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7/27/2019 International Baccalaureate Extended Essay
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Extended Essay
INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE DIPLOMA PROGRAM
[CORE]
The Adverse Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation from
Cellular Phones on the Human Brain
Candidate Name Rukmal Weerawarana
Candidate Session Number 001426-005
Candidate Code dwd913
Examination Session MAY 2013
Pages 48
Word Count 3797
Date 01/28/13
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ABSTRACT
This essay investigates the question “Could electromagnetic radiation from cellular phoneshave adverse effects on the human brain?” To further study this question, it was analyzed in the
form of three separately approached hypotheses; “radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse
effect on the human brain”, “the extent of radiation damage varies inversely with the age of the
user” and “the general population is safe from the damaging effects of radiation from cellular
phones.”
The investigation was approached both experimentally and empirically, with all data used
gathered first hand. However, a wide range of external source material from government
organizations such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of the United States and theTelecommunications Regulatory Commission (TRC) of Sri Lanka. Apparatus from the TRC was
used to measure the Specific Absorption Rate caused by different cellular phones in a indirect
manner, as the apparatus used was designed to measure power intensity from mobile base stations.
Additionally, a survey was conducted within the British School to address the third hypothesis.
This dissertation is structured in the form of a formal report, with a brief introduction to the
theory behind the adverse effects on the human brain, and it ends by validating the hypotheses.
However, due to the manner in which the data was collected, there is a high possibility that it could
have been false. Extensive measures were taken to prevent this, and all data was validated andrectified in the best possible manner.
Using the data, it was evident that all of the hypotheses were true and that extended
exposure to cellular phones does indeed have adverse effects on the human brain. These adverse
effects are inversely proportional to the age of the user of the phone, and the general population is
safe from these effects.
Word Count – 297
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my Extended Essay Supervisor, Mr. Aravinthan
Suseendirarajah for his undying support and encouragement to write this essay. I would not have
been able to complete this dissertation without his guidance. I would also like to sincerely thank
Mr. Sampath Munasinghe, Senior Technician at the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission
for his guidance and support at the TRC. Furthermore, I would also like to extend my gratitude to
Professor Dileeka Dias, of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Moratuwa for her constant
assistance with my essay, by giving me access to the TRC’s amazing resources. Lastly, I would also
like to sincerely thank my parents for allowing me to conduct this research, and for keeping up with
my hectic schedule. I would not have been able to complete this essay without them.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5
The Issue ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Research Question ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Hypotheses ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse effect on the human brain ............................................ 6
2. The extent of radiation damage varies with inversely with the age of the user ........................................ 6
3. The general population is safe from the damaging effects of radiation from cellular phones ...................... 6
2. Methodology and Concepts ....................................................................................... 7 Outline ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
GSM Radio Transmission Technology ........................................................................................................... 7
GSM Bands in Sri Lanka ................................................................................................................................. 7
Measurement and Regulation .......................................................................................................................... 8
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) ....................................................................................................................... 8
Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation Exposure ............................................................................................ 8
3. Experiment Conception ............................................................................................... 9
Narda® NBM-550 Broadband Field Meter .................................................................................................... 9
Modification of the SAR Equation .................................................................................................................. 9
Variables ............................................................................................................................................................ 11
Procedure .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Observations ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Qualitative Observations ............................................................................................................................... 13
Quantitative Observations ............................................................................................................................. 13
Changes Made Due to Observations ............................................................................................................ 13
4. Data Computation ...................................................................................................... 14
Outline ............................................................................................................................................................... 14 Processed SAR Values ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Adult Skull ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Infant Skull ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
Processed Survey Data .................................................................................................................................... 17
5. Data Processing .......................................................................................................... 18
Overview ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
Hypothesis 1 and 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Hypothesis 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 18 Explicit Data Processing ................................................................................................................................. 19
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Adults ............................................................................................................................................................. 19
Infants ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
Phone Brand Survey Data Processing .......................................................................................................... 21
6. Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 23
Hypothesis 1 - Radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse effect on the human brain ............. 23
Hypothesis 2 – The extent of radiation damage varies with inversely with the age of the user ......... 24
Hypothesis 3 – The general population is safe from the damaging effects of radiation from cellular
phones ............................................................................................................................................................... 25
7. Conclusion and Evaluation ....................................................................................... 26
8. Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 27
Appendix A – Index of Cellular Phones Used in Study .................................................. 31
Phone 1 – Apple® iPhone 4 ............................................................................................................................ 31 Phone 2 – Apple® iPhone 5 ............................................................................................................................ 31
Phone 3 – RIM® Blackberry Bold 9790 ......................................................................................................... 32
Phone 4 – Sony® XPERIA sola ....................................................................................................................... 32
Phone 5 – Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini ..................................................................................................... 33
Phone 6 – Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini Pro .............................................................................................. 33
Phone 7 – Nokia® 1202 ................................................................................................................................... 34
Phone 8 – Nokia® E72 ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Phone 9 – Nokia® 2220 slide .......................................................................................................................... 35
Phone 10 – Nokia® C7 .................................................................................................................................... 35 Phone 11 – Nokia® E5 ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Phone 12 – Nokia® Lumia 820 ....................................................................................................................... 36
Phone 13 – HTC® 7 Trophy ........................................................................................................................... 37
Phone 14 – Samsung® Galaxy Ace 2 ............................................................................................................ 37
Phone 15 – Samsung® Galaxy S .................................................................................................................... 38
Phone 16 – Samsung® Galaxy S3 .................................................................................................................. 38
Appendix B – Raw Data from Experiment ...................................................................... 39
Appendix C – Raw Data from Phone Manufacturer Survey ......................................... 41
Appendix D – Calculation of Average SAR Values ....................................................... 42
Brand 1 – Apple ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Brand 2 – Blackberry ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Brand 3 – HTC .................................................................................................................................................. 44
Brand 4 – Motorola .......................................................................................................................................... 45
Brand 5 – Nokia................................................................................................................................................ 46
Brand 6 – Samsung .......................................................................................................................................... 47
Brand 7 – Sony .................................................................................................................................................. 48
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1. Introduction
The IssueThe last decade has seen what is probably one of the most drastic technological upheavals in
human history. Today, we live
in a world where more people
have access to a cellular phone
than they do to a clean toilet.1
The sheer number of cellular
phones in use today has
resulted in the birth of a new
categorizing system forphones, which divides them
into three classes:
smartphones, mobile phones
and feature-phones.2
However, as with all
progress in technology, there
is a host of risks associated with it. One of the most pressing issues
however, is the effect of prolonged usage of cellular phones on the brain,which is arguably the most important organ in the human body. An
amalgamation of the ‘new’ nature of cellular phones and the relative
absence of research conducted in this area has contributed our general lack
of knowledge when electromagnetic radiation from cellular phones is
considered.
In this essay, I plan to explore the potential effects of cellular phones
available to me on the human brain, using a combination of past research
material and first-hand readings taken at the TelecommunicationsRegulatory Commission (TRC) of Sri Lanka. In addition to this, I also plan
to conduct a survey within my school to evaluate the usage of each
popular brand of cellular phones, and to analyze which users at the
greatest risk of damage from electromagnetic radiation. Armed with this
information; I hope to achieve a first-hand perspective of the actual
dangers posed by electromagnetic radiation from cellular phones in Sri
Lanka.
1 (water.org)2 (Fraser)
Figure 1 The evolution of the cellular phone
Figure 2 The Apple iPhone
- a typical smartphone
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Research QuestionAs per the issue outlined above, the research question I have formulated for this assignment
is as follows:
Could electromagnetic radiation from cellular phones have adverse effects on
the human brain?
HypothesesDue to the broad nature of the research question, three hypotheses were formulated as
follows. By defining hypotheses, each can be analyzed individually, which would improve the
focus and quality of the essay.
1.
Radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse effect on the human brainThis hypothesis was formulated for the purpose of measuring and analyzing electromagnetic
radiation from readily available phones. First hand data collected experimentally was used to
evaluate this hypothesis.
2. The extent of radiation damage varies with inversely with the age of the user
Using the equations for the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) from the FCC, the density of the
skull of an infant can be substituted to calculate the new SAR for an infant. Using this data, along
with other third party information, this hypothesis was evaluated effectively.
3. The general population is safe from the damaging effects of radiation fromcellular phones
This hypothesis was evaluated by conducting a survey of the brands of phones used within
the British School in Colombo, among students and teachers. To analyze this data effectively, the
average SAR values for the most popular phones of a given brand, and analyzing this empirical
data with the data from the survey.
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2. Methodology and Concepts
OutlineCellular phones have two different types of radio transmissions. They are GSM (Global System
for Mobiles) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).3 Technologically speaking, these twotechnologies do not have many differences, apart from the fact
that they are built and mandated by different companies. As this
study is to be conducted in Sri Lanka however, only the GSM
transmission system used in Sri Lanka will be discussed in this
essay, as it alone is used exclusively.4
GSM Radio Transmission TechnologyThe Global System for Mobiles (GSM) radio transmission
technology operates in two ‘bands’ depending on the geographicregion in which it is implemented. Typically, the USA uses the
1900MHz band, while Europe and Asia use the 900MHz band.5
Simply defined, a GSM transmission ‘band’ is a range of
frequencies in which providers transmit signals to phones on their
network.
GSM Bands in Sri Lanka
In a GSM transmission system, the range of frequencies contained within a ‘band’ can be
allocated to different cellular companies in a country or region. In Sri Lanka, the 900MHz bandextends from 869MHz to 915MHz. As per the norm however, within this range, smaller ranges are
awarded to cellular companies for their use, and to ensure the proper separation margins of
frequencies.
To ensure uniformity throughout the experiment, the same cellular company was used
across all phones tested. Due to its high popularity and consistent service, the Dialog® Network6
was selected. Dialog® is allocated the frequencies between 907.5MHz and 915.0Mhz.7
3 (Segan)4 (Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka Spectrum Management Division)5
(HowStuffWorks Inc.)6 (Dialog Axiata PLC)7 (Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka Spectrum Management Division)
Figure 3 The spread of EM radiation
from cellular phones
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Measurement and RegulationAs with all dangers posed by any widely used apparatus, the levels of electromagnetic
radiation from cellular phones are carefully monitored by entities such as the United States’ Federal
Communications Commission (FCC). 8 In Sri Lanka too, the law states that all phones sold and used
in the country must comply with the FCC’s rules and regulations when levels of electromagneticradiation are considered.9
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
The specific absorption rate is the rate at which electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by the
human body. By using the electric field strength caused by the cellular phone, the SAR of the phone
can be calculated using the following equation:10
=×
!"#
!
2×10!!×
Where = ,!"#
= ℎ = .
Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation ExposureAs per Max Planck’s quantum theory, energy in electromagnetic radiation can be quantified
into packets called photons. The theory also states that the energy carried by a given photon
corresponds to a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum, as shown by one of Planck’s most well
known equations:11
= ℎ
Where = ,ℎ = ! = .
Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect theorizes the interactions between electrons and
photons. Concisely described, his theory states that unless a photon has enough energy to excite an
electron, the electron will merely absorb it, and the atom will be ‘excited’. However, when the
electron returns to its neutral state, electromagnetic radiation is given off in the form of photons.
Unfortunately, some of these photons are transformed into photons of the IR (infrared) spectrum,
due to the staggering motion of the electron when returning to the ground stage. It is this influx of
infrared photons that has adverse implications, as it heats the brain tissue, which could potentially
cause damage.12
8 (Federal Communications Commisssion)9 (Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka Spectrum Management Division) 10
(Khalatbari, Sardari and Mirzaee)11 (The Nobel Foundation)12 (Hamper)
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3. Experiment ConceptionDue to the unique nature of the issue, specialist equipment was required to conduct this
experiment. Currently, Sri Lanka does not have a dedicated SAR meter. However, the TRC
possesses a meter used to measure the radiation output from cellular phone transmission towers.Using the readings from this apparatus in conjunction and by modifying the equation on page 8, it
was possible to obtain a value for the specific absorption rate for each phone. The TRC apparatus
used in the experiment is discussed below:
Narda® NBM-550 Broadband Field Meter The apparatus used to measure the
power output from cellular antennae by the
TRC is pictured on the right: the Narda®
NBM-550 Field Meter. As this apparatus is
not used to measure the SAR output of a
phone by design, the accuracy of its
measurement (i.e. least count) is more suited
to measuring large power intensities.13
Furthermore, the design of the probe
used is such that the actual location of the
antenna used to measure the value is
unknown; the phones were placed in a
constant position throughout the experiment.
Modification of the SAR EquationDue to the fact that the meter discussed above does not measure the maximum electric field
strength, the equation used to calculate the SAR of the cellular phones tested in the experiment
must be modified.
Upon further investigation, it was discovered that the Narda® meter measures the
maximum power intensity as opposed to the maximum electric field strength. Thus, using
equations that relate the power density and electric field strength, the SAR equation can bemodified to accept values from the Narda® meter,14 as shown overleaf.
13 (Narda Safety Test Solutions)14 (Granite Island Group)
Figure 4 Narda NBM-550 Broadband Field Meter
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1 → = !×!
2 → = !×
Where = ,! = = ℎ.
[2] → = !×
⇒ =
!
∴ 1 → = !×
!
!
=!×
!
!
!
=!
!
⇒ != ×!
∴ !"#
!=
!"#×!
Thus, as a relationship between the maximum electric field strength and the maximum
power intensity has been established, the Narda® NBM-550 Field Meter can be used to measure the
SAR of cellular telephones. Hence, the relationship is substituted into the SAR equation as shown
below:
=×
!"#
!
2×10!!×
Where = = .
∴ =×
!"#×!
2×10!!×
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VariablesAs per the SAR equation and the other conditions of the testing area, a list of variables can
be formulated and regulated for the experiment as follows:
Table 1 Table of variables
Variable Type Justification Value (if any)
Bone Density () Constant
As this value is not
dependent on the
experiment, it is a
constant.
-
Impedance of Free Space () Constant
As this value is not
dependent on the
experiment, it is aconstant.
377Ω 15
Brain Tissue Conductivity () Constant
As this value is not
dependent on the
experiment, it is a
constant.
1.1!! 16
Distance between phone and
receiver Constant
As this value would
change the values of
the same reading, it
was kept constant.
5 ± 0.1
Other electromagnetic
radiation Constant
As otherelectromagnetic
radiation would affect
the accuracy of the
readings, an attempt
was made to keep it
constant.
-
Maximum Power Intensity
(
) Independent
As this value is not
dependent on any of
the other variables, it is
independent.
-
Specific Absorption Rate
(SAR) Dependent
As this value is
dependent on the
Maximum Power
Intensity, it is the
dependent variable.
-
15 (Bogatin)16 (Khalatbari, Sardari and Mirzaee)
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Procedure• A piece of paper was kept under the receiving probe. This was done to accurately and
efficiently measure the distance between the phone and the receiver.
• A separate phone was placed in the adjoining room, with a laptop to record the data.
• A call was placed from the phone in the second room to the phone to be tested, in the first
room.
• At 30-second intervals (with the first one being 30 seconds after the call begins), the
maximum power intensity within each 30-second block was recorded.
• During this time, all of the other phones were switched off.
• This process was repeated with each of the phones used in the experiment. A list of phones
used can be seen in Appendix A (page 30).
• Due to the small nature of the numbers, a computer model was used to calculate the final
values and uncertainties for the readings obtained. The raw data collected can be seen in
Appendix B (page 36).
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ObservationsQualitative Observations
• The tip of the detection probe because slightly warm after prolonged use.
Quantitative Observations
• When the level of noise detected by the cellular phone microphone increased, the powerintensity would increase sharply.
• When using cellular phones across networks, the power intensity readings would vary
greatly to when two phones of the same network were used.
Changes Made Due to ObservationsAs it was discovered that the power intensity varied with the sound transmitted during the
call, the procedure followed during the experiment was varied slightly. As opposed to simply
making a call and measuring the resulting power intensity, a song was played on one phone during
the call, whilst the microphone on the other was muted, causing the same audio transmission
channels to activate, normalizing the test.
Furthermore, it was also noted that using two phones from different networks (i.e. with
different Subscriber Identity Modules17 [SIMs]) increased the levels of variation of consecutive
readings. To remedy this, it was decided that only phones of the same network would be used, by
changing the Subscriber Identity Modules of some of the phones in the sample.
Thus, by making the changes discussed above, the validity and accuracy of the readings
obtained were increased, leading to a more coherent analysis of the hypotheses. The experiment
was repeated after making the above changes.
17 (Conjecture Corporation)
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4. Data Computation
OutlineTo effectively analyze the hypotheses discussed in the introduction of this essay, the raw
data collected (Appendix B) must be computed twice. Once for an adult skull, and a second time foran infant’s skull. Using both of these SAR values, it will be possible to effectively analyze both
hypotheses.
Due to the extremely small and recursive nature of some of the readings, they were
calculated directly using a computer application 18 to increase accuracy. For the purpose of
calculation, the readings were rounded off to 6 decimal places. Additionally, the absolute
uncertainty of the raw data was also calculated using the computer model and rounded off to 4
decimal places.
Processed SAR ValuesTo calculate the different SAR values for adults and infants, the bone density () in the SAR
equation (page 9) was varied using values for each of the corresponding skulls (i.e. Adults and
Infants) from third party research. As the conductivity as the brain tissue remains the same
regardless of age, this value was not varied. The calculated SAR values with the changing bone
densities are shown below.
Adult Skull
19 = = 1914!!
⟹ =×
!"#×!
2×10!!×
=
1.1!!×377Ω×
!"#
2×10!!×1914!!
∴ = !"#
×
414.7
3.828!!
18 (Microsoft Corporation)19 (Fry and Barger)
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Table 2 Processed SAR values for an adult
Phone Name SAR (!) [±.!]
Apple® iPhone 4 0.
014444
Apple® iPhone 5 0.010833
RIM® Blackberry Bold 9790 0.108333
Sony® XPERIA sola 0.895556
Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini 0.281667
Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini Pro 0.303333
Nokia ® 2220 slide 0.162500
Nokia® E72 0.144444
Nokia® 1202 2.123333
Nokia® C7 0.050556
Nokia® E5 0.061389
Nokia® Lumia 820 0.046944
Samsung® Galaxy Ace 2 0.036111
Samsung® Galaxy S 0.
072222
Samsung® Galaxy S3 0.028889
HTC® 7 Trophy 0.025278
Infant Skull
20 = = 1739!!
⟹ =×
!"#×!
2×10!!
×
=
1.1!!×377Ω×
!"#
2×10!!×1739!!
∴ = !"#
×
414.7
3.478!!
20 (Fry and Barger)
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Table 3 Processed SAR values for an infant
Phone Name SAR (!) [±.!]
Apple® iPhone 4 0.015898
Apple® iPhone 5 0.011924
RIM® Blackberry Bold 9790 0.119235
Sony® XPERIA sola 0.985678
Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini 0.310012
Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini Pro 0.333859
Nokia ® 2220 slide 0.178853
Nokia® E72 0.158980
Nokia® 1202 2.337010
Nokia® C7 0.055643
Nokia® E5 0.067559
Nokia® Lumia 820 0.051669
Samsung® Galaxy Ace 2 0.039745
Samsung® Galaxy S 0.
079482
Samsung® Galaxy S3 0.031796
HTC® 7 Trophy 0.027821
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Processed Survey DataTo effectively evaluate the third hypothesis (page 6), the raw data collected in the survey of
phones used by teachers and students of the British School in Colombo (Appendix C) must be
processed. Furthermore, due to the fact that only a small number of phones from a limited selection
of manufacturers were sampled, online popularity ratings per manufacturer from reputedtechnology website, TechCrunch®21 in conjunction with previously measured SAR values from the
FCC22 will be used to determine the average SAR of the (if possible) ten most popular smartphones
of a selection of the most popular cellular phone manufacturers. The phone manufacturers analyzed
in the study are as follows:
• Apple Inc.23
• Blackberry24
• HTC25
• Motorola26
• Nokia27
• Samsung28
• Sony29
The names and calculation of the average SAR for the ten most popular phones for each of the
above brands can be seen in Appendix D.
21 (AOL Tech.)22 (Federal Communications Commission) 23 (Apple Inc.)24 (Research in Motion Inc.)25 (HTC Corporation)26 (Motorola Mobility LLC.)27
(Nokia)28 (SAMSUNG)29 (Sony Mobile Communications AB.)
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5. Data Processing
OverviewHypothesis 1 and 2
To completely analyze the hypotheses discussed in the introduction, it was decided thateach set of SAR readings would be analyzed explicitly. The reasons for which this method was
chosen can be seen below.
Each set of SAR values will be analyzed independently using a bar graph, with the FCC
limitation exposure limit to clearly judge the cellular phone(s) that violate the limit. Using this
method, all phones that violate the SAR limit set out by the FCC can be clearly seen. Additionally,
this explicit analysis can also be used to see the differences between the adult and infant SAR values
graphically, thus leading to a better understanding of the issue.
Using the data from each of the graphs, each hypothesis will be evaluated and discussed
thoroughly, effectively appraising both.
Hypothesis 3
To evaluate the third and final hypothesis to be discussed in this essay, a pi chart of the
usage of each of the phone manufacturers will be plotted to evaluate the usage of each of the phone
models, whilst also evaluating the dangers faced by each group of users. Furthermore, a bar graph
will also be plotted to evaluate the average SAR per phone wile referring to the FCC limit.
By doing this, the third hypothesis can be effectively appraised by evaluating the graphs
and charts plotted, whilst also analyzing the brands of phones that meet the SAR limit.
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Explicit Data ProcessingTo analyze each of the SAR readings explicitly, they readings will be judged against the FCC
recommended SAR limit; 1.6!!.30 The graphs are shown below.
Adults
Graph 1 Explicit SAR analysis for Adults
30 (Federal Communications Commission)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
S p e c i fi c A b s o r p t i o n R a t e ( W / k
g )
Cellular Telephone
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Infants
Graph 2 Explicit SAR analysis for Infants
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
S p e c i fi c A b s o r p t i o n R
a t e ( W / k g )
Cellular Telephone
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Phone Brand Survey Data ProcessingThe data from the phone manufacturer survey was processed and an average SAR value for
each phone brand was calculated. The average brand SAR data alongside the phone brand survey
results are shown tabulated below.
Brand Number of Users Brand SAR (!)
Apple 66 0.48325
Blackberry 30 0.659125
HTC 25 0.6777
Motorola 8 0.6637
Nokia 73 0.7182
Samsung 48 0.4985
Sony 19 1.1369
Figure 5 Pi Chart of phone brand usage from survey
Apple
Blackberry
HTC
Motorola
Nokia
Samsung
Sony
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Graph 3 Average SAR values for phone manufacturers
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Apple Blackberry HTC Motorola Nokia Samsung Sony
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6. AnalysisThe objectives of this assignment were simple; establish a relationship between the radiation
from cellular telephones and adverse effects on the human brain, and to investigate the influence of
age on the extent of the adverse effects while also evaluating the safety of the general populationfrom electromagnetic radiation. Using an amalgamation of first hand data collected using
equipment from the TRC, a school-wide survey and a wide range of second hand information from
a plethora of sources, these objectives can be achieved. To do this effectively, each hypothesis will
be addressed individually.
Hypothesis 1 - Radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse effect
on the human brainThe Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of the USA has conducted extensive
research into the field of radiation damage. Using advanced technology and dedicated SAR meters,
they have asserted that a maximum safe radiation level from cellular phones is 1.6!!.31 The
explicit data analysis for adults (page 19) can be used to determine the cellular phones that exceed
the limit defined by the FCC. When experimentally determined, only one phone exceeded the SAR
limit of 1.6!! , the Nokia® 1202.
However, the qualitative observation made during the experiment; the measurement probe
heating up after prolonged use as a direct result of extended electromagnetic radiation exposure is
conclusive evidence that prolonged exposure to radiation from cellular phones is indeed a cause
that would have adverse effects on the human brain.
Additionally, it can also be implied that as the time of exposure to electromagnetic radiation
increases, the adverse effects would increase proportionally, as the number of photons bombarding
the surface of the brain would increase, which would again cause a rise in temperature.32
Furthermore, it can also be stated that while users of cellular phones in general will
eventually experience adverse effects, users in countries that use phones of a higher transmission
band, such as the USA33 are at a greater risk, as the photons used in transmission carry a greater
amount of energy, which allows them to excite a greater number of electrons.34
Thus, it can be said that the first hypothesis is indeed true, as its effects were observed both
during the experiment and in the results.
31 (Federal Communications Commission) 32
(Hamper) 33 (Hill) 34 (Elert)
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Hypothesis 2 – The extent of radiation damage varies with inversely with
the age of the user Medical research shown that not only is the SAR threshold for infants lower than that of
adults,35 but that they are also more sensitive to other forms of radiation, such as radio waves and
micro waves, due to the fact that their brains are still developing.36
For infants however, the effects are mostly unknown, due to the relative lack of research
done in the area. However, it can be logically and mathematically assumed that the SAR exposure
limit is indeed lower. As the density of the infant’s skull is less than that of an adult, more
electromagnetic radiation will be absorbed, as is seen in the SAR equation, reproduced below.
=×
!"#×!
2×10
!!
×
Studies on beef show that the tenderness of the tissue is directly proportional to the
conductivity of the sample.37 To use this discovery, it can be assumed that the similarities between
cow and human tissue are sufficient to allow this to occur in humans as well. Thus, it can be
assumed that the conductivity of infant tissue is greater than that of an adult. Additionally, it is a
known fact that infant tissue is indeed less dense than adult tissue,38 so it can be said that the
denominator of the equation reduces whilst the numerator increases, which makes the readings
larger.
Thus, it can be inferred from the readings taken with an infant’s skull density that not only is the
SAR higher, but the SAR exposure limit is lower, which would and could lead to more adverse
effects than previously thought possible.
Thus, due to the low density of the infant skull, it can be seen that the SAR readings are
substantially higher than that of an adult. Therefore, it can be concluded that as the SAR level is
higher, and as the harmless SAR threshold is lower for infants, that hypothesis 2 is also true; the
extent of radiation damage varies inversely with the age of the user.
35 (Brain Imaging and Analysis Center)36
(Stokowski) 37 (Troy) 38 (Gallo, Vanstone and Weiler)
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Hypothesis 3 – The general population is safe from the damaging
effects of radiation from cellular phonesThe results of the calculation of the average SAR limit per manufacturer shows that none of
the manufacturers exceed the SAR limit. However, the phone manufacturer Sony came extremely
close to the FCC mandated limit of 1.6 Wkg-1.
Despite this proximity however, the results of the survey show that none of the users of any
of the phones are at risk of the adverse effects of radiation exposure, as none of the manufacturers’
exceed the SAR limit. However, the users of phones with higher average SAR values will
experience greater adverse effects eventually than users of low SAR phones. This phenomenon can
be explained using the photoelectric effect, as discussed in hypothesis 2.
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7. Conclusion and EvaluationThis investigation sought to answer the question ‘Could electromagnetic radiation from cellular
phones have adverse effects on the human brain?’ To further explore the scope of the question, it
was split into three hypotheses:
1. Radiation from mobile phone use has an adverse effect on the human brain.
2. The extent of radiation damage varies with inversely with the age of the user.
3. The general population is safe from the damaging effects of radiation from cellular phones.
Using data collected first hand, both experimentally and through a survey, and a wide variety
of source material, an equation was constructed to calculate the SAR of the mobile phones with
apparatus that is designed to measure the power intensity from cellular base stations.
The evidence and results considered has led me to the conclusion that I can indeed validate all
three of the hypotheses considered in this experiment. Nevertheless, my studies demonstrate that
there are clearly problems with data collection, where a wide variety of external factors could have
affected the final outcome. Thus, by realizing that though the data collected in this experiment may
not be completely valid, I have to the best of my ability eliminated all random error, whilst ensuring
that all tests and calculated were carried out fairly and correctly.
As a part of the evaluation of the experiment, it can be concluded that the results obtained as
a part of the experimental process are not accurate. This can be attributed to a wide variety of
reasons, the chief of them being the fact that the readings were not taken in a electromagnetically
isolated room. Thus, third party radiation from sources such as the TRC wireless Internetconnection, other phones and other apparatus may have affected the readings.
Furthermore, the use of the NARDA® apparatus in the experiment would have greatly reduced
accuracy. As this apparatus is conventionally used to measure the power output from cellular
phone transmission towers, the level of accuracy would have been greatly reduced as it is
conventionally used to measure large values. Furthermore, the absence of a proper substitute for
the human skull in the experiment may have also affected the readings obtained in the experiment.
Finally, to address the survey conducted in the experiment, it can be said that despite the fact
that conclusive results were obtained to prove the hypothesis, the fact that the survey was
conducted at the British School would result in not getting an accurate perspective of the society of
Sri Lanka. Due to the fact that most of the students at the British School do not endure financial
hardship, the phones used within the school may not reflect the phones used in the society of the
country, where fake, unregulated ‘cloned’ phones are a large problem.
In conclusion, I feel that despite the shortcoming of the experiment, the manner in which it was
conducted, in addition to the removal of error to the best of my abilities has allowed me to deem
this investigation successful.
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8. Bibliography• water.org. Pick either your toilet or a phone. 24 11 2012. 13 1 2013
<http://toiletday.org/?utm_source=huffpo&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=water_all&
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• AOL Tech. Compare Smartphones :: TechCrunch Smartphones. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://smartphones.techcrunch.com/>.
• Apple Inc. Apple. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012 <http://www.apple.com/>.
• Bogatin, Eric. Signal Integrity: Simplified. Prentice Hall Professional, 2004.
• Brain Imaging and Analysis Center. MRI Safety Tutorial. 3 7 2011. 4 11 2012
<http://www.biac.duke.edu/research/safety/tutorial.esp>.
• Conjecture Corporation. What is a SIM card? 3 5 2012. 5 1 2013
<http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sim-card.htm>.
• Elert, Glenn. Photoelectric Effect. 15 11 2012. 15 11 2012 <http://physics.info/photoelectric/>.
• Dialog Axiata PLC. Dialog. 15 11 2012. 16 11 2012 <http://www.dialog.lk/>.
• Federal Communications Commission. FCC ID Search Form. 18 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://transition.fcc.gov/oet/ea/fccid/>.
• —. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) for Cellular Telephones. 27 7 2011. 7 11 2012
<http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/specific-absorption-rate-sar-cellular-telephones>.
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• Federal Communications Commisssion. What We Do. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.fcc.gov/what-we-do>.
• Fry, F J and J E Barger. "Acoustical properties of the human skull." 18 9 2009. University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Bioacoustics Resesarch Lab. 5 12 2012
<http://www.brl.uiuc.edu/Publications/1978/Fry-JASA-1576-1978.pdf>.
• Fraser, Adam. Mobile phones, feature phones and smartphones: the differences. 24 7 2012. 4
11 2012 <http://conversations.nokia.com/2012/07/24/mobile-phones-feature-phones-and-
smartphones-the-differences/>.
• Gallo, Sina, Catherine A Vanstone and Hope A Weiler. "Normative Data for Bone Mass in
Healthy Term Infants from Birth to 1 Year of Age." Journal of Osteoporosis 2012 (2012): 8.
• Granite Island Group. "Field Relationships." 7 7 2002. Granite Island Group Homepage. 19
11 2012.
• Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones. "Radiofrequency Fields from Mobile Phone
Technology." 4 7 2009. Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones. 15 1 2013
<http://www.iegmp.org.uk/documents/iegmp_4.pdf>.
• Hamper, Chris. Physics Higher Level for the IB Diploma Program. Kula Lampur: Pearson
Education, 2009.
• Hill, Simon. Frequency Bands Used by US Mobile Carriers and Cell Phones. 21 3 2011. 14 11
2012 <http://www.brighthub.com/mobile/windows-mobile-platform/articles/14286.aspx>.
• HowStuffWorks Inc. What does GSM mean in a cell phone? 18 9 2012. 21 11 2012
<http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question537.htm>.
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• HTC Corporation. HTC Smartphones. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012 <http://www.htc.com/us/>.
• Khalatbari, S, et al. "Calculating SAR in Two Models of the Human Head Exposed to Mobile
Phones Radiations at 900 and 1800 MHz." Progress In Electromagnetics Research
Symposium 2006 (2006): 104-109.
• Narda Safety Test Solutions. Products - High Frequency Broad Band Meters. 14 11 2012. 19
11 2012 <http://www.narda-sts.us/products_highfreq_bband.php>.
• Nokia. Nokia. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012 <http://www.nokia.com/sg-en/>.
• Microsoft Corporation. Excel 2011 for Mac. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.microsoft.com/mac/excel>.
• Motorola Mobility LLC. Motorola Smartphones. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.motorola.com/us/consumers/home>.
• Oostendorp, Thom F, Jean Delbeke and Dick F Stegeman. "The Conductivity of the Human
Skull: Results of In Vivo and In Vitro Measurements." IEEE Transactions on Biomedical
Engineering 47.11 (2000).
• SAMSUNG. Samsung Mobile Phones. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.samsung.com/sg/#latest-home>.
• Segan, Sascha. CDMA vs. GSM: What's the Difference? 22 8 2012. 12 12 2012
<http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2407896,00.asp>.
• Sony Mobile Communications AB. XPERIA - Sony Smartphones. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.sonymobile.com/us/xperia/>.
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• Stokowski, Laura A. Ensuring Safety for Infants Undergoing Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
1 5 2005. 5 11 2012 <http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/499273>.
• Research in Motion Inc. Blackberry Homepage. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://us.blackberry.com/>.
• Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka Spectrum Management Division.
Cellular Services. 31 10 2012. 2 1 2013
<http://spectrum.trc.gov.lk/Cellular/CELLULAR1.html>.
• —. "SAR of Mobile Phones." 4 5 2012. Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri
Lanka Spectrum Management. 19 11 2012
<http://spectrum.trc.gov.lk/Cellular/Download/No8_SAR%20of%20Mobile%20Phones.doc>.
• —. "Spectrum Allocation in 800/900 MHz Bands." 3 5 2012. Telecommunications Regulatory
Commission of Sri Lanka Spectrum Management. 21 11 2012
<http://spectrum.trc.gov.lk/Cellular/Download/Copy%20of%2018002GPLAN%20(2).xls>.
• The Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 :: Max Planck. 19 11 2012. 19 11 2012
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/planck-bio.html>.
• Troy, D J. "Biochemical and Physical Indicators of Beef Quality." 6 7 2004. Teagasc – the
Agriculture and Food Development Authority. 19 11 2012
<http://www.teagasc.ie/research/reports/foodprocessing/4190/eopr-4190.pdf>.
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Appendix A – Index of Cellular Phones Used in Study
Phone 1 – Apple® iPhone 4
Phone 2 – Apple® iPhone 5
Release Date: June 2010
FCC ID: BCG-E2380B
Manufacturer: Apple Inc.
Website: http://www.apple.com/iphone/iphone-
4/specs.html
Release Date: September 2012
FCC ID: BCG-E2599A
Manufacturer: Apple Inc.
Website: http://www.apple.com/iphone/specs.html
Figure 6 Apple iPhone 4
Figure 7 Apple iPhone 5
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Phone 3 – RIM® Blackberry Bold 9790
Phone 4 – Sony® XPERIA sola
Release Date: November 2011
FCC ID: L6AREC70UW
Manufacturer: Research in Motion Inc.
Website: http://worldwide.blackberry.com/blackberrybold/blackberry-
bold-9790/
Release Date: March 2012
FCC ID: PY7A3880134
Manufacturer: Sony Inc.
Website: http://www.sonymobile.com/global-
en/products/phones/xperia-sola/
Figure 8 RIM Blackberry Bold 9790
Figure 9 Sony XPERIA sola
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Phone 5 – Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini
Phone 6 – Sony Ericsson® XPERIA Mini Pro
Release Date: March 2011
FCC ID: PY7A3880107
Manufacturer: Sony Ericsson Inc.
Website: http://www.sonymobile.com/gb/products/phones/xperia-
mini/
Release Date: March 2011
FCC ID: PY7A3880104
Manufacturer: Sony Ericsson Inc.
Website: http://www.sonymobile.com/gb/products/phones/xperia-
mini-pro/
Figure 10 Sony Ericsson XPERIA Mini
Figure 11 Sony Ericsson XPERIA Mini Pro
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Phone 7 – Nokia® 1202
Phone 8 – Nokia® E72
Release Date: April 2009
FCC ID: QTLRH-113
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://press.nokia.com/products/35/nokia-
1202/
Release Date: October 2009
FCC ID: PYARM-529
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://www.nokia.com/us-
en/support/product/nokia-e72/
Figure 12 Nokia 1202
Figure 13 Nokia E72
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Phone 9 – Nokia® 2220 slide
Phone 10 – Nokia® C7
Release Date: February 2010
FCC ID: QTLRM-591
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://www.nokia.com/gb-en/support/product-
archive/?action=productArchive&listType=phones&tid=1569830&s
earchTerm=Nokia+2220+slide
Release Date: October 2010
FCC ID: QFXRM-675X
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://www.nokia.com/gb-
en/products/phone/c7-00/specifications/
Figure 14 Nokia 2220 slide
Figure 15 Nokia C7
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Phone 11 – Nokia® E5
Phone 12 – Nokia® Lumia 820
Release Date: August 2010
FCC ID: QTKRM-634
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://www.nokia.com/us-
en/products/phone/e5-00/
Release Date: November 2012
FCC ID: PYARM-825
Manufacturer: Nokia Inc.
Website: http://www.nokia.com/us-en/products/phone/lumia820/
Figure 16 Nokia E5
Figure 17 Nokia Lumia 820
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Phone 13 – HTC® 7 Trophy
Phone 14 – Samsung® Galaxy Ace 2
Release Date: October 2010
FCC ID: NM8PC40100
Manufacturer: HTC Corp.
Website: http://www.htc.com/us/smartphones/htc-
trophy-verizon/
Release Date: May 2012
FCC ID: A3LGTI8160
Manufacturer: Samsung Group
Website: http://www.samsung.com/sg/consumer/mobile-
devices/smartphone/android-os/GT-
I8160ZWAXSP
Figure 18 HTC 7 Trophy
Figure 19 Samsung Galaxy Ace 2
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Phone 15 – Samsung® Galaxy S
Phone 16 – Samsung® Galaxy S3
Release Date: June 2010
FCC ID: A3LGTI9000
Manufacturer: Samsung Group
Website: http://www.samsung.com/uk/consumer/mobile-
devices/smartphones/android/GT-
I9000HKDXEU
Release Date: May 2012
FCC ID: A3LGTI9300A
Manufacturer: Samsung Group
Website: http://www.samsung.com/global/galaxys3/
Figure 20 Samsung Galaxy S
Figure 21 Samsung Galaxy S3
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Appendix B – Raw Data from Experiment
Phone
MaximumPowerIntensityOutput
(!)[±
.
!]
Apple®iPhone4
0.0001
0.0001
0.0002
Apple®iPhone5
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
RIM®BlackberryBold9790
0.0013
0.0003
0.0014
Sony®XPERIAsola
0.0101
0.0047
0.0100
SonyEricsson®XPERIAMini
0.0024
0.0025
0.0029
SonyEricsson®XPERIAMiniPro
0.0031
0.0027
0.0026
Nokia®2220slide
0.0013
0.0014
0.0018
Nokia®E72
0.0012
0.0013
0.0015
Nokia®1202
0.0202
0.0191
0.0195
Nokia®C7
0.0005
0.0006
0.0003
Nokia®E5
0.0007
0.0005
0.0005
Nokia®Lumia820
0.0004
0.0004
0.0005
Samsung®Ace2 0.0002
0.0002
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0.0006
Samsung®GalaxyS
0.0005
0.0009
0.0006
Samsung®GalaxyS30.00020.0004
0.0002
HTC®7Trophy
0.0001
0.0004
0.0002
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Appendix C – Raw Data from Phone Manufacturer Survey
Grade Apple Blackberry HTC Motorola Nokia Samsung
Sony
XPERIA
6th Grade 0 2 0 1 2 4 3
7th Grade 14 13 5 0 15 9 3
8th Grade 6 1 1 5 5 4 1
9th Grade 10 5 8 0 6 8 3
10th
Grade 8 6 5 0 9 6 2
11th Grade 8 1 4 1 13 8 5
12th Grade 12 1 2 0 12 8 1
Teachers 8 1 0 1 11 1 1
TOTAL 66 30 25 8 73 48 19
= 269
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Appendix D – Calculation of Average SAR Values
Brand 1 – Apple
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
iPhone 5 BCG-E2599A 0.380
iPhone 4S BCG-E2430A 0.372
iPhone 4 BCG-E2380A 0.661
iPhone 3GS BCGA1303A 0.520
.
=
0.380 + 0.372 + 0.661 + 0.520
4!!
= 0.48325!!
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Brand 2 – Blackberry
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
Blackberry Curve 9320 L6ARFE70UW 0.610
Blackberry Bold 9900 L6ARDV70UW 0.690
Blackberry Bold 9790 L6AREC70UW 0.461
Blackberry Curve 3G 9300 L6ARDA70UW 0.453
Blackberry Curve 9360 L6ARDD70UW 0.964
Blackberry Torch 9860 L6ARDP70UW 0.880
Blackberry Bold 9700 L6ARCM70UW 0.785
Blackberry Torch 9800 L6ARCY70UW 0.443
=
0.610 + 0.690 + 0.461 + 0.453 + 0.964 + 0.880 + 0.785 + 0.443
8!!
= 0.659125!!
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Brand 3 – HTC
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
HTC One X NM8PJ83100 0.514
HTC Droid DNA NM8PL83200 0.263
HTC One X+ NM8PM63100 0.835
HTC Windows Phone 8X NM8PM23200 0.952
HTC One VX NM8PM36100 0.381
HTC EVO 4G LTE NM8PJ75100 0.747
HTC Rezound NM8PH98100 0.756
HTC Vivid NM8PH39100 0.534
HTC Sensation 4G NM8PG58100 0.615
HTC One S NM8PJ40110 1.180
=. 514 + .263 + .835 + .952 + .381 + .747 + .756 + .534 + .615 + 1.180
10 −1
= 0.6777!!
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http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/international-baccalaureate-extended-essay 46/49
Rukmal Weerawarana 001426-005|dwd913 IBDP
IB [CORE] EE 01/28/13 45
Brand 4 – Motorola
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
DROID RAZR MAXX HD IHDT56NG1 0.386
DROID RAZR HD IHDT56NG1 0.386
DROID RAZR IHDP56ME1 0.474
DROID Bionic IHDT56MX1 0.850
DROID RAZR M IHDT56NS1 0.796
DROID RAZR MAXX IHDP56ME1 0.474
DROID 4 IHDP56MN1 1.050
Motorola Atrix 2 IHDT56MV1 0.914
Motorola Photon 4G IHDP56MD1 0.893
Motorola Atrix HD IHDP56MB4 0.414
= .
386 +.
386 +.
474 +.
850 +.
796 +.
474 + 1.
050 +.
914 +.
893 +.
414
10!
!
= 0.6637!!
7/27/2019 International Baccalaureate Extended Essay
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/international-baccalaureate-extended-essay 47/49
Rukmal Weerawarana 001426-005|dwd913 IBDP
IB [CORE] EE 01/28/13 46
Brand 5 – Nokia
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
Nokia Lumia 920 PYARM-821 0.535
Nokia Lumia 900 QMNRM-808 0.543
Nokia Lumia 822 QMNRM-845 0.629
Nokia Lumia 810 QMNRM-878 0.453
Nokia Lumia 820 PYARM-824 0.780
Nokia Lumia 710 QMNRM-809 0.920
Nokia Lumia 800 LJPA 1.080
Nokia 808 Pureview PDNRM-807 0.500
Nokia N8 PDNRM-596 0.830
Nokia E7 PDNRM-626 0.910
= .
535 +.
543 +.
629 +.
453 +.
780 +.
920 + 1.
080 +.
500 +.
830 +.
910
10!!
= 0.7182!!
7/27/2019 International Baccalaureate Extended Essay
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/international-baccalaureate-extended-essay 48/49
Rukmal Weerawarana 001426-005|dwd913 IBDP
IB [CORE] EE 01/28/13 47
Brand 6 – Samsung
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
Samsung Galaxy S3 A3LSGHI747 0.531
Samsung Galaxy Note II A3LSGHT889 0.184
Samsung Galaxy Nexus A3LGTI9250 0.630
Samsung Galaxy S2 A3LSGHT989 0.510
Samsung Galaxy S2 Skyrocket A3LSGHI727 0.850
Samsung Epic 4G Touch A3LSPHD710 0.240
Samsung Galaxy Note A3LSGHI717 0.750
Samsung Epic 4G A3LSPHD700 0.680
Samsung Infuse 4G A3LSGHI997 0.200
Samsung Droid Charge A3LSCHI510 0.410
= .
531 +.
184 +.
630 +.
510 +.
850 +.
240 +.
750 +.
680 +.
200 +.
410
10!!
= 0.4985!!
7/27/2019 International Baccalaureate Extended Essay
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/international-baccalaureate-extended-essay 49/49
Rukmal Weerawarana 001426-005|dwd913 IBDP
Brand 7 – Sony
Phone FCC ID SAR (!)
Sony XPERIA TL PY7PM-0140 1.472
Sony XPERIA Ion PY7A8880001 0.967
Sony XPERIA S PY7A3880120 1.310
Sony XPERIA TX PY7PM-0010 0.916
Sony XPERIA P PY7A3880135 1.261
Sony XPERIA miro PY7PM-019 1.220
Sony XPERIA V PY7PM-0060 0.831
Sony XPERIA J PY7PM-0170 1.170
Sony XPERIA Z PY7PM-0280 1.096
Sony Ericsson Mix Walkman PY7A1880032 1.126
=
1.472 + .967 + 1.310 + .916 + .1.261 + 1.220 + .831 + 1.170 + 1.096 + 1.126
10!!
= 1.1369!!