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Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewanAndrew J. Marshall Kuliah Lapanagan
Taman Nasional Gunung Palung 1-10 Juni 2015
• Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan
• Fenologi di hutan tropis
• Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
> Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan
• Fenologi di hutan tropis
• Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” hindari jadi makanan untuk hewan.
Masukkan beberapa tipe racun dalam daunya, jadi pemakan daun perlu adaptasi tertentu untuk
melawan rancun-racunan.
Daun: sumber energi untuk tumbuhan
sumber makanan untuk hewan
CO2
O2
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Biji: anak pohon
makanan hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” hindari anaknya jadi makanan untuk hewan.
Masukkan beberapa tipe racun dalam biji atau bikin biji keras sekali, jadi pemakan daun perlu
adaptasi tertentu untuk melawan rancun-racunan.
Buah: strategi untuk penyebar biji
sumber makanan untuk hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Kerja sama!
Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” buah dimakan hewan (asal biji tetap utuh).
• Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan
> Fenologi di hutan tropis
• Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Fenologi hutan tropis
Fenologi hutan tropis
02468
10121416
Ja
n 8
6
Ap
r 8
6
Ju
l 8
6
Oct 8
6
Ja
n 8
7
Ap
r 8
7
Ju
l 8
7
Oct 8
7
Ja
n 8
8
Ap
r 8
8
Ju
l 8
8
Oct 8
8
Ja
n 8
9
Ap
r 8
9
Ju
l 8
9
Oct 8
9
Ja
n 9
0
Ap
r 9
0
Ju
l 9
0
Oct 9
0
Ja
n 9
1
Ap
r 9
1
Ju
l 9
1
TF
A (
pa
tch
es/h
a)
0246810121416
# ta
xa
with
fru
it
A
Marshall (2004)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Jan-
Mar
86 (
31)
Apr-J
un 8
6 (3
6)
Jul-S
ep 8
6 (1
9)
Oct-D
ec 8
6 (3
5)
Jan-
Mar
87 (
28)
Apr-J
un 8
7 (1
4)
Jul-S
ep 8
7 (2
5)
Oct-D
ec 8
7 (5
7)
Jan-
Mar
88 (
45)
Apr-J
un 8
8 (4
9)
Jul-S
ep 8
8 (1
2)
Oct-D
ec 8
8 (2
1)
Jan-
Mar
89 (
12)
Apr-J
un 8
9 (4
)
Jul-S
ep 8
9 (2
6)
Oct-D
ec 8
9 (2
9)
Jan-
Mar
90 (
28)
Apr-J
un 9
0(27
)
Jul-S
ep 9
0 (1
7)
Oct-D
ec 9
0 (1
3)
Jan-
Mar
91 (
8)% t
otal
feed
ing o
bser
vatio
ns
LeavesFigsFruit pulp+ seedsFlowers
% F
eedi
ng O
bser
vatio
ns%
Fee
ding
Obs
erva
tions
timetime
kelempiau
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
Jan-
Mar 8
6 (3
8)Ap
r-Jun
86
(57)
Jul-S
ep 8
6 (2
6)Oc
t-Dec
86
(35)
Jan-
Mar 8
7 (4
9)Ap
r-Jun
87
(320
)Ju
l-Sep
87
(71)
Oct-D
ec 8
7 (4
5)Ja
n-Ma
r 88
(40)
Apr-J
un 8
8 (3
7)Ju
l-Sep
88
(24)
Oct-D
ec 8
8 (2
4)Ja
n-Ma
r 89
(18)
Apr-J
un 8
9 (8
)Ju
l-Sep
89
(11)
Oct-D
ec 8
9 (2
5)Ja
n-Ma
r 90
(15)
Apr-J
un 9
0 (1
5)Ju
l-Sep
90
(13)
Oct-D
ec 9
0 (1
3)Ja
n-Ma
r 91
(11)%
tota
l fe
eding
obs
erva
tions
SeedsLeavesFigsFruit pulpFlowers
kelasi
time
time
% of diet
% of diet
Fenologi hutan tropis
Perbandingan antara lokasi dan tipe hutan
Musim buah raya di Borneo
Fenologi hutan tropis
Perbandingan antara lokasi dan tipe hutan
Musim buah raya di Borneo
Sumatra
Sumatra
Borneo
Borneo
Marshall et al. (2009); Wich & Marshall (2012)
mapsmaps
Satsiun Penelitian Cabang Panti, Taman Nasional Gunung Palung
maps
Tujuh tipe hutan tanah, ketinggian, cuaca -> jenis tumbuhan berbeda
Satsiun Penelitian Cabang Panti
% tree species shared with another habitat types PS FS AB LS LG UG MOmax 11 19 22 22 15 14 10mean 9.5 15 16.5 16 11.5 10.5 8.5min 8 11 11 10 8 7 7
5
10
15
20
!"#$ %"#$ &"#$ '"#$ ("#$ #"#$ )"#$ *"#$
% tree species
shared with other habitats (max, mean,
& min; pairwise
comparisons among
habitats)
UB Ridge GP ridgeAverage STDEV Average STDEV
DT 5-max 30.13404255 1.454735728 SK 2-max 30.65558621 2.3872342DT 5-min 22.84042553 0.738273871 SK 2-min 22.71551724 1.314934689DT 5-hujan 143.0340426 118.8802679 SK 2-hujan 121.8651724 100.1716091
DR 11-max 30.10638298 1.317340682 SC 7-max 31.23684211 2.232281951DR 11-min 22.23404255 3.138836518 SC 7-min 22.66896552 0.855161193DR 11-hujan 130.2404255 102.4921281 SC 7-hujan 121.4806897 105.3540278
UB 15-max 30.26702128 2.364840334 GP 35-max 30.60344828 1.541128035UB 15-min 21.72340426 1.58693336 GP 35-min 25.6637931 26.39367746UB 15-hujan 143.3744681 128.8278397 GP 35-hujan 113.3768966 95.06716228
NB13-max 28.00106383 1.373386185 TK 22-max 29.37931034 1.897159337NB13-min 21.17021277 0.890434948 TK 22-min 21.56896552 1.95216541NB13-hujan 126.7765957 87.91246055 TK 22-hujan 101.96 85.65333369
UB 53-max 28.60957447 9.626065472 MR 2-max 27.69827586 0.922143076UB 53-min 20.91489362 0.722398715 MR 2-min 21.73275862 1.490365307UB 53-hujan 117.9940426 85.10232875 MR 2-hujan 121.477931 93.26856545
UB 73-max 24.9787234 1.929180948 GP 80-max 28.74655172 2.065014805UB 73-min 19.28723404 1.025814158 GP 80-min 20.95689655 1.060802753UB 73-hujan 131.5978723 96.87636705 GP 80-hujan 107.7993103 85.38255683
UB 88-max 26.92391304 2.216020937 GP 90-max 26.3362069 1.292311716UB 88-min 17.35869565 1.319356087 GP 90-min 19.47413793 1.268451238UB 88-hujan 126.1630435 91.1153856 GP 90-hujan 107.3596552 84.9438494
PS FS AB LSMax temp 30.39481438 30.67161254 30.43523478 28.69018709Min temp 22.77797139 30.43523478 23.69359868 21.36958914
133.9043432 127.1778983 130.7405227rainfall 132.4496075 125.8605576 128.3756823 114.3682979
130.9948718 122.7217211 -0.452157413
!!"#
!$%#
!&"#
"'%# !'%# $'%# ('%# &'%# %'%# )'%# *'%#
UB Ridge GP ridgeAverage STDEV Average STDEV
DT 5-max 30.13404255 1.454735728 SK 2-max 30.65558621 2.3872342DT 5-min 22.84042553 0.738273871 SK 2-min 22.71551724 1.314934689DT 5-hujan 143.0340426 118.8802679 SK 2-hujan 121.8651724 100.1716091
DR 11-max 30.10638298 1.317340682 SC 7-max 31.23684211 2.232281951DR 11-min 22.23404255 3.138836518 SC 7-min 22.66896552 0.855161193DR 11-hujan 130.2404255 102.4921281 SC 7-hujan 121.4806897 105.3540278
UB 15-max 30.26702128 2.364840334 GP 35-max 30.60344828 1.541128035UB 15-min 21.72340426 1.58693336 GP 35-min 25.6637931 26.39367746UB 15-hujan 143.3744681 128.8278397 GP 35-hujan 113.3768966 95.06716228
NB13-max 28.00106383 1.373386185 TK 22-max 29.37931034 1.897159337NB13-min 21.17021277 0.890434948 TK 22-min 21.56896552 1.95216541NB13-hujan 126.7765957 87.91246055 TK 22-hujan 101.96 85.65333369
UB 53-max 28.60957447 9.626065472 MR 2-max 27.69827586 0.922143076UB 53-min 20.91489362 0.722398715 MR 2-min 21.73275862 1.490365307UB 53-hujan 117.9940426 85.10232875 MR 2-hujan 121.477931 93.26856545
UB 73-max 24.9787234 1.929180948 GP 80-max 28.74655172 2.065014805UB 73-min 19.28723404 1.025814158 GP 80-min 20.95689655 1.060802753UB 73-hujan 131.5978723 96.87636705 GP 80-hujan 107.7993103 85.38255683
UB 88-max 26.92391304 2.216020937 GP 90-max 26.3362069 1.292311716UB 88-min 17.35869565 1.319356087 GP 90-min 19.47413793 1.268451238UB 88-hujan 126.1630435 91.1153856 GP 90-hujan 107.3596552 84.9438494
PS FS AB LSMax temp 30.39481438 30.67161254 30.43523478 28.69018709Min temp 22.77797139 30.43523478 23.69359868 21.36958914
133.9043432 127.1778983 130.7405227rainfall 132.4496075 125.8605576 128.3756823 114.3682979
130.9948718 122.7217211 -0.452157413
!!"#
!$%#
!&"#
"'%# !'%# $'%# ('%# &'%# %'%# )'%# *'%#
!+#$&#("#()#
"'%# !'%# $'%# ('%# &'%# %'%# )'%# *'%#
max, min temperature
(10 day period, C)
PS FS AB LS LG UG MO
avg rainfall (10 day
period, mm)
FOREST TYPES
02468
10121416
Jan 8
6
Apr 8
6
Jul 8
6
Oct 8
6
Jan 8
7
Apr 8
7
Jul 8
7
Oct 8
7
Jan 8
8
Apr 8
8
Jul 8
8
Oct 8
8
Jan 8
9
Apr 8
9
Jul 8
9
Oct 8
9
Jan 9
0
Apr 9
0
Jul 9
0
Oct 9
0
Jan 9
1
Apr 9
1
Jul 9
1
TFA (
patch
es/ha
)
0246810121416
# tax
a with
fruit
A Hutan dataran rendah
02468
101214161820
Jan 86
Apr 8
6
Jul 86
Oct 8
6
Jan 87
Apr 8
7
Jul 87
Oct 8
7
Jan 88
Apr 8
8
Jul 88
Oct 8
8
Jan 89
Apr 8
9
Jul 89
Oct 8
9
Jan 90
Apr 9
0
Jul 90
Oct 9
0
Jan 91
Apr 9
1
Jul 91
TFA (
patch
es/ha
)
00.511.522.533.544.5
# taxa
with
fruit
Pegununungan
02468
101214
Jan 8
6
Apr 8
6
Jul 8
6
Oct 8
6
Jan 8
7
Apr 8
7
Jul 8
7
Oct 8
7
Jan 8
8
Apr 8
8
Jul 8
8
Oct 8
8
Jan 8
9
Apr 8
9
Jul 8
9
Oct 8
9
Jan 9
0
Apr 9
0
Jul 9
0
Oct 9
0
Jan 9
1
Apr 9
1
Jul 9
1
TFA
(patch
es/ha
)
02468101214
# tax
a with
fruit
Jumlah sumber makan kelempiau
Rawa gambut
Musim buah raya
Bulan dgn banyak buah
Bulan dgn sedikit buah
Musim kelaparan
Jumlah tipe makan yg tersedia per bulan
Fenologi hutan tropis
Perbandingan antara lokasi dan tipe hutan
Musim buah raya di Borneo
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16Ja
n 86
Apr
86
Jul 8
6
Oct
86
Jan
87
Apr
87
Jul 8
7
Oct
87
Jan
88
Apr
88
Jul 8
8
Oct
88
Jan
89
Apr
89
Jul 8
9
Oct
89
Jan
90
Apr
90
Jul 9
0
Oct
90
Jan
91
Apr
91
Jul 9
1
Jum
lah
poho
n m
akan
an p
er h
a
Waktu (tahun)
Sumber makanan kelasi, Jan. 1986 - Okt. 91
musim kelaparan
1986 19901989198819871991
Marshall 2004
musim buah rayamusim buah raya
Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton 2007 Ecol. Lett.
granite climbers (Fig. S3), variability in reproductive pro-ductivity is quite high. In the lowland sandstone, climberswere the most consistently reproductive, ranking substan-tially higher than all other forest types across the observa-tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very
low variability in reproductive productivity as the mean andmaximum productivity values for the lowland sandstone arequite low. The freshwater swamp climber community wasthe second most consistently reproductive of the sevenforest types examined.
(a) (h)
(b) (i)
(c) (j)
(d) (k)
(e) (l)
(f) (m)
(g) (n)
Figure 4 Fruiting behaviour over68 months in a Bornean rainforest fordifferent forest types. (a) montane (meanN month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301);(b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640,min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite(mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max= 696); (d) lower sandstone (meanN month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max =1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1
= 646, min = 578, max = 671); (f) freshwa-ter swamp (mean N month)1 = 870,min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp(mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,max = 701). Observed values are shown inthick grey line. The average level of fruitingexpected across all months is indicated bythe solid black line while 95% confidencelimits are shown by the dashed black lines.The thin grey line illustrates a single replicateof random fruiting behaviour. Frequencydistribution of reproductive levels by monthfollow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j)lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialbench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peatswamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levelsof reproduction. Black curves assume asingle season, grey curves assume a mixedmodel with two seasons.
Letter Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction 963
! 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
granite climbers (Fig. S3), variability in reproductive pro-ductivity is quite high. In the lowland sandstone, climberswere the most consistently reproductive, ranking substan-tially higher than all other forest types across the observa-tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very
low variability in reproductive productivity as the mean andmaximum productivity values for the lowland sandstone arequite low. The freshwater swamp climber community wasthe second most consistently reproductive of the sevenforest types examined.
(a) (h)
(b) (i)
(c) (j)
(d) (k)
(e) (l)
(f) (m)
(g) (n)
Figure 4 Fruiting behaviour over68 months in a Bornean rainforest fordifferent forest types. (a) montane (meanN month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301);(b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640,min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite(mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max= 696); (d) lower sandstone (meanN month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max =1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1
= 646, min = 578, max = 671); (f) freshwa-ter swamp (mean N month)1 = 870,min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp(mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,max = 701). Observed values are shown inthick grey line. The average level of fruitingexpected across all months is indicated bythe solid black line while 95% confidencelimits are shown by the dashed black lines.The thin grey line illustrates a single replicateof random fruiting behaviour. Frequencydistribution of reproductive levels by monthfollow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j)lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialbench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peatswamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levelsof reproduction. Black curves assume asingle season, grey curves assume a mixedmodel with two seasons.
Letter Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction 963
! 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
Dataran rendah
Gambut
granite climbers (Fig. S3), variability in reproductive pro-ductivity is quite high. In the lowland sandstone, climberswere the most consistently reproductive, ranking substan-tially higher than all other forest types across the observa-tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very
low variability in reproductive productivity as the mean andmaximum productivity values for the lowland sandstone arequite low. The freshwater swamp climber community wasthe second most consistently reproductive of the sevenforest types examined.
(a) (h)
(b) (i)
(c) (j)
(d) (k)
(e) (l)
(f) (m)
(g) (n)
Figure 4 Fruiting behaviour over68 months in a Bornean rainforest fordifferent forest types. (a) montane (meanN month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301);(b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640,min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite(mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max= 696); (d) lower sandstone (meanN month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max =1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1
= 646, min = 578, max = 671); (f) freshwa-ter swamp (mean N month)1 = 870,min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp(mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,max = 701). Observed values are shown inthick grey line. The average level of fruitingexpected across all months is indicated bythe solid black line while 95% confidencelimits are shown by the dashed black lines.The thin grey line illustrates a single replicateof random fruiting behaviour. Frequencydistribution of reproductive levels by monthfollow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j)lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialbench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peatswamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levelsof reproduction. Black curves assume asingle season, grey curves assume a mixedmodel with two seasons.
Letter Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction 963
! 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
granite climbers (Fig. S3), variability in reproductive pro-ductivity is quite high. In the lowland sandstone, climberswere the most consistently reproductive, ranking substan-tially higher than all other forest types across the observa-tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very
low variability in reproductive productivity as the mean andmaximum productivity values for the lowland sandstone arequite low. The freshwater swamp climber community wasthe second most consistently reproductive of the sevenforest types examined.
(a) (h)
(b) (i)
(c) (j)
(d) (k)
(e) (l)
(f) (m)
(g) (n)
Figure 4 Fruiting behaviour over68 months in a Bornean rainforest fordifferent forest types. (a) montane (meanN month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301);(b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640,min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite(mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max= 696); (d) lower sandstone (meanN month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max =1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1
= 646, min = 578, max = 671); (f) freshwa-ter swamp (mean N month)1 = 870,min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp(mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,max = 701). Observed values are shown inthick grey line. The average level of fruitingexpected across all months is indicated bythe solid black line while 95% confidencelimits are shown by the dashed black lines.The thin grey line illustrates a single replicateof random fruiting behaviour. Frequencydistribution of reproductive levels by monthfollow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j)lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialbench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peatswamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levelsof reproduction. Black curves assume asingle season, grey curves assume a mixedmodel with two seasons.
Letter Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction 963
! 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
granite climbers (Fig. S3), variability in reproductive pro-ductivity is quite high. In the lowland sandstone, climberswere the most consistently reproductive, ranking substan-tially higher than all other forest types across the observa-tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very
low variability in reproductive productivity as the mean andmaximum productivity values for the lowland sandstone arequite low. The freshwater swamp climber community wasthe second most consistently reproductive of the sevenforest types examined.
(a) (h)
(b) (i)
(c) (j)
(d) (k)
(e) (l)
(f) (m)
(g) (n)
Figure 4 Fruiting behaviour over68 months in a Bornean rainforest fordifferent forest types. (a) montane (meanN month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301);(b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640,min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite(mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max= 696); (d) lower sandstone (meanN month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max =1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1
= 646, min = 578, max = 671); (f) freshwa-ter swamp (mean N month)1 = 870,min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp(mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,max = 701). Observed values are shown inthick grey line. The average level of fruitingexpected across all months is indicated bythe solid black line while 95% confidencelimits are shown by the dashed black lines.The thin grey line illustrates a single replicateof random fruiting behaviour. Frequencydistribution of reproductive levels by monthfollow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j)lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialbench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peatswamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levelsof reproduction. Black curves assume asingle season, grey curves assume a mixedmodel with two seasons.
Letter Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction 963
! 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
Pegunungan
= % pohon dengan buah
Liana
Ficus
Pohon kecil
Pohon besar
Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton 2007 Ecol. Lett.
berbuah raya
(rata-rata) tidak
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Feb 86
May 86
Aug 86
Nov 86
Feb 87
May 87
Aug 87
Nov 87
Feb 88
May 88
Aug 88
Nov 88
Feb 89
May 89
Aug 89
Nov 89
Feb 90
May 90
Aug 90
Nov 90
Feb 91
May 91
Aug 91
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Feb 86
May 86 Aug 86
Nov 86 Feb 87
May 87 Aug 87
Nov 87 Feb 88
May 88 Aug 88
Nov 88 Feb 89
May 89 Aug 89
Nov 89 Feb 90
May 90 Aug 90
Nov 90 Feb 91
May 91 Aug 91
Musim buah raya
Musim berbuah biasa
Neoscortechinia kingii
Rourea major
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Feb 86
May 86 Aug 86
Nov 86 Feb 87
May 87 Aug 87
Nov 87 Feb 88
May 88 Aug 88
Nov 88 Feb 89
May 89 Aug 89
Nov 89 Feb 90
May 90 Aug 90
Nov 90 Feb 91
May 91 Aug 91
Porterandia sessiliflora
Musim buah sedikit
time
time
time
Food
/ha
Food
/ha
Food
/ha
Marshall & Leighton (2006)
Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu
Average rainfall, Davis, CA 1930–2010 weather.com
Konjup, Southwest Australia Hill & Donald 2003
New South Wales, Australia
musim-musim tertentu
Average rainfall, Ann Arbor, MI 1930–2010 weather.com
Average rainfall, Davis, CA 1930–2010 weather.com
Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu
musim-musim tertentu
tidak bermusim
Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction, Cannon et al. figures
Figure S1. Annual reproductive behavior of all woody plants. Monthly observations are plotted for each year of the percentage of the
reproductive stems. Each year is indicated by a different type of line, as shown in the legend.pe
rsen
tum
buha
n yg
ber
buah
Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton (2007) Ecology Letters
Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct DecMonthly observations (excluding masts)
2%
3%
4%
1990
1990
1986
1987
1991
1991
1986
1988
1988
1989
1989
1987
Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu
tidak begitu bermusim
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years
Seed
exp
orts
(m
illio
ns o
f kg
of d
ry m
ass)
Year
ENSO
Non- ENSO
Year
June
–Sep
t rai
nfal
l (m
m)
Data hutan dari Pontianak, Kalimantan Barat
• Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan
• Fenologi di hutan tropis
> Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan
Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan
Kelempiau(Hylobates albibarbis)
• Berat badan 5-6 kg • Menjaga wilayah sebesar
30-40 ha
• 2-7 individu per kelompok • satu laki-laki kawin sama satu betina
T. LamanT. Laman
• Berat badan 5.5-7 kg • Wilayah sebesar 70-85 ha
T. Laman
T. Laman• 2-11 individu per kelompok • satu laki-laki bisa kawin sama lebih dari satu betina
Kelasi (Presbytis rubicunda rubida)
Dua jenis ini merupahkan contoh bagus untuk meneliti pertanyaan ekologi karena:
• banyak informasi tentang jenis2 binatang ini sudah tersedia dari SPCP dan tempat lain
• hewan2 tersebut mentempati beberapa macam hutan
• berat badan hampir sama, tapi makanan dan sistem sosial jauh beda
• hewan2 ini menjaga wilayah, dan tidak merantau ke tempat lain untuk cari makanan (seperti orangutan), jadi efek-efek kwalitas habitat lebih jelas dan mudah dilihat
• kepadatan cukup tinggi, berarti dapat ambil sampel yang cukup besar untuk analisa statistik
Kepadatan kelempiau tergantung kepadatan Ficus
kepa
data
n ke
lem
piao
log
(indi
v/km
2 )
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
R2 = 0.70, p = 0.01, n = 7 habitats
Kepadatan Ficus log (fig stems per ha)
n= 11 sites, r2 = 0.82 p= 0.0001
Studi banding telah konfirmasikan ini juga benra di beberapa lokasi di seluruh Asia
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75
Gib
bon
biom
ass
log
(kg/
km2 )
Kepadatan Ficus log (fig stems per ha)
Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran (“source-sink”)
• Variasi antara tipe hutan dan angka perkembangan populasi (“r”) tergantung populasi, sehingga:
r > 0 = sumber
r < 0 = saluran
• Dalam daerah dengan beberapa tipe hutan, populasi dapat bertahan di saluran jika ada immigrasi dari sumber
Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran di Gunung Palung?
Kepadatan Kwalitas wilyah Jumlah individu per kelompok
37
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Gro
up d
ensit
y s
core
(in
div
iduals
/km
2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude midpoint of territory (m asl)
2
3
4
5
6
Gro
up s
ize
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude (m asl)
FIGURE 3.
A
B
C
37
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Gro
up d
ensit
y s
core
(in
div
iduals
/km
2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude midpoint of territory (m asl)
2
3
4
5
6
Gro
up s
ize
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude (m asl)
FIGURE 3.
A
B
C
37
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Gro
up d
ensit
y s
core
(in
div
iduals
/km
2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude midpoint of territory (m asl)
2
3
4
5
6
Gro
up s
ize
0 200 400 600 800 1000Altitude (m asl)
FIGURE 3.
A
B
C
Marshall 2009 Biotropica
n = 7 forest types, R2 = 0.72, p = 0.02 n = 33 groups, R2 = 0.81, p < 0.0001 n = 33 groups, R2 = 0.50, p < 0.0001
(# individuals/km2 dalam wilayah)(# individuals/km2)
Marshall 2010 in Supriatna & Gursky-Doyen’s Indonesian Primates
Kwalitas wilayah
r2 = 0.77, p < 0.0004, n=11
(# individuals/km2 in territory)
1699 Effect of Habitat Quality on Primate Populations in Kalimantan
when the two peat swamp leaf monkey groups are retained. However, the implica-tion of this result is similar to that found for gibbons: if lowland forests (most of which are of high quality for leaf monkeys) were destroyed, montane leaf monkey population densities might not be viable. These results have important conservation implications, which will be discussed at the end of the Discussion section.
Discussion
This chapter presents an overview of results that have emerged from studies of gib-bons and leaf monkeys living in a range of distinct habitats. These results indicate that habitat quality (i.e., population density at carrying capacity) can vary substan-tially across forest types on relatively small spatial scales. These results also sug-gest that different classes of food resource (e.g., preferred and fallback foods) can have distinct effects on primate populations, that these effects may differ between primate taxa, and, therefore, that simple measures of food availability are inade-quate to capture the ecological variation of most relevance to primates. Furthermore, habitat quality can have important implications for primate populations on the individual, group, and population level. For example, habitat quality can influence individual reproductive success, group size, and a population’s probability of persistence. This suggests that observations and ecological inferences from one
Fig. 9.5 Territory-specific population density (individuals/km2, defined as the territory specific habitat-quality, as in Fig.9.3) of gibbons (a) and leaf monkeys (b) plotted against altitude (meters asl). Statistics: (a) r2 = 0.82, p < 0.0001, n = 33, from Marshall 2009; (b) including two peat swamp groups (open circles): r2 = 0.29, p < 0.06, n = 13; excluding peat swamp groups: r2 = 0.77, p < 0.0004, n = 11. A simple demographic model using these cross-sectional data suggested that montane forests are sink habitat for gibbons (Marshall 2009); data are insufficient to estimate habitat-specific population growth rates for leaf monkeys
Kelasi juga?
tipe hutan lain
rawa gambut
meters apl
0
1,000
“r” (reproductive rate) 0
–
+r > 0 = sumber
r < 0 = saluran
Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran (“source-sink”)