Intercultural Communication Challenges and Responses of

Taiwanese Expatriates

by

Pei-Wen Kao

A Thesis Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Major: International Human Resource Development

Advisor: Chih-Chien Lai, Ph. D.

National Taiwan Normal University

Taipei, Taiwan

June, 2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the people who contributed in some way to the work

described in this thesis. First and foremost, I thank my academic advisor, Dr. Chih-

Chien Steven Lai. Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr.

Chun-Wei Yeh and Dr. Wei-Wen Vera Chang, who have been so enthusiastic about my

research and your feedback and suggestions have brought greater depth to my work.

Thank you to all my participants, Daniel, David, Pan, Sandra, Red, Eddie,

Dawei, and Amanda. Each of you have been so gracious in opening up your

experience to me by sharing your amazing stories.

Special thanks goes to Yangwu, Ryan, Sunny, Louis, Milton, and Koko for

helping me contact participants from the field. My research would not have been

possible without their helps.

I am grateful for my classmates Edward, Christina, and Pei. They provided a

friendly and cooperative atmosphere at work and also useful feedback and insightful

comments on my work.

Finally, I am deeply and forever indebted to my family for their love, support,

and encouragement throughout my entire life.

I

ABSTRACT

Within the globalization workplace, the growth of expatriates are sent to foreign

subsidiaries to administrate regular operations or provide technical services. Expatriates

have often confront situations of traveling across cultural and linguistic boundaries,

interacting with fully diverse people has become a daily task for them. As a result, the

ability of managing intercultural communication has gained importance and regarded as an

advantage for competitiveness in the internationalized business environment. This research

seeks to investigate intercultural communication challenges of Taiwanese expatriates and

their responses to challenges. An in-depth interview was used for data collection and data

were collected from 8 interviewees. Research reveals Taiwanese expatriates’ challenges in

intercultural communication, factors of resulting intercultural communication challenges

are discussed and built connections with expatriates’ experience, and further, findings

comprise expatriates’ responses to intercultural communication challenges.

Keywords: Taiwanese expatriate, intercultural communication challenges, intercultural

communication responses

II

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... III

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. V

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... VII

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1

Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 3

Research Purposes ....................................................................................................... 4

Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 4

Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 7

Intercultural Communication ....................................................................................... 7

Culture and Intercultural Communication ................................................................... 8

Multinational Language Policies and Intercultural Communication ........................... 9

Intercultural Communication Barriers ....................................................................... 13

Approaches to Communication Conflict ................................................................... 15

CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION .............................. 21

Research Method ....................................................................................................... 21

Research Framework ................................................................................................. 23

Research Procedures .................................................................................................. 25

Participants ................................................................................................................ 27

Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 31

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 32

Research Quality ........................................................................................................ 35

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................... 39

Intercultural Communication Challenges .................................................................. 39

Intercultural Communication Responses ................................................................... 49

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 60

Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 60

Limitations ................................................................................................................. 61

Recommendations...................................................................................................... 62

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 65

APPENDIX A: INVITATION LETTER ........................................................................... 69

APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORM ................................................................................... 71

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..................................................................... 73

APPENDIX D: THE EXAMPLE OF OPEN CODING .................................................... 75

APPENDIX E: THE EXAMPLE OF DATA CATEGORIZING ....................................... 79

IV

V

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Information of interviewees……………………………………………….. 30

Table 3.2. The example of open coding process……………………………………… 33

Table 4.1. Summary of research findings……………………………………………... 59

VI

VII

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1. Research framework……………………………………………………… 24

Figure 3.2. Research procedures……………………………………………………… 26

Figure 3.3. Process of data categorizing……………………………………………… 34

VIII

1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The contents of this chapter included five sections to give an overview of this

research. Section one presented background information of the research and related

studies have been done before. Section two describd the significance of the study which

derived from the research background. Section three and four proposed research purpose

and respondent research questions. Finally, section five provided definition of key terms.

Background of the Study

In a globalized world, the ongoing expansion of business activities has been taking

place. The international marketplace has made people from different cultural and linguistic

background come into contact in a greater varied settings and more frequently (Poncini,

2003). Businesses, as a result, encounter bringing professionals together from several

cultures and that becomes a reality in enterprises. Accordingly, dealing with employee

diversity has become a daily task for a substantial part of the business community (Lauring,

2011).

The rise of the internationalized business environment and the intensification of global

competition have led to an increasing number of people traveling across cultural and

linguistic boundaries (Griffith, 2002; Lauring, 2011). The literature on international

business and management showed the success of multinational corporations is frequently

linked to the work of expatriates sent by headquarters to ensure the communication to

subsidiaries (Harris & Kumra, 2000; Harzing, 2002). Ideally, expatriation has often been

viewed as an effective way to bridge communication and maintain knowledge sharing

between the different parties in a multinational corporation (Cheng & Lin, 2009;

Holopainen & Bjorkman, 2005; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999a).

2

Due to the development of internationalization, the understanding of intercultural

communication has gained importance in doing business internationally (Lauring, 2011;

Jameson, 2007). The dependence on efficient dissemination has become increasingly

critical for secure the competitive advantage (Dhir, 2005; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, &

Welch, 1999b; Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010). The ability to coordinate people,

activities, and resources on a global scale involves the management of communication

across national boundaries (Tange & Lauring, 2009). In fact, future successful international

managers may be the ones that are able to manage communication in culturally and

linguistically diverse contexts (Henderson, 2005; Varner & Beamer, 2005).

Scholars (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2005; Du-Babcock & Babcock, 1996;

Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen, & Piekkari, 2006; Lauring, 2011; Marschan-Piekkari,

Welch, & Welch, 1999a; 1999b; Welch, Welch, & Piekkari, 2005) described expatriates

face cultural and language barriers in communicating with local staff. Hofstede (1983)

proposed the notion of cultural differences was a barrier to doing business abroad. Similarly,

Peltokorpi (2007) stated how differences in cultural values created barriers between Nordic

expatriates and local employees in Japan. On the other, Selmer (2006) proved the

proficiency in the Chinese language may promote the adjustment of foreign business

expatriates in China. Björkman and Piekkari (2009) also found the language barriers may

prevent the headquarters from understanding the local subsidiary context. Such empirical

studies attributed differences in cultural and language are important obstacles to manage

expatriate communication.

However, compared to cultural and language have been widely studied within

international communication field, the response of communication strategies for

expatriates has received relatively little specific attention in the literature. There was a

noticeable absence of research in seeking expatriates’ responses in encountering

intercultural communication challenges. Furthermore, practitioners especially in the area

3

of multinational management, also eager to know what challenges remain in intercultural

communication in the business community.

Significance of the Study

This research focuses on Taiwanese expatriates in intercultural communication

context. Previous studies focused on expatriates who were native English speakers (Selmer,

2006), Nordic (Andersen & Rasmussen, 2004; Peltokorpi, 2007; Tange, 2009), or a

combination of native English speakers, European and Nordic (Barner-Rasmussen &

Aarnio, 2011; de Groot, 2012; Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen & Piekkari, 2006; Tang &

Lauring, 2009). Recently, more and more recent researches have focused on Asia and Asian

expatriates (Harzing & Pudelko, 2013; Sriussadaporn, 2006). This study plays an essential

part of understanding intercultural communication challenges of Asian expatriates,

especially Taiwanese expatriates.

This study gives recommendations for managers who are in charge of making the

policy and expatriate affairs in Taiwanese multinational corporations. For multinational

corporations, communication among units is necessary in daily operations, but challenges

occur because of geographic distance, cultural difference, and language diversity (Barner‐

Rasmussen & Björkman, 2005; Lauring, 2011; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch,

1999b). Recommendations may prevent Taiwanese multinational corporations from

getting into inefficient or even counterproductive intercultural communication situations.

Recommendations for practitioners, especially in the area of intercultural

communications, gives common practices for future Taiwanese expatriates. Future

expatriates are suggested to refer to the systematically analyzing findings and

recommendations of this study for information. Results of expatriates’ challenges and

responses in intercultural communication will be divided into several dimensions which

are leaded by interview questions. Still, the design of interview questions respond to

4

research questions and purposes.

Research Purposes

The purpose of the study is to investigate Taiwanese expatriates’ communication

challenges with local employees. In order to get richer communication contexts, interview

questions were designed to collect expatriates’ reflections on intercultural communication.

By analyzing communication contexts which expatriates interact with local employees,

expatriates’ answers to interview questions help providing insight knowledge of challenges

that Taiwanese expatriates meet and responses to intercultural communication situations.

The specific aims in this study are to identify

1. Communication challenges between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees

2. Taiwanese expatriates’ responses for communication challenges

Research Questions

In view of filling research purposes which already outlined, findings of this study are

structured according to the following research questions:

1. What communication challenges between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees?

2. How Taiwanese expatriates responded to communication challenges?

In accordance with research questions, interview questions are organized for collecting

Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communicative reflections through the interviews.

5

Definition of Terms

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is defined as communication among people with

dissimilar cultural backgrounds (Bennett, 1998; Jandt, 2012). In this research, adopted

Bennett’s (1998) and Jandt’s (2012) definition, intercultural communication is identified as

communication between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees.

Expatriate

An expatriate is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country other than

the person's upbringing country. In the present research, an expatriate refers to an individual

moves to other countries temporarily for business. When he accomplishes his overseas

assignments, he moves back to the original place where he was brought up.

Challenge

The situation being faced with needs great mental or physical effort in order to be

done successfully. Challenges imply Taiwanese expatriates met difficult situations in

communicating with local employees in the existing research.

Response

A reaction to the situation that has happened. Within the research, the response is

usually the reaction Taiwanese expatriates reply to communication with local employees.

6

7

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the relevant literature on intercultural communication. The

literature comprises culture factors of probed more into high versus low context culture and

individualism versus collectivism. Especially, Multinational language policies relativity

with intercultural communication in multinational corporations are included. In addition,

approaches to intercultural conflict are covered in the last part.

Intercultural Communication

As interactions across national borders have pervaded the daily activities of

companies worldwide, multinational corporations kept greater attention on conducting

their business (Cheng & Lin, 2009). Doing business in an international environment

requires the ability to interact with individuals of different backgrounds (Jonasson &

Lauring, 2012). Consequently, intercultural communication has gained importance in doing

business internationally (Lauring, 2011; Tange and Lauring, 2009). Furthermore, the

importance of deploying competent expatriates who have diverse cultural experience to

establish global competitive advantages has been emphasized (Cheng & Lin, 2009;

Holopainen & Bjorkman, 2005).

Intercultural communication was communication between people of different cultural

(Jandt, 2012). By definition of Bennett (1998), cultures were varied in language, behavior

patterns, and values. When communicating in intercultural situations, people encountered

assumption of dissimilar and consideration of different. Intercultural communication

focused on face-to-face interaction among human beings. For this kind of communication

to occur, each participant must perceived himself or herself being perceived by others

(Bennett, 1998).

8

Culture and Intercultural Communication

High and Low Context Communication

Hall (1976) proposed the concept of high versus low context as a way of

understanding different cultural orientations. It helps people to understand the differences

among cultures and implications of managing cultural differences more easily (Kim, Pan

& Park, 1998). In high-context culture, communication relies more on simple information

with deep meaning. In contrast, communication relies on a large amount of explicit

information with specify meaning in low-context culture (Gudykunst, 1997; Kim, Pan &

Park, 1998; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, Korac-Kakabadse, & Savery, 2001). For this

reason, communication problems especially take place in the interaction between

individuals belong to high-context culture and low-context culture.

For example, Hall (1976) viewed people in low-context cultures, such as the Swiss

and German, as speaking explicitly and directly. They are quick to get to the point. On the

contrary, persons in high-context cultures like China and Japan are viewed as rather slow

in getting to the point and not expect to have to be very specific. The result of a person in

high-context cultures will talk around and around and put all the pieces in place except the

crucial one (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012). Being specific about unpleasantness is particularly

embarrassing in a relationship and easily involves losing face to people in high-context

cultures (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012).

Individualism and Collectivism

Hofstede’s (1983) description of individualism and collectivism is another cultural

dimension that is closely related and much cited in communication studies (Gudykunst,

1997; Korac-Kakabadse et al., 2001; Lauring, 2011). Individualism, can be defined as

individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Its

opposite, collectivism, represents individuals can expect their relatives or members of a

9

particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's

position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms

of “I” or “we.”

Selmer (2006) indicated that because of dissimilar language and cultural backgrounds,

western expatriates often regard as out-group in China. People in individualistic cultures

have many specific in-groups such as family, religion, social clubs, or profession

(Gudykunst, 1997). Kinship and other particularistic ties exist between members of the in-

group (Selmer, 2006). Since the Western business expatriates are not family members or

share other common experience with their Chinese colleagues, it may not be easy to create

any meaningful relationship with them. This further emphasized western expatriates’

distinction and obstructed the development of a harmonious and supportive relationship

between the Western and Chinese peers.

Summary

Scholars in culture and communication (Gudykunst, 1997; Hall, 1976; Jonasson &

Lauring, 2012; Kim, Pan & Park, 1998; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, Korac-Kakabadse,

& Savery, 2001; Lauring, 2011) indicated culture determines how individuals encode

messages, what mediums they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are

interpreted. This implies when transmitting a message in an international setting, culture

might create differences in the way messages are sent and received.

Multinational Language Policies and Intercultural Communication

Situated in the global context, multinational corporations comprise diverse employees

and geographically dispersed subsidiaries and hence need to facilitate inter-unit

information and communication (Harzing & Pudelko, 2013; Luo & Shenkar, 2006; Van

den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010; Welch, Welch, & Piekkari, 1997). The need to coordinate a

growing multiple forces has been an ongoing concern for multinational corporations (Dhir,

10

2005; Luo & Shenkar, 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009).

Expatriates added more experience of confronting colleagues who may have distinct

language or cultural backgrounds. The everyday spoken and written languages employed

for interpersonal, inter-unit, and intra-unit communication have gradually changed and the

size of the problem increases with a number of languages exist within a multinational.

Corporate Language and Intercultural Communication

Faced with the language issue in internal information and communication flows,

multinationals tend to move toward the use of corporate language (Feely & Harzing, 2003;

Fredriksson et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009) to

manage the tension between global integration and local adaptation and make expatriates

control and coordinate international activities easily (Feely & Harzing, 2003; Fredriksson

et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009; Van den Born &

Peltokorpi, 2010; Welch & Welch, 2008). Corporate language is the language formally

designated for verbal and written use by headquarters and overseas subunits and with the

rest of the multinational corporation network (Luo & Shenkar, 2006). This is the language

be used in in major events (e.g., board meetings), organizational documents (e.g., research

reports, manuals), and required from managerial personnel as a prerequisite for hire (Luo

& Shenkar, 2006; Thomas, 2008).

According to Tange and Lauring (2009), the introduction of a corporate language has

proved helpful to internal communication since it provides a common medium for all

members of the organization and offers easy access to official information channels such

as company reports or employee magazines. The competence of a corporate language for

and expatriates can be considered to have a number of important benefits from a

management perspective (Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen & Piekkari, 2006; Feely &

Harzing, 2003; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Thomas, 2008). Expatriates with high

corporate language competence help formal reporting such as the maintenance of policies,

11

documents, and information systems between headquarters and subsidiaries. Also, their

high corporate language competence make them play a decisive character in subsidiaries’

control (Björkman & Piekkari, 2009).

Although advantages of implementing corporate language exist, the multilingual

character of the MNC has been highlighted by several scholars (e.g., Fredriksson et al.,

2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b). Notably,

introducing corporate language will not render the firm monolingual, as language diversity

within a global firm is likely to persist (Feely & Harzing, 2003; Fredriksson et al., 2006;

Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b). Some MNCs have more

than one corporate language, or use multiple languages for designated communication

purposes in internal exchanges. Fredriksson et al. (2006) remarked that corporate language

is likely not the mother language of the particular firm. Non-English-speaking local or

subsidiaries tend to use their own languages in spite of following corporate language

policies while interacting with suppliers, customers, and employees. Surely, the usage of

local languages in foreign subsidiaries can also be important, for example, to improve

customer relations and recruit functionally competent employees (Van den Born &

Peltokorpi, 2010).

Local Language and Intercultural Communication

For a large proportion of staff within many multinationals, information exchanges

needed to be conducted with a second language. This aspect was reflected within case of

Kone Elevators (Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999b), where the proportion of

foreign employees out of total employment had risen to 92% in 1996. Difficulties of

operating corporate language in multiple-language environments were evident. From that

interview data, an Austrian operative commented “The great barrier in communication is

the language. If you have to explain some technical problem it isn’t easy by phone”

(Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b, p.426). Similarly, a Mexican middle manager said “The

12

major problem in inter-unit communication is the language skills. At organizational levels

below me, people don’t speak any other language except for Spanish” Marschan-Piekkari

et al., 1999b, p.426). These implies that subsidiary staff at middle or low operating level

had less opportunities to meet with headquartered staff, and the use of English appeared to

distort communication between colleagues in subsidiaries.

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1982) helps explain why expatriates are required

adequate local language competence when they are in subsidiaries. Van den Born and

Peltokorpi (2010) stated “social identities are derived from in-group membership. In-group

bias may occur through the emphasis of positive self-images in reference to out-groups”

(p.103). In other words, expatriates speak corporate language make their appearance differ

from local employees, and thus expatriates are viewed as out-groups justly. Consequently,

in-group members may enjoy high levels of trust, interaction, support, and rewards amongst

each other, whereas out-group members are met with negative attitudes and negative

emotions (Lauring, 2008).

Welch and Welch (2008) characterized employee perceptions and expectations may

generate a situation of hostility and mistrust such as expatriates from headquarters being

regarded as spies from headquarters. Expatriates interaction with local staff is important in

creating an environment of trust, and competence in the local language is often seen as one

of aspects (Thomas, 2008). The importance of language for the development of trust has

been confirmed in a recent study (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2007). Results of that

study show that language fluency of local language related significantly to a shared vision

and perceived trustworthiness in both the Chinese and Finnish subsidiaries. Empirical

research on language in MNCs indicates that limited language comprehension and fluency

may create a sense of remoteness and disconnectedness, which can exclude individuals,

units and regions from each other’s view (Marschan et al., 1997; Marschan-Piekkari et al.,

1999a,b). Exactly, language competence of the local language may thus provide a shared

13

social identity and promote the emergence of in-groups with colleagues in subsidiaries.

Summary

Previous studies have indicated that language is related to social identity and thus

contributes to the categorization of in-groups and out-groups. Harzing (2002) indicated that

language is a cultural symbol, it is a visible expression of a particular cultural group. This

suggests that “individuals who share a common language are likely to share the same

perceptions of rules and collective norms, roles and values” (Barner ‐Rasmussen &

Björkman, 2007, p. 108). Accordingly, competence in and familiar with a particular

language may therefore generate a positive self-identity, while limited language

competence and affiliation will cause “difficulties in exchanging information and building

trust” (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2007, p.109).

Intercultural Communication Barriers

Chances of encountering intercultural communication situations gets more and more

for people around the world. There is probably no way to learn all the rules governing

appropriate and inappropriate behavior for every culture and subgroup with who you came

into contact. A better approach is to examine on a general level the barriers to intercultural

communication. Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012) specified a number of barriers which would

be encountered when discussing problems of intercultural communication.

Assumption of Similarities

People often natively assume there are sufficient similarities among people of the

world. However, the common biological and social needs and the values, beliefs, and

attitudes surrounding are vastly different from culture to culture. The common nonverbal

behavior, the smile, is an example which can be test whether it is actually the universal

people assume it to be. An Arab international student newly arrived in the United States

shared his experience:

14

When I walked around the campus on my first day, many people smiled at me. I

was very embarrassed and rushed to the men’s room to see if I had made a

mistake with my cloths. But I could find nothing for them to smile at. Now I am

used to all the smiles.

Language Differences

Vocabulary, syntax, idioms and so on all cause difficulty, not to mention when the

person is struggling with a different language. It is troublesome when someone clings to

just one meaning of a word or phrase in the new language regard connotation or context,

for the variations in possible meaning, inflection and tone are varied. Moreover, there are

other language problems, including the different styles of using language such as direct,

indirect; expansive, succinct; argumentative, conciliatory; and so on. These different styles

can lead to wrong interpretations of intent.

Nonverbal Misinterpretations

People from different cultures inhabit different sensory realities. They see, hear, feel,

and smell only that has some meaning or important for them. It is not easy to understand

the less obvious unspoken codes of the other cultures, like the handling of time and spatial

relationships. In addition, the misinterpretation of observable nonverbal signs and symbols,

such as gestures, postures, and other body movements, is a definite communication barrier

as well.

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are stumbling blocks for communicators because they are overgeneralized,

secondhand beliefs from we make sense out what goes on around us, whether or not they

are accurate or fit the circumstances. The sensitive search for cues guides the imagination

toward the other person’s reality. For example, a visitor who is accustomed to privation and

the values of self-denial and self-help may fail to experience American culture as

materialistic and wasteful.

15

Tendency to Evaluate

The tendency to evaluate is we assume our own culture or way of life is the most

natural, rather than try to comprehend thoughts and feelings from the worldview of the

other. This bias prevents the open-mindedness to examine attitudes and behaviors from the

other’s point of view. There is an international illustrations of the tendency to evaluate. An

U.S. student said:

A Persian friend got offended because when we got in an argument with a third

party, I didn’t take his side. He says you are never supposed to go against a

relative or friend to a stranger. This I found strange because even if it is my

mother and I think she is wrong, I say so.

There comes a conflict in communication when you think in your way which may not be

the same as others.

High Anxiety

High anxiety or tension, also known as stress, is common in cross cultural experience

due to the number of uncertainties present. Too much anxiety or tension requires some form

of relief, which too often comes in the form of defenses, such as the skewing of perceptions

or hostility. That is why it is considered a stumbling block.

Summary

The communicator cannot stop knowing that the people he is interacting have different

customs and thought patterns from his own. He must be able to know and contact with

others’ values, attitudes, and feelings, neither losing his own values.

Approaches to Communication Conflict

Approaches to communication conflict refer to ways individuals manage the actual

conflict. Those ways show how people manage communication during conflict differs

considerably across cultures.

16

Neuliep (2009) demonstrated the conflict interaction style is based on two

communication dimensions. The first is the degree to which a person seeks to satisfy his or

her own interests during conflict, called self-face need. The second is the degree to which

a person is cooperative and seeks to incorporate the interests of the other, called other-face

need. The combination of self-face need and other-face need defines five primary

communication styles of managing conflict and three secondary styles (see Figure 2.1).

The five primary styles are dominating, integrating, obliging, avoiding, and compromising.

The three secondary styles include emotional expression, third-party help, and neglect.

Avoiding

High Other-Face Concern (Cooperativeness)

Sel

f-F

ace

Co

nce

rn

(Ass

erti

ven

ess)

High

Low Obliging

Third-Party

Help Compromising

Emotional

Expression

Dominating Neglect Integrating

Figure 2.1. Self-Face Concern, Other-Face Concern, and Communication Styles

of Managing Conflict. Reprinted from Intercultural communication: A contextual

approach (p.332), by J. W. Neuliep, 2009, Los Angeles: Sage. Copyright 2009 by

SAGE Publications, Inc.

17

The dominating communication style is an approach a person might use his or her

authority, expertise, or rank to try to win the conflict. Second, a person who takes the

integrating approach collaborates with the opponent or to find an agreeable solution that

satisfies both parties. If the person seeks to balance both self-face and other-face needs, this

kind of approach is the compromising style. Fourthly, when the person puts the needs of

the other ahead of his or her own needs, this shows the obliging interaction style. At last,

the avoiding style is a communication way person keeps the conflict and not discuss it.

Emotional expression refers to how one might use his or her emotions to guide the

conflict, this reflects the person’s feelings and proceeds accordingly. The third-party help

is the extent to which a person would engage an out sider to act as a mediator in the conflict.

And neglect is the use of a passive-aggressive approach which one might ignore the conflict

but attempt to elicit a response from the other via aggressive acts.

In general, research (Ting-Toomey et al., 2000; Ting-Toomey et al., 1991) in this area

has shown that individualists tend to use more dominating styles during conflict than

collectivists. Collectivists tend to use more integrating, obliging, and avoiding styles during

conflict.

The study of conflict in intercultural by Hall (2005) identified five approaches to

conflict that individuals appear to choose. These five approaches are avoiding,

accommodating, competing, compromising, and collaborating.

One way people choose to respond to a conflict is to avoid it as much as possible.

Avoidance may be accomplished by bringing up other issues that change the focus of

attention or by simply being silent and refusing to participate in the conflict. For instance,

Spain is a country in which conflict is avoided when possible. Japan is another community

in which avoidance is a culturally preferred way of approaching conflict. The Japanese

have a reputation of avoiding direct conflict. In many cultures the ability to avoid conflict

is seen as a sign of maturity, not weakness.

18

The accommodating approach is finding out what the other person wants and then

trying to match. Usually people find it easier to reduce conflict by trying to get what others’

would like without concerning for their own wants or needs. In Zimbabwe, it is common

for people to find out what the other want to hear before telling you their opinion. They

can, therefore, avoid open disagreement and can adapt their wants to fit with the other

person’s wants.

The competing approach is the way to accomplish what a person wants regardless of

the needs of the other. Like Greeks love to argue and public debate, conflicts are typically

met with enthusiasm and are natural parts of Greek life. Also, the conflict is a natural part

of the workplace in Israel. One American manager in Israel noted that his subordinates

challenged whatever he asked them to do, but that was common throughout the

organization.

The compromising approach to conflict is the people involved reduce their demands

to win the others’ agree and achieve their purpose to some degree from the negotiation.

This approach allows people to gain a middle ground in conflict. For example, Americans

likes to stress the idea of equality and are often great believers in a good compromise.

American businesspersons are great compromisers, always making deals. Compared to

American, the notion of compromise is alien to the Russian values and is seen as a sign of

weakness.

Collaborating refers to the process of reaching an agreement through the conflict. In

this approach, people try their best to speak out their wants and also listen to others’ as well.

In the last, each person’s goal and needs are respected and met.

Summary

Each approach mentioned above may be the best choice depend on different

circumstances. It is easy when reading information about other cultures to generalize it in

static ways to the whole community. Just as people in their own culture choose various

19

approaches to conflict based on situation and personality, so do people within every culture.

Certain cultural tendencies do exist that can help us deal with conflict. However, it is

important to remind ourselves to be open to various within every culture and to use our

general knowledge in helpful, not limiting, ways.

20

21

CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND

IMPLEMENTATION

This chapter explained research design of the research. Firstly, the research method

was presented, followed by research framework, research procedure, participants, data

collection, data analysis, and validity and reliability in the last part.

Research Method

This study employs the qualitative inquiry for the purpose of getting a more

comprehensive and multifaceted understanding about the topic of the research. The

researcher wants to know what communicative challenges expatriates confront, why those

challenges appear, and how they react to those communicative challenges. A qualitative

inquiry is suited to this research on account of “Qualitative methods typically produce a

wealth of detailed information about a much smaller number of people and cases. This

increases the depth of understanding of the cases and situations studied.” (Patton, 2002,

p.14).

The study relies on expatriates’ participation in sharing their experience and stories

through interviews. The interview allows the researcher enter into participants’ mind to

find out their feeling, thought, and intention and can capture direct quotations of

participants’ stories and experience (Patton, 2002). By focusing on Taiwanese expatriates

difficulties in intercultural communication, the researcher is able to identify major

challenges they confront when communicating with local employees who are in dissimilar

cultural backgrounds. Throughout the process of examining communicative challenges

among Taiwanese expatriates and local employees, reasons of why challenges exist can be

discussed and analyzed methodically. After examining factors affect intercultural

communication, Taiwanese expatriates’ respond to challenges then be uncovered.

22

The research was proceeded from an interpretive perspective rather than testing

hypotheses as in positive research. Merriam (2009) described “Qualitative researchers

undertake a qualitative study because there is a lack of theory or an existing theory fails to

adequately explain a phenomenon” (p.15). While gathering data and getting intuitive

understandings within Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communicative experience, the

researcher then be able to build concepts, hypotheses, or theories with an inductive process.

A qualitative inquiry is richly descriptive. Words and pictures are used to reveal what the

researcher has learned about a phenomenon, for example, descriptions of the context, the

data from documents, and quotes from participant interviews are always in support of the

findings of the study (Merriam, 2009).

Specifically, this research is a purposive sampling study commonly referred to the

researcher “decide the purpose of informants or communities and go out to find some”

(Patton, 2002, p.230). According to Patton (2002) “The logic and power of purposive

sampling lie in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. Information-rich cases

are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the

purpose of the inquiry” (p.230). This study intends to investigate intercultural

communication challenges of Taiwanese expatriates. Therefore, cases such as Taiwanese

expatriates who have experience of intercultural communication will be selected for the

specific type reply to the study purpose to get knowledge of challenges that they met. By

categorizing communication challenges that expatriates confronted, the findings and

solution that they put into practice within intercultural communication situations of the

research can be proved as members of a group or examples of a phenomenon (Stake, 2006).

23

Research Framework

A qualitative approach was chosen to gain an in-depth understanding of Taiwanese

expatriates’ intercultural communication challenges in foreign subsidiaries. This research

aimed to responded to research questions of this study by describing expatriates’ experience

of intercultural communication so that the researcher could find out challenges expatriates

met and their responses to challenges.

The researcher reviewed intercultural communication relevant literature in chapter II

examined that there are six main barriers might be encountered when discussing problems

of intercultural communication were specified by Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012). As for

approaches to conflict that individuals appear to choose, previous research Neuliep (2009)

demonstrated five primary styles and three secondary styles. Another research Hall (2005)

also identified five approaches that people manage communication conflicts. Findings

which were derived from data presented Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural

communication challenges and responses. Figure 3.1. is the illustration of the research

framework according to earlier elaboration.

24

Figure 3.1. Research framework

Intercultural

Communication Challenges

Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012)

Six barriers

1. Assumption of similarities

2. Language differences

3. Nonverbal

misinterpretations

4. Stereotypes

5. Tendency to evaluate

6. High anxiety

Intercultural

Communication Responses

Neuliep (2009)

Five primary styles

1. Dominating

2. Integrating

3. Obliging

4. Avoiding

5. Compromising

Three secondary styles

1. Emotional expression

2. Third-party help

3. Neglect

Hall (2005)

Five approaches

1. Avoiding

2. Accommodating

3. Competing

4. Compromising

5. Collaborating

25

Research Procedures

The research procedure included nine phases, some of phases developed persistently

or repeatedly throughout the research. To be explicit, nine phases were illustrated as a step-

by-step procedure in Figure 3.2.

First of all, the researcher discussed the interested research field with the advisor in

the opening phase. Through the discussion, the topic was narrow down and identified by

consulting with related practical experts, considering the availability of population, and

confirming the significance of the research.

As the research topic was established, the review of literature focused on intercultural

communication, intercultural communication competence, cultural relativity of

intercultural communication, and multinational language policies and intercultural

communication. Through the process of litersture review, the researcher discovered

theories and research results had already been presented on the subject. Those existent

knowledge helped to clearify the research gap and then generate the research purpose and

questions of the research.

The research method was selected based on the research purpose and questions which

were intent to get inner thought and understanding of expatriates’ experience. Futher, the

research framework was builded up with the linkage between concepts of literature review

and research purpose and questions.

Initial interview questions were developed from research questions, questions were

reviewed and revised after discussing with the advisor and piloting with practical experts

who in Taiwanese MNCs. When the final version of questions was determined, the

interview should be practiced.

Data collection will be conducted through interviews and document analysis, follewed

by the procedure of data analysis. Findings and results of the research were consolidated

26

and written up in the closing phase.

Identify Research Topic

Review Literature

Determine Research Purpose and Questions

Select Research Method

Set Research Framework

Design Interview Questions

Conduct Interview

Collect and Analyze Data

Conclude Research Findings

Figure 3.2. Research procedures

27

Participants

Sampling

The participants of the study were chosen through snowball sampling which is one of

purposive sampling approaches for locating information-rich informants or critical cases

(Patton, 2002). The process of snowball sampling begins by asking well-situated people

who know a lot about research topic then the snowball gets bigger and bigger as the

researcher accumulate new information-rich cases. Basically, the chain of recommended

informants would typically diverge initially as many possible sources are recommended.

For avoiding arguments of lending credibility to the study, reasons for site selections or

individual case sampling need to be carefully articulated and made explicit.

Criteria for participants.

Participants in this research study were expatriates who had or have been an expatriate

in the universe. They were targeted through a number of participation criteria:

1. Who is Taiwanese and was brought up and educated in Taiwan until his or her

senior high school.

2. Participant’s is working for Taiwanese company and the company headquarter is

in Taiwan.

3. Who had or has overseas experience in global subsidiaries which not cover

Chinese speaking countries over than three months.

Although participants were not randomly selected but rather on the basis of above criteria

and their willingness, the sampling strategy helped to find appropriate informants who

could provide a greater possibility of intercultural communication experience to achieve

the purpose of the study.

28

Processes of reaching participants.

Processes of contacting the research participants was divided into three steps. The first

step started at listing out Taiwanese companies which have overseas subsidiaries in non-

Chinese speaking countries. To find out participants from the population, the researcher

asked a broad group of knowledgeable people to identify a number of well-run Taiwanese

multinational corporations. Afterward the researcher reached information-rich participants

from differ companies with the help of informants or friends who has known participants

in those companies.

Second, information-rich participants answered they were willing to accept the

interview through informants and friends first requested. Within this step, many possible

participants may be excluded from the interview process, for many Taiwanese expatriates

now were in certain Chinese-speaking countries, such as china, and was not qualified to be

included as participants. Also, some appropriate participants may politely decline the

invitation because they were too busy to be interviewed.

At last, the researcher hardly got participants’ contact information which was provided

by informants and friends. Next the researcher could have contacting channels to

communicate with the approval participants. Nonetheless, the process of checking the

interview schedule was not easy, it was still cost time contacting participants. Reasons of

difficult to contact them was they worked in different continents and their working hours

were usually approximately ten hours which were longer than they worked in Taiwan. And

thence the researcher had to check the interview time with participants repeatedly and

separately.

29

Interviewees

Eight expatriates were interviewed, five were men and three were women. Half of

participants were expatriated in Southeast Asia countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia,

the others were in India, Saudi Arabia, Czech Republic, and Mexico respectively. Based on

principles of research confidential, all interviewees’ names are pseudonyms.

The length of expatriate time of each participant was more than half of a year. Among

the participants, the least expatriate time was six months and the longest was last to three

years. On average, the length of expatriate assignment was one year and a half.

Most of participants first experienced their first expatriate over five continents

worldwide. It's worth mentioning that three of them have overseas experience before. One

participants had traveled for business purposes and two had been expatriated when they

were in the former company.

The eight participants in the interview group work in different fields, the industries

they work range from construction, shoes manufacturing, textile manufacturing,

manufacturing, and electronic manufacturing. Based on information provided, the positions

which they were assigned were all manager as they were expatriated.

See Table 3.1 for a list of participants and a summary of their background information

and relevant experience.

30

Name Gender Expatriate

country

Length of

expatriate

Overseas

experience Job title Industry

Daniel M India 18 months 1 time Accounting

Manager Construction

David M Saudi Arabia 12 months 1 time Accounting

Manager Construction

Pan M Vietnam 6 months 1 time Chemical Factory

Manager

Shoes

Manufacturing

Sandra F Vietnam 16 months 1 time Sales Manager Textile

Manufacturing

Red F Vietnam 15 months 2 times Sales Manager Textile

Manufacturing

Eddie M Cambodia 8 months 2 times Accounting

Manager Manufacturing

Dawei M Czech

Republic 36 months 1 time Finance Manager

Electronic

Manufacturing

Amanda F Mexico 12 months 3 times Account Manager Electronic

Manufacturing

Table 3.1.

Information of Interviewees

31

Data Collection

Instrument

Within this qualitative research, the researcher was the main instrument utilized in

data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The researcher grasped related concepts from

the collection of empirical materials, mirrored main concepts in her consciousness, and

converted them into phenomenological representations to be interpreted (Pezalla, Pettigrew,

& Miller-Day, 2012).

Interview

Commonly, some and occasionally all the data are collected through interviews in

qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). An interview can be perceived as a process in which

a researcher and a participant engage in a conservation focused on questions related to a

research study. Hence, the purpose of interviewing is to allow the researcher to enter into

the other person’s perspective (Patton, 2002). It is also necessary when the researcher is

interested in past events that are impossible to replicate. Surely, this study need interview

to discover intercultural communication challenges and responses which the researcher

cannot directly observe beside Taiwanese expatriates.

The semi-structured interview was chosen as the strategy for data collection. An

interview guide (See Appendix C) was provided to ensure the same basic questions were

pursued with each interviewee, the interviewee was free to explore or ask questions to

illuminate topics and questions within the interview guide (Patton, 2002). Thus, the

researcher was also able to ask questions corresponsive to establish a conversation with the

focus on a particular subject that might be predetermined. This strategy facilitated the

researcher to obtain the needed information as rich and detailed.

32

To ensure the quality of interview questions, questions were reviewed by experts.

With the help of experts review, the researcher altered the order of questions and level of

detail depending on experts’ suggestions. After the expert review, the revised interview

questions were sent to colleagues who have experience with designing interview questions

and good at wording to do peer review. Feedback of the peer review such as wording are

examined to accurately deliver the intended meanings.

Interviewees were identified through HR people who could reach informative

expatriates in Taiwanese multinational corporations and also from experts. By HR people

and experts’ connecting, the researcher got contact information about interview candidates.

The researcher then contacted those candidates and illustrated the research purposes to

them and got their permission to be interviewed. Before the interviews were conducted, an

invitation letter (See Appendix A) and a consent letter (See Appendix B) were emailed to

interviewees to make them knowledgeable of the background of the research and

procedures within the interview processes.

Data Analysis

Merriam (2009) pointed out data analysis is the process used to answer research

questions. Inductive analysis was implemented to discover important patterns, themes, and

interrelationships in the details and specifics of the data. Based on Patton (2002), the

researcher is able to explore and confirm the frequent, dominant, or significant themes

emerging in raw data by taking advantage of inductive analysis. Generally, answers to

research questions are called categories or themes or findings (Merriam, 2009).

The main sources of data were the audio-taped and notes of the interviews. The

researcher then transcribed all the recording into verbatim and the transcripts were sent

back to each participant for corrections and verification.

33

The Step-By-Step Process of Analysis

Processes of organizing and managing data often involves coding, coding is

assigning some sort of shorthand designation to various aspects of the data (Merriam, 2009).

It is important for the researcher to code data as they are collected. During the coding

process, the researcher is required to keep tracking thoughts, speculations, and hunches

when preparing data for analysis (Patton, 2002).

Category construction.

The process began with reading the first interview transcript and the first note

collected in the interview. The researcher jotted down notes, comments, or queries in the

margins, identified as many as possible segments that might be useful. Because the

researcher is being open to anything possible at this point, this form of coding is often

called open coding (Merriam, 2009; Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008). Table 3.2. showed the

open coding process (see also Appendix D).

Table 3.2.

The Example of Open Coding Process

Original Data Open Coding

I would like to described Vietnamese

employees as working slowly, romantic

and not very actively.

Vietnamese employees works slowly,

romantic and not very actively. 5-054

After working through the entire transcript, the researcher went back over the marginal

notes and comments (codes) and tried to group those comments and notes that seem to go

together. Assigning codes to pieces of data was the way the researcher commenced to

construct categories. This process of grouping open codes is sometimes called axial coding

(Merriam, 2009; Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008).

34

Sorting data and categories.

Dozens of tentative categories generated at the former of the analysis. Later the

researcher was able to rename categories to more precisely as scanning data many times

and retaining those seem to hold across interviews and notes, at this situation some original

categories will probably become subcategories. This process of integrated and refined

categories in order is usually called selective coding (Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008).

Once the researcher have derived a tentative scheme of categories, the evidence of

each category will be found out and sorted. Each unit of data is placed in a category should

include original identifying codes such as respondents’ name and line numbers of the

excerpt, this enable the researcher to return to the original transcript or notes easily and

efficiently (Merriam, 2009). Figure 3.3. presented the process of data categorizing into

categories then concepts, and ultimately dimension (see Appendix E).

Transcript Code Category Dimension

People here would like to say words

which was good for them and to keep

reservation about something. They

were used to say this was “probably”

right, this “should” be right, but they

won’t say this was “absolutely” right.

1-004 Communication

style

Intercultural

communication

challenges

Czech thought directly, their thinking

manner was like A equal to B. They

would just follow the instruction I

gave and accomplish it.

7-081

Vietnamese employees works slowly,

romantic and not very actively.

5-054 Values of work

and life

Mexican used to leave the workplace

and go back to enjoy their life after

they got off work.

8-105

Figure 3.3. Process of Data Categorizing

35

Naming categories.

Devising categories was relatively an intuitive process, but it was also systematic by

the study’s purpose and the investigator’s orientation and knowledge. Since every study is

suited in some body of literature to come up with a purpose statement and research

questions, the categories are responsive to these research questions, the name of these

categories will be congruent with the orientation of the study (Merriam, 2009).

Becoming more theoretical.

In this level of analysis, the researcher thought and speculated how categories and

subcategories might be interrelated to develop a model. As Merriam (2009) described,

information which was contained should transcend the formation of categories, for a theory

seeks to explain a large number of phenomena and tell how they are related.

Research Quality

The trustworthiness of a qualitative research represents the worth of the research.

Guba and Lincoln (1989) proposed four concepts that researchers can use to enhance

the worth of their qualitative researches. Concepts included credibility, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility

Credibility is parallel to the conventional notion of internal validity, in which the

researcher should ensure the study measuring what it is actually intended (Shenton, 2004).

Qualitative researchers (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Merriam, 1998) commented that

credibility is one of the most important factors in establishing trustworthiness. This study

included peer examination to enable recurrent patterns, themes, and values were identified

and verified.

Peer examination involves the researcher discusses research processes and findings

with colleagues who have experience with qualitative methods (Krefting, 1991). The

36

researcher first invited a peer who conducted his research in communication field to have

understanding of the research. Later the researcher presented working hypotheses and

explained the evolving process of the findings. During the peer examination processes, the

informants’ verbatim (tape recordings or transcripts of interviews) was provided to help the

peer critically assess the interpretations from direct quotes.

Transferability

The conventional term of transferability is external validity, it lies in demonstrating

the result of the research have applicability in other contexts (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Since

the qualitative research is situational uniqueness, the study nay not relate to others and

hence conclusions may not be transferable (Shenton, 2004). To claim the data is

transferable, a key factor is informants of that particular group is the representativeness

(Krefting, 1991). Dense description was used to address transferability of sample selection

was consisted in this study.

Dense description refers to the researcher should provide dense background

information about informants, the research context, and settings allow others to assess how

to transfer the findings (Krefting, 1991). The researcher added information of how to

contact with interviewees and interviewees’ information in the inside of participants part.

Also, the content of findings gave explanation of interviewees experience, why the

communication challenges happened, challenges happened in what situations, and how

interviewees responded to those challenges. As Guba and Lincoln (1989) noted, it is the

researcher’s responsibility to present an adequate sample to allow transferability judgments

to be made by others.

Dependability

Dependability is corresponded to the conventional term, reliability. The dependability

criterion relates to the consistency of findings and is sensitive to alterations in methodology

and shifts in hypothesis or constructs (Halldorsson & Aastrup, 2003; Krefting, 1991).

37

Within this study, dense description and peer examination were two methods to describe

and examine data gathering, analysis, and interpretation.

The method of dense description and peer examination which as just mentioned

provided information on clarifying how the study might be or how unique the situation was,

the use of peer examination to check the research plan and how the research was

implemented. After the researcher had given thick description of the research processes

and findings and secured it with the help of the peer, dependability was enhanced (Krefting,

1991).

Confirmability

The final concept of confirmability, is being parallel to the conventional view on

objectivity. Confirmability is be taken to help ensure as much as possible that findings are

results of experience and ideas of informants, rather than the characteristics and preferences

of the researcher (Shenton, 2004). Method of audit was involved for establishing

confirmability.

The method of audit helped recorded and followed through the evolving process of

the findings to make the research be understood. Each step of the research process was

elaborately described and identified. There were six categories of records that be composed

of to be the audit. They were raw data (field notes and audio recordings), data reduction

and analysis, data reconstruction and synthesis (thematic categories, interpretations,

inferences), process notes (procedures and design strategies), materials related to intentions

and dispositions (study proposal, field journal), and instrument development information

(pilot forms, survey format, schedules). Guba and Lincoln (1989) noted that inspection and

verification often are not considered until the completion of the project. Ideally, the audit

should be ongoing throughout the research process.

38

39

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presented the main research findings of the study. Research findings were

explicated in detail and correlated to research questions which were categorized into

intercultural communication challenges and intercultural communication responses two

dimensions. Discussions summarized research findings and connected to relevant literature

were put in the last part of each dimension. Table 4.1. Showed a summary of research

findings in the end.

Intercultural Communication Challenges

This section addressed the first research question of what communication challenges

occurred between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees in the overseas subsidiaries.

Reasons of expatriates had not good communication with a local employee owing to the

country that expatriates came from was dissimilar to the local employee’s. Differences

resulted in the communication challenges of differ cultural people were found below.

Communication Style

Several participants mentioned the way local people speak was so different from

Taiwanese that they had spent a period of time getting used to it. They pointed out the

communication style was a common intercultural communication challenge.

Daniel, who has been an expatriate accounting manager in India for eighteen months,

expressed Indian were used to speak in an exaggerated way. Within the first three months

of expatriate, every time he felt be cheated when he talked to the Indian employees.

“At the beginning, when I asked them to do something, they often answered “Yes”,

“No Problem”, thing A might be correct. But later I found thing A was not

correct and things they promised me were almost not be achieved. Then I found

out people here would like to say words which was good for them and to keep

40

reservation about something. They were used to say this was “probably” right,

this “should” be right, but they won’t say this was “absolutely” right.” (1-004)

Eddie who has been assigned to be an accounting manager in Cambodia for eight

months characterized Cambodian were citizens who were shy to speak their feelings.

“Cambodian employees tented to be quiet and were afraid to ask questions when

they had any difficulty on the job or talked with me. They would just nod their

heads to show they were able to do it, even though there were many doubts in their

minds.” (6-070)

Still another participant, Dawei, was an expatriate financial manager in Czech

Republic last for three years marked Czech as a group of people who spoke what they

thought. He commented the way Czech speak was more directly than Taiwanese.

“Czech thought directly, their thinking manner was like A equal to B. They

would just do the way you told them, for example, Czech divers would stop the car

once pedestrians walked on the zebra crossing. Thus if I assigned them a task, they

would just follow the instruction I gave and accomplish it.” (7-081)

Participants told that they did not expect the communication style had such a big

influence on the intercultural communication. Few participants even not knew speaking

manner of local people. They said the communication really got better after they knew and

familiar the way in which local employees talks.

Values of Work and Life

People around the world had distinct values of work and life and this became a critical

challenge in intercultural communication. Participants mentioned local employees’ values

were various because the country they lived in disparate countries. Certain job requirements

41

which participants asked were not really accepted by local employees.

David, who was an expatriate accounting manager stayed in Saudi Arabia for twelve

months claimed that Saudi Arabian employees’ working attitude was careless. They neither

completed the task nor reached the job objective over David’s expectation.

“Saudi Arabian employees’ believed that once they finished a task then they had to

start the next one. They won’t put on a spurt to fulfill the task as I first requested.

Careless was their attitude towards work and that never be changed from the time I

arrived to the end I left there.” (2-022)

Sandra who has been an expatriate sales manager in Vietnam for sixteen months

described Vietnamese employees’ freely working attitude.

“Vietnamese employees worked not very actively, they did the job followed their

willingness. They said they worked because they wanted to do it, but they could

also quit the job when they did not want to do it. They didn’t think what lesson

they could learn from the job and they won’t strove for the job to get something

more, either.” (4-040)

Sandra depicted the Vietnamese employees whom she supervised did not work on

their own initiative, they could even quit as they did not want to do the job.

“Generally, the basic level of Vietnamese employees had problems would reported

to me and waited for my answers, but themselves would not try to have any

thinking or action to solve problems. If I did not give instructions or answers to

them, problems would just stuck at there.” (4-040)

Sandra felt the worker level of Vietnamese employees did the job only when she asked

42

them to do it.

“Their working attitude was passive, they accepted things that happen to them or

things that people say to them, without taking any action.” (4-044)

Participants had expatriate experience in Vietnam, Czech Republic, and Mexico

portrayed that people there fairly separate the work and life. Local employees did not have

the habit of working in their personal time, they preferred pursuing the good quality of life.

Red detailed described Vietnamese employees:

“They disliked working overtime, they were reluctant to do the job after they got off

work (five o’clock). Even I asked them a question at five two, they declined to

answer me. They thought the time I ask question was not in their working time.”

(5-055)

Dawei presented Czech employees as:

“…they valued the quality of life, they liked to get on and off work punctually,

disliked working overtime, and planned annual leaves for traveling beforehand.”

(7-080)

Amanda who was an account manager in Mexico for a year said Mexican employees:

“…they used to leave the workplace and go back to enjoy their life after they got off

work.” (8-105)

Amanda sketched to require Mexican employees to be independent thinking or

voluntarily follow-up the work was tough. Considering they thought working was one of

their duties so they could enjoy their life without concerning about the cost.

43

“When the problems occurred during the flow of production and caused the job

objective could not be achieved successfully, the local employees would just said

they had no idea, either. That is to said, Mexican employees were kind of one push

one move. As far as they’re concerned, effort be put in and the completion of the job

were far from Taiwanese.” (8-104)

Due to differences in values, participants needed to put much more effort in paying

attention on working progresses and they often felt angry or frustrated. They said to

understand the local employees’ thinking was a decisive step before communicating,

conveying, and further requiring local employees to achieve the job objective.

English Is the Second Language

The main communication language between participants and local employees was

English, but both parties were not English native speakers. Language, therefore, was one

of the most common disturbing factors in intercultural communication.

Participants stayed in Vietnam expressed that even many Vietnamese could speak

Chinese or English, the communication between them still had difficulties.

Red who has her expatriate in Vietnam as being a sales manager for fifteen months

said:

“In Vietnam, Chinese, English, and Vietnamese were three languages which be used

in the communication. But challenges occurred when local employees’ Chinese and

English were not fluently and I was not good in Vietnamese.” (5-058)

44

Red added:

“When Vietnamese employees and I talked in English, messages received and

explained by Vietnamese employees could not one hundred percent the same as

I originally delivered. That is, if we could not fully understand each other’s

meaning, we might not have a real talk, let alone reach an agreement.” (5-059)

Pan, a chemical factory manager, has been an expatriate in Vietnam for six months

commented Vietnamese:

“To my surprise, many Vietnamese could speak both Chinese and English. But

sometimes I still needed employees who were able to speak Chinese help translating.

In the future, I would like to learn their language so that I could communicate with

them directly.” (3-028)

Eddie disclosed his observations on his talking with Cambodians employees.

“Although local employees and I were able to speak English, we could not go deep

into sharing detail work experience if our English ability was not good enough.”

(6-079)

Likewise, Dawei provided his experience of using English as the communication

language in Czech Republic.

“The time I told to the local employee (Czech) and gave him an assignment, he

might nod his head to show he understood. When he put his words into action, I

could find some outcomes which did not reach my expectation had to be corrected.”

(7-098)

45

Dawei reflected his thoughts:

“This example showed there was a gap between the message sender and receiver, the

meaning of the message might be changed in the communication process.” (7-092)

Considering English was not the first language of participants and local employees,

there were some messages could not be well transferred from local employees’ mother

language to English and then accepted by participants. Participants should reconfirm the

messages local employees delivered and make sure local employees received the correct

information they gave. Communication in English though brought participants

convenience in interacting with local employees, however, it indeed required participants

to be patient with detail things, such as the assurance of messages and local employees

truly thoughts.

Preparations cannot prevent challenges

Depend on the timing and differ tasks company assigned, participants had about six

to twelve months for the preparation. Though participants did have plans for expatriate,

they indicated that local employees’ communication patterns, values, or their English

language ability could hardly be knew beforehand or be shared with their senior expatriates.

Had been an expatriate, participants felt their self-experience was more vivid and closed to

the reality.

Daniel described the processes of being an expatriate:

“I was originally assigned to Saudi Arabia, yet company later did some changes so I

was reassigned to India. The preparation before expatriate was nearly six months,

my TOEIC score was about six hundred, and my expectation before the expatriate

was I might not be able to understand Indian employees’ English speaking.

Nevertheless, when I arrived India, I found people there like magnifying their

46

words.” (1-002)

Daniel illustrated Indian were used to speak in an exaggerated way, he felt bad and be

cheated when he talked to the Indian employees in the first three months.

“In that time, the worst situation was I could not believe my Indian colleague any

more. I thought I was cheated and that really made me feel bad.” (1-005)

David who experienced his first experience showed his acts of preparing for the

expatriate:

“There was six months before I was assigned to be an expatriate. I did prepared for

the job and living according to the brochure provided by the company. The content

of brochure included the briefly political and financial conditions of Saudi Arabia,

information of local weather, food, and currency. Although I was ready for things

which were mentioned in the brochure, it was still cost me a lot of time to

accommodate myself to the local situation. The time included the way of interacting

with Saudi Arabian employees.” (2-019)

Dawei spoke the preparation of his expatriate to Czech Republic:

“Through senior expatriates, I knew Czech employees spoke English. My English

ability was quite good thus I did not prepare for English language especially. By the

way, this was my first time of being an expatriate.” (7-086)

47

Daewi offered the example happened on him:

“As I arrived there, I discovered Czech thought directly and they preferred direct

instructions. The originally predictable communication challenge of my mind was

the English, I did not expect Czech employees’ communication style and culture

there would lead to communication challenges.” (7-087)

Eddie was in Cambodia, he displayed his readiness before the expatriate.

“I knew the company used to find the Chinese translator so I did not specially

prepared for the language.” (6-066)

Eddie deeply felt that the English ability was crucial due to he had to talk to local

employees individually most of time.

“Local employees and I were able to speak English, the English ability was really

the key point when I shared detail work experience to local employees.” (6-079)

Eddie revealed that local employees who could speak both Chinese and Cambodia

were especially needed because the Cambodia plant has just be built, policies have not

developed completely and local employees may not really familiar with the company’s

operation.

Based on participants’ sharing, most of them did preparations. But no matter how

much effort they put in, they yet discovered communication challenges which were not in

their predictions when they were in overseas subsidiaries. Local employees’ values,

communication styles, and English level were different from one country to others’,

participants answered learn more from their self-experience than preparations.

48

Three communication challenges confronted to the literatures. Challenges one and

two, communication style and values of work and life, showed local employees’ habitual

patterns of thought were manifested in communication style, and their habits of thought

was largely determined by their culture.

The Czech employees’ communication style was a good example. They tend to use a

linear style that marches through point a, point b, and point c, establishes links from point

to point, and finally states an explicit conclusion. When Taiwanese expatriates veered off

the line, Czech employees were likely to say “I’m not quite following you,” or “What’s the

bottom line?” It is, however, a culturally rare in an intercultural discourse.

The two challenges reflected the concept which culture determines how individuals

encode messages, what mediums they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages

are interpreted (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, Korac-Kakabadse,

& Savery, 2001; Lauring, 2011). This implies when transmitting a message in an

international setting, culture might create differences in the way messages are sent and

received.

In addition, challenges which participants proposed like local employees who spoke

in a different way or had dissimilar values because participants used to Taiwanese culture

and assume our own culture or way of life is the most natural. That is somehow called

tendency to evaluate (Barna, 1998), which is when you think in your way rather than try to

comprehend thoughts and feelings from the worldview of the other. Thus participants might

think why local employees spoke like that way, why they were so different at first. After

they stayed in local subsidiaries a period of time and able to opened their mind to examine

attitudes and behaviors from the other’s point of view, they could slightly to understand

local people’s behavior.

The third challenges, English is the second language, was included because English

was the corporate language in Taiwanese multinational corporations and was the language

49

formally designated for verbal and written use by headquarters and overseas subunits and

with the rest of the multinational corporation network (Luo & Shenkar, 2006). Yet English

was not the mother language of both Taiwanese expatriates and local employees, the

method which two group of people use to indicate the objects and ideas of their thought

was different.

As participants stated “When Vietnamese employees and I talked in English, messages

received and explained by Vietnamese employees could not one hundred percent the same

as I originally said.” Whorf (2012) took the position that language, thought, and perception

are interrelated.

Furthermore, many participants found that using local language was the last but not

the least way to communicate. “Although most employees under my supervision could

speak both Chinese and English. I still needed employees who were able to speak Chinese

help translating to Vietnamese when there were needed.” Language did serve as a tool for

communication, in addition it was a “system of representation” for perception and thinking.

Non-English-speaking subsidiaries tended to use their own languages in spite of following

corporate language policies while interacting with suppliers, customers, and employees

(Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010).

Intercultural Communication Responses

This section addressed the second research question of how Taiwanese expatriates

responded to communication challenges. The researcher summarized approaches

participants chose to respond to the communication challenge into two categories. One was

the participants’ emotional expression, the other was actions participants chose to do

immediately when the communication challenges happened.

50

Emotional Expression

When participants didn’t get local employees feedback or local employees didn’t be

able to fulfill the job objective. It was hard to say participants won’t have any emotional

reaction. Participants’ emotional expression covered angry, upset, and calm three types.

Angry.

Due to participants were all managers, they worked under a highly pressure. As local

employees’ working attitude was passive or their working processes was not ideally, those

behaviors might cause participants’ bad emotion. Participants’ normal physical response

was angry.

Red said she first got angry was the time she asked them a question at five two, they

declined to answered she.

“I asked an employees a job related question after the job. But the employees

declined to reply me, so I was very angry at that time.” (5-054)

Red further explained:

“That was quite a simple question, I received the customer’s reconfirmed email and

wanted to check with local employees. But he thought the time I ask question was

not in his working time so he declined to answer me. By the way, five o’clock in

the afternoon was the time local employees got off the work.” (5-055)

Daniel has been an accounting manager in India pointed out Indian employees were

used to speak in an exaggerated way, he could not tell their words were true or not within

his first three months of expatriate.

51

“At the beginning, when I asked them to do something, they often answered “Yes”,

“No Problem”, thing A might be correct. But later I found thing A was not

correct and things they promised me were almost not be achieved. Every time I felt

be cheated when I talked to the local employees.” (1-005)

Daniel specified his feelings about interacting with local employees:

“Each conversation with them often made me angry. In that time, the worst situation

was I could not believe my Indian colleague any more. I thought I was cheated

and that really made me feel bad.” (1-009)

Upset.

When local employees worked inactively or failed to achieve the job objective,

participants’ moods might be affected. Some of them appeared to be upset yet they had to

solve the problem and keep positive attitude every day.

Amanda offered her experience for the demonstration:

“When the problems occurred during the flow of production and caused the job

objective could not be achieved successfully, the local employees would just said

they had no idea, either.” (8-107)

Amanda disclosed her moods when Mexican employees answered they didn’t know:

“At that moment, what I did is roll my eyes at them and also felt upset.” (8-108)

Sandra noted Vietnamese employees worked in a freely attitude so she had to keep an

eye on them positively. In the beginning, Sandra did feel kind of upset when she knew the

local employees’ thoughts about work.

52

“Vietnamese employees said they did the job followed their willingness, they could

quit the job only because they did not want to do it. As I first knew their thoughts, I

felt a little bit upset.” (4-049)

Sandra displayed her attitude toward local employees:

“As their supervisor, I had to manage the working processes and continually

confirm the job could be accomplished. The positive spirit was really needed to be

equipped with in everyday work.” (4-050)

David remarked Saudi Arabian employees could not be involved into work and that

was really made him feel upset.

“They won’t put on a spurt to fulfill the task as I first requested. The situation never

changed until the time I left Saudi Arabia. That really made me feel upset.” (2-026)

Calm.

In order to achieve the job objective, participants chose to respond to some local

employees’ bad attitude or uncooperative behaviors was made themselves calm down.

Then they could have clear mind to communicate or do the next decision.

Dawei represented his experience of confronting communication challenges with

Czech employees:

“I made my calm and did not make a decision in the meeting right away. With a

view to reaching an agreement, I ask peers who worked in Czech Republic and

reconfirm local employees’ thought about the issue. In the end, I decided to

maintain the original regulation to respect local employees.” (7-088)

53

Red displayed the conflict situation between her and the Vietnamese employee and

her emotional expression.

“On one occasion, a Vietnamese employee abruptly said he did not want to work to

me. I was shocked by him but I made myself calm down and did not do any

respond.”(5-056)

Behavior

Communication between participants and local employees was normally on the job.

The communication flow was mostly downward which began from participants to local

employees, the information included requiring employees to do their jobs, delivering job

instructions and employee performance feedback. To respond this kind of communication,

participants chose to give job instructions specifically and briefly, repeat requirements, find

colleagues to help translating, or compromise with local employees so that job objectives

could be achieved.

Give job instructions specifically and briefly.

As seen earlier in the finding, local employees’ diverse communication styles, values

of work and life, and English was not their mother language made communication

challenges happen. The best and easiest method of avoiding these factors interrupting the

intercultural communication was Taiwanese expatriates should speak specifically and

briefly.

Eddie who has been assigned to Cambodia to be an accounting manager characterized

Cambodian were citizens who contained their feeling strictly.

“Cambodian employees tented to be quieter and were afraid to ask questions when

they met any difficulty on the job or talked with me. They would just nod their

heads to show they were able to do it, even though there were many doubts about

54

carrying out the job in their minds.” (6-070)

Eddie said the only way he knew whether employees got his points was to see

outcomes of the task.

“Through examining the task they completed, I could understand either they had

abilities to follow my instructions actually or they did not dare to ask questions when

they had inquiries.” (6-069)

There is to say, if a job needed four steps to be finished, Taiwanese expatriates may

need to separate this one job into four pieces of work and then assign the four jobs to local

employees. In this way, local employees are easier to grasp the instruction of what they

should do.

Repeat job requirements.

Reasons of participants needed repeating requirements might in view of local

employees had differ values of work and life and English was not their mother language,

they sometimes did not fully followed participants’ requirements. Therefore, participants

continuously reminded and recheck every steps to make sure the job could be done

eventually.

David remarked Saudi Arabian employees could not be involved into work and that

was the behavior of them.

“They won’t put on a spurt to fulfill the task as I first requested. I had to keep asking

them to complete the task and make sure each process was well done so that the task

had higher probability to be achieved. The situation never changed until the time I

left Saudi Arabia.” (2-025)

Sandra noted Vietnamese employees were needed to keep an eye on as well because

55

they worked in a freely attitude.

“Vietnamese employees did the job followed their willingness, they could quit the

job only because they did not want to do it. As their supervisor, I had to manage the

working processes and continually confirm the job could be accomplished. The

positive spirit was really needed to be equipped with in everyday work.” (4-050)

Eddie observed Cambodian employees tented to be quiet and were afraid to ask

questions when he assigned a task.

“If the assign was an important or a complex one, I would repeat the instructions

many times to prevent them from having doubts or misunderstanding when carried

out the task. Through examining the task they completed, I could understand either

they had abilities to follow my instructions actually or they did not dare to ask

questions when they had inquiries.” (6-071)

Find colleagues to help communicating.

Since English was not the first language of participants and local employees, finding

colleagues who were able to speak local language was an appropriate and efficient

approach to communicate, persuade and further require local employees to be an ideal

performer.

Pan presented many Vietnamese employees could speak both Chinese and English.

Some messages remain hard to be well transferred from one language to the other one.

“Although most employees under my supervision could speak both Chinese and

English. I still needed employees who were able to speak Chinese help

translating to Vietnamese when there were needed. In the future, I would like to

learn their language so that I could communicate with them directly.” (3-030)

56

Sandra has been a sales manager in Vietnam, she explained:

“I often had to go to plants or sites to confirm the working processes. Employees at

the site were mostly labors, they could only speak Vietnamese. Hence I would find

colleagues who can speak Vietnamese to help translating when needed.” (4-039)

Compromise with local employees’ thoughts and behavior.

In order to achieve the job objective, participants chose the approach which was more

cater to local employees when communication met challenges. The approach participants

often adopted was to decrease their requirements lightly to win the local employees’ agree

then employees were willing to execute the following job. With the help of this approach,

participants did lead local employees achieve job objectives ultimately.

Amanda interpreted her experiences with Mexican employees:

“When the problems occurred during the flow of production and caused the job

objective could not be achieved successfully, the local employees would just said

they had no idea, either.” (8-107)

Amanda described how she solved the problems and finished the job:

“It was usefulness to be angry in that moment because the bad emotion would not

help to solve the problem. On one side, I persuaded the customer to receive the fact

of the order could not be finished on time. On the other side, I gave employees a

working deadline and told them if they could not finish the work before the

deadline, they should added their working hours to catch up the progress. At the end,

the job was completed smoothly.” (8-108)

57

Dawei recalled his deepest impression of confronting communication challenges with

Czech employees, he said he did not expect local employees would have such a big reaction.

“At one meeting, I proposed the traveling allowance should be paid one-time after

the business travel so that company could save the labor power and enhance the

working efficiency at the same time. But local employees completely disagreed

with me, they argued with me and agitated against the proposal.” (7-087)

Dawei further described:

“I did not make a decision in that meeting right away. And with a view to reaching

an agreement, I ask peers who worked in Czech Republic and reconfirm local

employees’ thought about the issue. In the end, I decided to maintain the original

regulation to respect local employees.” (7-088)

Findings revealed participants had emotional expression when encountered

communication challenges, this finding was correlated to Neuliep’s (2009) study, the

conflict interaction style. The study presented emotional expression refers to how one

might use his or her emotions to guide the conflict. Meanwhile it reflects the person’s

feelings and proceeds accordingly. In the research findings, participants’ emotional

expression such as angry, upset, and calm did help the researcher understand participants’

feelings at the moment challenges occurred. But whether participants’ emotional

expression helped to guide the conflict could not be completely verified. For example,

angry, one of participants’ emotional expression, was not a pleased reaction that local

employees could accepted actually, for local employees also had their emotion. Yet, calm

was a quite helpful emotional expression could help to guide the conflict, the peaceful

atmosphere could make both participants and local employees release tense emotion and

have clear mind to do the next decision.

58

Find colleagues to help communicating was the same style Neuliep (2009) mentioned

in the research called the third-party help. The third-party help is the extent to which a

person would engage an out sider to act as a mediator in the conflict. Like participants

asked colleagues to help communicating so that the conflict could be resolved.

As for last behavior participants appear to choose, compromising, was applied in the

research of five approaches to conflict by Hall (2005). Refer to Hall (2005), the

compromising approach to conflict is the people involved reduce their demands to win the

others’ agree and achieve their purpose to some degree from the negotiation. This

phenomenon comprised in the findings because of two main reasons. One was that

participants wanted to achieve the job objective so they chose to decrease their

requirements. The other was underdeveloped countries, like Vietnam, Cambodia, and

Mexico had many job opportunities, local employees still had a lot of choices if they quit

the current job. Just in case employees left so that companies needed to spend money and

time to train the newly employees. Participants, therefore, would like to avoid confrontation

as much as possible. They would kindly reduce their demands when they were at their wit's

end.

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Table 4.1.

Summary of Research Findings

Research Questions Relevant Findings

1. Taiwanese expatriates’

intercultural communication

challenges

Communication style

Values of work and life

English is the second language

Preparations cannot prevent challenges

2. Taiwanese expatriates’

intercultural communication

responses

Emotional expression

Angry

Upset

Calm

Behavior

Give job instructions specifically and

briefly

Repeat job requirements

Find colleagues to help

communicating

Compromise with local employees’

thoughts and behavior

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter includes conclusion, limitations and recommendations three parts. The

first part is the conclusion for the research. Limitations of this research were presented

followed. Finally, recommendations for expatriate practitioners, managers in Taiwanese

corporations, and future research were given in the end.

Conclusions

This research aimed to investigate intercultural communication challenges and

responses to take as a reaction to challenges. Targets were Taiwanese expatriates who had

their expatriate in non-Chinese speaking country more than six months. Main findings were

showed to answer the two research purposes. Research purpose one was to investigate

communication challenges between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees, purpose

two was to investigate Taiwanese expatriates’ responses for communication challenges.

First, Taiwanese expatriates’ usually met communication challenges of disparate

communication styles, values of work and life, and English is the second language. Reasons

of having above communication challenges result in the varied culture and languages of

local employees. To be more specific, local employees’ communication style and their

values of work and life was affected and formed by their culture. As for the reason of

language, the common communication language used in Taiwanese multinational

corporations was English. Whereas, English was not Taiwanese expatriates’ mother

language and either did local employees’, two group of people communicated with their

second or third language easily arose misinterpretation and missed information in the

conservation.

61

Second, responses of Taiwanese expatriates were consist of emotional expression and

actions they took immediately when the communication challenges happened. Due to

Taiwanese expatriates were all managers, they worked under a highly pressure, their

emotion is always intensive. When they met situations such as local employees’ did not

give any response, it really easy to cause their emotional reaction. Their emotional reaction

which was quite opposite was either angry or upset. On the other hand, actions Taiwanese

expatriates did immediately were to give job instructions specifically and briefly, repeat

job requirements or to find colleagues to help translating. Moreover, to compromise with

local employees’ thoughts and behavior was a way of dealing with the communication

challenges. Since communication between them and local employees was normally on the

job. The communication flow was mostly downward which began from expatriates who

were managers to local employees, the information included requiring employees to do

their jobs, delivering job instructions and employee performance feedback.

Limitations

This is a qualitative research based on interviews done with eight Taiwanese

expatriates. Findings of the research present intercultural communication challenges and

responses of eight expatriates, but it cannot be proved the other Taiwanese expatriates

encounter the same communication challenges and do the alike responses. In view of eight

participants are all unique ones, they belong to distinct companies and have their expatriate

experiences in different countries. Although the results may not represent experiences of

the whole expatriates, findings do reveal much and rich detail information with the help of

interviews. In consequence, the expatriates’ intercultural communication experience can be

further understood and explored for future reference.

Data is mainly collected from interviews, data contained the participants’ expatriate

experience and their usual perception of local employees. Considering data is mostly come

from interviews, the researcher devotes her attention to present and analyze data to be

62

carefully articulated and made explicit to enhance the quality of the findings. The data

analysis processes includes the method of dense description which provides dense

background information about informants, the research context, and settings. Further, the

use of peer examination to check the research plan and implementation, an external auditor

follows through the evolving process of the findings to understand how and why decisions

are made. These techniques are included for insight while also to increase the credibility of

the resulting analysis.

Recommendations

Recommendations are provided for Taiwanese expatriates, managers in Taiwanese

multinational corporations, and future research.

For Taiwanese Expatriates

Due to participants are all Taiwanese, the researcher found out there is one common

feature of Taiwanese expatriates. Taiwanese expatriates work hardly, and have strong sense

of responsibility. When they may not be able to finish the work before they go off work,

they will stay until the work had been completed. Also, as local employees may not achieve

the job objectives on time, Taiwanese expatriates are willing to assist employees to

accomplish the tasks. In order to help Taiwanese expatriates get along with differ cultural

employees, the researcher provides several common practices for future Taiwanese

expatriates to prevent communication challenges which according to the findings.

Seeing local employees were citizens lived in a certain area, their speaking habits,

thoughts, and behavior are all deeply affected by their countries which is also related to

culture. It is significant that Taiwanese expatriates must keep passion for caring about these

detail things. A better intercultural communication process is expatriates are required to

understand local employees, then have higher probabilities to persuade them, and further

require them to achieve the job objective. Once expatriates do not expect the differences in

the communication style or not know values of local people, it will lead to communication

63

challenges without a doubt.

In dealing with local employees who come from distinct cultures, Taiwanese

expatriates should remember to do some self-adjustment before the expatriate. First of all,

it may be helpful for Taiwanese expatriates to keep positive attitude. As a result of working

overseas is really a tough task, they are be able to endure the highly working pressure

situations Meanwhile they have to get along with colleagues whose English may not be

really good, reluctant to work over time, or cannot promise to achieve job objective all the

time. Secondly, expatriates should be more patient when encountered difficult situations.

To accept difficulties or employees’ annoying behavior without becoming angry will help

they keep a clear mind to do any decision. Lastly, be able to listen and respect to local

employees is not easy but a critical way to reach an agreement. An expatriate must have

the wisdom to recognize why challenges happened in the communication with local

employees and choose the solution which both sides can accept.

For Managers in Taiwanese Multinational Corporations

According to research participants’ feedback, the researcher would like to provide two

suggestion to managers who are in charge of making the policy and expatriate affairs in

Taiwanese multinational corporations.

For managers who are in charge of policy, it is vital to make sure the company’s

policies should be implemented in headquarter and subsidiaries as well. As long as

company’s policies are internationalized, local employees are also required to follow the

company’s rules, such as SOP. Thereupon local employees have concepts of the company’s

basic operations and this decrease the gap of both values and language used between

Taiwanese expatriates and local employees. Research participants agreed International

policies was an advantages of intercultural communication and it really help enhance the

level of completion.

64

For managers who are in charge of expatriate affairs, it may be essential to provide

basic assistance to expatriates, like to help or support them get the passport, medical

insurance, and traffic license. These basic assistance is not only encourage expatriates but

also benefit for the company, for the quicker expatriates settle down their life in overseas

subsidiaries, the quicker they can pay fully attention on the job.

For Future Research

The future researchers are suggested to pay more attention on intercultural

communication challenges and responses of Taiwanese expatriates. Especially when most

previous expatriate studies have been discussed the expatriates' personal characteristics,

family support, and the examination of learning and adjustment process of expatriates in

the foreign countries, the question of how Taiwanese expatriates respond to communication

challenges has not been adequately explored in the acculturation literature.

65

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69

APPENDIX A: INVITATION LETTER

跨文化溝通挑戰與因應 訪談邀請函

敬愛的前輩：您好！

冒昧在 您繁忙之際打攪，尚祈 您見諒、海涵。因為外派人才議題深深影響

派外員工和組織，特以「派外人員跨文化溝通挑戰與因應」為主題，希望透過資深

專家訪談的方式，深入探討派外人員外派時面臨跨文化溝通的挑戰與其因應的相關

經驗。獲得的結果，除了將可提供作為人才外派和管理的實務精進參考之外，也可

提供已外派、將獲外派或可能外派等類型員工，強化其跨文化溝通能力與應有認知

的重要參考。

素仰 您豐富專業的實務經驗，本研究需要 您提供寶貴意見及建議。您的姓

名不會納入訪談紀錄；所有的訪談資料，也僅作為本研究分析之用。本研究將善盡

資料保密責任，敬請 放心。在此向 您致上最誠摯的邀請，懇請 您能在百忙之

中惠允 撥冗提供協助，並請 多多指導。

敬祝 您

事事順心如意平安、健康快樂。

國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所 碩士班研究生 高珮文

指導教授 賴志樫

敬上

聯絡資訊：高珮文 Pei-Wen Kao

電子信箱：hireslover@gmail.com

70

Invitation Letter

Dear Sir / Madam,

The purpose of the study being conducted is to gain insight into Taiwanese expatriates’

intercultural communication challenges and responses. The researcher is intended to

invite experienced Taiwanese expatriates to share their stores and thoughts through one-

on-one interviews.

The benefits of the research will be to better understand the Taiwanese expatriates’

intercultural communication experience and also to identify significant knowledge of

intercultural communication for future Taiwanese expatriates.

Taiwanese expatriates are encouraged to ask questions or raise concerns at any time about

the nature of the study or the methods the researcher is using. Please contact the

researcher at any time through the e-mail address listed above.

Researcher: Pei-Wen Kao, graduate student at Graduate Institute of International Human

Resource Development (IHRD) at National Taiwan Normal University

Email: hireslover@gmail.com

Advisor: Dr. Chih-Chien Steven Lai

71

APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORM

跨文化溝通挑戰與因應 訪談同意函

一、本人同意參與研究訪談，將與研究者進行一次，約 40~60分鐘的訪談，分享個

人在面臨跨文化溝通時的經驗與想法。

二、訪談過程中我同意接受錄音，且知道錄音資料將轉換為逐字稿，以利研究者整

理分析。

三、在研究進行中，研究者將妥善保管錄音內容，並避免外流，在論文完成後，銷

毀檔案，不再做為他用。

四、我個人的身分資料研究者將予以保密；而在過程中的部分對話在經受訪者確認

的情況下允許研究者摘錄部分片段，使研究結果能更真實呈現。

五、我同意與研究者一同檢核分析內容與我個人經驗的符合度，並於研究完成後得

到研究成果做為回饋。

研究參與者

_________________

研究者

國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所

研究生 高珮文

指導教授 賴志樫

72

(Print full name here)

Informed Consent Form

Participation is voluntary.

Participation consists of one interview, lasting approximately one-hour.

The interview will be audio taped, unless otherwise requested by the participant.

There may be additional follow-up/clarification through email, unless otherwise

requested by the participant.

The name of participant will not be identified and associated with any part of the

written report of the research. All of the participant’s information and interview

responses will be kept confidential. The researcher will not share the participant’s

responses with anyone other than the research supervisor.

By signing this consent form I certify that I ___________________________agree to the

terms of this agreement.

____________________________ ________________

(Signature) (Date)

Researcher: Pei-Wen Kao

Advisor: Dr. Chih-Chien Steven Lai

73

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

跨文化溝通挑戰與因應 訪談題綱

一、 受訪者基本資料

1. 派外的職責與職位：

2. 至今已累積的派外次數或時間(長達多久)：

3. 曾派外的地區：

4. 曾派外地區和臺灣主要的主要宗教、文化、生活型態異同情形：

二、 訪談問題

1. 外派前對可能遭遇的溝通挑戰，您有做那些準備？

2. 您遇到的溝通挑戰和派外前準備的相同？或超過預期？

3. 請您分享印象最深刻的溝通經驗，它為什麼讓您印象深刻呢？

4. 您覺得文化、語言或個人因素和溝通遇挑戰有關聯？為什麼？

5. 溝通遭遇挑戰當下如何反應？為什麼？

6. 外派前的準備對您遇到的溝通挑戰有什麼幫助？

7. 溝通面臨挑戰如果沒有辦法克服，您如何預防下一次可能再遇到溝通挑戰？

8. 遇到前述的溝通挑戰讓您學習到與體悟到的有那些？對後續工作有什麼影響？

9. 對之後可能派外的同仁因應溝通挑戰的重要建議有那些？

10. 對公司協助未來派外同仁因應溝通挑戰的建議？

74

Intercultural communication challenges and responses –

Interview questions

Demographic information

1. Expatriate position and duties

2. Length of expatriate / times of expatriate

3. Expatriate country

4. Culture, religion, or other differences of expatriate country and Taiwan

Interview questions

1. What preparation did you do for the possible intercultural communication challenges?

2. Were communication challenges the same as you predicted or not?

3. Please share one most impressive communication experience. Why so impressive?

4. Do you think culture, language, and personal reasons are related to communication

challenges? Why?

5. What was your response when you faced communication challenges? Why?

6. Was the preparation you did help you solve the communication challenges? Why?

7. What did you do to prevent the communication challenges after you had met once?

8. What did you learn from the communication challenges?

9. Do you have any intercultural communication suggestion for future Taiwanese

expatriates?

10. Is there any suggestion for the company to help future Taiwanese expatriates deal

with communication challenges?

75

APPENDIX D: THE EXAMPLE OF OPEN CODING

派外的職責與職位：財務主管(finance manager)

至今已累積的派外次數或時間(長達多久)：1次 3年

曾派外的地區：捷克

派外地區和臺灣主要的主要宗教、文化、生活型態異

同情形：一半的人信奉天主教，宗教自由；文化生活

型態上，他們比較注重生活的品質，例如比較喜歡準

時上下班、不喜歡加班、休假有計畫(公司每一年都有

排休假計畫，會發現他們喜歡排休暑假跟聖誕節，去

比較遠的地方旅行)，當地飲食肉類比較多，大概八成

的肉類、兩成的蔬菜，台灣的話我覺得是一半一半，

另外比較特別的是晚餐的吃飯時間比較晚，大約八點

開始吃，是我覺得比較特別的地方，剛開始去不適

應，後來就習慣了。

捷克人注重生活的品質，例如比較

喜歡準時上下班、不喜歡加班、休

假有計畫。7-080

人性格的部分，我覺得跟東方人比較不一樣，他們比

較崇尚人性本善，譬如說他們的文件都是用簽名，那

我們台灣是簽名加蓋章，他們就是純粹相信簽名，即

使簽名也是蠻好偽造可是他們就憑簽名，這我覺得蠻

震撼的。

講話的邏輯我補充一下，我覺得至少捷克人，他們的

想法比較直接，並不是說表達比較直接，而是他們的

想法比較像 A=B這種概念，但是我們東方人就會想比

較多一點，我們想 A=B，B=C，那我們就會講 A=C之

類的，會繞一下，可是他們只能接受比較清楚的指

令，像是你要怎麼做。再舉一個實例，原則上假設法

規講什麼，他們就會怎麼做，但是我們東方人都會想

說，會不會有一些例外、對自己比較有利的方式，這

是比較大的差別。

捷克人想法比較直接，比較像

A=B這種概念。7-081

接受比較清楚的指令，像是你要怎

麼做。7-082

我覺得他們蠻守法的，那我們東方人也是守法，但是

我們會試著去解釋法律，其實不一定是主管機關的解

釋。這個又可以體現在開車習慣上，歐洲人開車很尊

重行人，只要行人一踩上斑馬線，車子就是一定要停

下來，可是像台灣就不同，要看地區，台北或許 ok，

越往南就沒有。他們觀念很守法，對於法令條文的解

釋比較嚴格；我們東方人就是嘗試會用另一個角度去

解釋。那這就當然會牽扯到溝通邏輯，他們的溝通邏

捷克人守法。7-083

76

輯是很明確的，那我們東方人就會想比較多。接到主

管指令就做，比較少去多想，不像台灣人，接到主管

指令會想說為什麼主管會叫我們做，想背後的原因，

但他們不多想不是因為態度不積極，是因為純粹相

信，講話婉轉的話他們會聽不懂，指令要直接明白一

點，這是比較不一樣的地方。

對捷克下屬，工作指令要直接明

白。7-084

外派前對可能遭遇的溝通挑戰，您有做那些準備？

其實在外派之前，比較沒有想到會有想到會有那些溝

通問題，沒有預期，原本預期就是語言的部分，當地

人是講捷克文，比較偏斯拉夫語系，不過當初去就有

聽說是講英文，英文可以通，所以就沒有很擔心，我

的英文還可以，覺得去那邊沒有什麼問題，就沒有做

特別的準備。

在外派之前，比較沒有想到會有想

到會有那些溝通問題，沒有預期。

7-085

我的英文還可以，覺得去那邊沒有

什麼問題，就沒有做特別的準備。

7-086

您遇到的溝通挑戰和派外前準備的相同？或超過預

期？

老實說是有超過預期，因為就是原本沒想到的地方。

原本不知道有文化差異，因為是第一次外派，真正遇

到才知道。

原本不知道有文化差異，因為是第

一次外派，真正遇到才知道。

7-087

請您分享印象最深刻的溝通經驗，它為什麼讓您印象

深刻呢？

舉例來說，出差費用的申請，員工要去其他地方，出

國或是在當地商務的旅行。原本在台灣的做法是員工

自己先墊旅館、交通費，取得單據之後回公司報銷，

這是我們的想法，也覺得蠻正常的，因為公司都會付

錢。可是他們就會要公司先給錢，他們才肯出差，有

點矛盾，他們對公司不是很信任，不只是對我們公

司，當地的情況就是這樣，當地人的想法就是這樣，

他會覺得出差就是公司要先給我錢，然後我才能出

去，或許另一個角度可以解釋為公私分明，那我們台

灣人就是願意自己先墊然後再去請款。

印象深刻的原因是我們本來是採取當地人的做法(公司

先給錢)，尊重當地的做法，可是後來我們就想說要跟

台灣做法一樣，以節省成本，因為天天都有人出差，

天天都要來我們財務領錢，造成一些額外的成本，就

想效仿台灣統一請款，財務統一處理，在某個月的某

一天發錢，或許可以節省一些時間、人力，原本希望

是這樣，那我們就在會議上提出來討論，結果大家反

彈得很激烈，臉紅脖子粗的吵架情況，這是超乎我預

77

期的，因為我覺得沒什麼，反正公司會付給你錢，其

他地點也這樣做，為什麼捷克不行，不過在會議當下

我們沒有馬上做決定，決定再討論一下，私底下重複

確認當地人的想法，結果發現是這樣沒錯，所以後來

我們還是維持原本符合當地的做法。印象深刻是因為

跟我們預期不同，加上當地人反應很大，所以印象比

較深刻。

發生衝突當下沒有馬上做決定，決

定再討論一下。

7-088

私底下重複確認當地人的想法，結

果發現是這樣沒錯，所以後來我們

還是維持原本符合當地的做法。

7-089

您覺得文化、語言或個人因素和溝通遇挑戰有關聯？

為什麼？

有，文化一定是，因為大家想法不同，邏輯也不一

樣，叫好比如剛剛講的出差補貼辦法。

語言我覺得也是一個，因為英文不是大家的母語，大

家用英文來溝通的時候，沒有辦法百分之百，我覺得

可以有八九成的理解度，但是還是會有漏掉的部分，

這個對溝通會有一定程度的阻礙。

那個人因素我覺得有啦，因為每個人個性都不一樣，

所以這一定會有。

文化和溝通遇挑戰有關。7-090

語言也是造成溝通阻礙的原因之

一。7-091

英文不是大家的母語，大家用英文

來溝通的時候，沒有辦法百分之

百，我覺得可以有八九成的理解

度，但是還是會有漏掉的部分，這

個對溝通會有一定程度的阻礙。

7-092

那我覺得語言跟文化比較重要，語言如果大家意識沒

有達到、溝通好，其實一定會產生誤會，文化東西方

還是有不一樣，例如東方人的文化比較注重在防弊，

因為我們很推行一些內控，像怎樣防止員工侵占公款

等措施，那他們就會覺得你們怎麼會想那麼多、怎麼

擔心那麼多，可是我們就覺得蠻正常的啊!所以剛開始

就會有一些磨合，我們會想到一些可能發生問題的地

方，當地人就需要一些時間去接受，這也是文化不同

所造成的結果。

語言可能影響意識傳達，造成誤

會。7-093

文化不同所以剛開始就會有一些磨

合，我們會想到一些可能發生問題

的地方，當地人就需要一些時間去

接受，這也是文化不同所造成的結

果。7-094

溝通遭遇挑戰當下如何反應？為什麼？

我覺得可以去先去分辨是故意還是非故意的挑戰，那

當下我覺得是文化的不同，所以我就沒有馬上做結

論，讓大家再討論，既然大家有意見，所以當下的反

應是再討論，原因是溝通嘛!那溝通就是大家取得一個

共識，如果沒有共識就去做的話，也是怕事倍功半，

大家再溝通、再討論，當然之後會多去確認這個情

況，多問幾個人，也問其他公司，詢問當地的風俗民

情就是這樣，我覺得要重複確認(double check)!

溝通遇挑戰不馬上做結論，讓大家

再討論。

7-095

溝通的結過是希望達成一個共識，

了解、確認當地風俗民情，可以幫

助達成共識。7-096

遇到前述的溝通挑戰讓您學習到與體悟到的有那些？

對後續工作有什麼影響？

78

第一個學習到的就是順益民情，每一個國家、種族，

有他根深蒂固的地方，那如果是在合法、合公司規則

的前提下可以去尊重，另外因為大家語言不同，所以

我學到的是要重複確認(double check)，因為有時候第

一次溝通，他可能跟你點頭、說瞭解、沒問題，但實

際上執行會有一些偏差、跟預期不同的地方、或者是

跟對方意願不同的地方，這時候我學到會再做第二次

的確認，或者是讓他重複一次對我溝通的認知，就比

較可以確保大家的溝通是有效。

體會到文化、民族的不同，在合法

合公司規則的前提下可以尊重。

7-097

語言方面，為確保溝通有效，應重

複確認。因為有時候第一次溝通，

他可能跟你點頭、說瞭解、沒問

題，但實際上執行會有一些偏差、

跟預期不同的地方、或者是跟對方

意願不同的地方。7-098

對之後可能派外的同仁因應溝通挑戰的重要建議有那

些？

英文在歐洲是可以作為溝通使用的語言；要有心理準

備文化的差異，不能很強硬的用東方人的思考邏輯來

管理，有時候也要在合法、合公司規則的前提下去尊

重當地人的想法；還有情緒管理，剛開始去很容易被

激怒，因為大家想法不一樣。

給未來外派人員建議，心理要有調

適的準備、要能適當尊重對方、情

緒管理也很重要。7-099

身為外派人員，情緒管理也很重

要，因為大家想法不一樣。

7-099

對公司協助未來派外同仁因應溝通挑戰的建議？

在外派前可以先問當地的同仁有沒有一些注意的地

方，之前有沒有遇到什麼困難，這樣做會節省一些時

間，經驗都還蠻難得，可以先問，因為每一個國家的

確都不太一樣。

外派前，向前輩經驗諮詢，節省調

適的時間。7-100

79

APPENDIX E: THE EXAMPLE OF DATA CATEGORIZING

Transcript Code Category Dimension

Daniel需要積極確認工作進度以確保目標達成的可能性。 1-013 不斷督促工作進

度

跨文化溝

通的應對

方式

David需要限定完成期限、緊盯工作進度，並不斷督促以確保工作完成。 2-025

當地人的工作態度就是不積極，不可能講一次就會把工作做好，所以要不斷重複要求。 2-026

Sandra需要盯著工作進度，督促工作狀況。 4-049

越南人工作態度隨興，Sandra 會積極注意工作進展。 4-050

溝通遭遇問題會請員工或越籍朋友翻譯及溝通。 3-031 請同事協助溝通

後來比較懂印度人說話的方式，會仿效他們講場面話。(配合當地人，為了更融入) 1-011 協調、妥協

衝突過後，Red找當事者了解他的想法、為什麼這麼做，最後達成了協議並繼續工作。 5-057

私底下重複確認當地人的想法，結果發現是這樣沒錯，所以後來我們還是維持原本符合當地的

做法。 7-088

遇到困難 Amanda的處理方式，我比較不可能去跟客人講我就是做不到，所以我就會告訴客人，

什麼樣的狀況之下，我們可以有多少的完成度，如果要達到更高的完成度的話，我們可能需要

他更多的一些協助、或者是給我們更多的資源。

8-108

不能要求別人都要跟自己一樣，要協調、妥協。 8-111

跟越南人工作，指令要清楚明確且合理，先說要達到什麼目標，在進一步解釋為什麼要這麼做。 5-063 工作指令明確、

易懂 較技術性或複雜的工作任務不會交給底下員工做。 6-068

工作任務要以英文實際操作一次，他們才能了解。 6-069

重要的事情需要多講幾次，因為當地員工不敢直接問問題，就算不懂也只會點頭。 6-070

比較複雜的任務說一次不夠，類推的工作任務不一定有辦法做到。 6-071

工作指令要簡單、易懂。 6-073

如果是一連串的工作指令，越後面的指令可能就越難達成。 6-074

要把複雜的事情，拆解成簡單、容易完成的事情。 6-075

Amanda會給一個清楚的指示，完成工作指派的任務，假設工作尚未完成，同仁必須要花費自己

額外的時間投入在完成那件事情上，那大部分的情況之下，同仁都可以配合。 8-106

80

Transcript Code Category Dimension

Daniel建議未來可能外派同仁心態上的調適很重要，語言能力的重要性也不能忽視。 1-015 心態調適、態度

積極樂觀

未來建議

姿態、心態的調整很重要!! 3-038

Dawei 給未來外派人員建議，心理要有調適的準備，要適當尊重對方。 7-097

Amanda 表示心態的調整上要很有彈性，不然可能會不太適應。 8-109

Amanda 呼籲之後的外派同仁，請不要覺得大家都跟自己一樣聰明，這個事情不會發生，要

有這樣的心態調整。

8-116

Daniel表示心態上的調適很重要，保持積極、樂觀的態度。遇到挫折或負面反應別逃避、退

縮。

1-016

Red建議之後要外派到越南的同仁，情緒智商要高、身體也要健康! 5-064 情緒管理、身體

健康 身為外派人員，情緒管理也很重要，因為大家想法不一樣。 7-098

Sandra 提醒未來將外派的同仁，身體要保持健康! 4-052

了解當地的民情以及文化，這在未來溝通方面可以降低非常多的不必要麻煩。 3-036 了解當地風俗

向有經驗前輩們請教經驗，了解當地的民情。 3-037

外派前，向前輩經驗諮詢，節省調適的時間。 7-099 前輩經驗諮詢

所以已經外派的同仁或者是已經待在當地的台幹會是一個比較明顯，可以提供協助的對象。 8-119

才剛開始開發，很多制度還沒建立起來，就會需要比較大量的中柬文人才。 6-078 翻譯人才

Sandra表示外派前專業知識要做充足準備，這樣即便外派到國外據點也還是知道工作的基本

內容。

4-053 專業知識充足