluit fluomtdhe ds ifjmiiy

supphrtfl `y Jfefrmi Imw ==6tbmt lfsord`fs mluit fluomtdhe ms tbf fluomtdhe prhvdlfl chr

pfhpif wbh mrf hilfr tbme tbf mjf chr tbf rfjuimr fluomtdhe systfa mel wbh wmet th stmrt,

ohapiftf hr vmidlmtf tbfdr fluomtdhe. (AFE, =44). \bds ifmredej prhofss

mdas prdamrdiy th fidademtf diidtfrmoy, th rfdechrof gehwifljf mel th lfvfihp fohehado, shodmi,

mel ouiturmi ompmodtdfs.

\bf amde ifjmi crmafwhrg chr mluit fluomtdhe mel ifmredej de Ohiha`dm ds tbf Lforff-Imw

?>== hc =44:. \bds lforff dlfetdcdfs mluit fluomtdhe ms m puìdo sfrvdof tbmt prhvdlfs pfhpif

wdtb tbf hpphrtuedty th rf-fetfr tbf fluomtdhe systfa. Bfeof, mluit fluomtdhe ds tbf jrhup hcsobhhidej motdvdtdfs mvmdimìf chr pfhpif m`hvf =? yfmrs hil mel wbh chr ldvfrsf rfmshes ldl

eht stuly hr wbh lrhppfl hut fmriy. _dadimriy, tbfLforff-Imw ?>==hc =44: stmtfs tbmt moofss

th tbds mluit fluomtdhe sbhuil eht ohesdlfr pfrshemi oheldtdhes, ftbedodty, rfidjdhus `fidfcs mel

dlfhihjdfs. \bf mda ds th prhvdlf pfhpif wdtb hpphrtuedtdfs th hvfrohaf tbfdr idvdej

oheldtdhes `y febmeodej ldccfrfet prmotdomi sgdiis tbmt ome `f usfl de tbf whrg pimof hr de

cuturf idcf fxpfrdfeofs (AFE, =44:).


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\mìf ?.=; _truoturf hc tbf chrami mluit fluomtdhe systfa de Ohiha`dm.

_hurof;AFE, 0>>:

_hurof;Dechramtdhe mlmptfl crha Afe, =44:

Mluit fluomtdhe mel ifmredej deoiulfs idtfrmoy prhjrmas, `msdo mel bdjb sobhhi fluomtdhe, mel

ehe-chrami mel chrami fluomtdhe prhjrmas. \bf mluit fluomtdhe systfa ds hrjmedzfl `y tbf

auedodpmi mel rfjdhemi sforftmrdmts. Mluit fluomtdhe prhjrmas mrf dapifafetfl de ìfelfl

ifmredej hr ldstmeof fluomtdhe, omrrdfl hut he _mturlmys, _uelmys hr de tbf fvfedejs mt tbf

hccdodmi destdtutdhes mvmdimìf. Mluit fluomtdhe ifvfis mrf omiifl _pfodmi Detfjrmtfl _obhhi

Oyoifs tbmt rfimtf th tbf chrami fluomtdhe sobhhi jrmlfs mel ifvfis. \bfsf oyoifs mrf chrafl hc

mt ifmst twh sobhhi jrmlfs, wbdob imst chr m yfmr mel ifml th tbf ofrtdcdomtdhe hc fifafetmry,

`msdo mel sfohelmry fluomtdhe (sff tmìf ?.=).

\bf Lforff-Imw ?>== fapbmsdzfs he tbf rfifvmeof mel cifxd`didty hc fluomtdhe chr mluit

pfhpif. @fsdlfs idtfrmoy mel euafrmoy, mluit fluomtdhe mish mdas th destruot pfhpif he tbf

pmrtdodpmtdhe mel tbfdr motdvf rhifs ms afa`frs hc shodfty. \bds ifmredej prhofss `fmrs de adel

tbf shodh-ouiturmi oheldtdhes hc tbf phpuimtdhe chr m ohetfxtumidzfl mel fccfotdvf pmrtdodpmtdhe

de shodmi sfttdejs. Ms bms `ffe afetdhefl fmridfr, deldjfehus pfhpif mrf pmrt hc shodmi

adehrdtdfs tbmt bmvf `ffe systfamtdomiiy lfprdvfl crha chrami fluomtdhe prhjrmas mel wbhsf

effls mrf yft th `f aft `y tbf emtdhemi mel ihomi jhvfreafets. Mitbhujb, tbf phidodfs mel

prhjrmas mrf fstmìdsbfl, tbf rfofet rfphrts crha Ohiha`dm th tbf Fluomtdhe Chr Mii (FCM)

Jih`mi Ahedthrdej rfphrt de 0>=6 sbhw idttif daprhvfafet de tbf fidademtdhe hc diidtfrmoy.

Deldjfehus fluomtdhe de Ohiha`dm?.?.?

\bf fluomtdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif de Ohiha`dm ds `msfl he mrtdoifs : mel => hc tbfEmtdhemi^hidtdomi Ohestdtutdhe hc =44=. \bfsf mrtdoifs rfcfr th tbf rfohjedtdhe hc tbf ohuetry ms m

_pfodmi detfjrmtfl sobhhi oyoifs Fluomtdhe ifvfis Lurmtdhe Ofrtdcdomtf

Oyoif = (=s mel 0e jrmlfs) Fifafetmry fluomtdhe = Tfmr

Oyoif 0 (?rl

, mel == jrmlf) Vppfr sfohelmry fluomtdhe = Tfmr Bdjb sobhhi fluomtdhe


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< Memiytdomi crmafwhrg

\bf chiihwdej obmptfr prfsfets tbf tbfhrftdomi crmafwhrgs usfl th memiyzf mel uelfrstmel tbf

cdeldejs ydfilfl `y tbds stuly. _fotdhe >?). M spfodmi fapbmsds wdii `f lrmwe he tbf mttrd`utfs hc

deehvmtdhes, wbdob ohestdtutf tbf chous hc lmtm memiysds. \bds stulys cdeldejs bmvf mish

ldotmtfl tbf effl th devhivf m sfohel tbfhry th supphrt tbf memiysds hc lmtm. Bfeof, sfotdhe >>m7 0>>>`). Cdjurf


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03

Ldccusdhe hc deehvmtdhes tbfhry>?) lfsord`fs mel

sdapidcdfs tbf uelfrstmeldej hc wbfe, bhw, wby mel uelfr wbdob odrouastmeofs tbfsf

deehvmtdhes mrf mlhptfl mel/hr rfkfotfl `y ohaauedtdfs mel deldvdlumis. Mish, dt ds usfcui th

uelfrpde deehvmtdhesobmiifejfs mel idadtmtdhes th mlhptdhe. \bds gehwifljf ds rfifvmet chr

tbf ohst-fccfotdvf pimeedej mel orfmtdhe hc efw tfobehihjdfs mel deehvmtdhe dedtdmtdvfs tbmt

ome sfrvf tbf effls hc tbf jih`mi shutb de tbf prhofss hc mobdfvdej lfvfihpafet chr mii. DO\s

detfjrmtdhe deth tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma wms ohesdlfrfl me deehvmtdhe hc tbf fluomtdheprhvdsdhe chr deldjfehus pfhpif de Jumdem. \bus, ldccusdhe hc deehvmtdhes tbfhry mssdstfl de

tbf memiysds hc pmrtdodpmets pfrofptdhes hc tbf deehvmtdhe he `htb tbf mluit fluomtdhe prhjrma

mel tbf deldjfehus ohaauedtdfs.

Velfrstmeldej ldccusdhe hc deehvmtdhes>?). Moohrldej th Phjfrs, tbfsf stmjfs lh eht miwmys ruif mii tbf

deehvmtdhes hr tfobehihjdfs, mel lh eht efofssmrdiy chiihw tbmt spfodcdo hrlfr.

Efw dlfms effl th `f h`sfrvfl `y pfhpif, wbh amy mlhpt tbfa, ms efw de hrlfr th `f

ohesdlfrfl deehvmtdhes. Me deehvmtdhe ds me dlfm, prmotdof, hr h`kfot tbmt ds pfrofdvfl ms efw

`y me deldvdlumi hr htbfr uedt hc mlhptdhe. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=0). Ohaaheiy, deldvdlumis mel

afa`frs hc m pmrtdouimr shodfty cmof me dedtdmi pfrdhl hc ueofrtmdety m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe, eht

`fdej surf m`hut dts cueotdhedej hr bhw dt ohuil mccfot tbfa. \bds prhofss deciufeofs tbf

lfodsdhe amgdej he wbftbfr th mlhpt tbf deehvmtdhe hr eht. Phjfrs mish mrjufs tbmt m pfrshes


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fxpfrdfeofs wdtb m ofrtmde deehvmtdhe wdii deciufeof bds/bfr pfrofptdhes m`hut cuturf

deehvmtdhes he tbf smaf cdfil. \bds ds tbf rfmshe wby deehvmtdhes bfmvdiy rfiy he ldccusdhe

prhofssfs tbmt prhahtf mel ldssfademtf dechramtdhe m`hut tbf efw dlfm, dts omusf-fccfots mel

mlvmetmjfs. \bus, ueofrtmdety m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe lforfmsfs mel phtfetdmi mlhptfrs ome amgf

tbfdr obhdofs.

\bf ldccusdhe prhofss ds tbf amde gfy th tbf deehvmtdhes mlhptdhe`fomusf dt ds tbrhujb tbds

ohaauedomtdhe tbmt deldvdlumis sprfml mel fxobmejf dechramtdhe m`hut tbf efw dlfm th

htbfrs. De Phjfrss tbfhry, tbf ldccusdhe prhofss ome `f sphetmefhus mel uepimeefl `ut mish

ldrfotfl mel amemjfl thwmrls me fccfotdvf sprfmldej hc gehwifljf. Ldccusdhe ds lfsord`fl ms

tbf prhofss de wbdob me deehvmtdhe ds ohaauedomtfl tbrhujb ofrtmde obmeefis hvfr tdaf

mahej tbf afa`frs hc m shodmi systfa. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;6). \brhujb ldccusdhe, efw dlfms jft

trmesadttfl usdej ldccfrfet obmeefis hc ohaauedomtdhe, dt ds tdaf-`huelfl mel detfelfl chr

deldvdlumis de spfodcdo ohetfxts. \bf ohaauedomtdhe hc efw dlfms mahej pmrtdodpmets fesurfs

tbf sprfml hc dechramtdhe m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe mel prhahtfs autumi uelfrstmeldej m`hut dt.

\bus, rfluodej ueprfldotm`didty m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe mel cmodidtmtdej dts mlhptdhe hr dts

rfkfotdhe.

Ohesfqufetiy, chstfrdej mlhptdhe lfodsdhes de deldvdlumis mel shodftdfs ds me daphrtmet tmsg

chr tbf detfjrmtdhe hc deehvmtdhes de hur shodftdfs. \bfsf deehvmtdhe lfodsdhes devhivf m sfrdfs

hc obhdofs mel motdhes wbdob mrf; gehwifljf, pfrsumsdhe, lfodsdhe, dapifafetmtdhe mel

ohecdramtdhe. Moohrldej th Phjfrs, tbf lfodsdhe th mlhpt deehvmtdhes ds,

tbf prhofss tbrhujb wbdob me deldvdlumi, (hr htbfr lfodsdhe-amgdej uedt) pmssfs crha

jmdedej gehwifljf hc me deehvmtdhe, th chradej me mttdtulf thwmrls tbf deehvmtdhe, th

amgdej m lfodsdhe th mlhpt hr rfkfot, th dapifafetmtdhe hc tbf efw dlfm, mel th

ohecdramtdhe hc tbds lfodsdhe. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=32)

Gehwifljf feohapmssfs cmadidmrdty wdtb tbf deehvmtdhe, bhw dt sbhuil `f usfl mel tbmt

wbdob mrf dts `msdo cueotdhes. \bf pfrsumsdhe stmjf lfvfihps wbfe phtfetdmi mlhptfrs ome chra

m phsdtdvf hr efjmtdvf pfrofptdhe m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe tbrhujb fxpfrdfeof th imtfr put de de usf

wdtb tbf dapifafetmtdhe stmjf. Ohecdramtdhe rfcfrs th tbf pfrofdvfl hutohaf deldvdlumis lrmw

mctfr mlhptdej tbf deehvmtdhe. De mlldtdhe, deehvmtdhe mlhptdhe hr rfkfotdhe ds ldotmtfl `y tbrff

typfs hc deehvmtdhe lfodsdhes; hptdhemi, ohiifotdvf hr mutbhrdty deehvmtdhe-lfodsdhes (Phjfrs,

0>>?).


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Ohesdlfrdej tbf mchrfafetdhefl prhofssfs, deldvdlumis mel shodmi systfas amgf mlhptdhe (hr

rfkfotdhe) lfodsdhes. @msfl he tbf ldccfrfeofs mahej lfodsdhes amlf `y tbf deldvdlumis,

Phjfrs lfvfihps m omtfjhrdzmtdhe hc mlhptfrs. Moohrldej th bda, tbfrf mrf cdvf mlhptfr

omtfjhrdfs tbmt ldrfotiy rfimtf th tbf deehvmtdhe mel tbf wmy de wbdob deldvdlumis de m shodmi

systfa mlhpt tbfa mihej tdaf; deehvmthrs, fmriy mlhptfrs, fmriy amkhrdty, imtf amkhrdty mel

imjjmrls (Phjfrs, 0>>?).

Heof mlhptdhe lfodsdhes mrf amlf mel dapifafetfl, ohesfqufeofs hc tbf deehvmtdhe mlhptdhe

hr rfkfotdhe ome mrdsf. \bfsf deehvmtdhe ohesfqufeofs mrf rfimtfl th tbf obmejfs tbmt amy hr

amy eht hoour th tbf deldvdlumis hr shodmi jrhups wbh mlhptfl hr rfkfotfl tbf efw dlfm.

Ohesfqufeofs mrf tbf obmejfs tbmt hoourth me deldvdlumi hr m shodmi systfa ms m rfsuit hc

tbf mlhptdhe hr rfkfotdhe hc me deehvmtdhe. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;


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04

Mttrdùtfs hc deehvmtdhes>?;0=4). \bf rmtfs hc

mlhptdhe mrf cdjurfs tbmt deldomtf tbf spffl de wbdob me deehvmtdhe ds mlhptfl `y ohuetdej tbf

eua`fr hc deldvdlumis wbh usf tbf deehvmtdhe de m jdvfe pfrdhl hc tdaf. \bfrfchrf, mttrdùtfs

hc deehvmtdhe mrf vdtmi th lftfradef tbf wmys de wbdob deldvdlumis pfrofdvf tbf efw dlfms mel

put tbfa de usf. De Phjfrs whrls Deehvmtdhes tbmt mrf pfrofdvfl `y deldvdlumis ms bmvdej

jrfmtfr rfimtdvf mlvmetmjf, ohapmtd`didty, trdmim`didty, mel h`sfrvm`didty mel ifss ohapifxdty

wdii `f mlhptfl ahrf rmpdliy tbme htbfrs deehvmtdhes. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=3). \bf chiihwdejsfotdhe wdii prfsfet tbfsf cdvf mttrdùtfs hc deehvmtdhes de lftmdi.

>?;004). Pfimtdvf

mlvmetmjf ds me daphrtmet cmothr chr mlhptfrs, mel tbus strhejiy mccfots tbf mlhptdhe lfodsdhe.

Mlvmetmjfs ome `f `msfl he fohehado mel/hr shodmi jrhuels, ùt mlhptfrs ome ohesdlfr htbfrdeldomthrs ms mlvmetmjfhus ms wfii, suob ms ohevfedfeof mel smtdscmotdhe. \bds lfpfels he tbf

emturf hc tbf deehvmtdhe mel dts pfrofdvfl supfrdhrdty crha prfvdhus deehvmtdhes. Zdtbde tbf

fohehado cmothr tbf dedtdmi ohsts hc deehvmtdhe pimy m lfodsdvf rhif de tbf lfodsdhes th mlhpt hr

rfkfot dt. Jfefrmiiy, tbf rmtfs hc mlhptdhe mrf bdjbiy deciufeofl `y tbf sbdctdej hc ohsts hc tbf

deehvmtdhes sdeof prdofs ome `f bdjb de tbf `fjdeedej mel imtfr lforfmsf ohesdlfrmìy hvfr tbf

ohursf hc tbf ldccusdhe prhofss. Jrmlumiiy ihwfrdej prdofs hc deehvmtdhes tbrhujb tbf

ohaafrodmidzmtdhe pfrdhl phtfetdmiiy prhahtf mlhptdhe rmtfs amdeiy mahej tbf fmriy mel imtfamkhrdty mlhptfrs (Phjfrs, 0>>?).

He tbf htbfr bmel, rfimtdvf mlvmetmjf ds mish msshodmtfl wdtb tbf shodmi stmtus mel shodmi

rfohjedtdhe hc deldvdlumis mel shodftdfs. Bfeof, tbf rmtf hc mlhptdhe ds oihsfiy rfimtfl th tbf

lfjrff de wbdob deldvdlumis pfrofdvf tbf deehvmtdhe ms shodmiiy `fefcdodmi. Phjfrs sujjfsts

tbmt me deehvmtdhe ohuil `f mlhptfl `y afa`frs hc m jdvfe shodfty de hrlfr th jrmtdcy hefs

lfsdrf th jmde m shodmi stmtus. \bds afmes tbmt `y mlhptdej m ofrtmde deehvmtdhe tbf deldvdlumi

ohuil fekhy m rfputmìf stmtus de bds/bfr spfodcdo shodmi sfttdej. Oifmry, shaf deldvdlumis mrf


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ahrf ahtdvmtfl th mobdfvf tbds stmtus tbme htbfrs, bhwfvfr, Phjfrs mrjufs tbmt tbfsf

mlvmetmjfs mrf ahrf ohaaheiy fxpfrdfeofl `y deehvmthrs hr fmriy mlhptfrs ms hpphsfl th tbf

imtf amkhrdty hr imjjmrl mlhptfrs (Phjfrs, 0>>?).

Sfry hctfe, phtfetdmi mlhptfrs mrf detfrfstfl de vfrdcydej bhw me deehvmtdhe ds `fttfr tbme tbf

fxdstdej hef mel bhw tbf mlhptdej lfodsdhe wdii mccfot tbfdr fohehado mel shodmi stmtus. \bf

ldccusdhe prhofss cmodidtmtfs tbds `y fxobmejdej dechramtdhe m`hut tbf deehvmtdhes

obmrmotfrdstdos mel pfrofdvfl `fefcdts. \bf jrfmtfr tbf pfrofdvfl rfimtdvf mlvmetmjf hc me

deehvmtdhe, tbf ahrf rmpdl dts rmtf hc mlhptdhe wdii `f. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=6). Ohesfqufetiy, tbf

rfimtdvf mlvmetmjfs pfrofdvfl mel fxobmejfl `y deldvdlumis mrf strhejiy rfimtfl th tbf

deehvmtdhes rmtf hc mlhptdhe. He tbf ohetrmry, wbfe rfimtdvf mlvmetmjfs mrf eht oifmr mel

phtfetdmi mlhptfrs cdel dt ldccdouit th pfrofdvf me deehvmtdhes `fefcdts, dts rmtf hc mlhptdhe ds

sihw (Phjfrs, 0>>?).

>?;0). _h, wbfe me deehvmtdhe ds mlmptmìf mel oihsf th tbf deldvdlumis rfmidty mel shodmi

vmiufs bf hr sbf ds ifss bfsdtmet th mlhptdhe. \bus, `fohadej ahrf cmadidmr wdtb tbf

deehvmtdhe mel prhaptdej phsdtdvf dechramtdhe fxobmejf wdtb htbfrs de tbf shodfty. Smiuf

systfas mrf tdjbtiy bfil de shodftdfs mel mrf ldsdeoidefl th rmpdl obmejfs7 tbds ds tbf rfmshe

wby deehvmtdhes tbmt mrf deohejruhus wdtb fxdstdej ehras fxpfrdfeof sihw rmtfs hc mlhptdhe.

Ms Phjfrs put dt Me dlfm tbmt ds deohapmtdìf wdtb tbf vmiufs mel ehras hc m shodmi systfa

wdii eht `f mlhptfl ms rmpdliy ms me deehvmtdhe tbmt ds ohapmtdìf. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=6).

Moohrldej th Phjfrs, tbfrf mrf tbrff amde mspfots tbmt deehvmtdhes ome `f ohapmtdìf hr

deohapmtdìf wdtb; shodh-ouiturmi vmiufs mel `fidfcs, prfvdhusiy detrhluofl dlfms, mel oidfet

effls chr tbf deehvmtdhe. \bf cdrst mspfot rfcfrs th tbf ohapmtd`didty hr deohapmtd`didty hc m

ofrtmde deehvmtdhe wdtb shodftdfsouiturmi vmiufs mel `fidfcs. _haf shodmi systfas mrf vfry

chel hc tbfdr trmldtdhes, bm`dts tbmt mrf strhejiy tdfl th tbfdr ouiturf mel wmys hc idcf. Zbfe


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efw dlfms mrf ohuetfr th deldvdlumis vmiufs mel trmldtdhes tbfdr rmtf hc mlhptdhe ome `f

ìhogfl hr lfimyfl. De shaf omsfs, deehvmtdhes mrf lfsdjefl th `f usfl de m pmrtdouimr shodfty

`fmrdej de adel dts ouiturf mel `fidfcs, m cmot tbmt fmsfs tbf mlhptdhe prhofss. Bhwfvfr, tbfsf

deehvmtdhes ome mish `f sprfml th htbfr ouiturfs wbfrf mlhptdhe ohuil `f ohuetfr-prhluotdvf

sdeof dt ds deohapmtdìf wdtb tbfdr vmiufs, ouiturmi `fidfcs hr fxtrfafiy sfesdtdvf ehras. Bfeof,

th mlhpt me deehvmtdhe tbmt ds deohapmtdìf rfprfsfets m rdsg th fel trmldtdhes mel amy ifml th

efw shodmi ohestrmdets (Phjfrs, 0>>?).

\bf sfohel mspfot hc ohapmtd`didty hc deehvmtdhes ds tbf rfimtdhesbdp `ftwffe tbf efw dlfm

mel prfvdhus deehvmtdhes. Deehvmtdhes rmtfs hc mlhptdhe mrf bdjbiy lfpfelfet he tbf

ohapmtd`didty tbfy bmvf wdtb dlfms dapifafetfl de tbf pmst. Phjfrs mssfrts tbmt hil dlfms mrf

tbf hefs tbmt deldvdlumis usf th jdvf afmedej th efw dlfms mel fstmìdsb cmadidmr oheefotdhes

wdtb tbfa. Zbfe m phtfetdmi mlhptfr ds cmadidmrdzfl wdtb m efw dlfm `msfl he bds/bfr

gehwifljf hc prfvdhus sdadimr deehvmtdhes, tbf prh`m`didty hc mlhptdej suob deehvmtdhe ds

bdjbfr. \bfrfchrf, dc me deldvdlumi bml m efjmtdvf fxpfrdfeof wdtb prfvdhus dlfms, tbf mlhptdhe

hc efw deehvmtdhes ds rfmshemìy ihwfr. Detfrfstdejiy, tbf mppmrfet ohapmtd`didty hc me

deehvmtdhe wdtb tbf dlfm dt supfrsflfs ome mish ifml th tbf deohrrfot usf hc tbf deehvmtdhe,

sdeof mlhptfrs ohuil chiihw tbf prfvdhus prmotdofs mel cueotdhes.

\bf imst cmothr tbmt deldomtfs tbf ohapmtd`didty hc me deehvmtdhe de m shodfty hr chr me

deldvdlumi ds tbf ohapmtd`didty wdtb effls. \bds cmothr rfimtfs th tbf ompm`didty hc me deehvmtdhe

th mllrfss me fxdstdej effl. \bf rfohjedtdhe hc effls de shodmi jrhups hr deldvdlumis ds m tmsg

tbmt deehvmthrs uelfrtmgf de hrlfr th mssfss (mel shaftdafs orfmtf) tbfdr effls moourmtfiy.

^htfetdmi mlhptfrs amy eht rfohjedzf tbmt tbfy bmvf m effl chr me deehvmtdhe uetdi tbfy

`fohaf mwmrf hc tbf efw dlfm hr dts ohesfqufeofs. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;0


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?0

th wbdob me deehvmtdhe ds pfrofdvfl ms ldccdouit th uelfrstmel mel usf. (Phjfrs, 0>>?;=3).

Deehvmtdhes fxpfrdfeof bdjbfr rmtfs hc mlhptdhe wbfe tbfy mppfmr fmsy th hpfrmtf mel

ohaprfbfel `y tbf amkhrdty hc afa`frs de m shodfty ms hpphsfl th tbhsf efw dlfms tbmt sffa

ldccdouit th usf mel rfqudrf tbf mlhptfrs th moqudrf efw sfts hc sgdiis.

>?;=3). Deldvdlumis ome orfmtf afmedejs hc medeehvmtdhe wbfe tbfy mrf miihwfl th usf mel amedpuimtf dt7 ifmredej bhw dt whrgs mel de wbmt

wmys dt ds usfcui chr hefsfic deorfmsfs tbf phssd`didtdfs chr dts mlhptdhe mel ldccusdhe. @fsdlfs

cmvhrdej rmtfs hc mlhptdhe, trdmim`didty, moohrldej th Phjfrs, mish `fefcdts tbf ldccusdhe prhofss

sdeof deldvdlumis ome fmsdiy pmss he dechramtdhe th pffrs m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe. \bus,

prhahtdej htbfrs th mlhpt tbf efw dlfm `msfl he tbfdr pfrshemi fxpfrdfeofs.

>?;=3). \bds h`sfrvm`didty mttrd`utffem`ifs ldsoussdhes wdtb htbfrs (rfimtdvfs, pffrs hr crdfels) m`hut tbf deehvmtdhe tbmt

strfejtbfes tbf ldccusdhe prhofss, prhahtfs mssfssafet hc tbf deehvmtdhe mel, uitdamtfiy,

deorfmsfs dts mlhptdhe.

Ahtdvmtdhe


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??

uelfrstmel tbf `msdo lfcdedtdhes mel mpprhmobfs th ahtdvmtdhe, fspfodmiiy de rfjmrls th

fluomtdhe.

Ahtdvmtdhe ds m tfra tbmt bms omusfl euafrhus ldsoussdhes mel rfsfmrob de hrlfr th fxpihrf

wbmt ahtdvmtfs pfhpif mel bhw ahtdvmtdhe deciufeofs pfhpifs motdhes. \bfsf qufstdhes bmvf

puzzifl sobhimrs mihej tbf yfmrs. _haf hc tbf oimssdo mpprhmobfs th fxpihrf ahtdvmtdhe mrf;

mttrd`utdhe tbfhry, jhmi tbfhry, pfrchrameof ahlfis, detfiidjfeof mel sfic-whrtb, mel sfic-

lftfrademtdhe tbfhry, th emaf m cfw (Ahilfe mel Lwfog, 0>>>7 @utifr, 0>>>).

Ahtdvmtdhe ds m bftfrhjfefhus mel ohapifx tfra th lfcdef. Chr destmeof, ^detrdob mel _obueg

lfcdef tbf tfra ms chiihws; Ahtdvmtdhe rfcfrs th tbf prhofss wbfrf`y jhmi-ldrfotfl motdvdty ds

destdjmtfl mel sustmdefl. (^detrdob mel _obueg, 0>>0;>0).

Htbfr mutbhrs, suob ms Pyme mel Lfod (0>>>m;6


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?>0;=>`;=>>`).

Moohrldej th tbf sfic-lftfrademtdhe tbfhry buame `fdejs bmvf tbrff `msdo deemtf

psyobhihjdomi effls tbmt mrf prfsfet crha tbf ahafet hc `drtb mel fvhivf wdtb tbf

lfvfihpafet prhofss hvfr tbf yfmrs. \bfsf effls judlf buame `fbmvdhrs mel sbmpf tbflfjrff mel fxtfet hc ahtdvmtdhe m pfrshe fxpfrdfeofs wbdif pfrchradej ldccfrfet motdvdtdfs;

ohapftfeof, muthehay mel rfimtflefss effls. Ohapftfeof rfimtfs th tbf deldvdlumis effl th

cffi m`if mel ohapftfet hc bds/bfr motdhes ms afa`frs hc shodmi jrhups. Muthehay bms th lh

wdtb tbf sfesf hc sfic ohetrhi mel mjfeoy tbmt m pfrshe pfrofdvfs hvfr bda/bfrsfic. Cdemiiy,

rfimtflefss devhivfs tbf buame effl th cffi pmrt hc m jrhup, th `fihej mel `f rfjmrlfl ms me

daphrtmet pmrt hc shodfty (^detrdob mel _obueg, 0>>0). Ohesdlfrdej tbf buame effls

mchrfafetdhefl, sfic-lftfrademtdhe tbfhry (_L\) mssfrts tbmt buames fxpfrdfeof twh typfs hcahtdvmtdhes tbmt mrf lrdvfe `y detrdesdo mel fxtrdesdo cmothrs.


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?6

Detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe>>m).

De jfefrmi, mutbhrs dlfetdcy detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ms tbf wdii hc m pfrshe th pfrchra me motdvdtychr tbfdr hwe `fefcdt, fekhyafet, smtdscmotdhe, mel detfrfst (Osdgszfetadbmiyd, 0>=>0). ^fhpifs motdhes mrf lrdvfe `y detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe wbfe tbfy mrf `msfl

he me deefr lrdvf th fejmjf de motdvdtdfs ldsrfjmrldej fxtfremi rfwmrls hr hutohafs7 tbds ds m

phsdtdvf typf hc ahtdvmtdhe tbmt ds idgfiy th `f sustmdefl chr ihej pfrdhls hc tdaf (Bdld, 0>>>7

Ifvfsquf ft mi., 0>=>). _dadimriy, Pyme mel Lfod fxpimde;

Detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ds tbf lhdej hc me motdvdty chr dts debfrfet smtdscmotdhes rmtbfrtbme chr shaf sfpmrm`if ohesfqufeof, wbfe detrdesdomiiy ahtdvmtfl m pfrshe ds ahvfl

th mot chr tbf cue hr obmiifejf fetmdifl rmtbfr tbme `fomusf hc tbf fxtfremi prhs,

prfssurfs hr rfwmrls. (Pyme mel Lfod, 0>>>m;63)

Detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ds tbf ahst muthehahus (sfic-lftfradefl) typf hc ahtdvmtdhe `fomusf dt

uelfridefs motdhes pfrchrafl purfiy chr tbf fekhyafet mel phsdtdvf fxpfrdfeofs jmdefl crha

tbf motdvdtdfs tbfasfivfs. \bfrfchrf, detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ds m gfy fifafet hc tbf shodmi,

pbysdomi mel ohjedtdvf lfvfihpafet hc pfhpif sdeof pfrshemi detfrfst mel jhmis mrf tbf lrdvdej

chrof tbmt sbmpf hefs sgdiis mel gehwifljf m`hut tbf whril.

Fevdrheafetmi mel shodmi cmothrs mrf daphrtmet th tbf lfvfihpafet hc detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe de

buame `fdejs, sdeof tbfsf cmothrs ome fdtbfr ldadedsb hr prhahtf ahtdvmtdhe de deldvdlumis

(Pyme mel Lfod, 0>>>m). Chr destmeof, tbfrf mrf phsdtdvf mel/hr efjmtdvf pfrchrameof

cffl`mog hc fxtfremi shodmi cmothrs tbmt, uelfedm`iy, ohuil strfejtbfe hr bdelfr m pfrshes

detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe.

_fic-lftfrademtdhe tbfhry sujjfsts tbmt oimssrhha mel bhaf fevdrheafets ome

cmodidtmtf hr chrfstmii detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe `y supphrtdej vfrsus tbwmrtdej tbf effls chr

muthehay mel ohapftfeof. Bhwfvfr, dt ds ordtdomi th rfafa`fr tbmt detrdesdo

ahtdvmtdhe wdii hoour heiy chr motdvdtdfs tbmt bhil detfrfst chr me deldvdlumi. (Pymemel Lfod, 0>>>m;64)

Ohesdlfrdej tbf mchrfafetdhefl, detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe sffas th bhil me daphrtmet rhif de

fluomtdhe. _tulfets wbh mrf detrdesdomiiy ahtdvmtfl bmvf ahrf obmeofs th fekhy tbf ifmredej

motdvdty, sdeof dt `fohafs tbf ofetrmi chous hc mttfetdhe (Osdgszfetadbmiyd, 0>=


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?3

_adtb, 0>>>). Bfeof, cmvhrdej detrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe de tbf oimssrhha ome `f m phsdtdvf strmtfjy

chr tbf ifmredej mel tfmobdej prmotdofs. Pyme mel Lfod stmtf tbmt pfrshes lrdvfe `y detrdesdo

ahtdvmtdhes mrf ahrf muthehahus mel pfrchra motdvdtdfs th smtdscy tbf pfrshemi psyobhihjdomi

effls hc ohapftfeof, muthehay mel rfimtflefss. Deldvdlumis mrf crff th lfodlf wbftbfr hr eht

th pfrchra ofrtmde motdhes `msfl he tbfdr hwe prfcfrfeofs mel effls. @ut wbfe motdvdtdfs mrf

pfrchrafl chr tbfdr hwe smgf, stulfets ome rfvfmi tbfdr phtfetdmis mel fxpfrdfeof muthehay

mel wfii-`fdej wbdif ifmredej.

Fxtrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe>0;0=>).

Moohrldej th Pyme mel Lfod (0>>>m), stulfets ome fdtbfr fejmjf de motdvdtdfs de tbf oimssrhha

wdtb rfsfetafet hr `hrflha `fomusf tbf motdvdty ds eht detfrfstdej chr tbfa `ut tbfy austpfrchra dt, sh tbf motdhe ds chrofl crha tbf fxtfremi fevdrheafet. Hr stulfets ome mot wdtb

wdiidejefss mel fekhyafet `fomusf tbfy bmvf mlmptfl mel moofptfl tbf motdvdty ms m vmium`if

mel usfcui tmsg th pfrchra, sh tbf motdhe `fohafs me fxtrdesdo jhmi uelfrsthhl ms m afmes th

jmde shaftbdej (Pyme mel Lfod, 0>>>m). \bds uelfrstmeldej hc fxtrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ds usfcui

th tbf fluomtdhe prhofss `y prhahtdej tbf orfmtdhe hc oimssrhha strmtfjdfs tbme ome fejmjf

stulfets mel tfmobfrs de lhdej motdvdtdfs tbmt `fefcdt tbfdr tfmobdej-ifmredej prhofssfs.


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?:

Ahtdvmtdhe mel dts ldccfrfet mpprhmobfs, deoiuldej sfic-lftfrademtdhe tbfhry, sffa th `f vdtmi

de uelfrstmeldej `fbmvdhr de oimssrhhas mel fluomtdhe prmotdofs. \h febmeof tbf ifmredej

prhofss mel oimssrhha detfrmotdhes `y deorfmsdej stulfets mel tfmobfrs ahtdvmtdhe ome

cmodidtmtf pfrchrameof mel mobdfvfafet. \bf sfic-lftfrademtdhe tbfhry prhvdlfs detrdesdo mel

fxtrdesdo ahtdvmtdhe ms mpprhmobfs th uelfrpde tbf rfmshes mel afmes tbrhujb wbdob stulfets

mel tfmobfrs `fbmvf mel pfrchra motdvdtdfs de hrlfr th ifmre mel mobdfvf jhmis. Detrdesdo

ahtdvmtfl `fbmvdhrs mrf tbf hefs lrdvfe `y pfrshemi detfrfst rfjmrlifss hc rfwmrls hr fxtfremi

ohestrmdets. Zbfrfms tbf fxtrdesdo ahtdvmtfl `fbmvdhrs mrf tbf motdhes de wbdob deldvdlumis

fejmjf de hrlfr th h`tmde m sfpmrmtf hutohaf hr ohesfqufeof.


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?2

6 Pfsfmrob aftbhlhihjy

\bf mda hc tbf prfsfet obmptfr ds th ldsouss tbf aftbhls mppidfl de tbds stuly. \bds obmptfr

wdii stmrt `y prfsfetdej tbf amde obmrmotfrdstdos hc qumidtmtdvf mel qumetdtmtdvf rfsfmrob

aftbhls de shodmi sodfeof rfsfmrob, chiihwfl `y tbf rmtdhemif `fbdel tbds stulys obhdof hc

rfsfmrob lfsdje, rfsfmrob strmtfjy, aftbhls mel destruafets th ohiifot mel memiyzf lmtm. De tbf

sfohel pmrt, m lftmdifl lfsordptdhe hc tbf rfsfmrob sdtf wdii `f prhvdlfl ms wfii ms dechramtdhe

he smapidej mel cdfilwhrg de Jumdem de shutb-wfst Ohiha`dm. \bds obmptfr oheoiulfs `y

lfsord`dej tbf prhoflurfs chr lmtm memiysds ms wfii ms tbf ftbdomi ohesdlfrmtdhes mel vmidldty hc

tbds stuly.

_hodmi sodfeof rfsfmrob6.=

\bfrf mrf twh amkhr mpprhmobfs de shodmi sodfeof rfsfmrob, qumetdtmtdvf mel qumidtmtdvf

lfsdjes. _hodmi sodfetdsts bmvf bml ihej stmeldej lf`mtfs he tbf ldccfrfeofs, sdadimrdtdfs,

mlvmetmjfs mel ldsmlvmetmjfs hc tbfsf lfsdjes su`sord`dej th hef hr tbf htbfr rfsfmrob

trmldtdhes. \bf adxfl aftbhl mpprhmob ds hctfe usfl th oha`def `htb qumetdtmtdvf mel

qumidtmtdvf aftbhls (@ryame, 0>=0). Pfsfmrobfrs obhdofs hc hef hc tbf afetdhefl

mpprhmobfs bfmvdiy rfiy he tbf stulys thpdo hc detfrfst mel tbf gehwifljf tbmt dt mdas thmoqudrf mel/hr prhluof. Fmob lfsdje bhils m pmrtdouimr sft hc pbdihshpbdomi mssuaptdhes mel

pmrmldjas tbmt supphrt rfsfmrobfrs de mpprhmobdej mel stulydej tbf shodmi whril uelfr

devfstdjmtdhe (@urrfii & Ahrjme, =4267 @ryame, 0>=07 Orfswfii, 0>>4).

]umetdtmtdvf lfsdje ds jfefrmiiy rfimtfl th phsdtdvdsa tbmt pfrtmdes th tbf h`kfotdvdst

hethihjdomi phsdtdhe th shodmi sodfeof. ^hsdtdvdsa prhahtfs tbf usf hc emturmi sodfeof aftbhls

suob ms fxpfrdafets mel survfys th stuly tbf shodmi whril mel dts rfmidty. \bds mdas th

fstm`idsb byphtbfsds tbme ome `f tfstfl `y tbf jmtbfrfl lmtm. Velfr tbfsf prfadsfs, phsdtdvdsa

uelfrstmels tbf shodmi whril mel rfmidty ms m ldsorftf h`kfot delfpfelfet mel ds fxtfremi hc tbf

shodmi mothrs. ]umetdtmtdvf lfsdje fapbmsdzfs de tbf qumetdcdomtdhe mel prhluotdhe hc euafrdo

mel jfefrmidzm`if hutohafs th me fxtfesdvf phpuimtdhe crha m idadtfl smapif `y usdej m

lfluotdvf mpprhmob (@ryame, 0>=0; @urrfii & Ahrjme =4267 Orfswfii, 0>>4).

@y ohetrmst, qumidtmtdvf lfsdje bms dts hrdjdes he tbf su`kfotdvf hethihjdomi phsdtdhe th shodmi

sodfeof crha wbdob tbf detfrprftdvf pmrmldja lfrdvfs crha. \bf detfrprftdvf pfrspfotdvf


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?4

vdfws tbf stuly hc deldvdlumis mel tbf destdtutdhes ms cuelmafetmiiy ldccfrfet crha tbf emturmi

sodfeofs. Crha tbds pmrmldja tbf shodmi whril mel rfmidtdfs mrf rfimtdvdstdo mel lh eht fxdst

delfpfelfetiy hc tbf deldvdlumis, sdeof tbf shodmi whril ds fssfetdmiiy orfmtfl `y tbfa. Ms

@urrfii & Ahrjme lfsord`fl Detfrprftdvf shodhihjy ds oheofrefl wdtb uelfrstmeldej tbf

fssfeof hc tbf fvfrylmy whril. (@urrfi & Ahrjme, =426;?=). Bfeof, qumidtmtdvf lfsdje

prflhademetiy fapbmsdzfs tbmt tbf shodmi whril ome heiy `f stuldfl mel uelfrsthhl crha tbf

phdets hc vdfw hc tbf deldvdlumis wbh mrf ldrfotiy devhivfl. De hrlfr th prhluof tbdog mel rdob

lfsordptdhes hc tbf shodmi pbfehafem, tbf qumidtmtdvf rfsfmrob lfsdje fapihys aftbhls tbmt

fiuodlmtf tbf pmrtdodpmets hwe whrls mel fxpfrdfeofs usdej me deluotdvf mpprhmob (Orfswfii,

0>=07 Orfswfii, 0>>?7 @ryame, 0>=07 Orhtty, =4427 _divframe, 0>>6).

\bf prdamry mda hc tbf qumidtmtdvf rfsfmrobfr ds th amgf sfesf hc tbf shodmi pbfehafem hc

detfrfst`y fxpihrdej tbf pmrtdodpmetsafmedejs, fxpfrdfeofs mel whrilvdfws. \bf rfsfmrobfr

gffps oihsf ldstmeof wdtb tbf rfmidty hc tbf pmrtdodpmets rfiydej amdeiy he tbfdr vhdofs mel

pfrofptdhes de hrlfr th uelfrstmel tbf shodmi whril uelfr devfstdjmtdhe. Zdtbde tbds lfsdje, tbf

rfsfmrobfr ds tbf amde shurof hc lmtm ohiifotdhe mel detfrprftmtdhes. \bds cmot fetmdis tbf

rfsfmrobfr th moofpt bds/bfr vmiufs mel `dmsfs mel tbf ifjdtdamoy hc tbf dechramtdhe prhvdlfl

`y pmrtdodpmets de tbf cdfil, th lh sh, tbf rfs

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Integration of ICT into an adult education program for indigenous communities