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Volume 1, Issue 1, June 2014 International Journal of Academic Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India website : www.ijar.org.in

EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief

Dr. T. V. RAMANA Andhra University Campus, Kakinada -533 005

Andhra Pradesh, India

ASSOCIATE EDITORS Dr. K. Victor Babu

T.S.E. Rani

ADVISORY COUNCIL

Prof. M. Sundara Rao, Chairman, Board of Studies, Dept of Economics, Andhra University,VisakhaPatnam

Prof. P.Arun Kumar, Special Officer, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada, AP

Dr.P.Subba Rao, Director (i/c), Centre for Study of Social Inclusion and Exclusive Policy, Andhra University, VisakhaPatnam

Prof.B.Kuberudu, Dept of Management Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Prof. J.V.K.V. Pandit, Dept. of .Political Science &Public Adm, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Dr.Dr. K. Victor Babu , Guest Faculty, Department of Philosophy, Andhra University – Visakhapatnam and Associate Editor of IJAR, AP

Dr. Zoran Vu, ISI, Rector, St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT,U.S.A

EDITORIAL COUNCIL

Prof. M. Sundara Rao, Chairman, Board of Studies, Dept of Economics, Andhra University, VisakhaPatnam

Dr. P. Subba Rao, Director (i/c), Centre for Study of Social Inclusion and Exclusive Policy, Andhra University, VisakhaPatnam

Prof. J.V.K.V. Pandit, Dept. of .Political Science &Public Adnm,

Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Prof. B.Kuberudu, Dept of Management Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Prof. D. Satyanarayana, BVC, Institute of Technology & Science, Amalapuram, AP

Dr. A. Srinivas, Rajiv Ganghi Institute of Law & Dept. of Humanities, University College of Engineering, JNTUK

Dr. Vidya.H.N , Department of History, Government Arts College, Hassan, Karnataka

Dr. C. Jaya Subba Reddy, Department of Mathematics, SVU College of Sciences, Tirupati

Dr. E.Ashok Kumar, Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Dr.Merina Islam, Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Dr..B.V.Prasada Rao, Dept. of Management Studies, Wollega University, Ethiopia

Dr. Bipasha Sinha, S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta-Calcutta

Dr. K. John Babu, Department of Journalism & Mass Comm. Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev, Vice- Chancellor , Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater , Former Vice Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan

Dr. R. Dhanuja, PSG College of Arts & Science Coimbatore

Dr. Bipasha Sinha, S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta-Calcutta

Dr.Merina Islam, Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Mr. K.V.Ramana Murty, Dept of Management Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Dr.V.V.S.Rama Krishna, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada,AP

Dr.B.Charwak, School of management studies, JNTUK, AP

Dr V.V.Ratnaji Rao Chowdary, Management Studies, VSM College Ramachandrapuram, AP

Prof. Roger Wiemers, Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA

Dr.K.Chaitanya,Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Prof. Josef HOCI-ITL, Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament, Austria

Prof. Alexander Chumakov, Chair of Philosophy Department Russian Philosophical Society

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco, Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoria FilosOfica

Prof. Igor Kondrshin, Member of the Russian Philosophical Society, the Russian Humanist Society and Expert of the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia

Dr. Zoran Vu , ISI Rector ,St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT,U.S.A

Swami Maheshwarananda, Founder and President, "Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education & Research Center", Rajasthan, India

Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser, Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Cairo University, Egypt Mr. I. Ketutdonder, Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma, Indonesia

IJAR, Journal of Multidisciplinary Academic Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multi disciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. Note: Views expressed in the articles is exclusively of the authors, thus, journal is not responsible of it in any case.

©Editor-in-Chief, IJAR – June, 2014 Typeset and Printed (Sucharitha publications) in India

IJAR

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C O N T E N T S

Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2014

S. No Page

No 1. An Overview on the Tribal Development Policy in

India : Prof.MSundaraRao, Dr.P.Ramu 1

2. Employees’ Satisfaction on the Job Performance: A Case Study of National Bank of Ethiopia: Dr B.V Prasada Rao, Shewayirga Assalf and Wako Geda Obse

25

3. Performance of Small Scale Industries in India : Prof. T. Uma Maheswara Rao and G.Kavitha Kiran

39

4. Dynamic Issues in Human Resource Development in India- An Analysis: Dr. D. Satyanarayana

49

5. The Impact of Marketing Mix on Customer Satisfaction-A Case of MOHA Soft Drinks Industry S.C, Hawassa Millennium Plant: Dereje Alelign, Dr. B.V.Prasada Rao and Wako. Geda obse

59

6. Career Planning and Development of Tribal Employees -With reference to Visakha Agency Andhra Pradesh: K.V.Ramana Murty

73

7. Impact of Market Segmentation Practices on the Profitability of SMSEs in Hawassa City: A Case Study: Hailemariam Gebremichael, Yitbarek Seyoum, Dr.B.V.Prasada Rao

88

8. Environmental Ethics: A Philosophical Analysis: Dr.K.Victor Babu

101

9. Innovative Approaches in International Relations: Promotion of Economic Diplomacy as an Instrument of Economic Development-An Analysis: Dr. Vidya .H.N

107

10. Fertility pattern of Tribal women of Srikakulam District, AP, K.Appanna babu

118

11. Economic and Social Viability of Women under Self Help Groups Scheme- A Case Study of Srikakulam District: Dr. M. Ramesh

129

12. The Evaluation and Performance of Life Insurance Schemes in India: Dr. A.Jagadeesh babu

139

13. Human Rights Education – Need of the Hour: Gunda Vedasri

153

14. Technology in non-violence Culture: Gandhian Philosophy & Strategy: Dr.M.Ramesh and V.Mallikarjuna Rao

160

15. Micro Finance through SHGs towards Empowerment of Tribal women-A study of Chintapalli Mandal in Visakhapatnam Dt: Dr.V.Paradesi Naidu

180

16. Determinants and Indices of Human Development in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh Dr. D.Thirupathaiah:

189

17. Mark Cubbon’s Initial Endeavors at modernizing Mysore and administrative Strategies: Dr. Putturaju.K

198

18. Reflections on Defense Structures in South India – The Historicity of Fort of Srirangapattana through the Ages: Linga Rau

203

19. Failure behind Success-An Analytical view of Leadership &Training Programmes: Nandan.P

211

20. A Time Bound Strategy for Eliminate the Rural Poverty in India : Dr.T.V. Ramana

215

Editorial ……..

IJAR- A Common Platform of Voice of Intellectuals as Change Agents for better Society - Change is inevitable in any economy for speedy economic development. It is true that the contemporary economies posit a bulk of challenges and changes. Research is frequently a solution for any menial or magnified problem and is deeply rooted in social science, humanities and technology. It is a very natural and a comprehensive key to unlock the way of acquiring knowledge in a real and healthy manner. Research adds to the experience and knowledge of varied practices and environment.

Mind of human being is glimpses of knowledge. We can be premeditated them by create a pleasant research platform. To initiate the research movement and nurture the research talent, International Journal of Academic Research (voice of intellectuals) - IJAR is committed to education, training and research and thus committed to enhance quality, change and development in the society. Since its inception, voice of intellectuals strives to add and impart the research knowledge, to cultivate research talent and contribute to the development of mankind. To add to the skills of teachers, researchers, professionals and students, this journal offers a common platform to the researchers conducting their research in sciences, humanities and technology. Whereas the social science and humanities research imparts the experience to cope-up with the challenges, changes, and competitions in society in addition to adding to the vast store house of knowledge and development, the researches in technology re-orients and re-educates the participants by enhancing their capabilities and proves to be a crucial link between theoretical development and practices in the field and thus encourages enquiries and envisages the readers to widen their horizon of knowledge, experience and charm for research.

IJAR is to impart understanding about the concepts, theory, types, methodologies, tools, analysis and report writing to the developing researchers, enlighten the current trends and practices in research, suggest the new areas of research, develop the skill and competence in research and research report, create new opportunities for the potential prospects, develop the interest, aptitude and attitude towards research, guide the society to invent and

reinvent education and direct the way towards inclusive globalization and inter-connectedness. With contributors from across the country and abroad, IJAR is privileged to spread the voice of intellectuals on Change agents for better society.

IJAR for Change and Development is a quarterly journal publishing in multi Language from Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. This research journal has commenced its journey to reach all the research oriented friends and the readers with its innovative aspects in course of time. The well acknowledged editorial and advisory committee speaks of strong backbone and its conscious action to deliver the best to the society, state, nation and the world by its unique features covering the areas of Social Science, Humanities and Technology. To add to this thought and idea, with the contributors from various university Professors and institutions of national and international importance, IJAR establish its credibility with the continuous effort to deliver the qualitative aspect of International repute.

IJAR enriches the world by adding the committed researchers and wish to utmost cooperation from the readers and intellectuals of institutions, universities, colleges etc. in enrich the journal.

At the movement, it is great privilege to convey my sincere gratitude and gratefulness to Prof. Dr. G.S.N.Raju garu, Vice Chancellor, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam for his encouragement and delivered valuable message to the journal.

I would especially like to thank Dr.K.Victor Babu, Guest Faculty, Department of Philosophy, Andhra University Visakhapatnam; Chief Editor of IJMER and Associate Editor of IJAR for his mentoring in all stages of the journal. Last but not least, I convey my thanks to one and all that who are encouraged me in this regard

Editor-in-Chief

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666 Vol.1 Issue.1, June, 2014

www.ijar.org.in 1

An Overview of the Tribal Development Policy of India

1. Prof. M. Sundara Rao, Chairman, Board of Studies, Department of

Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 2. Dr.P. Ramu, Research Associate in Agro Economic Research Centre of

Andhra University.

Abstract: In the present study an attempt is made to present the different dimensions relating to tribal development policy adopted by the Government of India during the period of economic planning. The analysis broadly presented in four different parts. The first part deals with the tribal Policy adopted by the British Government. The next part is devoted to discuss about the basic features of the Policy of the National Government during the post Independence period. The third part is devoted to analyze the approaches adopted for Tribal Development during different Five Year Plans and the last part is confined to examine in the Implementation aspects of tribal development strategies in the Indian Economy. It is concluded that during the Plans the primitive conditions of the tribe’s life, their vulnerability to economic exploitation, and the existing socio – psychological barriers due to isolation necessitated a cautious and phased approach for the development of PTGs. A special approach has been formulated by the Indian Government with protection and integration of tribes as its principal objective. Following this approach, developmental institutions were established to look after the all-round development of tribes. . Due to the many flaws the Draft National Policy on Tribals should be replaced as soon as possible, by an appropriate National Tribal Policy. While preparing an appropriate National Policy, Tribal Policy based on consultations that have taken place with so many organizations has to be taken care of. Key words: tribal development, British Policy, Zamindars, Money lenders, Five Year Plans


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Introduction:

The forest area in the country is 74.74 million hectares covering 22.7 percent of total geographical area. At present 94 percent of the forest dwellers are tribes and their economy is depending on forest to a great extent. They exploited the forests for fulfilling their basic needs by hunting wild life and collecting roots and fruits. A United Nations report on tribal development pointed out that tribal people in general derived, either directly or indirectly, a substantial amount of their livelihood from the forests. They subsist on edible leaves and roots, honey, wild games and fish. They build their houses with timber and bamboo and practice cottage crafts with the help of local raw materials. They use herbs and medicinal plants available in the forest to cure their diseases. Even their religion and folklore woven round the spirits of the forests. This dependency for their livelihood on the forests creates in the tribes an equally strong attachment to the forests.

Tribals residing in or near the forests collect various minor forest produces (MFP) during the seasons

of their availability both for their own use as also for sale either to government agencies or to contractors. Tendu leaves are collected during April – May when they mature. Sal seeds are collected in pre – monsoon period. Harra (chebulic myrabolan) is collected when it ripens in early winter. Gum and lac are collected throughout the year except when it rains. Pine trees are tapped for resin during warm and hot seasons. Various edible products, are collected whenever they become available. Thus the collection of minor forest produce goes on throughout the year, though certain months of the year are busier for the collectors.

I. Policy of the British Government:

The tribal areas were the last to come under the British rule due to their inaccessibility. To avoid troubles from violent tribes, the British Government adopted a policy of pacification through indirect rule with respect to tribal areas and treated them differently from the rest of the country. Accordingly the following measures were taken. The Schedule Districts Act of 1874 was enacted to keep large tracts of tribal


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areas outside the jurisdiction of normal administration. For these areas the executives were endowed with wide powers. The administrative policy was based on the principles of non – interference into the affairs of the tribes and isolation. All these provinces were provided with autonomy to rule the tribal areas under their control following broad guidelines formulated for this purpose. In accordance with the Policy, Agency Rules have been formulated in the year 1924 by the Government of Madras Provinces suppressing all the existing rules. The Agency Rules provided for the Revenue and Judicial administration of the tribal areas acquired linkages with the higher levels as their positions were recognized for administrative purposes.

The Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Act which came into existence in 1935 resulted in the non-applicability of any legislation of the Provincial Government to tribal areas except on the direction of Central Government. The outcome of British administrative policy can be broadly summarized that the administration in tribe’s

areas during pre – independence days was not formalized. The decision making level, both in British India and Indian States, was near enough to the common-man. Maintenance of order and protection from unwanted elements where necessary, were the main objectives of administration.

The British Policy of isolating the tribes led to the misery of the tribes as it freely left them to the exploitation of zamindars, money lenders, and local chiefs. The policy of conservation of forests resulted in curbing age old practices of tribes like shifting cultivation, hunting, and others. The entry of merchants and money lenders further affected the tribes who were already facing many odds such as Vagaries of nature, denudation of hills and loss of soil fertility. Under these conditions, the policy of non interference of the British with regard to tribal areas helped only to perpetuate the socio – cultural gulf between the tribes and non – tribes besides exposing them to the nefarious practices of merchants and money lenders. Even during the British rule, the miserable plight of the tribes and the exploitation to


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which they were subjected was recognized by the Governments. These regulations of the British Government suffered severely with the problems of implementation. Hence they could not do anything to change the plight of tribes. The result is seen in further worsening the situation. The British policy resulted in exploitation and encroachment of tribal lands and thus they have lost command over the natural resources in their own habitat. The British administrators have neglected the tribal areas.

II. Policy of the National Government:

The founders of the Indian Constitution were deeply conscious of the miserable conditions of the tribes who were segregated from the national main stream. The social scientists of this period also focused their attention towards the conditions of the tribes and began to discuss how best to deal with them. One school of thought led by Elwin argued to protect the aboriginals by completely isolating them from rest of India and later he shifted his stance. A second school of thought led by Ghurye opined assimilation of the tribes into national main -

stream as essential. A third school believed that tribes should be integrated into the Indian society but not necessarily assimilated which means that it aims to preserve their identity. Ghurye (1963) made an elaborate discussion on the three solutions suggested for tribals’ problems; no change and revivalism: Isolationism and preservation; and Assimilation (1963:133 – 173). Dube (1968) and Vidyarthi (1968) discussed various approaches from anthropological point of view.

The Government of India came to the stand that the tribal population cannot be left to lag behind and isolated. Nor the natural resources in tribal areas can be neglected. Integration of tribes into the national mainstream was considered to be the solution. The policy is to bring the tribes into the main stream in a phased manner. This policy also cautioned that the tribes should not be allowed to get exploited in this process. Late Jawaharlal Nehru spelled out the policy as follows: “We cannot allow matters to drift in the tribal areas or lest not take interest in them. At the same time we should avoid over


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administering the areas and in particular sending too many outsiders into the territory. It is between the two extreme positions we shave to function”. The Government of India appointed a sub – committee in 1947 with Thakkar Bapa as its chairman to study the position of Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas of the erstwhile British Government. The committee made several recommendations. One of the important recommendations was that the state should bear the responsibility of the tribal people. It laid emphasis on the protection of tribal lands and prevention of exploitation by money – lenders. It also suggested certain statutory safeguards for the protection of tribes.

A. Constitutional Safeguards and Protective Legislation for Tribals:

After independence the British Policy of isolation and non – interference was replaced by a policy of integration through development. Accordingly several provisions were made in the Indian Constitution. The most important provision of the constitution is the Article 244,

which provides for administration of scheduled areas in accordance with the Schedule V to the constitution and the administration of tribal areas (Assam State) under Schedule VI. Articles 5, 16, 19, 46, 244, 275, 330, 332, 335, 339 and 342 of the Indian constitution provided specific provisions for the advancement of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. There are reservations in educational institutions, services, political bodies, special relaxations in age, qualifications, etc. Further the provisions are allowed for the necessary funds for Tribal Development Programmes. Many special provisions were made in Schedule V to the constitution in the interests of the Tribal areas. Clause “6” of the Schedule V empowered the President of India to declare any area where there is predominant concentration of tribal people as Scheduled area.

The constitution of scheduled areas has two clear objectives: To assist the tribes in enjoying their existing rights unhindered or unobstructed by others; and to develop the areas and promote economic, educational, and social progress among them. The Fifth


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Schedule also gave wide powers to State Governors empowering them even to modify the existing enactments and make regulations for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes. Article 338 of the Constitution provides for instituting a Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with an object of submitting reports on the administration of tribal areas in general and in particular about the provision of educational and medical facilities and communications in such areas. The Commissioner’s report is to be placed before the Parliament. Under the provisions of the Art. 339 of the Constitution, the Government of India has set up the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission. The commission in its report submitted in 1960–61, specified the policies to be followed towards Scheduled Tribes.

The commission suggested, that the tribal should be assured that his rights in the land are safe and that the Government and Society are there to protect him; that the tribal should be made confident that no one will tamper with his way of life or his benefits

and customs; and that the tribal should be made to realize that change is indispensable without which no development is possible, and the development is intended to secure for him and his family greater opportunities of life along with the rest in the country of which he is an inseparable part.

The founding fathers of Indian Constitution laid a firm policy of tribal development by incorporating various provisions on the doctrine of “compensatory discrimination”. Consequent to the National Policy on Tribal which envisaged for protection and integration of tribes, several protective legislations were passed to provide protection and to safeguard the interests of tribes. These acts and regulations emanate from various constitutional provisions. Some of the Central Acts are: Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986. Forest conservancy Act, 1980, and SCs and STs (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.


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B. Commissions and Committees:

The Government of India appointed several commissions and committees from time to time to report on the development of tribes. The foundation for the Tribal Development Policy was laid by the first Prime Minister of India Late Sri. Jawaharlal Nehru, who enunciated the policy of ‘Panch Sheel’ for tribal development. The essence of this policy is that Tribal Development should be along the lines of the genius of the tribal community and nothing should be imposed upon them. i) Verrier Elwin Committee – 1960, (to report on Special Multi –Purpose blocks). This committee suggested for the protection of the tribes through enacting of legislations for curbing money lending, scaling down of past debts, and automatic discharge from agreements in the matters of bonded labour and adequate alternative sources of credit. While legislations were made to prevent land alienation and money lending, co-operatives were planned through the Tribal Development Blocks as alternate sources of Credit. Considering inadequacies of the

individual co-operatives due to lack of sufficient financial base and operational efficiency the State Government of Andhra Pradesh established a State level Co-operative body, ‘The Girijan Co-operative Corporation’ (GCC) to combine co-operative credit and marketing in the interests of the tribes. The different Committees constituted by the Government of India conducted specific studies and dealt with selected subject like personnel policies, Land alienation, credit structure etc.

III. Five Year Plans – Approaches for Tribal Development:

After independence, India has launched Five Year Plans for the planned and rapid development of the country. As designed by the leaders, a Five Year Plan is a comprehensive document with specified aims and objectives for achievement within a period of five years. Thus the socio – economic goals of the Government are planned to be achieved through the Five Year Plans. As part of the Governments strategy, the various five-year plans have been designed


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to achieve all-round development of tribes and tribal areas.

It was during the First Five Year Plan, (1951-56), that the policy for tackling the tribal problem took a clear shape as it was aimed to assist the Tribal people to develop their natural resources and to evolve a productive economic life where in they enjoy the fruits of labour and will not be exploited by more organized economic forces from outside. It was decided not to bring about changes except at the initiative of the people themselves and their willing consent, as far as their religious and social life were concerned. At the national level during the plan period, out of the total outlay of Rs. 1960 crores one percent of the total plan outlay was spent for the tribal development.

During the Second Five Year Plan Period (1956-61), the First Five Year Plan approach remained same with new schemes to tackle the tribal problems on a wider canvass. It was once again emphasized welfare programmes for tribal people have to be based on respect and understanding of their culture and traditions and appreciation of their social, psychological and

economic problems with which they are faced, For the first time Minor Irrigation was emphasized by allocating special funds. During this period, the Government spent 0.92% of the total plan outlay for the purpose. During the end of Second Five Year Plan, some committees, like Renuka Roy Committee, Elwin Committee and Dhebar Commission were appointed to study the progress of the tribal welfare programmes.

The suggestions made by these committees were given due consideration in evolving tribal development programmes in the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66). While continuing old schemes, special emphasis was laid on Cottage Industries, Agriculture, and Education etc. During this plan period 20 tribal development blocks were established in addition to already existing four multi-purpose blocks. The total outlay spent for tribal development during this period was only Rs. 50.53 crores, constituting 0.6 percent of the total plan outlay. After Third Five Year Plan, three annual plans were formulated for 1966-69 and during


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this period more or less the earlier schemes were continued.

The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) which was some significant, as it initiated important schemes for tribal development. In addition to manifold increase in the budgetary allocations for tribal development, areas of unrest were identified and special projects were started in the country. Girijan Development Agency (GDA), was established in Srikakulam District, is one among them with special assistance of Rs. 1.5 crores from Government of India. The working of the various Protective Regulations was reviewed and it was found necessary to amend them in order to make them more effective and also to remove certain practical difficulties in the way of implementation. The Land Transfer Regulation Act, 1959 was amended placing absolute prohibition on transfer of immovable property in schedule areas to persons other than tribes. Institutional credit facilities were provided on a large scale for the first time by obtaining special credit facilities from Reserve Bank of India.

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) marked a significant change in the strategy for tribal development. The plurality of occupations, marked variations in the levels of development and varied geo-ethnic milieu of various tribes gave rise to plethora of problems, which are not amenable to uniform approach for their development. Therefore, area, community and problem specific strategies have been evolved to develop tribes as envisaged by the constitution. As 60 percent of the tribal population has inhabited in the scheduled areas, which are endowed with rich natural resources and the development of the people inhabiting in this area is linked with the development of the area. Hence area approach was adopted for the development of the scheduled tribes living in the scheduled areas of the country. The following strategies are evolved for the development of these three different groups. Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) at macro level and ITDAs (or) ITDPs at micro level (or) District level as main nodal centers of development in areas of tribal concentration. Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) –


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for development of tribes outside TSP area, and Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) for those who are at the Pre-Agricultural stage of economy. The approach after Fifth Five Year Plan remained same. The strategies and schemes formulated during V Five Year Plan were continued with more funds and schemes. Hence the approach for development of tribes remained unchanged during the period of subsequent plans.

The strategy of tribal development envisaged during Fifth Plan has been broadly continued during the Sixth Plan (1980-85). The strategy has, however, been improved upon in some respects. During Sixth Plan, 235 pockets of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) are identified. Special programmes were chalked out for those areas and Special Central Assistance (SCA) was provided for development of these pockets. To make the programmes result oriented, much greater emphasis was laid on family oriented programmes in economically benefiting sectors than in earlier plans. The various programmes in the Sixth Plan are mainly intended to achieve the

objective of narrowing down the gap between the levels of development of tribal areas and other areas and also to bring more rapidly a qualitative change in the tribal communities.

The strategy adopted for tribal development has marginally changed during the Seventh Plan (1985-90). The approach is a judicious mix of beneficiary oriented programmes, human resource development and infrastructure development. The new strategy is oriented for creation of assets under agriculture, horticulture and sericulture by taking up programmes in an integrated manner. Further focus will be given on universalisation of education and provision of quality education by opening full-fledged residential schools and public schools. In the Eighth Plan (1992-97) the Government while revising the strategies of tribal development was emphasized the problems of the tribes have to be tackled by suitably strengthening the mechanism of planning and implementation of programmes of Tribal Sub-Plan.

In the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) emphasis is laid on a total integrated effort for all round tribal


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development and massive efforts have been made for the socio-economic development of tribal people by the government through organized economic planning. It can be visualized that in the approaches to tribal development, the emphasis is laid down on increasing the living standards of tribes through strategy of growth of core sectors and area development through investment in infrastructure. The Ninth Plan aimed to empower STs by creating an enabling environment conducive for them to exercise their rights freely, enjoy their privileges and lead a life of self-confidence and dignity, on par with the rest of society. This process essentially encompassed three vital components viz. (i). Social Empowerment, (ii). Economic Empowerment and (iii). Social Justice. To this effect, while ST related line Ministries / Departments implement general development policies and programmes, the nodal Ministry of Tribal Affairs implements certain ST specific innovative programmes related to education and literacy.

In the Tenth Plan (2002-07) an attempt is made towards empowering tribes through

continuing the on-going provided strategy of social empowerment; economic empowerment and social justice through taking effective steps to prevent the serious problem of displacement of tribes and ensuring their effective rehabilitation through a laid-down rehabilitation policy. This plan tends to expend an amount of Rs. 1754 crores (which excludes Rs.2500 crore as SCA to TSP and Rs.1500 crore as GIA. This plan tied to expedite the finalization of the National Policy for Rehabilitation of the displaced persons with a special focus on the displaced tribes, by providing them land for land and item for item, last possessed before displacement. The Tenth Plan accorded high priority to prevent and restore the alienated land to the tribes and, if possible, to put a total ban on the transfer of tribe land to non-tribes. The Tenth Plan endeavored to boost agricultural production in tribal areas through the extension of the irrigation facilities through promotion of micro-irrigation systems, and by creating awareness among the tribes for effective water resource management. This plan tried to adopt an effective strategy


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that takes into account the prospects of the tribes as well as forests together complementing each other. This plan tends to channelize the efforts to ensure that the interests of the tribes protected and linked with the bio-diversity and environment restoration projects. Primary health care services in tribal areas are extended by involving local NGOs to cover all terrains in all seasons with a special focus on women, children and PTGs. Indigenous medicines, traditional knowledge and methods of healing are encouraged in attending to the health needs of the tribes.

The Eleventh Plan (2007-12) is entitled as ‘Towards Faster and Inclusive Growth”. The strategy of this plan for the development of the scheduled tribes is based on inclusive growth. Under this approach development and empowerment of socially disadvantaged groups and bringing them at par with the rest of the society is given top priority. In his context this plan considers education is the one of the most effective instruments of social empowerment and is vital for securing horizontal and vertical

mobility. Hence schemes for the educational upliftment of the STs have borne fruit although the gap between the general population and STs are still at unacceptable levels. An educational scheme in favour of these sections is going to be continued with redoubled vigour. While bringing the STs to the national level may take time, certain aspects of the backwardness need to be immediately set right. Total eradication of the practice of bonded labour, which especially targets the STs, will be achieved in the 11th Plan. For this, intense efforts will be made to identify and rehabilitate bonded labour and their children. The Special Component Plan (SCP) for Scheduled Castes and the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) are two strategic policy initiatives to secure overall development of the STs and to remove all socio-economic and educational disparities between them and the rest of the population. It is disturbing to see that both these schemes have not been implemented with a full sense of commitment and involvement, either by the Central or by the State Governments.


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Approach in the Twelfth Five Year Plan:

Towards promoting education the Plan taken in to account various issues like, while teachers appointed in schools located in tribal habitations are unable to understand the dialect of the ST children, the children are also unable to understand the dialect of teachers. Care therefore has to be taken for appointing ST teachers in schools located in tribal areas. Adequate attention also should be paid to regional language so that children are not handicapped in higher classes. Timely distribution of fellowships, scholarships, textbooks, uniforms and school bags to students is reqired. The ICDS/Anganwadi schemes for tribal areas should be evaluated and shortcomings eliminated. Requisite number of primary schools needs to be established in areas that have less number of schools. All schools should have proper school buildings, hostels, water, toilet facilities (particularly for the girls’ schools). Residential high schools for ST boys and girls will have to be set up at suitable places. At the Gram

Panchayat level, wherever feasible girls’ hostels will have to be attached to existing primary/elementary schools that do not have hostels

Intensive efforts should be mounted to restitute, vitalize and expand agricultural sector for making existing tribal livelihoods more productive. Training centers will be opened to improve skills of tribals for diverse occupations. Efforts should be made to promote horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy farming, sericulture and cottage and small industry by extending necessary technology and credit, marketing and entrepreneurial information, and training. TRIFED has to shoulder the task of marketing to ensure remunerative prices to STs.

There is a need to encourage traditional arts and culture and protect Tribal Rights in Land and Forests of STs. There is a need for increasing financial Institutions in these areas as the communities are unable to access institutional credit. ST corporations which are intended to provide financial support for these communities does not materialize as funds get diverted to


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other activities not related to these communities, corruption, lack of planning, non-existence of Development Planning, non- organization of Entrepreneur Training Programmes, unwillingness etc. Hence, they are largely unable to become entrepreneurs, Industrialists or start productive Businesses. iv). ST welfare and National Commissions instituted for the purpose of bringing about improvement in STs were ineffective as they had only recommendatory power and their findings were not mandatory. Available safeguards like Sub-Plans must be leveraged for economic and social empowerment of the underprivileged as this will not only help to alleviate poverty but also generate asset creation of these sections in future. It is found out that budgetary allocations are not in true with the directives of the planning commission. As STs seeking a fair share of the wealth of nation is gaining ground, there is a need for allocating and spending funds in proportion to the population of Scheduled Tribes. The 12th Plan will ensure that they be implemented with further

innovations and deeper commitment.

Over a period of time a large number of people, particularly tribal groups, have severely suffered from the brunt of mega development projects. In this context, efforts therefore are planned during the 11th Plan to prepare a comprehensive and integrated national policy for land acquisition, compensation, and resettlement. During the plans the primitive conditions of the tribal life, their vulnerability to economic exploitation, the existing socio – psychological barriers due to isolation necessitated a cautious and phased approach for the development of tribes. A special approach has been formulated by the Indian Government with protection and integration of tribes as its principal objective. Following this approach, developmental institutions were established to look after the all-round development of tribes.

IV. Draft National Policy on Tribals

The Draft National Policy on Tribals seeks to bring Scheduled


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Tribes into the “mainstream of society through a multi-pronged approach for their all-round development without disturbing their distinct culture”. This implies that an attempt is being made, to impose, through such a policy, a Homogenous Way, on all of Indian society. Instead of celebrating and encouraging the diversity that makes up our great Nation, the policy attempts to introduce a new phrase, ie, “mainstream of society”. As diverse natural resources are being razed to the ground by the demands and excesses of capitalism, even tribals who have managed to protect pockets of the earth so far, are being cornered into do-or-die situations where they are forced to abandon their cultural practices, traditional livelihoods and systems of health. Scheduled V areas are opened up to mining by multi-national companies, mass displacement takes place for so-called developmental projects, thousands of livelihoods are lost. In fact, the conditions that tribals have faced in some cases, especially in the state of Orissa, fall short of ensuring the components of the Right to Life

that the Constitution guarantees to all citizens.

Our Constitution guarantees us the Fundamental Right to Equality. With this, must come the understanding that each individual’s opinion and experience is as significant as the other’s and can only be judged against the basic structure of our Constitution. The motives of Assimilation and Mainstreaming are offensive, and need to be done away with. The draft policy states that the Nehruvian Panchsheel was long on generalities and short on specifics. The Nehruvian Panchsheel is a set of Principles.

The draft policy states that formal education is the key to all-round human development. As is commonly known, formal education has, on occasion, involved the saffronization of the syllabus. At a conceptual level, it would be more accurate to perceive formal education as a potential tool for progress, and not as the sole, infallible answer to every aspect of human development. However, formal education and literacy are also two different tools for empowerment. In the draft policy,


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the discussion on formal education is interspersed with statistics pertaining to literacy. The distinction between these aspects of education should be articulated and dealt with separately in the section on education. In addition to this, schemes for non-formal education should not be introduced in lieu of formal education for tribals, as that would deny them the immediate benefits of formal education that are imparted to other sections of society. The draft policy states that the policy will ensure that “education will be linked with supplementary nutrition”. While this is a positive move for trying to ensure that children attend school, it should not distract from, derail, or act as a substitute for the government’s larger responsibility related to providing nutrition which is linked to the agricultural policy, the public distribution system, trade systems, land and water use etc.

The draft policy aims at preserving and documenting tribal languages. In addition to this, the option of education in the mother tongue at the primary level should necessarily be made available to students. Tribal languages which

are not scheduled so far should be converted into official languages in order to empower tribals in many ways, including in the various stages of democratic decision-making. Even languages without a script should be accommodated in this effort to the extent possible. Officials should be required to acquire a basic knowledge of the local tribal language of the tribal area in which they are posted.

The draft policy states that the invaluable knowledge of the tribals (pertaining to medicinal plants and a number of other subjects), should be documented, and that such knowledge should be transferred to non-tribal areas. At present, there exists a Patent Regime that is completely tilted against the interests of tribals and small farmers. The documenting of tribal knowledge under present circumstances will only create easy room for theft, piracy, or abetment of the same. Open access to knowledge, to benefit all of humanity, are the ideals to reach for, at least in the context of indigenous knowledge related to medicinal plants, and the use, documentation, transfer and


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ownership of such knowledge and further value that might be added to such knowledge. Until this is achieved, however, the interests of local communities, including their intellectual property rights, need to be protected.

The draft policy does mention that there is “no legal and/or institutional framework to safeguard their intellectual property rights”, and that the policy will “aim at making legal and institutional arrangements to protect their intellectual property rights and curtailing the rights of corporate and other agencies to access and exploit their resource base.” Such legal and institutional arrangements will only be meaningful ones if they are prepared after revising policies and existing statutes that deal with these subjects, such as the existing Biological Diversity Act, 2002, and Rules under the said Act which unfortunately seem to create room for biopiracy rather than for protection.

The Biological Diversity Act provides for the establishment of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards, and for local Biodiversity

Management Committees in order to 'provide for conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources, knowledge and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto' by regulating access to biological diversity.

It was hoped that over-exploitation of biological resources, especially commercial exploitation by industrial sectors, would be checked by such an Act, and that the survival of tribals, other forest dwellers and small farmers and their symbiotic lifestyles would be ensured. Far from regulating the obtainment and transfer of biological resources in an equitable fashion, the Act, in its present form, succeeds only in creating a legal channel for the industrial sector, including multi-national concerns, especially the pharmaceutical industry, to amass unfair economic gains from exploiting biological resources that traditional forest dwellers, adivasis and small farmers depend on. The Act, in its present form, along with a set of Rules, creates a 'license raaj' under the


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guise of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing. It creates situations through which unfair exploitation of resources and traditional intellectual properties are likely to continue, except for the fact that such activities will now be legalized.

The draft policy says that “Although tribal people live usually close to nature, a majority of them need health care on account of malnutrition, lack of safe drinking water, poor hygiene and environmental sanitation and above all poverty”. Here, it must be noted that malnutrition, unsafe drinking water, and poverty are the results of external influences. It is an incorrect understanding to see these ingredients as inherent negative aspects of life close to nature, and the policy should not introduce such propaganda. The free and compulsory provision of high quality healthcare through government hospitals should be a prominent aspect of government policy. The policy should address the issue of allopathic and other medicines becoming out of reach for poor communities including tribals due to

the related intellectual property rights and trade regime.

Some factors that would have an impact on use, control, ownership, and management of land are dealt with in the draft policy in the contexts of Displacement and Resettlement; Forest Villages; Shifting Cultivation; Land Alienations and Scheduled Areas. However, there are significant problems as well as omissions in these sections of the draft policy.

The draft policy fails to mention that there are a number of pockets which have a significant tribal population, but which have not been declared as Scheduled Areas. For example, a list of additional villages to be declared as Scheduled Areas in Andhra Pradesh was said to have been pending with the central government for clearance for a number of years. It has been learnt that the UPA government has asked for an updated version of the said list. Because of the unusual level of detail that the draft policy has gone into, it would be an omission to not deal with the issue of long- pending scheduled area declarations that need to be expedited in the policy


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document. In the context of the evolving economic policy, the protection of scheduled areas needs to be ensured. A number of people, experts and organizations have drawn attention to the negative aspects of the recent opening up of Scheduled Areas to services under the World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). This situation could have been avoided if there had been a policy-level articulation in place in the form of an appropriate National Tribal Policy.

The 73rd Amendment to the Indian Constitution was brought about in order to strengthen the Panchayati Raj system. These provisions were extended to Scheduled Areas through the Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Ares) Act, (PESA), 1996. Under PESA, there is a list of subjects over which village bodies are supposed to have decision-making powers. However, land under Scheduled Areas is supposed to be protected from being sold or leased out to non-tribal people or entities. While there exists a landmark judgement, Samatha Vs. State of A.P. that upholds this view, there have been

judicial decisions as well as government actions, thereafter, which have circumvented the Samantha judgment. The PESA itself has been misused, to give out Scheduled Area land even to multi-national companies. The PESA represents welcome first steps towards empowering the gram sabha (village community) by recognizing a list of subjects that fall under the purview of local bodies for decision-making. The draft policy talks about the introduction of schools and hospitals in tribals areas. However, it does not talk about government schools and hospitals. Instead, a ‘participatory approach’ is mentioned, wherein NGOs are accorded a key position. While NGOs should play a role, it is important to note that the gram sabhas should deal with and make decisions on government funds that come into a particular area. To ensure true “participation”, there is an urgent need for further reforms in the Panchayati Raj set-up.

An appropriate National Tribal Policy should articulate the criteria, meaning and purpose, based on which Scheduled Tribes and Primitive Tribal Groups are


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declared in India today, and alter any aspects which seem to be too steeped in colonial biases. Also, as of now, legislation and policy does not distinguish between members of the same tribe in the same area who display varying levels of ‘development indicators’. Economic criteria do not disqualify a person from being a member of a tribe, and being a descendant of the traditional chief or ruler of a tribe also does not disqualify a person from being a member of the tribe. This is the law as it stands today.

While it is obviously not logical to de-recognize a person’s tribal identity for the reasons mentioned above, criteria for varying degrees or kinds of benefits/entitlements could be formulated. This needs to be debated upon and discussed widely, and reflected in the policy.

Conclusion:

During the British regime, the Government did not pay much attention on the tribes living in the interior forest areas. The British rulers enforced law and order with an iron hand. Their attitude towards the tribes was

otherwise paternalistic and protective. Thus, a money economy was introduced among the tribe communities. After Indian independence, a number of polices and programmes were initiated in the tribal areas, which had far reaching consequences. As a result of the national forest policy of 1952 the government began to discourage shifting cultivation. In 1956 shifting cultivation was restricted on certain gradients of hills in the study area, shaking the basic economic system of a large section of the tribes. The Government on the other hand introduced the special Multi Purpose Project (MPP) in 1956 for developing tribe economy on a special footing. The activities of various other government departments forest, soil and water conservation, roads and buildings, the Girijan Co-operative Corporation, the silk farm etc. have greatly increased employment potential in the tribal areas.

The Fifth Plan marked a significant change in the process of tribal development. The plurality of occupations marked variations in


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the levels of development and varied geo-ethnic milieu of various tribes give rise to plethora of problems, which are not amenable to uniform approach for their development. Therefore, area specific strategy has been evolved basing on the recommendations of expert committee set up by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in 1972 under the chairmanship of Prof. S.C Dube for the rapid socio-economic development of tribal people inhabiting the scheduled areas where more than 60 percent tribal population are living. The main objectives of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) are: socio-economic development of STs and protection of tribals against exploitation. Similarly, the salient features of TSP are: it falls within the ambit of State Plan meant for the welfare and development of tribals. Such a plan is a part of the overall plan of a State and is therefore called a Sub-Plan. The benefits given to the tribals and tribal areas of a State from the TSP are in addition to what percolates from the overall plan of a State. The Sub-Plan identifies the resources for TSP areas, prepare a broad policy

framework for the development and define a suitable administrative strategy for its implementation.

After the introduction of Sub-Plan area programme during the successive Plans there is a tremendous decline in the dependency of different tribes on the collection of forest produce and hunting while decline in hunting activity is the direct result of the forest policy. Decline in food gathering activity is mainly due to the fact that several tribes are now wholly engaged in the cultivation of modern crops. However the impact of money wages and modern farm technology is negligible in the remote and interior tribal areas. Enforcement of existing legal/protective measures is resorted to along with the provisions made under the Fifth Schedule to prevent tribe indebtedness, bonded labour and other exploitation. Involving tribes especially those engaged in shifting cultivation, closely and gainfully involved in joint forest management, social forestry, agro-forestry etc., are intended to facilitate rightful collection and


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gainful disposal of minor forest produce and other produce.

Strengthening the gross root democratic institutions viz., PRIs and Gram Sabhas as per the provisions of 73rd and 74th amendments and PESA Act, 1996, resulted in solving the persisting problems through. Providing basic minimum services. The XI Plan giving much focuses on “inclusive growth” is ultimately focusing upon the tribal communities who have not joined in the process of growth. During the plans the primitive conditions of the tribe’s life, their vulnerability to economic exploitation, the existing socio – psychological barriers due to isolation necessitated a cautious and phased approach for the development of PTGs. A special approach has been formulated by the Indian Government with protection and integration of tribes as its principal objective. Following this approach, developmental institutions were established to look after the all-round development of tribes. Due to the many flaws the Draft National Policy On Tribals should be replaced as soon as possible, by an appropriate National

Tribal Policy. While preparing an appropriate National Policy, Tribal Policy based on consultations that have taken place with so many organizations has to be taken care of. In order to create a situation where such an appropriate National Tribal Policy is meaningful and adhered to, policies of other departments and ministries such as some aspects of the economic policy would necessarily need to be revised.

Abbreviations : MFP (Minor Forest Produce); MPPs (Multi Purpose Projects); GCC (Girijan Co-operative Corporation); ITDA (Integrated Tribal Development Agency); MADA (Modified Area Development Approach); PTGs (Primitive Tribal Groups); TSP (Tribal Sub-Plan); SCA (Special Central Assistance); SCP (Special Component Plan); ICDS (Integrated Children Development Scheme)

References:

1. Christoph Von Furer Haimendorf: “PTGs of India the Struggle for Survival”, Oxford University Press, Delhi 1983, P.3\

2. Vidyarthi, L.P. and Rai K.K., “The Tribal Culture of India”,


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Concept Publishing Co. Delhi, 1977, p.25.

3. Ranjit Gupta (Ed): “Planning for Tribal Development”, Ankur Publishing House, New Delhi, 1977, p.87

4. Buddhadeb Chowdari and Sumitra Chowdari, “On Some Tribal Problems”, Quoted in Buddhadeb Chowdari (Ed).

5. Ghure, G.S. “The Scheduled PTGs”, Bombay, Popular Prakesam, 1963, P.7.

6. Dr. Bhupender Singh, “Tribal Development in Retrospect, and Prospect”, Sixth Plan, Midterm Apprisal, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs New Delhi, May, 1983. P.19.

7. K.P. Singh, “Tribal Development in India”, Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi, 1991.

8. Sharma A.K., “Tribal Development in India”, Concept publishing Company, New Delhi, 1966. P.19.

9. Varghese, “The Scheduled PTGs”, Seminar, 212 NIRD, Hyderabad, 1983 P.33.

10. Sharma B.D. “Administration of Tribal Development” occasional papers on Tribal Development, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, 1977. P.4.

11. Government of India, U.N. Dhebar Commission, “Scheduled Area and Scheduled PTGs Commission” 1961 vol I, p 19.

12. Government of India, T.Shilu Ao” Report of the Study Team on Tribal Development”, New Delhi, 1969.

13. Government of India, Ministry of Home affairs “ Tribal Development in the Fifth Plan, some Basic policy” Vol. 1 1975, Report of study Group on relief of Indebtedness, Land Alienation and restoration in tribal development agency areas, pp.142 –243.

14. Government of India, Ministry of Home affairs: “Tribal development in Fifth Plan, Some Basic Policy” vol.1 1975, Report of Expert Committee, p.33.

15. Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs “Report of the Task Force on Development of Tribal Areas”, 1975. P.14.


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16. Government of India, “Central Development of Social Welfare”, Report of the Expert Committee on Tribal Development headed by S.C. Dube, 1975. P.47.

17. Government of India, Planning Commission” Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97”), volume II, New Delhi p.421 – 422.

18. Nadeen Hasnain, “Tribal India Today”, Harman Publications, New Delhi, 1983, p.180.

19. TCRTI: “Report on the Andhra Pradesh Scheduled PTGs Co-operative Finance and Development Corporation Limited”, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad 1968.

20. Agro Economic Research Centre: “Study of ITDA, Visakhapatnam District”, 1978, (Published), Andhra Pradesh), Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

21. Tripathy R.N. and Others: “ Development plan for a Block Ibrahimpatnam, Rangareddy district”, A.P.,

22. Rama Mani V.S. “Tribal Economy (Problems &

Prospects”), Chugh publications, Allahabad, India, 1988.

23. Planning Commission, “Report of the Working Group; Eighth Five Year Plan (1990 – 95”), Government of India, New Delhi.

24. Frances Sinha and Sanjay Sinha: “Woolen textile and production and KUIC in hill areas Development”, Economic and Political Weekly, vol XIX No. 35 Sept. 1994 PP 1 and 545.

25. Signgh DV and Bhat J.P.: “Labour Force and its Utilization in Himachal Pradesh” (Mimeo), 1983, P.14.

26. Michael P.Todaro: “Economic Development in the Third World”, Longman Group limited England, 1977, p.113.

27. Parthasarathy G. “Preface to Anti Poverty Rural Development in India”, D.K.Publications, New Delhi 1984 p(vi)


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Employees’ Satisfaction on the Job Performance:

A Case Study of National Bank of Ethiopia

1. Dr B.V Prasada Rao, Associate Professor, Department of Management Studies, Wollega University, Ethiopia, South Africa

2. Shewayirga Assalf, Lecturer, (MB A), Adama University, Ethiopia.

3. Wako Geda Obse, Lecturer, Adama University, Ethiopia, South Africa

Abstract: The Objectives of the study is to assess and identify the influence of job satisfaction on the employee performance. This study is a quantitative research, since the researcher used questionnaires collection tools, and test of hypothesis by analyzing the data through correlation analysis, among others. The correlation between job satisfaction and employee performance is analyzed in different contexts. About 573 employees are working in the National bank of Ethiopia. Of which he researcher has taken 172 sample employee of the Bank. The study found that there is a positive association between job satisfaction and job performance. Job satisfaction has positive influence on employee job performance. Highly satisfied employees are highly perform and to achieve this condition high level of good promotion system, reasonable pay system, appropriate work itself and high working condition needed.

Key wards: NBE as a Central Bank of Ethiopia, Performance, Ability vs Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Employee performance, Employee Response etc.


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1. Introduction

Job satisfaction has been defined in several different ways but the most general way is to define it as an attitudinal variable. It is simply how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs (S Schwab). Job satisfaction is widely used in the domain of human resources development. It is the degree to that a person reports satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic features of job. In other words Job satisfaction is pleasurable emotional state resulting from appraisal of one’s job or job experience (Locke, 1976).

Satisfied employees develop job involvement and devote much of the time and give great focus to work for better achievement of his/her objective and organizational goals. Motivation is setting a person into motion or action to achieve needs or goals. Motivation and performance have a strong tie.

Every organization tries to achieve its objectives. In this connection they must concentrate in

many aspects. As human resource of an organization is considered as an important resource, organizations wish to keep well trained and effective work force. Employees, who satisfy with their job, may exert high effort to organization wish to satisfy their employees for getting effective more work done. To make the best use of people as a valuable resource of the organization attention must be given to the relationship between staff and the nature and content of their jobs. The organization and the design of jobs can have a significant effect on staff. Attention needs to be given to the quality of working life. The manager needs to understand how best to make work more satisfying for staff and to overcome obstacles to effective performance. Nowadays competition is very high. Therefore every organization has to compete with other organization. In this connection in order to achieve competitive advantage the organization has to retain work force for longer period. An organization expects that satisfying employees are more performing. Therefore, there is a need for the organization to satisfy their employees to achieve their objectives. For the employee’s point


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of view, job satisfaction leads to several benefits such as, reducing moral stress, create new thinking and innovation which lead them to high level, fresh mind, and good relationship with co-workers, supervisor and employees etc. It is highly important to study the current practices of employee performance and job satisfaction and their degree of correlation and recommend best principles & practices for better commitment, innovation and flexibility for sustainable development in the bank. Recently the institution starts to implement business process reengineering (BPR) concepts to improve the quality and speed of the services in the sector.

National bank of Ethiopia is also under process to implement BPR in the organization to satisfy their customer by improving the satisfaction of employee. However, the level of employee performance practiced and employee’s job satisfaction is subject to study. Moreover the degree of correlation is unknown. Therefore, the research should be conducted to investigate these issues. It is also paramount importance to study which factors

satisfy and which dissatisfy in the organization.

2. Significance of the study

The researcher strongly believes that result of this study is primarily benefit the NBE to take an important way of improving employee job satisfaction in order to improve their working performance. The results of this study could also be used by other banking institutions to improve their employee job satisfaction level. Moreover, the findings of this study would also help as a base to other researchers who have intention to study the topic further. The study provides important information to policy makers, managers, employees and communities at large about comprehensive elements and practices of performance and job satisfaction methods to improve economy and social life of the employee through the bank.

3. Objectives of the study

The general objective is to assess and identify the influence of job satisfaction on the employee performance. Further,


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To identify the factors of job dissatisfaction for employees at the NBE.

To assess the level of employee job satisfaction in the bank

To investigate the degree of relationship between job satisfaction and employee performance.

To identify work performance of the employees; and

To suggest some measures in order to improve employees’ work performance through job satisfaction in the National Bank of Ethiopia.

4. Methodology

Research type: This study is a quantitative research used questionnaires collection tools, and test of hypothesis by analyzing the data through correlation analysis, among others. The correlation between job satisfaction and employee performance is analyzed in different contexts. The sample size of

the study determined through statistical formula and then takes them through none –probability and simple random sample techniques.

Sampling techniques

The sampling techniques that are employee in this study both non-probability and simple random sampling techniques to take the sample from the total population. There are 573 employees in National bank of Ethiopia. The researcher takes 172 sample employee of the Bank.

Research setting and Sample

The sampling techniques that are employee in this study both non-probability and simple random sampling techniques to take the sample from the total population. There are 573 employees in National bank of Ethiopia. The researcher takes 172 sample employee of the Bank.

The sample size is calculated using the following formula of sample size determination.

Where, n –desired sample size

n= z2 ×p(1-p)×N e2


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Z-value of standard variation at 95% confidence interval (Z=1.96) P- Estimated proportion of employee. As the exact proportion is not known, so 0.5 used. As P value to obtain the maximum number of the sample size, but since the exact population is known the stated formula will be changed as under.

n = z2 ×p(1-p)×N e2 ×(N-1)+z2 ×P(1-P)

n=1.962×0.2(1-0.2)×573 = 172 sample size 0.052× (573-1)+1.962×0.2(1-0.2)

Data Analysis Tools

The present study used a simple correlation analysis. Correlation co-efficient analysis was being used to find out the relationship between variables i.e., job satisfaction and employees’ performance with using SPSS version 19.

5. Theoretical Analysis Factors Determining Job Satisfaction

Factors affecting jobs are the main factors of job satisfaction, which may be challenging work, reward systems, working condition, Colleagues, learning, personality, equitable rewards, equal pay for equal work and promotion avenues.

These satisfying factors are important for proving satisfaction. Many employees prefer to challenging job as they acquire mental satisfaction. For examples, skill variety, autonomy and significance are challenging tasks which provide maximum satisfaction to employees. Besides, farness in promotion, unbiased attitude of the management, responsibility and social status are factors for providing satisfaction to employees.

Job satisfaction has a positive impact on productivity, presence and performance. Satisfied workers like to perform more willingly and


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happily, which increases the productivity. Therefore, job satisfaction induces employees to remain with the organization. The behavior of an employee is improved when he/she works with satisfaction.

How to Increasing Employee Satisfaction

There are six agreed-upon instructions for support employee satisfaction in business:

1. Guarantee that each employee knows the company’s aims, missions, and goals

2. Provide opportunities

3. Empower employees

4. Reward Employees

5. Team-Building Activities

6. Reasonable Compensation

Job Performance

An evaluation of employee performance is necessary for several reasons such as compensation, promotion and employee training and feedback and personnel research. There are two main criteria used in performance appraisal, namely objective and subjective criteria.

Objective criteria include the assessment of quantity of work, quality of work, attendance and safety. On the other hand, subjective criteria include supervisor evaluations by which employees are evaluated individually, employee comparison methods by which employees are compared with one another, peer ratings, self appraisal and customer and subordinate ratings.

7. Results and Discussions Profile Analysis of the Respondent

As the table 1 shows that, large number of the respondent are male which are (70.5%), the remaining percent of the respondent were female, which are (24.7% ) of the respondents. In the context of participant age (0.7%) of the respondents are under 20 age, (76.7%) are between 20-40 age and (19.9%) of the respondent are above 40. It shows that most of the respondents are male and between 20-40 years old and it indicate that most number of employees of the organization are younger, who have potential to do their job well.


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Table 1. Employee gender and age category

Item Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

participants gender

Female 36 24.7 4.8 Male 103 70.5 29.5 Total 146 100 100

participant age category

Under 20 1 0.7 3.4 20-40 112 76.7 80.1 Above 40 29 19.9 100 Total 146 100

(Source, survey data)

Table 2.Employee Educational level and their working experience in the NBE

Item Frequency Percent Cumulative p.

Educational level

10 complete 2 1.4 6.8 Certificate 5 3.4 10.3 diploma 21 14.4 24.7 bachelor 104 71.2 95.9 masters 6 4.1 100

Total 146 100 Experience of employees

1-5 years 71 48.6 57.5 5-10 years 25 17.1 74.7 above 10 37 25.3 100 Total 146 100

Source (survey data)

The tables 2 shows that, the largest numbers of the respondents are bachelor degree holders, which is (71.2%) of the respondent. The next numbers of the respondents are diploma holders. The least number of

the respondents are masters degree holders, the remaining are certificate holders. It shows that, most of the respondents are in good shape with higher educational qualification. Item 2 of the same table show that, most of


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the respondents have 1-5 years experience, which is (48.6%) of the respondents, the next number of the respondents (25.3%) above 10 year experience. It seen that most of the respondents were hired in the past 5 years and have few years of experience in the organization.

Working conditions Working conditions refers to the working environment and to the non-pay aspects of an employee’s terms and conditions of employment. It covers such matters as the organization of work and work activities; training, skills and employability; health, safety and well-being; and working

time and work-life balance and it give satisfaction to employees.

As the table 3, employees’ level of job satisfaction on working conditions by nine statements. The percentage of SDA between these nine elements is ranged from 9.6 percent (statement seven) to 17.1 per cent each by statement one and statement four. But about 21.1 percent were strongly agreed that there is open communication throughout the workplace. However, the percentage of acceptance level of the statement is more than the rejection/disagreed.

Table 3 .Employee response on working condition in the NBE

No Item Response

S.D.A D.A NE A S A. Total % % % % % NO %

1 I am satisfied with the way that that this institutions managed

17.1 20.5 25.3 30.8 5.5 146 100

2 I believe that my supervisors care deeply for me and for our clients

13.0 8.2 23.3 43.2 12.3 146 100

3 I receive adequate support from my supervisors

11.0 8.9 19.2 43.8 15.8 146 100

4 Problems in the workplace are addressed quickly and adequately

17.1 20.5 25.3 30.8 5.5 146 100

5 There is open communication throughout

11.0 16.4 21.9 29.5 21.2 146 100


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the workplace

6 I work in a team environment

12.3 18.5 21.9 37.7 8.9 146 100

7 I work in a safe and comfortable environment

9.6 21.9 28.8 27.4 12.3 146 100

8 I receive adequate training to do my job well.

16.4 26.0 25.3 24.7 7.5 146 100

9 Overall this organization is a good place to work

11.6 15.8 33.6 32.2 6.8 146 100

Source (survey data) Note: - S.D.A-strongly disagree, D.A- disagree, N-neutral, A –agree, S.A –strongly agree

Payment: Payment, which encourages workers or groups by rewarding them according to their performance; personal or special allowances, or with long service; and fringe benefits such as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on. It is also

important to ensure that employee satisfaction, in determining the pay structure of their organization has the power to attract, retain, and motivate individuals towards higher performance.( Banjoko 1996)

Table 4.Employee response on the institution payment

NO

Item

Response SD A D.A NE. A. S.A Total % % % % % NO %

1 Satisfying with my income

19.9 25.3

24.7 24.7 5.5 146 100

2 Work pay is good 3.4 39.7

32.9 15.8 8.2 146 100

3 satisfying with the benefits

17.1 20.5

25.3 30.8 5.5 146 100

4 satisfying with allowance

19.9 26.0

26.0 23.3 4.8 146 100

As can see from the above table, employee were somewhat satisfied by their income. In general

the above table shows that the number of not satisfied respondents is greater than the number of


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satisfied respondents of the institution’s payment.

Promotion

Promotion is an appointment to a position requiring higher qualifications such as greater skill or longer experience and involving a higher level of responsibility, a higher rate of pay, and a title change is

considered a promotion and will be classified as such in all personnel documents. A number of researchers are of the opinion that job satisfaction is strongly related to opportunities for promotion (Pergamit & Veum, 1999; Peterson et al., 2003; Sclafane, 1999). So based on this see employee’s satisfaction on promotion

Table 5.Employee response on promotion system of NBE

NO

Item Response(%)

S.D.A

D.A NE. A. S.A

Total

1 Work assignments are delegated fairly

3.4 39.7 32.9 15.8 8.2 146 100

2 I have the opportunity to do a variety of tasks

10.3 6.2 24.0 39.0 20.5 146 100

3 I feel there is fair promotion system in the organization

3.4 23.3 33.6 26.0 13.7 146 100

4 I feel comfortable talking to my supervisor about promotion

16.4 19.9 33.6 24.0 5.5 146 100


As the above table shows that, the largest numbers of the respondents said that work assignments are not delegated fairly in the organization, in contrast to this of the respondent said that work assignments are delegated fairly. But more of them were

expressed that they have an opportunity to do a variety of tasks next by fair promotion system in the organization

Quality of work: It addresses how well knowledge is applied to generate finished products,


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and to what degree quality of performance contributes to obtaining expected results.

The above table shows that, more than half of the employees agreed that, they produce the volume work that the position is required, employees (35%) sates that they can not do volume of work that the position is required. Item 2 of the same table can show that , almost the agreed and disagreed percent of the respondents are approximately the same result ,it indicate that employees do not give that much an

attractive service for their large number of customer within working hours per day. Regarding employees do the variety of tasks on working time per day seen that, employees (34.9%) said that they can not do the variety of tasks, in contrast to this (30.8%) of the respondent sates that they do the variety of tasks. Item 4 of the same table show that, employees (35.6%) states that they do not goes beyond the requirement of their job,(32%) of the respondent said that they goes beyond the requirement of their job.

Table 6. Employee response on quantity of their work performance

NO Item Response(%) SDA D.A NE A. S.A Total

% % % % % NO % 1 I Produce volume of

work that the position requires

1.4 33.6 33.6 25.3 10.3 146 100

2 I give service for the number of customer

5.5 29.5 29.5 26.7 8.9 146 100

3 I do a variety of tasks on working time per day

3.4 31.5 34.2 23.3 7.5 146 100

4 I goes beyond the requirements of the job

7.5 28.1 31.5 21.2 11.6 146 100



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Table 8. Employee’s response on their work knowledge

NO

Item

Response(%) SDA D.A NE. A. S A Total

1 Conveys information and ideas clearly and courteously

2.7 24.0 32.9 31.5 8.9 146 100

2 I try to do the work with the minimum cost

2.1 27.4 30.1 22.6 17.8 146 100

3 I easily adjust my self for the change

2.1 36.3 24.7 20.5 15.8 146 100

4 I have a good understanding of the mission and the goals of this organization

3.4 39.7 32.9 15.8 8.2 146 100


The above tables clearly demonstrate that, employees majority of them convey information and idea clearly and courteously, respondents (26.7%) said that they do not convey information and idea clearly and courteously. It clearly show that more employee of the bank convey information and idea clearly and courteously. Most of the respondents agreed on they try to do their work with the minimum cost.

Conclusion

The aim of this study is to assess the level of job satisfaction in National Bank of Ethiopia and the relationship between job satisfaction

and job performance. The study found that there is a positive association between job satisfaction and job performance. In other words, good working condition; reasonable pay system, faire promotion and appropriate work itself affect employee performance that is employee quality of work, quantity of work, time effectiveness and cost effectiveness of employee. Job satisfaction has positive influence on employee job performance.

Recommendations

The results obtained from study shows that there is a positive relationship between promotion


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and job performance. For an organization to be successful, its managers must ensure that there is faire promotion system in an organization in order to mutually have a high level of job performance. That is promotion should be provided based on the qualification and experience.

The study show that working condition has the positive influence on the performance of employee, organization should develop good working condition. This facilitates employees to do their work effectively.

The study indicate that, work itself and employee job performance has positive relation ship, that means work itself influence employees work performance, so to ensure this the organization should improve appropriable working condition.

Payment and job performance has positive relation ship, even though National bank of Ethiopia paid an attractive salary compared to other civil service institution, but employees need different allowance to initiate them such as house and transportation

allowance. That means the organization should provide adequate payment for their employees.

Organization should implement business process reengineering to satisfy employees with the way that the institution is managed. That is the organization should be change management system.

Organization should provide adequate training facilities to the employees, which enable them to accomplish their task effectively and efficiently.

Organization should addressee the problem that rise in the work place quickly and adequately to minimize employees’ work stress.

The manager of the organization assign work assignment fairly in an organization and talk with employees freely as brotherly and sisterly to motivate them.

Organization should develop good relationship among employees. Through which, Job satisfaction of employees is enhanced. As a research, employees’ work performance will be at high level.


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Organization should evaluate employees’ performance.

The feedback about the quality & Organization should design good grievance procedure, disciplinary procedure and separation procedure etc. quantity of performance will be provided to improve their performance.

Reference

1. Jahan, R. & Haque, S.M.S. (1993). Effects of Organizational Climate Involvement, Job Satisfaction and Personality of Mid level Managers

2. Locke, E. A. (1970). Job satisfaction and job

performance: A theoretical analysis Organizational Behavior and Human Performance

3. Locke, E., (1976), “The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction” in Handbook of Industrial/ Organizational Psychology Edited by M.D. Dunnette (Chicago

4. RandMcNally, 1976): Allan, Louis A, Management and Organization, McGraw Hill International Book Company, Auckland

5. Schwab, D. P., & Cummings, L. L (1970).Theories of performance and satisfaction A review. Industrial Relations


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Performance of Small Scale Industries in India

1. Prof T.Uma Maheswara Rao, Ph.D, Professor – KLU Business School, K L University,Vaddeswaram, Guntur.

2. Smt.G.Kavitha Kiran, Research Scholar, Department Commerce and Business Administration, Acharya Nagarjuna University.

Abstract

Over the past 60 years, Small Scale industries have contributed significantly in the development of national economy. In a developing country like India, the development of as Small-Scale Industries (SSI) and their close relationship with the Large Industrial units are considered very much essential in any scheme of industrialization. The sector has characterized by low investment, operational flexibility, location wise mobility and import substitution. The Sector has been undergone a metamorphic change in the era of globalization. Many changes have taken place both national and international markets. The sector is playing a prominent role in ensuring the inclusive growth and regional balance. The sector is consistently registered a higher growth rate than the rest of industrial sector. There are over 6000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items manufactured by this sector. Besides, the sector is facing challenge in the form of competition and opened opportunities due to improved technology, collaborations government intervention. In this, view, the present paper has made an attempt to evaluate the performance o f Small Scale Industries in terms of number of units registered, investment in fixed assets, and employment.

Key words: Economic development, technology, employment, opportunities


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Introduction

Majority of people living in rural areas draw their livelihood from agriculture and allied sectors. However, the growth and balanced development of other sectors such as industry and services is also necessary to sustain the growth of Indian economy in an inclusive manner. The Government of India is striving to improve the economic and social conditions of rural population and non-farm sector through a host of measures including creation of productive employment opportunities based on optimal use of local raw materials and skills as well as undertaking interventions aimed at improving supply chain; enhancing skills; upgrading technology; expanding markets and capacity building of the entrepreneurs/artisans and their groups/collectives.

Economic development of a country is directly related to the level of industrial growth. The expansion of industrial sector leads to a greater utilization of natural resources, production of goods and services, creation of employment opportunities and improvement in the general standard of living. India has also been

striving to develop the country’s industrial base since independence. It has framed various policies aimed at development of industries in the public and private sectors. Special emphasis has been laid on small-scale industries. Small scale industries play a key role in our planned development with its advantages of low investment, high potential for employment generation, diversification of the industrial base and dispersal of industries to rural and semi urban areas. The small-scale industries sector has been appropriately give a strategic position in our planned economy towards the fulfillment of the socio economic objectives particularly in achieving equitable growth.

The Small Scale Sector has emerged as a highly vibrant and dynamic sector of the Indian economy over last five decades. It not only play crucial role in providing large employment opportunities at comparatively lower capital cost than large industries but also help in industrialization of rural and backward areas, thereby reducing regional imbalances , assuring more equitable distribution of national income and wealth.


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The Small Sector in India has progressed from the production of consumer goods to the manufacture of many sophisticated and precision products like electronics control system, micro wave components, and electro-medical equipments.

The small scale sector is the most important vehicle for inclusive growth with 8.72 percent of the country’s GDP, 45 percent of the manufacturing and 40 of its exports .It is providing employment at about 80 million persons through 36 million enterprises spread through the length and breadth of the country.

Prior to the MSMED Act 2006 the Sector was defined as per the provisions of Industrial Development

and Regulation Act 1951, as Small Scale Industries and its constituent tiny and auxillary units. The Micro Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act has broadened the definition as well as coverage of the micro and small enterprises. The sector includes Service enterprises .The Act has first time defined medium enterprises.

In India the enterprises have been two types those engaged in manufacturing and those engaged in providing or rendering of services. In accordance with the provisions of MSMED (Micro Small and Medium Enterprises Development) Act the enterprises are classified as follows (table1):

Table 1. Classification of enterprises

Enterprises Investment in Plant& Equipment of Manufacturing unit(Rs)

Investment in equipment of Service

unit(Rs) Micro Enterprises

> 25 Lakh Rupees >ten lakh Rupees

Small enterprise 25 lakhs to below five core 10 lakh rupees to less than 2 crores

Medium enterprises

Five core rupees to less than ten crore rupees

2 crores to less than five crore

Source: Micro Small & Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED)Act 2006


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The performance of the sector is assessed by the periodic All India Census of the sector. The latest census conducted was Fourth All India Census of MSME with reference to 2006-2007 for which the data was collected till 2009 and the results was published in 2011-12.The survey has concluded that the number of registered enterprises are estimated to be 361.76 lakhs annual compound growth rate (CGR) of 28.02% with total employment of

805.24 lakh and CGR 26.42%. 67.10% of the enterprises were engaged in manufacturing, where as 32.90% were engaged in service activities.

The Government is conducting a number of programmes for skill development through National Level Entrepreneurship Development institutes, M SME Development Institutes, MSME Tool Rooms, MSME Technology Development Centers.

Table 2: Performance of Small scale industries

Year No of units in lakhs

Annual increase

%change

2001-2002 105.21 2002-2003 109.49 4.28 4.068 2003-2004 113.95 4.46 4.073 2004-2005 118.59 4.64 4.072 2005-2006 123.42 4.83 4.073 2006-2007 261.01 137.59 111.481 2007-2008 272.79 11.78 4.513 2008-2009 285.16 12.37 4.534 2009-2010 298.08 12.92 5.530 2010-2011 311.52 13.44 4.508 2011-2012 447.73 136.21 143.72

AVG 222.45 34.252 29.057 STD 114.555 54.236 58.848 CV 51.4969 158.344 202.526

CAGR 14.07 41.34 Source: MSME Annual Report 2010-‘11and 2012-‘13


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The above table 2 shows the performance of SSI in terms of number of units during 2001-2012. From the table the numbers of SSIs have increased from 105.21 lakhs during2001-2002 to 447.73 lakhs during 2011-2012.which comes to an increase of 34.252 lakh it indicates that the SSI has made progress during the period of study. The numbers of units registered are at an average of 222.45. The average

increase of units is increasing at 34.252. The annual growth rate is decreased from5.30 2009-2010 to 4.508.2010-2011.The average annual growth rate is 29.057.Thus the average growth is greater than average annual increase in the number of units. Standard Deviation of units is less than the mean value of the units registered. The compound annual growth rate is 14.07 and coefficient of variance is 51.4969.

Table 3 shows the investment in Small Scale Industries Rs1176939 crores during 2011-12.which is an increase of Rs 92963 when compared to 2001-2002.The average annual increase is 28.456.the investment in Small Scale Industry is at an increasing trend. Standard deviation is less than the mean value of investment which shows that there is

less volatility of investment in the sector during the period. The compound annual growth rate is 20.28 which are greater than the compound annual growth rate of number of units registered. The table 4 shows the production of Small Scale Sector during 2001-2012. The production is Rs.282270crores in 2001-2002.It has increased to


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Rs.1834332Crores by 2011-2012.Production is at an average of 743934Crore which is less than the average annual growth rate of Rs.155206Crores.On an average the percentage annual growth rate is

21.68.Standard Deviation is 526027 which is less than the mean value. The Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is 18.55. Coefficient of variance is 70.70.

Table 3 Performance of SSIs by fixed assets investment

Year Investment in crores

Annual increase % annual increase

2001-2002 1,54,349 2002-2003 1,62,317 7968 5.162 2003-2004 1,70,219 7902 4.868 2004-2005 1,78,699 8480 4.981 2005-2006 1,88,113 9414 5.268 2006-2007 5,00,758 312645 166.200 2007-2008 5,58,190 57432 11.469 2008-2009 6,21,753 63563 11.387 2009-2010 6,93,835 72082 11.593 2010-2011 7,73,487 79652 11.479 2011-2012 11,76,939 403452 52.160 AVG 470787.18 92963 28.456 STD 3.1622 259.457 50.415 CV 6.716 0.2791 177.168 CAGR 20.28 48.068

Source: MSME Annual Report 2010-‘11and 2012-‘13


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Table 4. Performance of small scale industries with regard to production

Year Production in crores Annual increase

% annual increase

2001-2002 2,82,270 2002-2003 3,14,850 32580 11.54 2003-2004 3,64,547 49697 15.78 2004-2005 4,29,796 65249 17.89 2005-2006 4,97,842 68046 15.83 2006-2007 7,09,398 211556 42.49 2007-2008 7,90,759 81361 11.46 2008-2009 8,80,805 90046 11.38 2009-2010 9,82,919 102114 11.59 2010-2011 10,95,758 112839 11.47 2011-2012 18,34,332 738574 67.40 AVG 743934 155206.2 21.683 STD 526027 210730 18.637 CV 70.70 135.77 85.95 CAGR 18.55 36.63 19.30


Table 5 Performance of small scale industries with regard to employment

Year Employment No Lakhs

Annual growth % increase in annual growth

2001-2002 249.33 2002-2003 260.21 10.88 4.363 2003-2004 271.42 11.21 4.308 2004-2005 282.57 11.15 4.108 2005-2006 294.91 12.34 4.367 2006-2007 595.16 300.25 101.810 2007-2008 626.34 31.18 5.238 2008-2009 659.35 33.01 5.270 2009-2010 695.38 36.03 5.464 2010-2011 732.17 36.79 5.290 2011-2012 1,012.73 280.56 38.318 AVG 516.325 76.34 17.853 STD 257.753 114.211 31.326 CV 49.920 149.608 175.466 CAGR 13.59 38.40 24.28


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Small Scale Sector is playing a vital role in increasing the employment in the economy. The employment generation of the sector is 249.33 lakhs during 2001-2002.By 2011-2012 the employment is increased to 1012.13 lakhs. The average annual

growth of the employment is 138.8, where as the percentage annual growth is 17.853. Average employment in the sector is 516.325 and Standard Deviation is 257.753. Compound annual growth rate is 13.59.

The below table 6 shows that the export potential of the Small Scale Sector is increasing from 71,244 crores to 2,02,017 crores by the end of 2007-2008 Where as the annual growth rate is decreased during 2003-

2004 and 2007-2008. This is due to the change in the classification of the industries in this Sector. The average annual growth rate in exports is 3763.


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Table 6 Performance of small scale industries with regard to exports

Year Exports Rscrores

Annual Increase

% Increase

2001-2002 71,244 2002-2003 86,013 14769 20.73 2003-2004 97,644 11631 13.53 2004-2005 1,24,417 26773 27.41 2005-2006 1,50,242 25825 20.75 2006-2007 1,82,538 32296 21.49 2007-2008 2,02,017 19479 10.67 2008-2009 NA - - 2009-2010 NA - - 2010-2011 NA - - 2011-2012 NA - -

AVG 127451 37363 32.73 CAGR 16.05 4.72


Conclusion

The Small Scale Sector is playing a vital role in the development of the economy with its tremendous performance. In order to encourage this sector government took a number of measures. Liberalization has brought challenges to this sector with intense competition from the global players in marketing their products also opportunities like technology, outsourcing by larger industries etc. During the period of study the average number of units

registered is 222.45. The increase in average investment is 470787.18. The Sector has produced an amount of1834332 crores by 2011-2012. It average employment provided by this sector is 2446.6 Lakh. The export potential of the Sector is 10.67 percent by 2007-2008. The volatility with respect to the investment, production and investment is less as the mean value is higher than Standard deviation. The risk associated with the sector is less it is suggested that the more concentration to the sector will result


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in more development .Thus the performance of the Small Scale Sector is progressive during 2001-2012.

References:

1. Ram Singh, Dr. OP.Verma &Dr.Bimal Anjum “Small Scale Industry: Engine Of Growth”, International Journal of Business Economics & Management Research, Vol.2,5th May 2012 ,. pp210-221.

2. Dr.S.N.Babar, etal, “Small Scale Industries and Economic Development: Special Reference To India”, ISRJ, April 2012, VolI, Issue III.

3. N.Kalyan Kumar & Gugloth Sardar, “Competitive

Performance of Micro, Small And Medium Enterprises In India” Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences,Vol.III(1),Jan-June2011,pp.128-146.

4. Mohd.Taqi &Sadaqat Ali “Performance of Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in India: An over view” Seminar volume on performance of Micro Finance Sector in India, pp18-24.

5. MSME Annual Report 2010-2011& 2012-2013


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Dynamic Issues in Human Resource Development in India: An Analysis

Dr. D. Satyanarayana, Professor of Management Studies, BVC ITS, Amalapuram, East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh

Abstract

Human resource development in India is assessing by four indices viz., health, education, employment’ and science and technology. This paper gives the facts regarding macro level impact on Human Development. Education plays vital role in HRD by skills development, project designing, improvement in science and technology. Thus, education treated as multidimensional weapon for all round development of the not only the HR but also entire the nation. The state expenditure on education as a proportion of the GNP is 3-4 percent witnessing 75 percent of literacy rate. There is 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000 plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. There are 12,760 hospitals having 5, 76,793 beds in the country. The Government of India has decided to increase healthcare expenditure to 2.5 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. Growth in HDI of India is the best evidence of dynamic efforts regarding human resource development in India

Key Words: Employment, Education, Employment, HRD and Manpower Planning, Health, Science and Technology.

1. Introduction

Human resources refer to the sum total of society's competencies. It refers to all Competencies which contribute to playing an active role in development of a country. Human

resource development has become one of the most important issues in recent years to shape development strategies of countries around the world. Human resource development in India assessed by taking four indices viz., health, education, employment’


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and science and technology. which is still far below the 6 per cent recommended by the Education Commission. The goal of education for all continues to remain a difficult target. Though India has set up large number of health institutions and personnel, how much of these are actually utilized given the conditions of poverty, ignorance and urban bias is questionable. Qualitative improvement is the need of the hour.

In this connection, an attempt is made in this paper to discuss the factors (like education and health) involved in human resource development in India.

2. Education as engine for HR

The great Chinese scholar, namely Confucius, being an oldest educationalist wrote a treatise - real development of the society we can attained when the people in order, peace with out violence , no crime , cities with more harmonious, better living conditions , love and affections, moral , valuable human relations but not materialistic . Human science like education has been vitally maintained for the economic development. ‘The Great Learning' around 2500 years ago, in this book, he sets out the

human science process in these words'----

“Those who wished to make their wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The extension knowledge consists in the investigation of things. When things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere. When the will is sincere, the mind is rectified, when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated the state will be in order and when the state is in order; there will be peace, and peace is one of the important ingredients which lead to Economic Development".

To develop a competitive advantage in the era of globalization, it is fundamental that firms influence their workforce as a competitive weapon by implementing a strategy for improving workforce efficiency to drive higher value for the firms. Firms optimize their workforce through human capital development programmes which achieve business goals and are important for a long term survival and sustainability. To accomplish this, firms need to


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investigate resources to ensure that employees have the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to work efficiently in the complex environment. With changes globally, firms have embraced the impression of human capital as a good cutthroat advantage that would enhance firm’s performance. Human capital development is a method to achieve cost-effective firm’s performance. Hence, firms need to understand human capital to enhance employee satisfaction and for improving performance of the organization. Hence, this paper studies the link between human capital and firm’s performance in the developing countries. Education is generally viewed as crucial for rapid economic growth, and essential if we wish to increase the productivity of the people and providing with the skills they need to participate fully in the economy and in the society (Fagerlind & Saha, 1989).

Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union

Government and the states, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government.

India has made progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. The private education market in India is merely 5 per cent

although in terms of value is estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $ 68–70 billion by 2012. As of 2011, there is 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000 plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of


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education. In India education system is not based on pure merit, but its based on caste based reservations. In universities/Colleges/Institutions affiliated to federal government there is minimum 50 per cent of reservations applicable to various castes. At state level it varies. State of Andhra Pradesh has 83.33 per cent of reservations as on 2012, which is highest percentage of reservations in India

However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 25 per cent of its population is still illiterate; only 15 per cent of Indian students reach high school, and just 7 per cent graduate. The quality of education whether at primary or higher education is significantly poor as compared with major developing nations. As of 2008, India's post-secondary institutions offer only enough seats for 7 per cent of India's college-age population, 25 per cent of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57 per cent of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.

3. Health efforts and Human Development

Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and just not the non existence of disease or ailment. Health is a primary human right and has been accorded due importance by the Constitution through Article 21.Though Article 21 stresses upon state governments to safeguard the health and nutritional well being of the people, the central government also plays an active role in the sector. Recognizing the critical role played by the Health Industry, the industry has been conferred with the infrastructure status under section 10(23G) of the Income Act.

As indicated by the World Development Report 2003 (WDR), the total world health expenditure is 9.0 percent of the Gross world income out of which the share of both public and private sector is 5.3 percent and 3.7 percent respectively. For developing countries as a whole, expenditure on health accounts for about 5 percent of total public expenditure and, on an average, 2 to 4 percent of the GDP (world development report 2003). As against this, the total health expenditure in India is 5.2 percent of the GDP and out of this the public health spending


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account for less than 20 percent and the rest is the contribution by the private sector (WDR 2002). In India, the Per capita total expenditure on health at average exchange rate (US$) though increased from $ 22 in 1998 to $ 30 in 2002, the Per capita government expenditure on health at average exchange rate (US$) was $ 6 through out the period (Word Health Report 2005). The Government of India has decided to increase healthcare expenditure to 2.5 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-17).

3.1. Health profile of India

There are 12,760 hospitals having 5, 76,793 beds in the country. Under the department of AYUSH there are 24,465 dispensaries and 3,408 hospitals in April 2010. There were 148,124 sub-centers, 23,887 PHCs and 4,809 Community Health Centers as per Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, 2011. There were 2,445 licensed blood banks in the country in January 2011. The country currently has 314 medical colleges, 289 colleges for BDS courses and 140 colleges for MDS courses with total admission of 29263, 21537 and 2783 students

respectively during 2010-11. There were 2,028 institutions for GNM with admission capacity of 80,332 and 608 colleges for pharmacy (diploma) with admission capacity of 36,115, in March 2010.

The National Health Profile, 2010, compiled by the Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, reveals the following key demographic data:

The sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) has shown a slight improvement in the last two decades, it was 926, 933 and 940 during the 1991, 2001 and 2011 census respectively. The birth rate declined from 26.1 in 1999 to 22.5 in 2009, while the death rate declined from 8.7 to 7.3 per 1,000 persons over the same period. Life expectancy at birth has increased from 59.7 years in 1991-95 to 62.6 years in 2002-06 for males and from 60.9 years in 1991-95 to 64.2 years in 2002-06 for females.

The increase in life expectancy is leading to an increase in the number of elderly persons in the population creating a demand for specific health facilities. The IMR has declined considerably from 70 in 1999 to 50 per 1,000 live births in 2009 though the difference between rural


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(55) and urban (34) IMR is still high. The TFR has shown no deviation over the last two surveys conducted in India, being at 2.6 both in SRS 2008 and SRS 2010. It is 2.9 among the rural population and 2.0 in urban areas.

The MMR has declined considerably from 301 in SRS 2001-03 to 254 in SRS 2004-06 and finally to 212 as per SRS 2007-09. This is an indication of better health awareness and medical provision in the rural areas. There are 593 districts, 5,470 sub-districts, 5,161 towns and 6, 38,588 villages (including uninhabited villages) in India.

3.2. Health and HR indicators

The human resource indicator provide an overview of the availability of trained and specialized medical, nursing and paramedical personnel in India along with an understanding of the regional distribution and disparities. They provide the details of allopathic doctors, dental surgeons, AYUSH doctors, nursing staff and various paramedical healthcare workers in India. The key facts on human resources include the following:

The number of allopathic doctors who possess recognized medical qualifications (under the MCI Act) and are registered with state medical councils for the years 2009 and 2010 were 7, 93,305 and 8, 16,629. respectively. The number of dental surgeons registered with central/state dental councils as on December 31, 2009 were 1, 04,603. The total number of registered AYUSH doctors in India in January 2010 was 7, 52,254.

4. Science & technology & Human Development

India’s commitment to the use of science & technology as a key instrument in national development has been clearly articulated time and again in various policy documents right from the early years of independence. And indeed, the progress made by our country since then in attainment of the stated goals in policy and plan documents has been substantial. In the past five decades 200 universities affiliating around 3000 colleges have been established to serve as an incubation ground for producing lakhs of technically qualified professionals. India today is acknowledged as the third largest


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storehouse in the world for technically qualified workforce. The pioneering Indian spirit has manifested itself in many fields; many frontiers have been won over. These are obtained due to the development of human skills.

5. Pattern of Human Development Index in India

The Human Development Index (HDI) combines three main components of development, viz., longevity, knowledge and income. Longevity is represented by life expectancy at birth. Educational attainment is a weighted average of two educational stock variables, adult literacy and combined enrolment ratio, the weights being two-third and one third respectively.

The principal objective of development planning is human development and the attainment of

higher standard of living for the people. This requires a more equitable distribution of development benefits and opportunities, better living environment and empowerment of the poor and marginalized.

According to HDR 2011, the HDI for India was 0.547 in 2011 with an overall global ranking of 134(out of the 187 countries) compared to 119 (out of 169 countries) as per HDR 2010 (figure 1). However, a comparable analysis of the trends during 1980-2011 shows that although lower in HDI ranking, India has performed better than most (including high and very high human development) countries in terms of average annual HDI growth rate.


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Figure -1. Pattern of Human Development in India

Source: Human Development Indices: A statistical update 2011 | United Nations Development Programme

The improvement is not enough because, China has fastly growing than India. It is also worried by UNDP. Of the policy makers and administrators ignored the issues people may be reject the ruling of the present parties in future

6. Employment and human resource development

Innovations should avoid two traps. One is transforming the new educational programmes into a kind of a vast dustbin, filled with everything from sex to the history of religion. The second is overlooking the need for maintaining the educational standards. The new

enthusiasm of the younger generation for business and enterprise should not affect their moral code or encourage indifference and egoism. Some worrying signs, pointing out such negative trends, have already appeared. A widespread involvement of the child population in the service sector as newspaper salesmen, car washers, errand-boys for the "rich" fellows, has already driven a significant number of pupils away from school. Emphasis on mercantilism deforms motivation of children, alienates them from the world in which cultural and moral values do matter. It is potentially dangerous, because it may lead to a


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moral degradation of their personality.

There has been a drastic changes happening in Indian economy especially in placement to the human resources during the last two decades of new economic reforms era. The pattern of employment generation rate has sharply declined from 2.01 percent per annum during 1983 to 94 to 0.98 percent per annum during the period 1993-94 to 2004-05

7. Conclusion

Elaborating specific strategies for planning the development of education and manpower training and matching these strategies with new employment opportunities in the private and public sectors is a vital step in human resource area. In keeping with the changing needs of a developing economy and a dynamic society, there have been changes in the economic, employment and educational policies of India. In the economy, now there are fewer controls. The Government is moving away from those areas where private enterprises have a comparative advantage and is focusing on human development areas like employment

and education. Over the years, India has also reoriented its education system to make it more employment oriented. With the current thrust on education coupled with the new economic policies under which a GDP growth rate of 5.6 per cent per annum is anticipated, near full employment by the turn of the century is envisage.

References

1. Ambumani Das : Minister for Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. An Interview with India Today on National Rural Health Mission, Vol. 32, No. 30, July 2007. Fagerlind, I., & Saha, L.J. (1989). Education and national development: A comparative perspective.Oxford, UK:

2. Gumber, A. and V, Kulkarnl. (2000). Health insurance for Workers in the Informal Sector, Detailed Results from a Pilot Study, National Council of Applied Economic Research. New Delhi

3. Jamison D. T. (1993). ‘Investing In Health” Finance and Development 30:2 2 - 5.


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4. K.V. Narayana : Size and Nature of Health Care System. Andhra Pradesh Development Economic Reforms and Challenges Ahead, Centre for Economic and Social Sciences, Hyderabad, 2003.

5. Mahal, A, J. Singh, F. Afridi, V. Lamba, and V. Selvaraju42000); who benefits from public health spending in India? National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi.

6. Murray CJL, Lopez AD (1996) The Global Burden of Disease, Geneva, World Health Organization, Harvard School of Public Health, World Bank

7. Rambrahmam and S. Sudhakar Babu : Public Private Partnership and Evolving National Health Policy for a Cautious Approach. Indian Journal of Public

Administration, July-September, 2008. .

8. Sundar, R. (1992). Household survey of medical care. Margin. January- March. Sujatha Rao (2004). Health Insurance: Concepts, Issues and Challenges, Economic and Political Weekly. 39. August 21 3835-3844.

9. World Development Report (2003), Moving towards Sustainable Development, the World Bank, Washington DC.


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The Impact of Marketing Mix on Customer Satisfaction

-A Case of MOHA Soft Drinks Industry S.C, Hawassa Millennium Plant

Dereje Alelign, Lecturer, HawassaUniversity, Ethiopia.

Dr.B.V.Prasada Rao, Associate Professor, Wollega University, Ethiopia.

Wako. Geda obse. Lecturer, Adama University, Ethiopia

Abstract This study is aimed to explore the impact of marketing mix elements

(product, price, promotion, and place) on customer satisfaction, by focusing on MOHA Soft Drinks Industry S.C, Hawassa Millennium Plant. The findings show that marketing mix elements have impact on customer satisfaction. All the independent variables are positively and directly related to customer satisfaction. The relationship between marketing mix and customer satisfaction is significant. Therefore, the company should revisit the controllable marketing mix elements to satisfy the customer. And also they are expected to invest more on attracting new customers and retaining the existed ones with regard to marketing mix to increase customer satisfaction. Key words: Marketing Mix, Product, Price, Promotion, Place, and Customer Satisfaction.

1. Introduction

The ultimate goal of any business establishment is to remain in business profitably through production and sales of products or

services. But without customer satisfaction, a business firm cannot survive. Companies can win the competition by doing a better job in order to satisfy the customers’ needs and wants and one of the core


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activities in a business company to stay in business is adopt at building customers not just building a product (Johansson J, 2000:12). The survival of organizations depends on its customers. Customers are the source of profits to be earned by a profit making organization and the primary reason for being in the operation for not for- profit organizations. Thus, customers are the backbone and lifeline of organizations. ‘Often it is said that without customers there is no business’ (Dwyer, F.R., (1987:23). Customer satisfaction is a person’s feeling of pleasure or disappointment resulting from comparing a product’s perceived performance or outcome in relation to his or her expectations (Harker,2009:pp,21). Marketing opportunities are based on identification of customer wants and needs, an understanding of how customers make buying decisions, how they use the goods and services they buy, and their level of commitment to current brands (Anderson and Vince, 2004:85). Marketing managers must think

about the methods of winning, retaining, in general, satisfying customers from various ways which will lead to organizational success.

2 Significance of the study

The study is crucial for the company, others and researcher on the aspects such as- the company can able to know its customer satisfaction level with regard to the product quality, setting price, promotional and distribution aspects of the factory that will move in parallel with the changing customers’ need and wants.; besides, the findings of the study will be used for other similar studies in the future. So, it is expected that this research can contribute a lot to the efforts made by the factory for the fulfillment of customer satisfaction through provision of appropriate product and service to the respected customers. And furthermore, the researcher may acquire knowledge about the way of conducting a research with identified problems, and contributed further explanations for studies on the subject matter.

3. Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of the study are:

To investigate the influence of product on customer satisfaction.


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To determine the influence of price on customer satisfaction.

To explore the influence of promotion on customer satisfaction.

To find out the influence of place on customer satisfaction.

4. Research Methodology

Research design

This study employed more of quantitative case study method to answer the research questions and used some qualitative information to know the current conditions of the company with regard to marketing mix and customer satisfaction. This quantitative approach was applied to identify the impact of marketing mix on customer satisfaction. Some qualitative information was gathered from the organization by using semi-structured interview. The related data with questionnaire were collected and analyzed. In this research project a quantitative approach by using the customers’ of the company as respondents of the questionnaires. The study was undertaken to examine the impact of marketing mix on customer satisfaction by the customers of the

company. The company has 5 types of customers in Hawassa city with total population of 542 customers, in which 118(Hotels), 148(Groceries), 116(Restaurants), 92(Cafeteria) and 68(Kebeb).

Sample size

The total population of the study is 542, which ranges between 501 and 1200. Based on the above method of sample size determination a sample size of medium which is 80 respondents will be taken a representative to answer the schedules that will be distributed with the help of enumerators. Customers were selected based on simple random sampling and efforts have been made to have representative sample and the results are considered as representative of the population.

Sampling Technique

Stratified sampling technique is applied in order to obtain a representative sample. The reason is the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than


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the total population. Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, the researcher is able to get more precise estimates for each stratum.

Under which the sizes of the samples from the different strata are kept proportional to the sizes of the strata. That is, if Pi represents the proportion of population included in

stratum i, and n represents the total sample size, the number of elements selected from stratum i is n. A sample of size n = 80 to be drawn from a population of size N = 542 which is divided into five strata of size N1 = 118, N2 = 148, N3 = 116, N4 =92 and N5 =68. Adopting proportional allocation, we shall get the sample sizes as under for the different strata:

For strata with N1 = 118, we have n1 = n . P1 = 80 (118/542) = 17 For strata with N2 = 148, we have n2 = n . P2 = 80 (148/542) = 22 For strata with N3 = 116, we have n3 = n . P3 = 80 (116/542) = 17

For strata with N4 = 92, we have n4 = n . P4 = 80 (92/542) = 14 For strata with N5 = 68, we have n5 = n . P5 = 80 (68/542) = 10

Thus, using proportional allocation, the sample sizes for different strata are 17, 22,17,14,and 10 respectively which is in proportion to the sizes of the strata 118 : 148 : 116: 92: 68 and then the researcher were selected sample items from each stratum using simple random sampling to constitute a representative sample. Questions in part two were assessed by using a five point Lickert scale. Each question of the questionnaire is assigned a number indicating strongly disagree measured as 1, disagree measured as 2, undecided measured as 3, agree

measured as 4, and strongly agree measured as 5. The independent variable is marketing mix and measured by four dimensions such as product, price, promotion, and place/distribution. The dependent variable is customer satisfaction and measured by the feelings of customers towards the company. Regression and correlation models were the other inferential statistical tools used to analyze the collected data. Regression analysis was used to know by how much the independent variable i.e. marketing mix explains or influences the dependent variable


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which is customer satisfaction. Correlation analysis also conducted to measure the strength of the association between marketing mix dimensions and customer satisfaction. The results of semi structured interview questions was analyzed qualitatively. Data analysis was performed by using SPSS software version 16.

5. Data Analysis and Discussion

The questionnaire were developed in five scales ranging from one to five; where 1 represents strongly disagree,2 disagree,3 undecided,4 agree and 5 strongly agree.

6. Descriptive analysis

This descriptive analysis is used to look at the data collected and to describe that information. It is used to describe the demographic factors for more clarification.

From the below table 1 information it can be seen clearly about demographic features of the respondents. Majority was under the age group of 36 to 50 years and has Diploma qualification and designated by managers. Majority have monthly income by birr 5000 & above.

Descriptive analysis of product

The mean scale was calculated by dividing, the sum of the products of each scale with the relative frequency, to the total number of respondents. The mean scale has a minimum value of 1 and a maximum value of 5.

The found that the greatest numbers of respondents were 44(55.0%) for ratings agree and recorded mean value bu 3.52 respectively. As per the above table, most of the customers of the company were dissatisfied with the price of the product they paid. About 31(38.8%) of the respondents disagreed with the price of the product they paid and 25(31.2%) even strongly disagreed. This constitutes 70.0% were dissatisfied with this aspect. On the other hand, 15(18.8%) of the respondents were agreed and 8(10.0%) indifferent. And only 1(1.2%) respondents rated strongly agree. Moreover, the mean of the distribution of responses was found to be 2.20, which was closer to the value of ‘Disagree’. In this regard, it is clear that the customers of the company were dissatisfied with the price of the product they paid.


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Descriptive Analysis of Demographic characteristics of respondents Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents


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Descriptive analysis of product Table 2: The factory offer high quality products and Price of product

is reasonable

Scale

Factory offer high quality products Price of product is

reasonable

Percent Mean scale Percent Mean scale

strongly disagree 1.2 31.2

Disagree 17.5 38.8 Undecided 17.5 3.52 10.0 Agree 55.0 18.8 2.20 strongly agree 8.8 1.2 Total(80) 100.0 100.0

Source: field survey 2013: Correlation between marketing mix and customer satisfaction

Pearson correlation test was conducted to know the degree of relationship between the independent variable i.e. marketing mix and the dependent variable i.e. customer satisfaction. The results of the

correlation between these variables are shown in table 3. As it is indicated in the table there is significant correlation between marketing mix and customer satisfaction. In other words marketing mix and customer satisfaction have high relationship (r=0.769 with p<0.01).


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Table 3 Correlation analysis between marketing mix and customer satisfaction

marketing mix

Customer satisfaction

marketing mix Pearson Correlation 1 .769**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 80 80

Customer satisfaction Pearson Correlation

.769** 1


N 80 80

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: field survey 2013 Correlation analyses between product and customer satisfaction

Table 4 shows that Pearson correlation test was also conducted to know the degree of relationship between the independent variable i.e. product and the dependent variable i.e. customer satisfaction. The results

of the correlation between these variables are shown in table 4.37. As it is indicated in the table there is significant correlation between product and customers satisfaction. In other words product and customers satisfaction have high relationship (r=0.547 with p<0.01).


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Table 4 Correlation analysis between product variable and customer satisfaction

product


product Pearson Correlation 1 .547**


N 80 80

Customer satisfaction Pearson Correlation .547** 1


N 80 80

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2tailed). Correlation analyses between price and customers satisfaction

Pearson correlation test was again conducted for these variables and the results are shown in table 5. As it is indicated in the table, there is

significant positive correlation between price dimension and customer satisfaction. In other words price dimension and customer satisfaction are correlated in a high relationship (r=0.546

Table 5 Correlation analysis between price and customers satisfaction

price


price Pearson Correlation 1 .546**


N 80 80


Pearson Correlation .546** 1


N 80 80

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2tailed). Source: field survey 2013


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Regression analysis This regression analysis was

conducted to know by how much the independent variable explains the dependent variable. It is also used to understand by how much each

independent variable (product, price, promotion and place) explains the dependent variable that is customer satisfaction. The results of the regression are the following (table 6 and table 7).

Table 6 Regression Analysis results Marketing Mix and customer satisfaction

Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 .769a .592 .587 .714

a. Predictors: (Constant), marketing mix

Regression analysis of product and customer satisfaction

Table 7 Regression Analysis results product and customer satisfaction

Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 .547a .299 .290 .935

a. Predictors: (Constant), product

Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the Pearson correlation test of correlation results, product dimension positively correlated with customer satisfaction (r = 0.547). Therefore, product has power to determine the customer satisfaction.

The regression analysis of product dimension and customer satisfaction indicates that 29.90% of the variance R square in customer satisfaction has been significantly explained by product.

Price is another element of marketing mix that is taken into


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account to explain customer satisfaction. Based on the correlation result as it is shown by Pearson correlation test, price dimension is positively correlated with customer satisfaction. The correlation coefficient between price and customer satisfaction is the third of all correlation results of marketing mix dimensions which is 0.546. As a result, price has power to determine the customer satisfaction.

With regard to the regression analysis of price dimension and customer satisfaction, 29.8% of the variance R square in customer satisfaction is significantly explained by price.

As it is indicated in the correlation analysis, promotion dimension has positive and high relationship with customer satisfaction. The correlation coefficient between promotion and customer satisfaction is 0.590. It is the second highest of all correlation results of marketing mix elements.

The regression analysis result for promotion and customer satisfaction shows that 34.8% of the variance R square in customer satisfaction has been significantly

explained by promotion. It is the second highest of all the independent variables in explaining customer satisfaction.

The last but not the least factor included in the marketing mix underpinnings is place. Based on the correlation result as it is shown by Pearson correlation test, place dimension is positively and highly correlated with customer satisfaction. The correlation coefficient between place and customer satisfaction is the highest of all correlation results of marketing mix dimensions which is 0.671. This shows that place dimension is a major determinant of customer satisfaction and customers will critically evaluate the distribution systems gained from the company. The commitment of the bank will help to retain customers by improving the services of the bank. By having committed and good distribution systems the company can continue retaining existed customers and attracting new customers to generate more profit. To this extent the place dimension of marketing plays great role. Therefore, the company is expected to have product availability and offer the products as they want.


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With regard to the regression analysis of place dimension and customer satisfaction, 45.0% of the variance R square in customer satisfaction is significantly explained by place. It is the highest of all the independent variables in explaining customer satisfaction.

The relationship looks like the following.

Marketing mix and customer satisfaction have high relationship.

Product dimension and customer satisfaction have high relationship.

Price dimension and customer satisfaction have high relationship.

Promotion dimension and customer satisfaction have high relationship.

Place dimension and customer satisfaction have moderate relationship.

Age of respondents and monthly incomes of the respondents are in some way positively correlated. The other demographic factors have negative relationship with

customer satisfaction (See Appendix C).

Although the other marketing mixes have potential for affecting customer’s satisfaction, dimensions like place and promotion are more sensitive than others in this research.

On the regression analysis part, it is clearly shown that marketing mix explains customer satisfaction. The regression analysis indicated that 59.2% customer satisfaction is explained by marketing mix. Each independent variable is also regressed against customer satisfaction and the result shows that all the independent variables can explain the dependent variable i.e. customer satisfaction.

The regression analysis result looks like the following.

59.2% of customer satisfaction is significantly explained by marketing mix.

29.9% of customer satisfaction is significantly explained by product.

29.8% of customer satisfaction is significantly explained by price.


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34.8% of customer satisfaction is significantly explained by promotion.

45.0% of customer satisfaction is significantly explained by place.

Conclusion

The main purpose of the study was to examine the impact of marketing mix on customer satisfaction in MOHA Soft Drinks Industry S.C, Hawassa Millennium Plant. The marketing mix dimensions that were included in this research are product, price, promotion and place/ distribution. Product, price, promotion and place are not the only the desired outcomes of marketing mix but also the antecedents of customer satisfaction. With regard to the Pearson correlation analysis, it can be clearly seen as that the four marketing mix dimensions namely product, price, promotion and place are positively related to customer satisfaction in company.

Recommendations

In light of the findings and conclusions made above, the following possible recommendations are suggested as being valuable to the

company for improving controllable marketing mix elements to assure customer satisfaction.

To succeed in business the company has to focus on satisfying its customers and gradually increase the level of its customer’s satisfaction through having a clear cut marketing strategies and integrating its various marketing activities. The factory must assure the quality of its products in order to win customers’ satisfaction and consequently achieve a competitive advantage and long run survival.

By having quality of products it is possible to keep customer from switching to other competitor. Therefore, the company must be well aware of the want and needs of the customers. Once they are satisfied with the products that were provided by the company, they will communicate about products of the company to the other customers.

The factory should continue by providing credit on sales in order to encourage customers by satisfying more. During holidays,


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purchase of huge (many) products, when there is and cash payment the factory should provide such type of discounts in order to minimize the risk of their customers.

In order to alleviate the problems in the pricing of the products, the factory should set its pricing technique based on the analysis of the customer’s perception of the product value. Moreover, the prices has to be set to attract more customers and to increase their level of satisfaction by developing good relationship with suppliers of raw materials to maintain the lowest possible price structure throughout the whole process.

The factory must choose distributors that reach its customers most effectively and other intermediaries that add value to the distributive process. The factory has to do more to expand its local market coverage and increase its market share by selling the products even in rural areas. Thus effective management of the distributive systems delivers the most customer value and satisfaction.

Finally the more customers are satisfied with regard to the 4p’s of marketing mix, the higher the rewards for the business. Highly satisfied customers buy additional products overtime as the factory introduces related products or improvements. Thus, MOHA Soft Drinks Industry S.C, Hawassa Millennium Plant should effectively manipulate these marketing mix elements for they strongly determine the long run survival of the factories.

References

Anderson, E. and Vince. (2004). Principles of Marketing, 1st Ed: New York: Oxford University Press.

Anderson, E. and Fornell, C. (1994). A Customer Satisfaction Research Prospectus, in the Book of Service Quality: New Directions in Theory and Practice.

Dwyer, F.R., (1987). Developing buyer-Seller Relationships. Journal of Marketing. 51(2), 11-27

Harker, M. (2009). Marketing An Introductory: Business and Economics: Prentice Hall.


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Career Planning and Development of Tribal Employees -With reference to Visakha Agency

Andhra Pradesh K.V.Ramana Murty, Asst. Professor, Dept of MBA, Andhra University

Campus, Kkainada, AP

Abstract

The present paper concentrated on Career planning and development of tribal employees of Visakha tribal agency. It intended to identify the various issues in career planning and development and their relationship construct in the tribal employees scenario. It is found that the geographical location of the tribal employees is the under current and affected the overall development of the employees and which motivated them taking a particular job in those regions as a social image. The socio-economic conditions also forced the tribal employees to choose the job that support in the form of satisfying physiological needs and job security.

Key words: Career planning, Development, job satisfaction, organizational commitment

Introduction

In India, planned development at the national level started for downtrodden like Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in true sense only after Independence. The tribals are the poorest of the entire Indian Population. Out of its total population, 52.6 percent of tribals are below the poverty line as compared to 44.7 percent of the Scheduled Castes

and 33.4 percent of the general population. Most of the tribals (92.60 percent) live in rural areas. It is overwhelming to discern that only 23.63 percent of them are literate which is about half of the national average (52.21 percent). Hence, in order to combat such a situation, there is a need to evolve development approach where people are the


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subject and not the object of development.

Employment opportunities of the tribes are the matter of constitution. Besides, the process of identifying and implementing career activities causes change in the direction of individual development and also the growth in every organization. Career development activities are usually derived from the career planning process (e.g., self assessment). The career development process breaks down each of the planning steps into more detail (e.g., what kind of self-assessment should be conducted; how are the results interpreted; how are the results applied to exploring career options; etc.). Career Development requires a concerted effort on the part of everyone to be successful.

Career planning and development

Career planning and development constitutes a model depicting the relationships of the variables. It demonstrates that career planning, career management, career development are the three primary independent variables that lead to career commitment and

organizational commitment Job satisfaction in turn links with the two outcome variables such as career commitment and organizational commitment.

career planning as a deliberate process of becoming aware of opportunities, constraints, choices and consequences identifying career related goals and programming work, education and related development experiences to provide the direction, timing and sequence of steps to attain a specific career goal. Career planning and development is a dynamic process that adapts to the changes one’s experience as they build their professional knowledge, experience, and identity. Fundamental to the career planning and development process is self-discovery. A career can be described as a developmental concept comprising of a combination and sequence of an individual’s work-life experiences and how the individual perceives these in relation to what they do. Primarily, career development is considered individuals’ responsibility because largely the benefits of the process overtly seemed to serve the purpose of the individuals as it ultimately leads to career success.


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Statement of the Problem

Today organizations from all around the world strive to motivate its employees in order to survive and compete in dynamic corporate environment successfully as motivation puts human resources into action, improves level of efficiency of employees, enables the organizations to attain sustainable competitive advantage over the rivals and ultimately leads to the achievement of organizational goals. Top performing organizations strongly believe in the concept of employee commitment as committed employees display better job performances in terms of facilitating the work, production or service delivery, willingness to welcome new challenges, desire to stay with the organization for longer periods and make significant contributions in gaining sustainable competitive advantage for the organization in today’s dynamic industry. In work life the individual’s interest is most of the times associated with their career development. When individuals see a long term benefit associated with the organization of their work, then they possibility of foregoing the short time benefits offered to them in the form

of salary raises or other financial incentives also increases. In order to upgrade organizational competencies and to retain that competency level the development of individuals’ competencies becomes a prerequisite. This means that a strong relationship exists between organizational development and employee’s career development. Looking at the facts from this perspective we can say that career development is not only an individual employee’s responsibility but it is as much an organizational responsibility. The options of choosing a career path may be exercised by the individuals but providing those options must be catered for by the organization. Hence the study is intended to identify the various issues in career planning and development and their relationship construct in the tribal employees scenario.

1.5. Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of the present study has been to enquire into the intricacies and dimensions of career planning and development of tribal employees. In addition, the other objectives of the study are-


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To study the socio-economic profile and cultural facets of tribals in India.

To focus on the socio-cultural aspects of the tribals in Andhra Pradesh.

To understand the antecedents, implications and the intricacies of career planning and development and also the outcomes.

To study the perceptions of tribal employees about the antecedents and outcomes of career planning and development and

To suggest feasible ways and means to enhance the commitment of employees towards their career and the organization

1.7. Research Design

Methodology and sample of the Research

This is a qualitative research study on the topic of “Career Planning and Development - study on Tribal employees with reference to Employees in Visakhapatnam”. Based on the present literature review, this research is following the pattern of

quantitative research as the study is employees’ perceptions on career planning and development aspects and satisfaction and using a questionnaire to collect data.

Population Sample

The respondent population for focus research is employees working in Government, quasi-Government offices and local bodies. This study applied the qualitative research method for gathering data by using primary data collected through interviews through personal interaction by canvassing the structured questionnaire among the random sample of 650 employees in different cadres with at least one year experience in the concerned position. The data gathering in this research had conducted during November, 2012 and February, 2013.

Data Analysis and Tools

For the purpose of analysis and to facilitate interpretation simple statistical tools like percentages, averages, simple growth rate and compound annual growth rates are used. Statistical tools such as Reliability test, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), cluster analysis, canonical correlation analysis and discriminant


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analysis are used for testing the hypothesis on SPSS for Windows Version 20.0 are used. For the purpose of extensive analysis, for the construct included in the study, unidimensionality was asserted using Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using Statistica 9.0 edition. The χ2, goodness of fit indices (GFI) and RMSEA measures were employed to examine the integrity of the construct.

Analysis of the study

Scheduled caste population in the study area

The scheduled caste population in the state of Andhra Pradesh account for 6.6 per cent of the total population of the state. The scheduled tribe workers in the state are recorded by 21, 46,002 main workers and 5, 59,634 marginal workers. In Visakhapatnam district there are 2, 50, 838 scheduled tribe main workers and 57,007 marginal workers and respectively constitute 11.7 per cent of the total schedule tribe main workers and 10.2 per cent of the total scheduled tribe marginal workers in the state. Moreover the Visakhapatnam district accounts for the total schedule tribe workers in

the state of Andhra Pradesh. The composition of the total schedule tribe workers in the Visakhapatnam district consists of 178376 cultivators, 53,396 agricultural labourers, 3676 manufacturing households, 250838 total main workers and 57,007 total marginal workers.

Employment status of the employees

It is observed that majority of respondents i.e. 27.7 per cent of respondents are working in Schools (180) while 26.5 per cent of respondents are working in Forestry, Social Forestry and Tribal welfare. While 24.9 per cent of respondents are working in Irrigation & Agriculture departments, 16.9 per cent of respondents are working in R & B departments. A minimal number of respondents i.e. 4.0 per cent of respondents are from rural development and Panchayatraj.

Factors effecting job opportunities

It is reported by a majority of 77.8 percent of respondents that job opportunities in the desired geographical locations influenced them to take up the profession. 65.4 percent of respondents expressed that


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social image and lack of awareness about other job opportunities followed by the demand for the age limitation on the job front and lack of guidance and counseling (62.8 percent). As opined by 62.5 percent of respondents language problem to achieve the professional jobs are compelled to fulfillment of psychological needs are the factors that influence them to take up the profession. Career advancement opportunities availability of jobs across various organizations, and the selected professional does not demand physical work also reflected as dominant reasons for taking a job as reported by 58.2 percent of respondents.

It can thus be noted that the geographical location of the tribal employees is the under current and affected the overall development of the employees and which motivated them taking a particular job in those regions as a social image. The socio-economic conditions also forced the tribal employees to choose the job that support in the form of satisfying physiological needs and job security.

Career planning factors

Career Planning involves identification of the career-related goals and establishing plans for

achieving these goals. Individuals have to make self-assessment of their abilities, interests and values to analyze the career options and decide on their development objectives and needs. It is observed that 52.3 percent of respondents spend time to review their career plans as against to this 47.7 percent of respondents could not spend time to review their career plans. It is also observed that 68.5 percent of respondent are aware about the external trends whereas, only 54.6 percent of respondent are unable to understand themselves. Obviously, 45.4 per cent of employees do not possess the knowledge of assessing themselves to plan their careers.

In the process of designing the career management prospective in the organizations, the processes and programs in work place would really boost up, which is as opined by 66.6 percent of respondents. 69.4 percent of respondents also opined that the organizations consider and plan the career paths of all the employees while they are engaged in the developmental activities related to the profession/job. 68.8 percent of respondents agree that their participation in development activities reflected in the job enrichment by way job rotation and


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assignments. It could also be observed that the organization provides process for evaluation of performance to provide an understanding of promotion as opined by 74.2 percent of respondents, whereas, 63.5 percent of respondents perceived that the employees in the organization are cooperative in understanding and rendering assistance for their career management. Thus it is observed that the environment in the organizations is found to be prospective for the employees for their management of career.

Perceptions on career planning tools

As observed a majority of 74.0 percent of respondents reported that the career planning tools are essential to support the career development and 70.8 per cent opined that the career management programs are needed to support the career development (70.8 percent). It is known fact that, by offering career development opportunities, employers help employees to develop their own personal competitive advantage and ensure their long-term employability. Many employees seek out employers who provide training and development activities that facilitate career advancement. When

they receive such opportunities, employees are likely to commit to the organization. Moreover, 67.2 percent of respondents are able to understand the need for continuous career development whereas, 66.6 percent of respondents opined, there is a need to have a formal process to attain career development. Thus the tribal employees reveal that the employees tended to be more assertive and vocal about their needs, and they desire control over their professional careers.

Satisfaction level on job performance

A majority of 76.2 percent of the tribal employees felt satisfied and happy when they discover that they have performed well on the job front followed by the things they do on the job is very useful and important to them (72.0 percent). It is also evident from the table 69.4 percent of respondents felt sense of achievement in their career as they felt satisfied and happy when they discovered that they have performed well on the job (64.6 percent). Finally, 70.0 percent of the respondents agree that they are very satisfied with the job they have been taking up. The analysis drives to home the observations that the sense of achievement by way of


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conducting a useful and important work towards the organization induced the respondents to feel satisfied with the job.

Correlation between Career planning and organizational commitment

As shown in table 1, Career planning is positively correlated with the organizational commitment. It is identified that the respondents know about their general economic and societal trends that affect career (CP7) occupied the top priority followed by possessing the strategy to achieve their career goals (CP10), using information about how well they do at work and formulate plans to achieve specific career goals (CP9) and having an accurate view of their strengths, weaknesses and career direction helps them to have realistic expectations for career outcomes (CP 8). It is also observed that when there is one standard deviation increase in the latent variable career planning, there will be 0.33 standard deviation increase in the indicator CP7, followed by 0.32. It is further observed that the standard deviation increase in the indicator CP10, 0.31, standard deviation increase in the CP9, and 0.29 level of standard deviation increase in the CP 8 and

vice versa. The results of the T-statistic reveal that the path coefficients for the indicators are significant at 1 per cent level of significance. Hence it could be inferred that in the latent variable career planning in CP7 followed by CP10 and CP9 are more relevant among the determinants of career planning

Suggestions

The following are the suggestions emanating from the study for policy reorientation and for improving career planning and development among the tribal employees.

1. The organizations are advised to allocate the dedicated Human Resources for career planning of the employees to drive process and monitor its execution and give guidance to line managers.

2. The organizations are suggested to provide the line managers with support in the form of training on the skills and knowledge required in identifying and managing talent employees and how to nurture and stretch these talented high potential employees within their departments.

3. It is suggested to develop rewards and compensation structures to gear


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up and incentivizing line managers to spot and develop talented employees.

4. It is also advised to offer line managers with training, skills, knowledge and encourage them to engage and conduct regular conversation with the employees,

especially around their career aspirations and developmental needs so as to ensure the right allocation of work assignments are assigned to the high potential employees to increase their retention within the organization.

Table-1: Career Planning and the level of agreement S. No Statement

Label Statements pertaining to Career Planning

Level of Agreement

Total

No Yes

1 CP1 I have a plan for my career. 272 378 650 41.8% 58.2% 100.0%

2 CP9 Using information about how well I am doing at work, I formulate plans to achieve specific career goals.

240 410 650

36.9% 63.1% 100.0%

3 CP10 I have a strategy for achieving my career goals.

227 423 650 34.9% 65.1% 100.0%

4 CP2 I know my career goals and objectives. 283 367 650 43.5% 56.5% 100.0%

5 CP3 I know my career interests and how to apply these to my job.

278 372 650 42.8% 57.2% 100.0%

6 CP4 I spend time reviewing my career plan. 310 340 650 47.7% 52.3% 100.0%

7 CP5 I am able to analyze and assess my abilities, interests and values to determine my career options.

272 378 650

41.8% 58.2% 100.0%

8 CP6 I have identified areas where I need to improve my skill and knowledge level.

357 293 650 54.9% 45.1% 100.0%

9 CP7 I know about general economic and societal trends that affect my career.

205 445 650 31.5% 68.5% 100.0%

11 CP8

Having an accurate view of my strengths, weaknesses and career direction helps me to have realistic expectations for career outcomes.

295 355 650

45.4% 54.6% 100.0%

Total 3018 4132 7150 42.2% 57.8% 100.0%

Source: Survey


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5. It is suggested for the best employers to have a serious, resolute mind-set about talent that begins with a fundamental belief that the organization’s future depends on getting and keeping the right people in the right jobs, and they leave little to chance when it comes to recruiting and interviewing.

6. Some jobs are more easily enriched than others, but it can be surprisingly easy to make a significant impact with employees and increase retention. Therefore, It is advised to design the job tasks that enrich the career prospects of employees.

7. Employees might not have the patience to “pay their dues,” but the organizations can enrich their jobs and provide for them a more meaningful role in the future by delegating tasks that might not have been considered before

8. Offer career coaching tools and training for all managers. Provide company-sponsored

training and tools to help managers to be better equipped to fulfill their responsibilities as coaches. Some organizations even request managers to use the same self-assessment tools available to employees, enabling them to benefit from them as well.

9. Provide readily accessible information on career paths and competency requirements. Give employees access to job descriptions, listings of competencies, and educational requirements they will need to qualify for other positions within the company.

10. Create alternatives to traditional career ladders. Do not penalize top performers by forcing them to pursue management positions as their only route to higher pay. Create higher-level technical positions with increasing responsibility and commensurate pay.

11. Keep employees informed about the company’s strategy,


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direction and talent need forecasts. The best people need to be kept informed about the company’s evolving marketing and growth strategies, and the career opportunities that will accompany them.

12. Build and maintain a fair and efficient internal job-posting process. Do not rely on job-posting systems to let people know about new positions. Get the word out through career workshops and other, less formal ways.

13. Keep the career development and performance appraisal processes separate .Many companies have directed managers to have discussions with employees about career opportunities at the six-month interval between annual performance reviews, separate from discussions of performance. This enables all involved to focus on career development, as opposed to job appraisal.

14. Build an effective talent review and succession management process. Organizations must address the difficulties in preparing leaders and talented professionals for organizational opportunities that might not yet exist. This includes even the players who form the backbone of the organization but are not necessarily on the leadership career track.

15. Offer competitive base pay linked to value creation. The need to provide increased value to customers has led many companies to link base pay more to value creation and less to rank or years of service. This results in some companies paying lower-ranked employees more than their managers, if they are crucial to providing value.

16. Reward employees at a high enough level to motivate higher performance. Variable pay awards to employees should be higher when the bottom-line impact of their results is


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significant, when that result is difficult to achieve, when it takes longer to achieve, and when base pay is more at risk.

17. Involve employees and encourage two-way communication when designing new pay systems. Let employees in on the process behind your pay system. Surveys indicate that those who understand how their pay is determined are more likely to be satisfied in their work.

18. Give employees the right tools and resources. An organization might look to save money on software, hard-ware, furniture and equipment, but thinking of these things as only costs is shortsighted. The right tools at the right time are investments not only in productivity, but in sending a message to employees that they are worth it.

19. Initiate a culture of “giving before getting. Make the first move in maintaining employee loyalty. If the organizations

demonstrate an initial willingness to trust your employees by giving valued services, they are likely to reciprocate in kind.

20. Build social connectedness and harmony among employees. Part of the glue that binds people to workplaces comes from the relationships they form with other employees. Actively encourage these relationships by assigning team projects, creating cross-functional teams, organizing group outings and allowing employees reasonable time for personal “hallway” or “water cooler” conversations.

21. Inspire confidence in a clear vision, a workable plan and the competence to achieve it. One of the first requirements of trust is competence. People will only follow leaders they deem to be capable. Employees want to know that the organization will be successful, and that they can be assured of their place in it, going forward. The


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organizational environment must be able to inspire that confidence, and make decisions and directives that reinforce that confidence.

22. Although many Career Development programmes exist, few seem to have been effectively integrated into existing HR planning system and fewer still into the organization as a whole. To minimize such mismatch it has been suggested to the HR managers to use action research model to: Diagnose, Develop, Implement and Evaluate the CD program that fit the organization’s needs and goals.

23. It is recommended that organizations be restructured by its management. This move calls for a more flexible structure with widened opportunities for career advancement to replace the current one that is „saturated‟. The closed organization structure should be addressed.

Promotion should not be based on “boxes” and length of service.

24. The organization should put in place clear and transparent policies on training, promotion and advancement. There should be improvement in promotion and retirement procedures; they have been described as “poor”. Competition for promotion should be free and fair. Promotion should indicate real achievement and retirement should be made more attractive. Attractive exit options should be explored and put in place.

25. The administrative bodies should discourage incidences of irrelevant training. Irrelevant training wastes money and time both for the individual concerned and the organization. Career advancement would only be facilitated if employees go for courses that address training needs as “identified‟ in staff


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appraisals according to the performance improvement plan.

26. Lack of recognition for self-development should be stopped. Self development and initiative that matches organizational goals be recognized and rewarded adequately by the organization.

27. Lack of adequate planning and management should be discouraged. The organizations should be put in place formal career planning and guidance .This would facilitate effective planning of career goals and paths.

28. To avoid stagnation at some levels, the administrative bodies should facilitate steady career progression by widening promotion opportunities and creating new openings for trained and competent staff. Options include restructuring the organization, job enlargement or developing alternative career paths and

making retirement much more attractive.

29. The management should appreciate the role or impact of career advancement on employees ‘motivation to work hard. There should be effective planning of career goals and paths. Staff should be trained and developed for strategies and higher responsibilities.

30. The organisations need to create an environment for the employees to spend the time to review their career plans. Understanding the general economic and societal trends that affect the career followed by formulating an accurate view on one’s own strengths and weakness is the need of the hour to prepare their career plans. It is pertinent to bring a platform for the employees for a collaborative environment to assess their individual strengths and weaknesses through an interaction process.


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References

A.F.Martin, Romario et.al., Corporate Business strategy, Career Management and Recruitment: Do Spanish firms adhere to contingency model?, Career Development International,vol.6,No.3

Blau, G.J. (1986). Job involvement and organizational commitment as interactive predictors of tardiness and absenteeism,

journal of Management, 12, 577-584.

Chandramouli, A New deal for Tribals of Andhra Pradesh. ST co-operative finance and development Corporation.

Dr. T.V. Ramana (2007) Expansion of education in tribal area, Proceedings of seminar on tribal development in Andhra Pradesh issues and challenges AP Economic Assiciation, P.177


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Impact of Market Segmentation Practices on the Profitability of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Hawassa City: A Case Study

* Hailemariam Gebremichael, Lecturer, Wolaita Sodo University,

Ethiopia.

** Yitbarek Seyoum, Lecturer, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia.

*** Dr.B.V.Prasada Rao, Associate Professor, Department of Management, Wollega University, Ethiopia.

Abstract

This study is designed to assess the impact of market segmentation practices on the profitability of small and medium scale furniture manufacturing enterprises in Hawassa city. The findings of this study also revealed the levels and bases of market segmentation used in the enterprises as well as their relationship with profitability as its major findings. Almost all the enterprises gained moderate and substantial profits by implementing market segmentation practices in their enterprises. However, they were also found with a problem of selecting appropriate levels and bases of segmentation. Moreover, they were facing difficulties in evaluating the effectiveness of their segmentation practices which prohibited them from generating high profits from their segments. Based on the findings of the study, the researcher has forwarded some recommendations to the owners and managers of small and medium scale furniture manufacturing enterprises which are found in Hawassa city.

Key words: Market segmentation, Profitability, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises


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1. Introduction

Market segmentation involves the grouping of customers with similar needs and buying behavior into segments, each of which can be reached by a distinct marketing program. The concept attempts to reconcile differing customer needs with limited company resources, and allows product and marketing offerings to be adjusted to suit different customer groups. Sub-dividing customers into groups with similar needs and wants leads to effective customer service, profitability and also puts a company at a competitive edge against competitors. The main aim of the paper will be to assess the impacts of market segmentation practices on the profitability of small and medium scale manufacturing enterprises, particularly in furniture manufacturing companies.

2. Small and Medium Scale Enterprises

Small and medium scale business is a business which is independently owned and operated, not dominant in its field of operation and meets certain standard of number of

employee and capital. A small and medium business has at least two of the following features (US Congress, Small Business Act 2003):

- Management is independent, since the manager usually owns the business.

- Capital is supplied and ownership is held by an individual or a few individuals

- The area of operations is primarily local, although the market is not necessarily local.

The business is small in comparison with the larger competitors in its industry.

3. Objectives of the study:-

The general objective of this study was to assess the impacts of market segmentation practices on the profitability of small and medium scale manufacturing enterprises.

To identify which level of market segmentation such as segment marketing, niche marketing, local marketing and individual marketing lead to profitability

To Identify which base of market segmentation such as


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demographic, geographic, behavioral and psychographic contribute to the SMEs profitability

To Identify how the enterprises’ segments effectiveness influence their profitability

To Determine how the implementation of market segmentation practices affect the profitability of the SMEs

To Present possible suggestions and recommendations to marketing managers of Small and medium scale enterprises to aid in their decisions.

4. Research Methodology

It covers the data sources, the sampling technique, measuring instrument, data processing and analysis.

Data sources

In order to attain the objective of the study, the researcher has used both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data was collected directly from the sample respondents through a questionnaire. Secondary

data including different relevant books, manuals, reports, journals, internet which are relevant to the topic under study were also used.

Sampling Technique

Probability random sampling technique is followed in the study. This technique was used in order to ensure every item of population has an equal or non-zero chance of being selected. Before conducting the study information was gathered from Hawassa city Trade and Investment bureau regarding the total number and type of small and medium scale enterprises available in the city.

Market Segmentation Questionnaire

Market segmentation questionnaire and Profitability questionnaire was developed to assess the level of market segmentation used in the sample SMEs, segmentation bases used in the sample SMEs and the effectiveness of market segments in the enterprises.

Each of the questions consists of five response choices weighted in the following manner.


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Response choices Scoring weight Very low 1 Low 2 Medium 3 High 4 Very high 5

A percentile score of 75 or

higher indicate a high degree of using the mentioned market segmentation practice ; a percentile score of 25 or lower would indicate a low level; and, the scores in the middle range that is from 26 to 74 of percentiles indicate average usage.

Profitability questionnaire was developed to measure the effects of using market segmentation practices on the profitability of the enterprises based on the level, base and effectiveness of the sample SMEs’s segmentation practices. A percentile score of 75 or higher indicate a high degree of profitability; a percentile score of 25 or lower would indicate a low level of profitability; and, the scores in the middle range that is from 26 to 74 of percentiles indicate average profitability.

Data Processing and Analysis

The data processing method for the study will be manual and aided by computer software packages. Editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data was used to detect errors and to summarize bulky data into manageable one.

Descriptive analysis was used to summarize the data by tabulation, measure of central tendency and charts. Tabulation was used to arrange the data in a table format. Measure of central tendency was employed to see the minimum and maximum values, the mean and the standard deviation for the sake of explaining level of market segmentation and bases of market segmentation used in the sample SMEs, and also the effectiveness of market segmentation implemented in the enterprises. Moreover, charts like bar charts, pie charts and histograms


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were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Statistical techniques

The equation of multiple regression on this study is formed based on two sets of variables, namely dependent variable (profitability) and independent variables (level of segmentation, bases of segmentation and effectiveness of segmentation). The basic objective of using regression equation on this study is to make the researcher more effective at describing, understanding, predicting and controlling the stated variables.

Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) version 20 statistical program is used for the analysis and presentation of the data for this study. Sixty questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and out of the 60 questionnaires 51 of them were collected. Among the 51 collected questionnaires 3 of them were incomplete which does not provide relevant data for the study. Accordingly the analysis of this study was done based on the number of questionnaires collected. Total Population is 120 (100%) and sample size is 48 (40%).


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5. Analysis of the study Demographic variables: A profile of 48 sample respondents consisting of marketing managers and owners of small and medium scale enterprises

who participated in this study are summarized in the form of frequencies and percentages and presented graphically for each of the variables.

Gender distribution of respondents Fig 4.1 Gender distribution of respondents

Source: developed for this research Fig 4.1 above presents a graphical representation of the gender distribution of the selected sample. There are a large number of male

respondents (n=40), which is 83.3% of the sample. The female respondents (n=8) comprise 26.5% of the target sample respondents.

Age distribution of respondents The age distribution of the sample respondents is depicted in the following graph. Fig 2 Age distribution of respondents

Source: developed for this research


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Fig 2 above describes how the age of sample respondents were distributed among three age categories. The majority of the respondents (62.5% or n=30) were between 18 and 30 years old. n=13 or 27.1% of the respondents were between the age of 31 and 40 years old. The remaining respondents i.e. n=5 or 10.4% lies between 41 and 50 years of age. Educational level of respondents Fig 3 Educational level of respondents


Figure 3 above shows that the educational level of the majority of respondents (25% or n=12) are first degree holders followed by 12 complete and certificate graduates each comprising n=10 or 20% of the

sample respondents. Diploma holders and 10th complete respondents constitute n=6 or 12.5% of the respondents each. The remaining n=4 or 8.3% are second degree graduates.

4. Current job position of respondents Fig 4 Current job position of respondents



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Figure 4 above shows the current job position of respondents indicating that most of the respondents are managers and owner and managers of the enterprises comprising 50% or

n=24 and 29% or n=14 respectively. 17% or n=8 of the respondents are vice managers and the remaining 4% or n=2 respondents are engaged in other activities of the enterprises.

Table 1 Results of profitability segment marketing

profitability with segment marketing

profitability with niche marketing

profitability with local marketing

profitability with individual marketing

Mean 1.6458 4.1667 1.8125 1.6458 Std. Deviation .72902 .75324 .93754 .72902 Minimum 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 Maximum 4.00 5.00 4.00 4.00


Profitability of the enterprises within the level of market segmentation used was assessed by profitability questionnaire; table 1 above indicates the calculated arithmetic means and standard deviations for the profitability of the enterprises under segment marketing, niche marketing, local marketing and individual marketing segmentation levels. Therefore, it is possible to say that most of the enterprises are profitable under niche marketing segmentation

level with a mean and standard deviation of 4.1667 and 0.75324 respectively. Table 4.2 also shows that local marketing segmentation level is the less profitable segmentation level for the sample SMEs with a mean of 1.8125. The least profitability of the enterprises was found under Segment marketing and individual marketing segmentation level with a mean of 1.6458 each.


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Table 2 Results of the profitability of market segmentation bases used in the sample SMEs

profitability using demographic segmentation base

profitability using geographic segmentation base

profitability using behavioral segmentation base

profitability using psychographic segmentation base

Mean 4.3125 1.5417 3.7708 1.3750 Std. Deviation .87898 .77070 1.03635 .56962 Minimum 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 Maximum 5.00 4.00 5.00 3.00


The profitability of the segmentation bases used in the SMEs as indicated on table 2 above, shows that demographic and behavioral segmentation bases are the most profitable bases for the sample SMEs

with arithmetic mean of 4.3125 and 3.7708 respectively. The geographic and psychographic segmentation bases are found less profitable in the sample SMEs with a mean score of 1.6667 and 1.6383 respectively.

Table 3 Results of profitability with current Effectiveness of Segments in the sample SMEs

Average Effectiveness of segments

Profitability with current effectiveness

Mean 2.19726 2.21912 Std. Deviation .40177 .45725 Minimum 2.00 2.00 Maximum 3.80 4.00



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Regarding with the profitability of the sample SMEs with current effectiveness of their segments, as it is clearly shown on table 3 above, it can be said that they are less profitable with a mean score of 2.21912.

On the other hand, table 4 above, indicates that there is a very low positive, but not statistically significant relationship between individual marketing segmentation level and profitability (r=0.189, p>0.05) and segment marketing

segmentation level and profitability (r=0.189, p>0.05).

As it is clearly depicted on table 4.5 below, the correlation coefficient results for the relationship between segment effectiveness and profitability, there is low positive relationship between segment effectiveness and profitability (r= 0.240, p<0.01) at 99% level of confidence.

Table 4 the relationship between levels of market segmentation and profitability

Segmentation Levels used in the sample SMEs Level profitability

Segment Marketing segmentation level

Pearson Correlation .189 Sig. (2-tailed) .197

Niche Marketing segmentation level

Pearson Correlation .689** Sig. (2-tailed) .000

Local Marketing segmentation level

Pearson Correlation .338* Sig. (2-tailed) .019

Individual Marketing segmentation level

Pearson Correlation .189 Sig. (2-tailed) .197

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: Developed for this Research


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Table5: The relationship between effectiveness of market segments and profitability

Effectiveness of segments in the sample SMEs Profitability

Segments Effectiveness Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.240** .000

** Correlation is significant at 0.01(2- tailed). Source: developed for this research

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

This study was conducted to investigate the impact of market segmentation practices on the profitability of small and medium scale enterprises in Hawassa town. The following conclusions are drawn based on the findings of the study.

The results of the study showed that most of the small and medium scale enterprises are operating under Niche marketing and individual marketing segmentation levels. In contrast segment marketing and local marketing segmentation levels are used and implemented by few of the sample enterprises. The findings of the study also revealed that niche marketing segmentation

level used in the sample SMEs results high mean score and substantial relationship with profitability. Regarding with local marketing moderate relationship was found with profitability. But, the profitability of segment marketing and individual marketing segmentation levels resulted in very low mean score as well as very low relationship with profitability.

Recommendations

Based on the results and findings of the study, the researcher would like to forward the following recommendations to the owners and managers of small and medium scale enterprises found in Hawassa town.

Most of the sample Small and medium scale enterprises were found


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operating under niche marketing and individual marketing segmentation levels. Thus, SMEs should leave those segmentation levels which require high level of capital and resources and concentrate only in niche marketing and local marketing segmentation levels which are more feasible for small and medium scale businesses. Therefore, by allocating and efficiently utilizing their limited resources in niche and local marketing, the enterprises could their moderate level of profitability to higher level of profit.

The sample SMEs were also found less profitable in relation with their segments’ effectiveness. One way to increase their profitability in terms of their segments effectiveness is evaluating their segments effectiveness in terms of the extent to which their segments are measurable, accessible, substantial, differentiable and actionable by conducting market segmentation research.

Regarding with the overall implementation of market segmentation and profitability of the enterprises, the substantial contribution of market segmentation

can be further increased to higher level of profitability through customer data base driven market segmentation. Each enterprise must research on the tastes and preferences of the target segment if they have to offer satisfying products to their customers and get high return. In addition, enhancing prospect identification, matching of customer needs, improving target communications, enhancing customization and customer service, improving innovation and creativity is also recommended to the enterprises to achieve higher profitability.

References

Angela Stewart and Renata Bradley. (2010). market segmentation: A fresh look at a familiar topic, first resource.

Armstrong G and Kotler P. (2003). Marketing and introduction”, 6th Edition, prentice Hall, printed in upper saddle, River, New Jersey.

Baker. M. (2000). Marketing Strategy and Management, 3rd Edition, Macmillan Business.


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Declan, P Bannon. (1997). Marketing Segmentation and Political Marketing, Paisley Business School, University of Paisley, Paisley.

Geoffrey M eredith and Charles Schewe. (1994). The Power of Cohorts,” American Demographics,

Hailemariam G/ Michael, (2011) Job satisfaction and organizational commitment, A comparative study of academic and support staff at Wolaita sodo university.


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Environmental Ethics: A Philosophical Analysis

Dr.K.Victor Babu, Guest Faculty, Department of Philosophy, Andhra University – Visakhapatnam.

Abstract

The present paper highlights the importance of environment and problems involved due to the human efforts such as technology upgration etc and stressed the Environmental ethics as a branch of applied ethics which examines the moral basis of environmental responsibilities. In the conclusion it is viewed that everybody has to make every effort to preserve our environment for human welfare. The scientific and technological progress by itself is not an evil but its improper use or inaccurate application is an evil. Human must learn how to use scientific and technological knowledge judicially to serve human need and purpose without causing harm to the natural world.

Key words: Environment, technology. Human beings, ethics, emotional disturbance, Man vs. Nature

1. Introduction:

The Environmental issues and crises have been recognized as one of the most contagious and dreadful diseases before the humanity. Every part of the world is suffering from stress, emotional disturbance, respiratory problems and extinction of some plants and so on. These issues are not only mind-boggling for

environmentalists, botanists, medical practitioners but also for philosophers. Environmental ethics is a branch of applied ethics which examines the moral basis of environmental responsibilities. It studies the moral relationship among human beings, environment and non-human counterparts. Humans are not alone living on the planet earth. We


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live among a multitude of plants, animals and inanimate natural objects. The more use of technology has changed the natural environment, while medicine-technology, transportation and information technology and so on can help us to prosper. There is also no doubt that the use of technology can have a negative impact on the environment and therefore, on us. Thus, our interaction with the non-human and with the environment as a whole raises a variety of moral questions; such as:

1. What moral obligation do human have with regard to the environment?

2. Is it morally wrong to pollute the soil, water and air?

3. What kind of moral obligation do human have to the non-human form of life?

4. Do being and things of the human world have intrinsic value or worth?

The concept of environment is of course as old our life on the earth. We are more or less concern with one fundamental question in our moral sphere; whether our moral universe

should be content to human being only or it should be extended to non-human too. Here, we find three alternative views;

i. Anthropocentrism, which states that everything is meant for human being.

ii. Bio-centrism, which simply argued that environment, has its own value.

iii. Cosmo-centrism, which states that everything is created by God, so nothing, is superior in this Universe.

2. Man vs. Nature

The concept of Man-nature relation constitutes the basis for any philosophy of life. In primitive age man identified himself as a part of nature; depended on nature for his survival; lived like a slave of nature. Gradually man evolved his attitude along with the rapid growth in man’s knowledge of science and technology, he conceived nature as something to be conquered and exploited for his benefit. As a result, man is no longer regarded himself as a slave of nature rather a master of nature. Man-with-Nature attitude has evolved as reaction to the disastrous


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consequences of the exploitation of nature in its previous stage where by man realized himself to be an integral part of nature, that is a member of biotic community which includes all animates and in animates thing of the ecological system including water, air and earth. Man becomes aware of the fact that human beings are not alone living on this planet but they are living among a multitude of animals, plants and inanimate objects on the earth. Hence, he felt that any responsible damage done to biotic community has its disastrous consequences on the survival of human existence.

3. The Impact of Man over Nature

A thing is right when it tends to preserves the integrity, stability and beauty of public community; it wrong when it tends to otherwise. No doubt the world would be not in a position of endangered if human being is not born in this planet. Man develops science and technology but over the years since the Industrial Revolution (1870); he continue to plunder natural resources thereby polluted natural environment. He degraded lands, destroys forests, and threw toxic wastes into rivers and

seas and also harmful gas into the atmosphere. This continuous loaded of man-made pollutant into the environment brought adverse changes which ultimately backfire into series of disaster from time to time.

Some typical examples of man-made (anthropogenic) disaster are: London Smog, Minamata Disease (Japan), Nuclear exploitation, Bhopal Gas Tragedy etc.

4. Critical Evolution

Environmental contamination posses a great threat to human survival. The protection of natural environment is an essential condition for the very survival and existence of humanity. Environmental interest very often clashed with economic interest such as strong economy that will produce goods, jobs and tax revenue; we like air conditioning, we like high ways to drive our car on them, we need projects and disposable goods. We weigh the collective human interest in a non polluted environment against interest of humans. The following example illustrates some of the complexities involved in the problem.


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An industrial plant with large financial investment to produce a product essential to the society and providing large number of jobs but pollutes the environment to large extent. How far is the continued operation of the plant morally acceptable? In such situation the general public interest in the quality of the environment must be recognized. But what about the economic interest of the owner, the employees and consumers? Many of us with a utilitarian conception and thing are inclined to appeal for better cost benefit analysis.

The critics of utilitarian thinking and approach argue that a cost-benefit analysis is an inadequate system because it calculates only economic costs and benefits. In fact certain objects or goods can’t be measured in terms of economic value. for example, how much is a human life worth? How much does an ornamental art effect like Taj Mahal cost? How much money does it cost for a hundred dying prematurely each year because of pollution? How much is it worth to swim or fish in a river? It is not possible to identify all the relevant cost and benefits to assign economic value to such goods. These

issues of human world involve question of risk rather than cost.

5. Conclusion

Ecology teaches us that human life is crucially intertwined with the eco system as a whole. The destruction of one part of ecosystem may lead to a chain of events that ultimately culminates in disastrous consequence to human wellbeing. Hence, we have to make every effort to preserve our environment for human welfare. The scientific and technological progress by itself is not an evil but its improper use or inaccurate application is an evil. Human must learn how to use scientific and technological knowledge judicially to serve human need and purpose without causing harm to the natural world. The planet earth is just like a huge ship with a definite capacity to accommodate people. It can’t accommodate more and more people beyond its capacity. A journey in an overcrowded ship is always risk and it may sink at any time. So, just bee extract honey from a flower without causing harm to the fragrance or beauty of the flower so also human must learn to use nature without inflicting damage or causing harm to


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the natural world. And this noble goal can be achieved only through the internal change of our mindset, allegiance, inclination and convictions.

References

1. Peter, Singer. Practical Ethics, Second Edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

2. De, A. K. Environmental Chemistry, Fifth Edition, New Delhi: New Age International publisher, 2003

3. Don Mannison, Michael McRobbie, and Richard Routley, eds. EnvironmentalPhilosophy. Canberra: Australian National University, 1980.

4. Ian G. Barbour. Technology , Environment, and Human Values.New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980.

5. Max Oelschlaeger. The Environmental Imperative: A Socio-EconomicPerspective. Washington: University Press of America, 1977.

6. Donald Scherer and Thomas Attig, eds. Ethics and the

Environment.Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983.

7. Robin Attfield. The Ethics of Environmental Concern. New York:Columbia University Press, 1983.

8. Das, T. P. Issues in Practical Ethics, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar

9. Holmes Rolston, III. Environmental Ethics. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press,

10. Robin Attfield. The Ethics of Environmental Concern. rev. ed.Athens, Georgia, and London: University of Georgia Press, 1991.

11. Joseph R. Des Jardins. Environmental Ethics: An Introductionto Environmental Philosophy. Bemont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing,1993.

12. Andrew McLaughlin. Regarding Nature: Industrialism and DeepEcology. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.

13. Joseph R. Des Jardins. Environmental Ethics: An Introductionto Environmental Philosophy. Bemont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing,1993.


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14. Andrew McLaughlin. Regarding Nature: Industrialism and DeepEcology. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.

15. Arran Gare. Beyond European Civilization: Marxism, ProcessPhilosophy and the Environment. Sydney: Eco-Logical Press, 1993.

16. Lisa H. Newton and Catherine K. Dillingham. Watersheds: ClassicCases in Environmental Ethics. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1993.

17. Max Oelschlaeger. Caring for Creation: An Ecumenical Approachto the Environmental Crisis. New Haven: Yale University Press,1994.


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Innovative Approaches in International Relations: Promotion of Economic Diplomacy as an Instrument

of Economic Development: An Analysis

Dr. Vidya .H.N, Associate Professor in History, Government Arts College Karnataka, Hassan-573201

Abstract

An attempt is made in this paper to analyze the innovative approaches in international relations – promotion of economic diplomacy as an instrument of economic development. This paper covered various diplomacy aspects and found that India has engaged in economic diplomacy primarily through the use of trade and aid. Further it explained various promotions by the international relations and concluded that Economic diplomacy can be used to generate and increase economic security has become a tested method and several countries all over the globe are initiating drives towards adoption of this policy

Key words: Economic Diplomacy, innovation, promotions, liberalization, globalization, development

1. Introduction

Diplomacy is a technique to uphold excellent affiliation among different states, to negotiate divergence & conflict or to facilitate additional good commodore relationship. We come across several instances of use of diplomacy to preserve & protect

divergent economic situations. Use of diplomats to achieve mutual interest started from ancient India. Various forms of diplomacy in ancient India were used as a tool of achieving good economic relationship. Previously a group of negotiators recognized as diplomats were sent to a particular Nation or region with a specific task


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of negotiating. They used to discus & parley about a particular issue with their counterpart in several rounds. This was called as informal diplomacy.

But today use of diplomatic mission is more acknowledged around the world Diplomats are appointed in embassy offices & embassies are a highly grown up bureaucracy. They reside in the country with which they have to maintain good relations along with their paraphernalia. They will attend all issues connected with mutual cooperation & assistance. This is called as formal diplomacy.

But these days with the rise of global economic liberalization the international relations has taken up a modified role acting as an economic promoter as well. The political aspects of international relations have taken a back seat & economic advocacy has come to the fore front. Priorities have changed; Nations have adopted Economic diplomacy as a device of promoting international relations. Economic diplomacy is the use of the full spectrum economic tools of the state to achieve its national interest (Balachandran, 2005). Economic diplomacy includes all the economic activities, including

export, import, investment, lending, aid, free trade agreements, tourism, Marketing, currency etc (Moons, 2009).

2. Classification of diplomacy

We can classify diplomacy based on these objectives and nature of tasks like

Conciliatory & pacifying moves

Peace Keeping & peace maintenance

Negotiating for monetary & fiscal gains

Avoiding Hostilities

Envisaging Partnership In Economic Development,

Cultural Exchange,

Environment & Eco management ,

Human Rights Issues.

Tours & Travel

Export & Import Policy

From other aspect we are observing aggressors / allies to boycott aggressors, soft power diplomacy based of relationship and respect, gun board / military power


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diplomacy, public diplomacy and nuclear diplomacy in practice Srinivasan, T.N. (2002). From all the above types and forms of diplomacy we would like to discuss with the economic diplomacy and how it can be used as a tool of economic development. Several under developed countries around the world are suffering from scarcity of resources, over pressure from population growth, unemployment, extreme poverty etc (Van Bergeij, Peter A. G 2009). Existing internal resources are not enough for developing these nations by themselves Datt, Sundharam, K.P.M. (2009). But without further economic development it is impossible to ensure basic needs of human life such as food, cloths, shelter, education and health care Srinivasan, T.N. (2002).

The objective of foreign policy may be shifted from existing “is to develop and maintain friendly relations with other States and foster cooperation with developed, developing and least developed countries, and various regional, sub-regional, political and economic groups” is to develop and maintain friendly economic / trade relations with other States and foster

cooperation with trade, commerce and manpower placement to developed, developing and least developed countries, and various regional, sub-regional, political and economic groups”

India has engaged in economic diplomacy primarily through the use of trade and aid Achs, D(2002). For example, in order to build a stronger, more stable relationship with Bangladesh, India granted it an $800 million soft loan, and provided $200 million in aid. India set up a development wing in its government in January 2012 (Panagariya, Arvind (2008). The Development Partners Administration (DPA) is a primary way India uses economic diplomacy, in this case development aid, as a way to engage diplomatically. The DPA is building 50,000 housing units in Sri Lanka, a large transmission line in Puli Khumri, Afghanistan, and extends Lines of Credit projects globally, particularly in Africa. Economic diplomacy and the DPA are very important to Indian foreign policy. As the former Indian foreign secretary Lalit Mansingh stated: "The fact that the DPA division is located in the ministry of external affairs shows it is


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in sync with our foreign policy objectives of transforming India into a global player” Roche, Elizabeth (2012).That means the goal would be developing and maintaining friendly economic / trade relations with other states Panagariya, Arvind (2008).

It is necessary to deploy trade and business related professionals for better achievement in economic diplomacy.

Usually LDC countries use same set of negotiators in every platform. As a result they become hub of everything but master in none Sankaran, S. Indian Economy (1994).

Time have to develop different set of negotiators specialized in different field like (1) bilateral trade negotiators, (2) regional trade negotiators, (3) multilateral trade negotiators master in different WTO agreements, (4) separate set of negotiators for negotiating with development partners / donors, (5) trade promoters in the missions in aboard, and (6) supreme council of negotiators for coordinating all these platforms and harmonizing and directing uniformity with the

national foreign policy Roche, Elizabeth(2012).

To get a strategic platform to exploit the coming multilateral regime countries has to priorities country Srinivasan, T.N. (2002).

1. Promotion & branding & trade marking

2. Trade sponsorship,

3. Investment appeals & Investment magnetism,

4. Acquiring Innovative Technology

5. Employing New Technology,

6. Managing enhanced External Economic Assistance

3. Promotion of Foreign Investment

For attracting foreign investment countries needs to project a positive image in abroad ( Achs,D) Country Branding would be essential, because without a brand image it would not be easy to get foreign investment(Sankaran). The government should promote the country at abroad, which is a primary action of economic diplomacy. The image of a country affects its trade, global politics, and international relations.


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4. Economic Diplomacy

1. To promote to mobilize investment,

2. Promote tourism and better management of national image.

Promotion of Investment Mobilization

Investment mobilization would call for a global presence of the competent companies or internationalization of the local companies.

1. Developing panoramic tourist destinations and improving their infrastructure especially communication & transport amenities to attract foreign tourists would boost the economy. It also generates recurring & enduring employment.

2. For projecting a positive national image abroad, the political leaders have to be responsible about what they say regarding their country.They should know that the world media report what they say. Their statements can and do damage the image of the country. Structuring a fine representation & image building about the country will act as promotional activity in the world media.

3. The ministry of foreign affairs, the embassies and diplomats of the country will be accountable for the projection of a ‘correct’ image of the country overseas. This will automatically balance the financial arrangements (Achs, D). But their capacity to project a positive country image or change the undue negative perception may be limited. The diplomats abroad have to be proactive rather than reactive. The foreign ministry has to give importance to promote trade and development by organizing trade fairs, participating foreign exhibitions, organizing investors’ conferences and holding up B2B dialogues etc. mission abroad should act as facilitators of joint business councils, joint chambers, joint trade facilitator taskforce etc. between the countries (Srinivasan, T.N ).

5. Promotion of a National Image

Through a constructive national image, a better promotion of products and services abroad consequently is boosted up and this ameliorates to create a brand image of the products in the consumers’ mind Panagariya,


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Arvind (2008). This would facilitate better market access, salesmanship, networking and regulatory (customs & procedural) management would facilitate the export of commodities, services and projects. Value creation of products is essential (Sankaran). The missions abroad have to identify the demand for his country products in the host market and facilitate B2B interactions to promote export to that country. Opting for economic diplomacy to magnetize foreign investment would thus become a great political strategy these days (Roche, Elizabeth).

6. Promotion Of Employability

Large unemployed population is a major problem in most of the LDCs. But this burden may be transform into resources if proper arrangement can be done through manpower export. Remittance is one of the main sources of foreign currency in many countries. Population growth of many developed countries is negative (Panagariya, Arvind ). Over populated countries could bargain with those countries to send professionals and semi-skilled workers to those markets (Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam ). Diplomatic missions in the respective country

has a great job to collect demands for professional / workers and making arrangement of proper placement of native people there. Thus economic diplomacy could increase manpower export as well as foreign remittance earnings of a country.

7. Promotion of Ensuring Proper Education

Ensuring proper education and training up people on latest technical knowhow is also important for proper growth of a country.

providing scholarship in higher education

short training

diploma facilities

Orientation programs

Organizing international seminars

international Short stay programs

Cultural exchange programs

Inter university study programs

Organizing international Entertainment & Cultural study tours

Coherent image building articulations


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Increasing foreign visits

Incorporating global language & media devices

international Campaigning for best practices

submission for hi-tech media coverage of the country’s customs

A genuine diplomatic mission can facilitate more representatives in affording these options Panagariya, Arvind (2008). Thus it can play a vital role in technology transfer and up gradation and transfer of latest knowledge .The economy soon after will pick up as it naturally attract technicians globally.

8. Promotion of Technology

Economic diplomacy needs technology for rapid development and industrialization. When TRIPS agreement will come into force on LDCs, then absorbing foreign technology will be costly and difficult to achieve. Before mandatory enforcement the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) LDCs should concentrate on obtaining it (technology) for industrialization.

1. The Business & the Global Economy Directorate

2. Increased Mobilization of the Network Abroad

3. Ministerial Visits With an Economic Dimension

4. Promotion Of country’s new Innovation

5. Attracting Foreign Investment to country

6. Mobilizing Soft Power Tools

7. Support For transportation

8. Better Communication With Businesses

9. Promotion of up gradation of Technology

A major problem of LDCs country’s product quality is inferior; as a result they failed to compete with superior qualitative products in local or export market. This is because they do not have upgraded technology. So facilitating technology up-gradation may boost up production. There are several international bodies working to facilitate technology transitions and technology up-gradation. Diplomatic assignments to those countries can play a vital role to secure local bodies with those international technology transfer organizations (Panagariya,


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Arvind (2008). Stable Supply Of Resources,

1. Energy & Food To Country ,

2. Exportation Of Infrastructure Abroad ,

3. Inbound Tourism Promotion &

4. Promotion Of "Country’s Brand"

10. Promotion Of Industrial Infrastructure

Industrialization would need infrastructure development, better value services and other logistics support. All these require money which has to be generated through following methods.

1. Improving Logistic Sustenance

2. Developing Infrastructure

3. Deployment Of Optimum Transport Facilities

4. Expansion Of Communication Amenities

5. Bridging Inter Connectivity With Rails & Roads

6. Deep Sea Port, Sea Port,

7. Extension Of Highways, Sub Ways, National Highways, Express Highways, Corridors ,

8. Expansion Of Industrial Parks

9. Eco Tourism

10. Opening Out Of Amusement Parks

11. Creating Under Water Amusement & Water Sports

12. Organizing A Mega Sporting Event

13. Kicking of Musical Concert

14. Film Award Ceremony

15. Organizing Cricketing Event

16. Hosting Beauty Pageants

17. Hospitality Services

18. Therapeutic & Medicinal Symposia

19. Beginning Pleasure Trips

20. Initiating Cruise Tours

21. Promotion of Pilgrimage destination

22. Encircling with Educational Hub activities

23. Advertizing Musical Operas / Concerts/ live shows


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24. Endorsing Musical Nights/ events

25. Installation Of awards such as Best Tourist Award, best citizen award/ best traveler

26. Sponsoring International Film Festivals

27. Sponsoring gallantry / bravery awards

28. Hosting Foreign Investment Drives

29. Pioneering Hosting Job Fairs

30. Accommodating International Business Deals

31. Introducing innovative contests like motto cross, formula car race, mud bike race , skiing , Para jumping , para gliding fencing ,sailing ,karaoke ,taekwondo etc

32. Organizing Science exhibitions ,

33. Venturing Adventure sports

34. Reinventing traditional sports

35. Massage centers spa facilities ,herbal health products

36. Introducing new contests like spelling bee, young scientist, young achiever ,young Brain, etc

37. Co -hosting new entertainment activities such as launch o f new cars . Electronic items, mobile phones, I pods, tablets etc.

38. Conduct of Consumer friendly events on Nutrition & edibles

39. Wide range of Incentives for Shopper friendly customers

40. Encompassing festivities & celebrations & partying

41. Show casing best practices

42. Promotional activities through brochures & handbook

43. Hosting jeweler exhibitions

44. Initiating Aqua sporting events

The government has to mobilize resources from domestic as well as foreign sources The World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Aid for Trade to the developing countries could be a good source. Besides appealing for foreign investment in major local infrastructure project may be another approach to build industrial infrastructure like.

1. Maintaining good relations with the donor agencies / countries is a major task on the negotiators in this regard.


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2. Gathering Concurrence of issues of common interest

3. Creating consensus on universal topics

4. Debating for propelling positive approach towards resource management

5. Accommodating good will gesture

6. Signaling strategic economic prudence through political diplomacy

7. Gesticulation of thematic approaches

8. Promotion of best Practices

Replicating best practices could be a good means for economic development for any country. It is quite easy to duplicate any development models rather than inventing the same. Collecting best practices from different regions would assist in addressing serious economic problems. Ambassadors particularly to the countries developed with similar backdrop could be vigilant to know preeminent practices there and facilitate replication in back home. A country can argue to adopt best practices on par with other countries through innovative thinking combining culture & convention

together. The ethnicity, evolution of civilization, historicity, and customary practices of a country will guide in formulation of a vision statement which can be its best practice.

9. Conclusion

Thus Globalization has expanded and accelerated economic interdependence among Nations. Economic diplomacy thus is rooted in the vision, efficacy, organization and motivation of its people and institutions, including the leaders, the officials, and civil society at large. The diplomatic missions of a country have so many important roles to play for quick sustainable economic development of the country. Economic diplomacy could be a very effective tool to foster all round development of a nation. Various under developed countries can handle this tool for quick access to economic resources & promotion of financial benevolence. Thus Economic diplomacy and economic security have risen to the top of international policy agenda these days .That Economic diplomacy can be used to generate and increase economic security has become a tested method & several countries all over the globe


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are initiating drives towards adoption of this policy.

References

Achs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India"

Agreement on Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) & Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) addresses many of these issues.

Balachandran, G., ed. India and the World Economy, 1850–1950 Oxford University Press, 2005.

Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam, K.P.M. (2009). Indian Economy. New Delhi: S. Chand Group. p. 976

Fergusson, Ian F. (18 January 2008)."World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda"

Moons, Selwyn and Van Bergeijk, Peter A. G., Economic Diplomacy and Economic Security, New Frontiers for Economic Diplomacy, pp. 37-54, Carla

Guapo Costa, ed., Instituto Superior de Ciéncias Sociais e Politicas, 2009

Panagariya, Arvind (2008). India: The Emerging Giant. Oxford University Press.

Panagariya, Arvind (2004). India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms

Roche, Elizabeth, "India goes from aid beneficiary to donor", Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, July 1, 2012

Srinivasan, T.N. (2002). Economic Reforms and Global Integration (PDF). 17 January 2002.

Sankaran, S. Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development (Margham Publications, 7th ed. 1994).

Van Bergeij, Peter A. G., "Economic Diplomacy and the Geography of International Trade", Edward Elgar Publishing, North Hampton, 2009


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Fertility pattern of Tribal Women of Srikakulam District of AP

K. Appanna Babu, Research Scholar (Junior Research Fellow), Department of Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. A.P

Abstract : The presented study is carried out to understand the total health status of selected Konda Savara tribe women located in Srikakulam district, North Coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh to understand the total health status of selected Konda Savara tribe women. The general implication that can be derived from the regression result is that demographic and social variables (like educational status, family size and male to female ratio in the household) are the most important determinant of fertility. Hence, there should be a serious work on social and demographic conditions of tribal especially in family planning. This ultimately necessitates an extensive provision of health care services to the Konda Savara tribe community The general implication that has derived from the fertility model is that demographic and social variables are the most important determinant of fertility. It is suggested that there should be a serious work on social and demographic conditions of tribal especially in family planning. This ultimately necessitates an extensive provision of health care services to these tribal communities.

Key words: Primitive tribe, Fertility, health status, uterine wastage, birth rate

Introduction:

Health status of a woman is a function not only of medical care but of the overall integrated development of socio-cultural, economic, education, nutritional status etc. Each of these aspects has a deep impact on the health status which in turn influences the health performance of

the women. Efforts have been made to make a holistic view of all the dimensions of health status of the Selected Primitive tribe women community which would generate new impetus for some appropriate interventions with regard to tribal health. Studies found that the health status of the tribal people of India, especially in the state of Andhra


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Pradesh is relatively a neglected area of research. The Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) are mostly residing in the North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh. As per the literature work on health status of PTGs women, regulation has not been reported so far on the selected Konda Savara tribe.

Objectives and methodology of the study

The presented study is carried out to understand the total health status of selected Konda Savara tribe women located in Srikakulam district, North Coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh. Multi stage stratified random sampling method is used in the present study. The selection process is carried out in four stages; i.e., relating to districts, mandals, villages and households. Srikakulam district of North Coastal district is selected for the study due to the fact that these districts have larger extent of Tribe Sub-Plan area and higher proportion of PTG population, supposed to be located at far end of the district and with much interior hill tracts where the hill and Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) reside. Two villages namely Kondalogam Puttulogam village are

selected based on the random sampling procedure for the study. To examine the health status a sample of 100 women households are selected.

Information is collected through a pre designed and structured household schedule in the selected villages during the year 2011-12 in different visits. In analyzing the data, averages and percentages, multiple regression analysis is used in appropriate places.

In determining the fertility performance of the women, the average rate of conceptions, uterine wastage, live births, children survived were being calculated.

Live births per women = No. of live births/No. ever married women

Uterine wastage = No. of Abortions+ No. of still births/ No. of live births

Post natal loss = No. of child dead/ No. of live births

Index of survival = No. of surviving off spring/ No. of conception × 1000


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Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = Total no. of live births /total population × 1000

General Fertility Rate (GFR) = Total no. of live births in a year/ Total no. of women aged 15-44 years × 1000

Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) = Total no. of live births to mothers by specified age/ Total no. of women of same age group × 1000

Fertility Rate (TFR) =

The sum of ASFR is multiplied by 5 because each age group (e.g. 15-19) consists of women of five different ages.

General Fertility Rate (GFR) = Total no. of live births in a year/ (1 X w1) + (7 X w2) + (7 X w3) + (6 X w4) + (4 X w5) + (1 X w6)

Analysis of the study

Fertility Performance of the selected Tribe Women

Various studies indicate that menarcheal age is influenced by food habit, nutrition, occupation, education, family size, living condition, birth rank, environmental, genetical, socio-economic factors, etc.

Table: 1 Distribution of the ever married women by age at menarche

Age at menarche (in years)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Percentage

(=100.0)

4.67 10.33 28.67 36.33 15.33 2.33 1.67 0.67

Source: Data collected through Field Survey

In general, it starts about the 13th to 14th year of age, but it may

vary according to different environmental, economic conditions


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and nutrition. With earlier onset of menarche, a woman gets a longer reproductive life. According to table 1, it has been observed that the age at menarche of the tribal women (respondents) varies from 11 years to 18 years. The maximum percentage of the Tribal women menstruated at the age of 14 years (36.33 percent) and 13years (28.67 percent) whereas some women achieved menstruation cycle at the age of 15 years (15.33 percent) and respectively. 12 years (10.33 percent) few women menstruated late. Among all the women, the Mean±SD age at

menarche has been found to be 13.65±1.17 years.

Fertility history of the ever married women:

Fertility, the actual reproductive performance, the actual occurrence of birth, especially live births are a time dependant genetic concept. Table 2 presents the fertility performance of the ever married women. The total number of conceptions, uterine wastage, live births and children survived are some of the major findings of this study.

Table: 2. Fertility history of the ever married women


As per the table 2 the study reveals that both the uterine and the postnatal loss are very low among the tribal respondents. Due to this the

index of survivality becomes high (78.65).


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Measures of Fertility:

In the present study (table 3), child-woman ratio for C0-4/W15-44, C5-9/W20-49 and C0-9/W15-49 among the Tribal women have been found to be 595.32, 637.63 and 1074.40 respectively. Preference of male child, more number of children ever born per woman in the last decade illiteracy, relatively high child death

among the older Tribal women etc are attributed as the reasons of their high CWR. The CBR among the Tribals has been found to be 26.29. Though the standard of education is low among the tribals (Present Study), the low CBR indicates the acceptance of the Government health care facilities among the women and the adoption of different methods of family planning.

Table 3 Measure of fertility among the Tribal population

Sl.No. Fertility Indicator Value 1a. Child-Woman Ratio(C0-4/W15-44) 595.32 1b. Child-Woman Ratio(C5-9/W20-49) 637.63 1c. Child-Woman Ratio(C0-9/W15-49) 1074.40 2. Crude Birth Rate(CBR) 26.29 3. General Fertility Rate(GFR) 119.06 4. Total Fertility Rate(TFR) 3.29 5a. Age Specific Fertility Rate(15-19) 61.20 5b. Age Specific Fertility Rate(20-24) 241.38 5c. Age Specific Fertility Rate(25-29) 275.86 5d. Age Specific Fertility Rate(30-34) 58.82 5e. Age Specific Fertility Rate(35-39) 21.28 6. Sex-Age Adjusted Birth Rate

(SAABR) 27.42


This is possible due to the approach of the various health workers to the villagers personally and communicates the necessary information. Other reasons of low CBR include the poor nutritional

status and the effect of postpartum /amenorrhea. The simplest overall age limited measure is the General Fertility Rate (GFR), defined as the number of births per 1000 women of the child bearing age in a specific


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year. GFR also does not indicate a definite pattern. When the CBR is moderate, GFR is high which indicates that the number of women in this age-group (15-44 years) is less compared to the total population. In the present study, the GFR among the Tribals has been found to be 119.06. The adoption of different family planning methods by different age groups is one of the reasons of relatively low GFR. Among other reasons, the poor nutritional status and postpartum Amenorrhea have affected the fertility of the Tribal women.

Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) reveals the distribution of frequencies of births among women according to age. It is more accurate than the estimates of CBR. This is due to the fact that only the women in the child bearing age are considered here and not the whole population, the emphasis being made to a specific period of time in relation to live births and women. In a population, a detailed picture of fertility at a specified time can be obtained by examining the schedules of ASFR, since the age of mother is an important factor affecting the fertility level and the rate of child

bearing is not uniform throughout all ages. In fact fertility is usually heavily concentrated between ages 20 to 29 years. In the present study among Tribals, ASFR has been found to be highest (241.38) in those women who are in 20-24 years age-group, followed by 275.86 (25-29years), 61.20 (15-19 years), 58.82 (30-34 years) and 21.28 (35-39years). It is interesting to note that the ASFR of the women reaches its peak in the age-group 20-24 years and becomes Zero after the age group (35-39) years.

As per the table 4, the highest ASFR of India has been reported as 314.5 in those reproductive mothers who are in the age-group of 20-34 years. Since the relatively high fertility reproductive periods have been observed in the age-group of 20-29 years, women of these age groups though adopting family planning methods should be made more aware of the different temporary methods of family planning. The total fertility rate presents a single index of total fertility and is the sum of Age Specific Fertility Rates, at each age i.e. from 15 to 44 years (Multiplied by the size of the class interval) and divided by 1000.


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Table.4 Age Specific Fertility Rates and Total Current Fertility Rate

Present Age

Group

No. of women No. of live births during last year ASFR

(5)/(2) x 1000 Boys Girls Total

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

15-19 49 2 1 3 61.22

20-24 58 6 8 14 241.38

25-29 58 9 7 16 275.86

30-34 51 1 2 3 58.82

35-39 47 1 - 1 21.28

40-44 36 - - - -

Total 100 19 18 37 658.56

∑ASFR=658.56 TFR= (658.56 x 5)/1000 = 3.29

The effect of the age-sex structure of the population on the crude birth rate can be reduced to the minimum by computing the Sex Age Adjusted Birth Rate (SAABR). The United Nation has defined the SAABR as the number of births per 1000 of a weighted aggregate of numbers of women in various five-year age groups from 15-44.The United Nations has recommended a standard set of weights in computing this aggregate. These are 1,7,7,6,4,1 which correspond to the average pattern of the age specific fertility rates for the five year age-groups, 15-

19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, and 40-44 respectively.

Determinants of fertility among the selected Konda Savara Primitive Tribe Women:

The fertility level is the phenomenon which is the major determinant of population growth. The levels and trends in fertility are influenced by various physiological, cultural, social, economic, behavioral, demographic and ecological factors. Using the primary cross-sectional data attempt is made to estimate the major determinants of the total fertility rates in selected tribal


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community. The following is the general multiple linear model to be estimated for the three selected tribes as aggregate and disaggregate. Y= α + β1X1 + β2 X2 + β3 X3 + β4 X4 + β5 X5 + β6 X6 + ui

Where Y= Number of children

X1 = Age of the women

X2 = Educational levels of the household

X3 = Family size

X4 = male to female ratio

X5 = Household economic status (wealth)

X6 = Available medical infrastructure

β1 to β6 = coefficients of the independent variables

ui = error term

Theoretically, the women’s fertility will increase with age at their early stage but gets decline as they get closer to the age of menopause. So fertility gets increase with age at first but ultimately gets decrease after a

while. So, there is no a priori expected sign for age. But women’s fertility is expected to decrease with education and hence we expect positive relationship between education level and fertility. Furthermore, family size and especially male to female ratio in the family will have a negative impact on fertility because households basically prefer male child and they demand children only up to same level.

Children are considered as wealth in tribal population and the rich affords more children. So we expect positive relationship between household income and fertility. The availability of health care institutions near to the tribal society will negatively affect fertility because the women will get some awareness about the burden having more children. Using the multiple linear regression model specified above, an attempt is made to estimate the major determinants of fertility. The following table shows the estimation result of women fertility determinant for Konda Savara tribe.


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Table 5 : Results of the linear regression - fertility model for Konda Savara

Variable Coefficient t-value

Age of the women -0.050*** -0.594

Educational levels -0.105* -2.344

Family size -0.101* -2.211

Male to female ratio -0.139** -1.415

economic status 0.023*** 0.251

Medical infrastructure -0.088* -3.230

N 100

Intercept 0.241

R2 0.679

F 11.884

As can be seen from the above table all variables have their theoretically expected values. The age of the women has shown a negative relationship with fertility but is weekly significant. Education level, Family size and availability of medical infrastructure in the area are strongly significant (at one percent) and shows negative relationship with fertility. Family male to female ratio and Household economic status have their expected sign but significant only at 5 percent and 10 percent

respectively.

We can also see from the above table 5 that a unit increase in household wealth also increases fertility by 0.023 units. On the other hand a unit increase in women’s age, education, family size, male to female ratio and health care institutions decrease fertility by 0.05, 0.105, 0.101, 0.139, and 0.088 units, respectively. The explanatory power of the model is found to be more than satisfactory (67.9 percent) and significant as can be seen from the F-


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value. The general implication that can be derived from the above regression result is that educational status, family size and male to female ratio in the household are the most important determinant of fertility. Hence, there should be a serious work on tribal education especially in family planning. This ultimately necessitates an extensive provision of health care services to these tribal communities.

Conclusion:

Health status of women, though biological, is influenced by several socio-cultural norms and practices and also physical environmental condition. The actual health performance is the physiological potential of a woman to conceive and bear children which is between 15-49 years of age. In the present study, the average rate of conception per women is 3.51 and the average number of live births per woman is 3.50. Another interesting finding is that the average number of children currently living or surviving is 2.76 which indicate that average number of children who died is 0.29 per woman. The economic variables do not show any remarkable significance. The general implication

that can be derived from the regression result is that demographic and social variables (like educational status, family size and male to female ratio in the household) are the most important determinant of fertility. Hence, there should be a serious work on social and demographic conditions of tribal especially in family planning. This ultimately necessitates an extensive provision of health care services to the Konda Savara tribe community The general implication that has derived from the fertility model is that demographic and social variables are the most important determinant of fertility.

Hence, there should be a serious work on social and demographic conditions of tribal especially in family planning. This ultimately necessitates an extensive provision of health care services to these tribal communities.

References:

1. Agrawal T, Kochar GK, Goe; S. 2008. Impact of Iron Supplementation on Anaemia during pregnancy. Journal of Ethno-medicine. 2(2): 149-151.

2. Akhter H.1992. Breast feeding practices in Bangladesh.


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Bangladesh Journal of Child Health. 16 (1-2): 31-35.

3. Alam F, et al. 1998. Infant and Child Mortality Differentials in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Child health. 16 (1-2): 31-35.

4. Anandalakshmy PN, Talwar PP, Buckshee K and

Hingorani V. 1993. Demographic, socio-economic and medical factors affecting maternal mortality – an Indian experience. The Journal of Family Welfare. 39(3):1-4.


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Economic and Social Viability of Women under Self Help Groups Scheme:

A Case Study of Srikakulam District

-Dr. M. Ramesh, Faculty Member, Dept. of Rural Development, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University - Srikakulam

Abstract

The present paper is concentrated on the economic viability of women through SHGs in the study area. In the study, a radical empowerment has identified in all fields of women. They got strong decision-making power along with their husbands in the family. Cent percent of the respondents were following thrift habit without gap. They have power of credit winner than rural male. Occupational change has taken place and increased working days, earnings and it lead to reduce in income-expenditure gap. Besides, the given policy implications may help to further improvement through micro credit to women.

Key words: Economic Viability, Social conditions, Status, decision making power

1. Introduction

In India poverty is an age old problem closely related to the evils of social system. Poverty and income inequalities are attributable in the concentration of and to the control over ownership of assets. In India the distribution of land is highly skewed and can find rigid social groups, occupations have their caste specify and preservation of knowledge is a sized as a privilege of a small groups.

Further, to achieve the objective of growth with justice Government should design specific politics to reduce the poverty and excessive inequalities in the distribution of income. There are four broad areas for the government’s intervention to achieve the objective. Firstly, revise the share in national income by interfering of the factor market that accrues to each factor. Secondly, by equal distributing ownership and


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control of productive assets to all the population. Thirdly, by applying special fiscal policy corrections and fourthly, by implementing effective expenditure policy. Each method has its own limitations.

The above policy package provides a comprehensive agenda for any national attack on the pervasive problem of mass poverty and income inequality. Right from the beginning of the planned era in our country, the government has been implementing several programmes to alleviate poverty. But a clear shift in the planning process can be observed

from 4th Five Year Plan. In India, the phenomenon of poverty is mostly glaring in rural areas. Unless, the benefits of development directly goes to the rural people it is not possible to alleviate poverty. Hence, the strategy of ‘Rural Development’ is directed to ameliorate the economic and social life of a specific group of the rural population.

The journey from the community development programme of 1950s in the present Rural Development scheme is a pretty long one.

Government of India with its vast experience in planning has formulated varied programmes carefully targeted at the most deprived groups of people, like Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, women and Children, marginal farmers, small farmers etc. DWCRA is one of such schemes implemented in our country since, 1982-1983.

2. Self Help Groups scheme

Women’s Empowerment movement in India is expected to reach climax by the beginning of 21st century. Efforts have been rise by

Developmental programmes with provide special considerations to the rural women which are 85 percent in rural areas as the poor. After independence, governments launched a number of programmes for bringing about all round progress of the rural mass. And realizing the wastage of man-power the need to promote the status of women, a separate programme i.e., DWCRA. (Development of women and Children in Rural Areas which was brain child of Gramena Bank of Bangladesh started in 1975) focusing the rural poor women to provide them with


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suitable averages of income generation according to their skills, abilities, attitudes, needs and local conditions was exclusively designed for women empowerment as a sub programme of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) in 1982-83 as a pilot project. Later it was extended to entire India from 1987-88.

Unfortunately the range of activities pursued by DWCRA groups was fairly diverse. Several groups become default due to lack of homogeneity among group members, poor backward and forward linkages. Its several short comings leading to its failure, DWCRA scheme subsequently merged with the newly launched anti-poverty scheme SGSY in 1999 and the paved way for the introduction of Self Help Groups scheme in the place of DWCRA scheme (Reddy, 2002)

Self-help groups emerge as an important strategy for empowering women and alleviating poverty. SHG is a ‘people’s scheme’ and its organization is a significant step towards empowering women. A Self – help Group is a voluntary group, formed to attain some common goals, most of its members have similar

social identity, heritage, caste or traditional occupations and come together for a common cause and manage resources for the benefit of the group members.

The process of organizing women into SHGs started during the Ninth Plan to provide them permanent for articulating their needs and contributing their perspectives to development, has made tremendous progress as it brought into action more than a million SHGs all over the country. Participation of people in credit delivery and recovery and linking of the formal credit institutions to borrowers through the SHGs have been recognised as a supplementary mechanism for providing credit support to the rural poor. The SHGs are informal groups formed on a voluntary basis, for providing the necessary support to their members for their social and economic emancipation. These groups are distinct from the co-operative societies, mainly in terms of their size, homogeneity and functions. The Self Help Groups is the one of suitable programmes to useful and utilize the local resources effectively for uplift the rural women (development).


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3. SHGs in Srikakulam district

During 1995-2005, there are 1455 SHGs and as many as 245264 beneficiaries in the district consisting of 7.37 per cent are S.T. beneficiaries, 10.44 per cent are SC beneficiaries, 74.31 per cent are Backward Class beneficiaries; 7.89 per cent are other beneficiaries. The pre-dominance of backward class population in the district is further continued in this period also. Meanwhile, about 67186 groups are identified in the district during 2011-2012. Ranasthalam, Etcherla and Santhabommali mandals having top position in the district in formation of groups.

4. Objectives of the Study

To examine the SHG scheme whether the scheme is uplifting the living standards of the rural women of the society or not

To study the income generated by the activity per annum and per beneficiary.

To find out whether the income generated by the activity is significant or not.

To suggest suitable measures for the effective implementation of the scheme.

5. Methodology:

Selection of the Area:

To examine the above objectives, Srikakulam District of North Costal Andhra Pradesh has been purposively selected. The sample is based on random sampling method and the coverage spreads over 6 mandals namely Kotabommali, Narasannapeta, Srikakulam, Etcherla, Rajam and Ponduru.

Selection of the Sample:

The total number of activities implemented in the district under this programme for the year 2010-2011 is 50, of which 20 per cent of the major activities are covered. In each activity 45 beneficiaries are selected randomly.

6. Major findings of the study

i. Socio Economic Conditions

No doubt to say that micro financing through SHGs has became a powerful instrument to improving socio and economic conditions of women. The details regarding reasons for joining in SHG shows these particulars. Many of the members were joined the SHGs for getting financial assistance (23.42 percent), promote personal savings (23.42 percent) social status


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(21.58 percent) and (14.74 percent of respondents) for job from various productive and income generating activities. They also targeted the social, cultural and political improvement (16.84 percent as others) through SHGs in the study area.

ii. Change in social conditions

An age group of 25-30 and 45- 50 are active participants in the scheme. The scheme has been benefited very much to the widowed and separated women. Nearly 46.16 percent of respondents who belongs to Scheduled Castes are illiterates. It may adversely effects on income generation through IGAs.

As the opined of the SHG members, due to the social activities of the SHG, they have aware of family planning and need/benefit of small family. Further, institutional deliveries also increased among the group members. Meanwhile, among the social groups, SCs have highest average size of family recorded with 5.4 members followed by 4.3 and 4.1 in case of BCs and OCs respectively. The average size of family of all respondents is 4.6 in the study area

Participation in social activities of Mahila Mandal , out side contact for

business , decision making in the family are also some major factors to determine the social empowerment of the women. SHG activities have pushing them to participate voluntarily or by force in social activities. Interestingly, 62.50 percent of respondents were taken membership while they joined in the scheme.

iii. Out side contact

As far as out side contact is concerned, about 53 percent of the respondents visit villages monthly and half-yearly to town. Across the Castes, 55.56 percent of SCs visit town weekly but it is 22.22 percent each in BC and OCs respectively to the purpose of business activities and social interaction. Low level of out side contacts is found in upper castes (OCs) as they said- traditions, lack of interest to their family heads and insecurity feelings.

iv. Decision-making

As far as decision making in the family is concerned, only 10.25 percent of them were reported that they used to take partake in major decisions. Moreover, 23.08 percent of the respondents pointed out that their In-laws used to take major


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decisions. Meanwhile, after joining SHG, 62.82 percent of the women were reported that they also engross in decision-making process along with their husbands and now thrash out and sound out before taking any decisions. The chi square test value shows a positive association between SHG efforts and decision-making of the respondents.

v. Modification in House equipment

About 34 percent of the respondents were posses Pucca houses built under government scheme registered for the women, 25 percent tiled, 17 percent semi-pucca, 16 percent were Tached/ temporary houses. Nevertheless, nearly 50 percent of the tached houses are possessed by SCs alone. They possessed various items of house equipment like Watch, Stove, Rice Cooker, Electric, Iron, knitting machine, TV set, Light- furniture and other house related equipments (house decoration etc) prepared after they joining SHGs.

Awareness from out side contact, visit of offices for meetings etc, demonstration effect, and earnings from Group activities caused to improvement in the equipment

after joining SHGs. ‘Deepam’ a special programme for SHG members introduced by government of Andhra Pradesh and sanctioned Gas connections to some of the members. However, 30 percent of respondents (majority of them are relating to SCs) are not utilized properly and some were handover to neighbours due to hike in price of LP Gas.

vi. Occupational change of the respondents

There is a significant occupational mobility among the respondents mainly from agriculture to business activities like Mesta, Palmleaf, Cigarmaking, Poultry, Veg.Vending, Stone Cutting and Sheep Rearing. The participation of respondents in agriculture reduced from 71.79 percent to 30.77 percent after they joined SHGs. In case of Veg.itable Vending business positively increased from 3.85 percent to 17.95 percent, sheep raaring, milk business/ Milch cattle increased from 5.13 percent to 15.33 percent. The respondents who are in Small Business, their percent increased from 7.65 percent to 17.55 percent, also raised from 8.97 percent to 17.97 percent respectively in Mesta


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business. This trend can be changed in earnings of the respondents.

vii. Growth in working days

Number of Working days increased after participation with help of financial support to the SHGs. The percentage growth in employment increased by 50 percent each in case of SCs and BCs and 58.33 percent in case of OCs respectively. Overall percentage growth in employment is recorded at 52.78 percent.

viii. Income earnings

Distribution of beneficiaries under different activities and income generated by the activity is significant or not are presented in table. 1. The income generated by all the beneficiaries for all the activities is Rs. 16,42,995-/ The average income received by each beneficiary are annum is Rs. 5,216/- for all the activities.

The highest income (Rs. 6,750/-) is received by stone cutting activity followed by vegetable vending (Rs. 5,780/-), cigar making (Rs.4, 976/-), plan leaf (Rs. 4,875/-), mesta (Rs. 4,855/-), poultry (Rs. 4,830/-) and sheep rearing (Rs. 4,445/-).

Further, the table clearly shows that 83.81 per cent of the beneficiaries reported that the income generated by the activity is significant and the remaining reported that the income generated by the activity is insignificant. All the beneficiaries in the activities of palm leaf, vegetable vending and stone cutting expressed that the income generated by the activity is significant.

The scheme is intended to uplift the living standards of the weaker sections of the society to cross the poverty line.

83.81 per cent of the beneficiaries are reported that the income generated by the activity is significant.

The average income generated by all the activities per annum per beneficiary if Rs. 5,216/- the highest income (Rs. 6,750/-) is generated from the stone cutting activity and the least (Rs. 4,445/-) by sheep rearing.

ix. Regular practice of saving

Micro finance facilitates small savings from rural women who were hither to consider incapable of having any capacity to save. Interestingly, About 50 percent of the respondents were


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not in saving practice before joining. Cent percentage of respondents entered into the saving practice after they joined in SHGs.

7. Conclusion and policy implications:

It is observed that the amount of assistance given to the beneficiaries under DWCRA is only marginal and not adequate. In order to reap the desired benefits the assistance must be enhanced in order to achieve the economic viability of the scheme.

The main aim of SHG is collective works of all the members in the group at one common place. But in reality collective works of the members at one common place is not found anywhere in the study areas. As a result, the buildings constructed for these activities are lying. It is

therefore, suggested that, the members will be compelled to perform the works at one place at least for activities like palm leaf, cigar making, mesta etc.

It is observed that the SHG groups are making effectively on sound lines in those villages where there are voluntary organizations.

To make the SHG programme more effectively, it is suggested to constitute the SHG awareness committees by involving the voluntary organizations, youth clubs and mahila mandals as members in the committee. For effective functioning of the SHG scheme, it is not advisable to have 1.5 members in the group. It is therefore suggested that the size of the group may be reduced between 7 and 10.

Table – 1: Annual Income Generated by the Activity (In Rupees)

Source: Field survey. IGA= Beneficiary’ Annual Income generated by the activity


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The study identified that the activities undertaken themselves by respondents with their knowledge. No modern methods in their activities, ultimately they face losses. They should be need of conduct awareness camps to choose remunerative activity. It can reduce waste of monetary resources. Major portion of micro finance should be given only according to profit motive other wise the funds are likely to be lost.

2. Many of SHG members are using the credit for consumption purpose only. This may not be provided additional returns from credit. Hence, possible efforts must be prepared by the concern authorities to take up income generating activities at least with half of sanctioned credit.

3. Formation of SHGs by SCs and minorities are very limit in the study area. Therefore, the concern authorities should take care to achieve goal that equal distribution of credit facilities.

4. At present, the group members have to save for a minimum period of six months to get loan. This provision may discourage the IGAs; hence, it

should reduce the period at least for three months.

5. Strict supervision to be needed by the concerned bank officials for proper utilization of finance on productive purpose; it can avoid diversion of funds for other useless purposes.

6. Unless training of technical skills imparted to the women by SHGs they will not get meaningful self-employment in their villages. Technical skills are required in addition to finance e.g. training to make milk products and store facilities etc.

8. The banks should provide sufficient time to repayment of loan and they must be supervising the economic activities. Because better monitoring of SHGs will yield better results.

9. Micro credit cannot push the rural into debt traps. It should come in the form of a participatory model and not as a profit model. It should be bottom up and not top down. The effectiveness of SHGs would be considerably enhanced if a symbiosis could be worked out between them and panchayat Raj Institutions. The given policy implications may help to


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further improvement through micro credit of the women

References

Reddy (2002): Empowering women through SHGs and micro credit : The case of NIRD Action Research Projects, Journal of Rural Development Vol.21(4) P.P 511-535. NIRD, Hyderabad

Status of Microfinance in India 2012-13: NABARD

Census of India 2011

Srikakulam Hand book of statistics 2011

www.serp.ap.gov.in

Reports of DRDA Srikakulam on SHGs in Srikakulam


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The Evaluation and Performance of Life Insurance Schemes in India

Dr. A.Jagadeesh babu, Director – Professor, Vestal Academy of I.T.& Management. G.N.T. Road, Vatluru; Eluru. 534 007. West Godavari Dist. Andhra Pradesh. India.

Abstract

This study focuses on the insurance schemes being implemented by the Central Government for the vulnerable sections of the society. It provides an overview of the nature of schemes and their basic features, analyzes aspects of their performance and the factors affecting them, highlights expenditure commitment of Government of India on these schemes and discusses issues related to the design and implementation of these schemes. Further, the study also provides some insight into the extent of overlapping between Central and State schemes and the possibility of implementing some of the Central schemes through a common implementing agency.

Key words: Insurance, Risk man, Janashree Bima Yojana, Accident scheme, Group Accident, Health Insurance

1. Introduction

Government supported insurance schemes are a form of social security in India. These schemes are initiated by the Government to provide protection to certain sections of population against income losses and can be categorized as social security as per the definition

of the International Labour Organization (ILO 1984). The need for public support for these schemes arises from the fact that moral hazard and adverse selection problems associated with insurance markets often make it difficult for certain sections of the population to access private insurance markets. Risk adjusted premium rates are


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often unaffordable for the weaker sections of the population and the Government needs to step in to provide financial support in the form of premium contribution towards these schemes to facilitate the provisioning of insurance for these sections of the population.

In India, a number of Government supported insurance schemes have been initiated over the last decade. A number of schemes that existed earlier have also been modified substantially. While some of these changes have taken place at the State level, the most important changes, in particular some of the largest insurance schemes in terms of implementation across the country have been initiated by the Central government.

2. Basic features of insurance schemes of Government of India

The insurance schemes are administered by various Central Ministries through insurance companies. For most schemes, the role of insurance companies is limited to settling claims forwarded to them. The responsibility of implementing the scheme lies either with the State

Government or State-level organizations of Central Ministries. The implementing agencies act as links between the targeted groups and the insurance companies. Both public and private sector insurance companies are involved in operating the insurance schemes. In most schemes, the notable exceptions being health insurance schemes, the public sector insurance companies dominate the operations. In health insurance schemes, the three private sector insurance companies are also important players along with the public sector insurance companies. Typically, insurance companies are chosen through financial bids. While in most insurance schemes as ingle insurance company is selected to implement the scheme, there are schemes where multiple insurance companies operate at the State level.

The Social Security Fund was created in 1988-89 with contributions of both LIC and Government of India to support the provisioning of insurance to the ‘weaker and vulnerable sections’ of the society. At present, forty five occupational groups are identified to be eligible for insurance support from this fund.


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Besides, in most schemes initiated by Government of India, financial support is provided by the Centre alone. In a few schemes, notably the ones in which the extent of public financial support is relatively high; the financial burden is shared by the Centre and the States.

3. Data and Methodology

Identification of insurance schemes for the purpose of the study was carried out on the basis of information reported in three documents of each Ministry. These include the Detailed Demand for Grants, the Outcome Budgets and the Annual Reports. Additional information on individual schemes was collected from the respective Ministries. For Life Insurance Schemes, data were also collected from the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC).

4. An Overview of Insurance Schemes of Government of India

The Government of India provides insurance against income losses of vulnerable sections arising out of four major reasons

(i) Yield losses in agriculture (crop insurance),

(ii) Death and disability of an earning member of a family (life insurance and group accident insurance schemes),

(iii) Unforeseen health expenditure (e.g. health insurance)

(iv) Death of cattle, buffaloes and sheep (e.g. livestock and sheep insurance).

I. Life and Group Accident Insurance Schemes

The Government of India supports two kinds of insurance schemes against death and disability of workers in specific occupational groups: life insurance schemes operated through the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) and Group Accident Insurance Schemes operated by other GICs. The former covers insurance against death and disability due to natural causes in addition to those due to accidents covered in the later. Additionally, the Government of India also extends life insurance support to rural landless households.


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Life Insurance Schemes for Specific Occupational Groups and Rural Landless Households

Six occupational groups are supported by Government of India through direct premium contribution for life insurance. These include handloom weavers, handicraft artisans, sheep breeders and power loom workers, khadi artisans and anganwadi workers. It is noteworthy that unlike the six insurance schemes mentioned earlier, these schemes do not receive any direct premium subsidy from Government of India (GoI). Support to rural landless households was initiated by GoI in 2007. Insurance schemes for the first four occupational groups are implemented by the Ministry of Textiles, while the last two are implemented by the Ministry of Micro Small and Medium Industries and the Ministry of Women and Child Development respectively.

Janashree Bima Yojana (JBY)

Workers in the age group of 18 to 59 years, who are below the poverty line or are marginally above the poverty line, are eligible. The schemes operate under the Janashree

Bima Yojana (JBY) of LIC and provide insurance cover against death and disability of the insured member. Additionally, scholarship benefits are provided to the children of the insured member. The premium rate for insurance schemes of six occupational groups varies between Rs. 200 and Rs. 330 per annum for each insured worker. The premium is subsidized partly from the social security fund and partly by contribution from Government of India (GoI). For most insurance schemes, the worker also shares part of the premium burden. Only in a few schemes, the premium is entirely subsidized by GoI and the social security fund and workers do not share the premium burden. The compensation for the schemes varies between Rs. 30,000 to Rs. 60,000 for natural death and Rs. 37,500 to Rs. 75,000 for partial disability. For accidental death and total disability, the compensation varies between Rs. 75,000 to Rs. 1,50,000. Individuals insured under JBY can also avail a scholarship of Rs. 1200 per year per child (upto two children) for students studying in class IX to XII without


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any additional payment of premium under the Shiksha Sahayog Yojana.

Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana (AABY). Under the scheme, the head or one principal earning member of all rural landless households in the age group of 18 to 59 years is eligible for insurance. Identification of rural landless households is done by the State Government. The scheme provides insurance cover against death and disability and extends scholarship benefits to the children of the insured members. The scheme is operated by LIC and entirely subsidized by the Government. The premium of Rs. 200 per household per year is shared equally by the Centre and the State. A separate fund has been created and kept with LIC to meet the premium contribution of Government of India for the scheme. Under the scheme, a rural landless household will receive a compensation of Rs. 75,000 in the case of accidental death and permanent disability, Rs. 37,500 for partial disability and Rs. 30,000 for natural death of the insured member under the scheme. Also, as in JBY, an insured member can also avail a scholarship of Rs. 1200 per year per

child (upto two children) for students studying in class IX to XII without any additional payment of premium under the Shiksha Sahayog Yojana

II. Group Accident Insurance Schemes: Two group accident insurance schemes are supported by Government of India:

The Coir Workers Group Personal Accident scheme

The Coir Workers Group Personal Accident Insurance Scheme in its present form was introduced by Government of India in 2005. At present, the scheme is implemented by the coir board (under the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Industries) and operated through the United India Insurance Company Ltd. The scheme is universal in nature and covers 4 lakh coir workers across India. Any coir worker ‘ who is employed for wages to do any work in connection with the various processes in coir industry and who gets his wages directly or indirectly from the employer or through a contractor or through an agent and depends mainly on coir industry for his livelihood’ is eligible to be covered under the


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scheme. The premium charged by the insurance company at present was as low as Rs. 1.93 per worker and is paid by Government of India on behalf of the coir workers. No premium contribution is made by the coir workers. Under the scheme, an insured worker is entitled to a compensation of Rs. 50,000 for accidental death and permanent disability and Rs. 25,000 for partial disability.

The Group Accident Insurance Scheme for Active Fishermen

The Group Accident Insurance for Active Fishermen provides insurance against accidental death or disability of licensed fishermen in the age group of 18 to 70 years. Fishermen operating in both marine and inland sectors and registered with fishermen’s cooperative society, any organization of fisheries/fishermen or fishermen certified by competent authority are eligible for coverage. The annual maximum premium per fisherman under the scheme is Rs. 30 of which Rs. 29 is shared between the Centre and the States and the remaining Re. 1 per fisherman per annum is paid by FISHCOFED for implementation of

the scheme. In States other than those belonging to the north eastern region, the burden of expenditure is shared equally by the Centre and the State Government (Rs. 14.5 each per fisherman per annum). In case of northeastern States, sharing of expenditure between the Centre and the State is done in the ratio of 75:25. In case of Union Territories, the burden is borne entirely by the Centre. No premium contribution is required from fishermen for coverage under the scheme. A compensation of Rs. 1 lakh is paid to the fishermen’s family in case of accidental death or permanent total disability and a sum of Rs. 50,000 paid in case of partial disability. The scheme is implemented through the four subsidiaries of General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC).

III. Health Insurance Schemes

Four health insurance schemes are supported by Government of India, two for specific occupational groups and two for the BPL population as a whole. For occupational groups, the Government supports Health Insurance Scheme for Handloom Weavers and the Rajiv Gandhi Shilpi Swasthya Yojana for handicraft


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artisans. For BPL population, the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) and Universal Health Insurance Scheme (UHIS) are supported by Government of India (GoI). Schemes for occupational groups are operated by ICICI Lombard; UHIS is operated by the four public sector insurance companies and RSBY by both private and public sector insurance companies across the country.

Health Insurance Schemes for handloom weavers and handicraft artisans

The health insurance scheme for handloom weavers was introduced by the Government of India in the year 2005-06 but was subsequently subsumed under the Handloom Weavers Comprehensive Welfare Scheme (HWCWS) in 2007-08. Similarly, the health insurance scheme for handicraft artisans called the Rajiv Gandhi Shilpi Swasthya Yojana initiated in 2006-07, was subsumed under the Handicraft Artisans Comprehensive Welfare Scheme (HACWS) in 2007-08. Although subsumed under umbrella schemes, these schemes continue to operate as individual components

under the larger schemes. The schemes are operated by ICICI Lombard and administered by the Ministry of Textiles.

The health insurance schemes provide insurance coverage for health expenditure of handloom weavers and handicraft artisans in the country. Under the schemes, four members of a weaver’s/artisan’s family (in the age group of 1 day to 80 years) are covered: the weaver/artisan, his/her spouse and two children. For handicraft artisans, apart from the artisan, any three members can be chosen among spouse, children and dependents. The scheme covers both pre-existing and new diseases with a maximum overall coverage of Rs. 15,000 per year, of which upto Rs. 7500 can be used for outpatient treatment. The weaver/artisan can avail treatment without payment of any cash in a panel of hospitals recognized by ICICI Lombard or can get reimbursement of medical expenditure if incurred in other health facilities. Each eligible weaver/artisan family is provided a ‘health card’ using which treatment can be availed in selected health facilities without payment or


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expenses reimbursed if treated in other health facilities.

For handloom weavers, the premium contribution per weaver is about Rs. 988 annually, of which about Rs. 809 is contributed by the Government of India and Rs. 179 by the weaver or the State government on his/her behalf. However, the weaver is required to make a minimum contribution of Rs. 50 even in the case where the State Government bears the burden of weaver’s contribution. For handicraft artisans, the annual premium for the scheme is Rs. 897 per artisan per annum. Bulk of this is contributed by the Government of India. The handicraft artisan contributes only Rs. 200 in case of General category artisans and Rs. 100 in case of artisans belonging to the north eastern region, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes or artisans who are below poverty line. The rest of the premium burden is borne by Government of India.

Health Insurance for BPL (Below Poverty Limit) Population

The Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana

The Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana provides insurance coverage for certain hospitalization expenses and daycare procedures to the BPL population. Under this scheme a BPL family can avail free hospitalization care upto Rs. 30,000 per annum in selected private and public health facilities. A maximum of five members of a family can be covered under the scheme on a floater basis. Of Rs. 30,000, Rs. 1000 per annum (a maximum of Rs. 100 per visit) can be used for meeting transportation costs under the scheme. The scheme is implemented by insurance companies selectedthrough bids at the State level At present, enrollment of BPL families has been completed in 172 districts and is in progress in 65 districts across 23 States in India. The premium rate is estimated to be upto Rs. 750 per annum per family. The actual premium rates however vary between Rs. 449 to Rs. 697 per annum per family based on the bids submitted by insurance companies. The premium burden is shared between the Centre and the State in the ratio of 75:25, subject to a


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maximum subsidy of Rs. 565 per family per annum by GoI. For north-eastern States and Jammu and Kashmir, the premium burden is shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 90:10. Additionally, the Central Government also bears the cost of the smart cards at the rate of Rs. 60 per card. While the cost of enrollment and issuance of smart cards under the scheme is borne by the insurance company, the cost of setting up a State nodal agency is borne by the State Government. Although the beneficiary family doesnot contribute to premium, it needs to pay Rs. 30 per annum as registration fee.

Universal Health Insurance Scheme

Prior to the introduction of RSBY, the Universal Health Insurance Scheme was introduced in 2003 to provide health insurance to the BPL population. The scheme continues to be supported by GoI along with RSBY. As in RSBY, the scheme provides insurance against hospitalization expenses of BPL families’ upto 30,000 on a floater basis. Additionally, the scheme provides for a compensation of Rs.

25,000 in the event of death of the earning head of the family due to accident as well as compensation for loss of livelihood to the earning head of the family @ Rs. 50 per day up to a period of 15 days. Unlike RSBY, the premium rate of UHIS is only partially subsidized by the Government. The premium rate under the scheme is Rs. 300 for individuals (of which Rs. 200 is subsidized by GoI), Rs. 450 for a family of five (of which Rs. 300 is subsidized by GoI) and Rs. 600 for a family of seven (of which Rs. 400 is subsidized by GoI). Also, unlike RSBY, the premium is subsidized only by GoI and no contribution is made by the State Government.

The Family Welfare Linked Health Insurance Scheme

The Government of India has also initiated the Family Welfare Linked Health Insurance Scheme in 2005 to provide insurance cover against death and complications arising from sterilization procedure. The scheme was introduced as a modified version of the earlier scheme of paying ex-gratia to persons facing death or complications following the sterilization procedure. In the revised


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family welfare linked health insurance scheme introduced in 2005, a compensation of Rs. 2 lakhs is paid in case of death in hospital or seven days from the date of discharge from hospital following a sterilization procedure. In case of death following sterilization within 8 days to 30 days from the date of discharge from the hospital, a compensation of Rs. 50,000 is paid. In the event of failure of sterilization a person is provided compensation of Rs. 30,000 and for complications arising out of sterilization within 60 days of discharge, a maximum compensation of Rs. 25,000 is paid. Additionally, an indemnity upto Rs. 2 lakhs is paid per doctor or facility for at most four cases a year. The scheme is being implemented by ICICI Lombard at present. The premium paid by Government of India to ICICI Lombard is based on the expected number of sterilizations in a year. For the year 2010, premium per person (without service tax) for the scheme was Rs. 26 with an estimated 50 lakh sterilizations to be conducted in that year.

IV. Livestock and Sheep insurance

GoI initiated two schemes to provide insurance to cattle bearers and sheep breeders against income losses due to death of sheep and cattle:

The livestock insurance scheme

The livestock insurance scheme was introduced by the Government of India in 2005- 06 to provide insurance to ‘cattle rearers’ against income losses due to death of crossbred and high yielding cattle and buffaloes. Under the scheme, an animal is insured at its market price and the beneficiary is compensated by that amount in the event of death of the animal. The scheme is implemented through one or more insurance agencies at the State-level, under the supervision of the State Livestock Development Board and State Department of Animal husbandry. The selection of insurance companies at the State-level is based on premium rates offered through bids and their ability and exposure in providing specific insurance services. While in most States a single insurance company is selected,


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multiple insurance agencies have been selected in some States for providing insurance services related to the scheme. At present, the scheme is being implemented on a pilot basis in 300 selected districts across 27 states in India. The Government of India provides a 50 per cent subsidy in the premium for a maximum of two animals per beneficiary. In addition to the premium subsidy, the Government of India also spends on payment of honorarium to veterinary practitioners who are involved at the time of insuring and registering claims (at the rate of Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 per animal respectively).

The sheep insurance scheme

The Sheep Insurance Scheme was introduced by the Government of India in the 11th plan. The Sheep Insurance scheme provides insurance coverage against death of sheep in the age group of 1 to 7 years in the area covered under the Central Wool Development Board. The premium per sheep for the insurance is Rs. 44 of which Rs. 19 is contributed by the beneficiary and Rs. 25 by Government of India Against this premium, the insure is entitled to a compensation of Rs. 1200 per sheep

in the event of death of sheep. The scheme is implemented through the Central Wool Development Board and operated through insurance companies. The Oriental Insurance Company of India has been selected by the Central Wool Development Board to operate the scheme.

5. Performance of Insurance Schemes

The coverage has also been low for most life insurance schemes. In 2011-12, the scheme with the highest coverage among the life insurance schemes viz. the Group Accident Insurance Scheme for Active Fishermen covered only about a third of the targeted population. The scheme for Khadi workers had coverage of around 30 per cent, while that for handloom weavers around 20 per cent. For the other schemes, the coverage was less than 10 per cent.. The estimates of coverage for handicraft artisans were based on data on the number of handicraft artisans reported in the Joint Census of handlooms and power looms 1995-96. For handloom weavers, estimates have been based on the Handloom Census of India 2011-12. Estimate of coverage of khadi workers is based on


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the khadi employment figures reported in the Annual report of Khadi and Village Industries Commission 2009-10. Estimate of the total number of fishermen (male and female) was taken from the Livestock Census. Estimate of coverage of sheep breeders is based on data provided by the Central Wool Development Board and that of power loom workers is based on data provided bythe Office of Textile Commissioner Mumbai. In Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana, it is important to note that the number of rural landless households in the country is much larger than NSSO’s estimate, which is quoted by Government of India in this context. Studies have indicated that NSSO’s land and livestock surveys underestimate the proportion of landless households in rural India because of a methodological reason.13 As a result, in States like Andhra Pradesh where AABY is implemented in a major way, the number of rural landless households covered under the scheme is double the NSSO’s estimate of total number of rural landless households in the State.

In livestock and sheep insurance, the coverage was less than 9 per cent. In 2011-12, a total of 6.8 lakh cattle and buffaloes were insured under the livestock insurance scheme, which constituted about 3.04 per cent of the total number of female exotic and cross breed cattle and buffaloes in the 100 selected districts. Notably, as data on high yielding cattle and buffaloes are not available separately from the livestock census, the denominator includes all female exotic and cross breed cattle and buffaloes. Under sheep insurance, about 4 lakhs of sheep were covered by the end of March 2011, which constituted less than 1 per cent (0.7 per cent) of the total sheep population of the country.14 This coverage is estimated based on the total sheep population in the country based on the Livestock Census.

The coverage of health insurance schemes is relatively better. The Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) has been able to cover about 23 per cent of the total BPL households in the country (about 50 per cent of the BPL households in the implemented districts). The coverage


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of weavers under the health insurance schemes for handloom weavers and handicraft artisans under the Rajiv Gandhi Shilpi SwasthyaYojana is also relatively better. In 2011-12, the number of health cards issued to handloom weaver families, constituted about 55 percent of the total number of handloom weavers reported in the country. Similarly, under the scheme for handicraft artisans in 2011-12, the number of handicraft artisans insured constituted about 20 per cent of the total number of handicraft artisans employed in the handicraft sector. Estimates of coverage under the scheme for handloom weavers is based on data on the number of people associated with handloom weaving (full time and part time) reported in the Handloom Census of India 2011-12. The corresponding figures for handicraft artisans have been taken from the Joint Census of Handlooms and Powerlooms 1995-96. The Universal Health Insurance Scheme for the BPL population however, has a negligible coverage. In 2010-11, less than 0.9 per cent of the BPL population was covered under the scheme.

6. Conclusion

The study observed that Illiteracy and lack of basic schooling lead to problems in understanding the benefits of the scheme and the operational modalities in terms of premium requirements and submission of claims along with required documents, which in turn adversely affects the performance of the schemes. While the evaluation study on Bima Yojana for handicraft artisans indicated low awareness among handicraft artisans, the evaluation of health insurance for handloom weavers found that awareness is not an issue in the targeted group. Discussions with State-level officials also indicate that part of delay in settlement of claims is due to difficulties faced in terms of submitting the required documents, which arises at least partially from illiteracy. In crop insurance schemes, where beneficiaries need not submit claims, delay in settlement of claims is primarily due to the delay in the receipt of the yield data from the State based on crop cutting surveys and release of funds from the\ State Governments. Thus awareness camps


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on insurance to the mass are very essential.

References:

Mehrotra S. (2008), “Social Insurance System for India’s Unorganised Sector Workers: The Case and the Cost”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol.51, No. 2, 2008

NSSO (2006), Some Aspects of Operational Landholdings in India 2002-03, NSS 59th Round (January-December 2002-03), NSS Report No. 492 (59/18.1/3)

NCEUS (2007), Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007), National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector

NISIET, “Evaluation Study of Handloom Sector Schemes: Health Insurance Scheme,: National Institute of Small Industry Extension Training.

NPC, “Evaluation – Bima Yojana for Handicraft Artisans”, Economic Services Group, National Productivity Council, New Delhi Detailed Demand for Grants 2011-12, Micro Small and medium Enterprises, Government of India

Detailed Demand for Grants, 2011-12Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Government of India

Detailed Demand for Grants 2009-10 &2011-12, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India

Detailed Demand for Grants 2009-10&2011-12, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India

Detailed Demand for Grants 2009-10&2011-12, Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India


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Human Rights Education – Need of the Hour

Gunda Vedasri, Assistant professor, Adarsha Law College, and Research Scholar in Law Kakatiya University, Warangal

Abstract: An attempt is made in this paper to analyse the importance of human rights education in the present scenario. It brings out the experts views such as Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary General in this regards. The analysis focus and justified why the analysis is taken up with help of violations taken place even sixty years after its issue, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is still more a dream than reality. Regarding India, as illiteracy rate is more, people who do not go to educational institutions are remained unaware of their rights as born as human beings, and they should be educated at such places where they work.

Key words: Human rights, Universal Declaration, Violation, gender equality, fundamental freedom

1. Introduction

It is rightly quoted that “Without education, we cannot see beyond ourselves and our narrow surroundings to the reality of global interdependence. Without education, we cannot realize how peoples of other races and religions share the same dreams, the same hopes. Without education, we cannot recognize the universality of human aims and aspirations”.-United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan.

Human rights advocates agree that, sixty years after its issue, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is still more a dream than reality. Violations exist in every part of the world. For example, Amnesty International’s 2009 World Report and other sources show that individuals are:

Tortured or abused in at least 81 countries

Face unfair trials in at least 54 countries


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Restricted in their freedom of expression in at least 77 countries (www.humanrights.com )

These are the few human rights violations. Not only is that, but women and children in particular marginalized in numerous ways. As, only a few violation cases are coming to notice there are many other cases which have to be notices. Most of the people do not come forward because of unawareness of their rights which are protected.

In such a situation Human rights education is essential to active citizenship in a democratic and pluralistic civil society. Citizens need to be able to think critically, make moral choices, take principled positions on issues, and devise democratic courses of action. Human rights are highly inspirational and also highly practical, embodying the hopes and ideals of most human beings and also empowering people to achieve them. Human rights education shares those inspirational and practical aspects. It sets standards but also produces change.( www1.umn.edu/).

Learning is also essential to human rights activism. Only people who understand human rights will work to secure and defend them for themselves and others. Peter Benenson, who first envisioned Amnesty International, believed that if people knew about "the forgotten prisoners," they would be moved to action and that publicity campaigns based on accurate evidence would serve as the most effective means of embarrassing repressive governments and thus protecting their citizens. This idea has proved one of the great mobilizing forces of the late twentieth century. Educating the public through reliable, objective, and timely information is a principal strategy of organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.

2. Analysis of the paper:

According to section 2(1) (d) of the protection of the Human Rights Act, 1993, ‘human rights mean “the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by Courts in India”.


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The need for human rights education has been emphasized in the universal Declaration of Human rights and other international documents and treaties. Provisions from these instruments state that human rights education consists of efforts to build a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the moulding of attitudes. Such education should be directed towards.

- Strengthening respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms;

- Fully developing the human personality and its sense of dignity;

- Promoting understanding, tolerance, gender equality and friendship among all nations, indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups;

- Enabling everyone to participate effectively in a free society;

- Furthering United Nations activities for maintaining peace.

The UN's message is: Know your human rights. People who know their rights stand the best chance of realizing them. Knowledge of human rights is the best defence against their violation. Learning about one's rights builds respect for the rights of others and points the way to more tolerant and peaceful societies (www.hurights.or.jp)

Vast numbers of people are still unaware of their rights. While laws and institutions could in many cases defend them, people must first know where they may turn for help.

3. National Human Rights Commission of India: The National Human Rights Commission of India; the Indian Institute for Peace, Disarmament and Environmental Protection (IIPDEP); and many NGOs have launched a countrywide public information campaign for human rights. It aims to make everyone more conscious of human rights and fundamental freedoms and better equipped to stand up for them. At the same time, the campaign spreads knowledge of the means which exist at the international and national levels to promote and protect


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human rights and fundamental freedoms.

IIPDEP and many NGOs work to make school authorities and the general public aware of civic education. They focus on developing knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to apply fundamental human rights and freedom and, consequently, the non violent resolution of conflict.

4. The Right to Know Your Rights

The mandate for human rights education is unequivocal: you have a human right to know your rights. The Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) exhorts "every individual and every organ of society" to "strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms." Article 30 of the UDHR declares that one goal of education should be "the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms." According to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), a government "may not stand in the

way of people's learning about [their rights]."

Who needs human rights education? The simple answer is, of course, everyone. However, human rights education is especially critical for some groups such as -

5. Especially vulnerable populations: Human rights education must not be limited to formal schooling. Many people never attend school. Many live far from administrative centres. Yet they, as well as refugees, minorities, migrant workers, indigenous peoples, the disabled, and the poor, are often among the most powerless and vulnerable to abuse. Such people have no less right to know their rights and far greater need.

Only by working in collaboration with these vulnerable groups can human rights educators develop programs that accommodate their needs and situations. The techniques of popular education—music, street theatre, comic books, alternative media, and itinerant storytellers—can help to connect human rights to people's lived experience.


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Human rights can only be achieved through an informed and continued demand by people for their protection. Human rights education promotes values, beliefs and attitudes that encourage all individuals to uphold their own rights and those of others. It develops an understanding of everyone's common responsibility to make human rights a reality in each community.

Human rights education constitutes an essential contribution to the long-term prevention of human rights abuses and represents an important investment in the endeavour to achieve a just society in which all human rights of all persons are valued and respected.

A number of models are developed to impart the values of human rights education. Among the various models, the following three considered as the vital ones, to achieve the aims and objectives of human rights.

1. Values and Awareness Model: This model focuses on transmitting basic knowledge of human rights and to foster the integration into public values through a curriculum of educational institutions.

2. Accountability Model: This model focuses on the ways in which professional responsibilities to inculcate directly monitoring human rights violations and advocating the authorities to protect the rights of the people.

3. Transformational Model: This model aims to empower the individuals in order to recognize the abuses of human rights and their prevention.

These being the core concepts of human rights education, the UN have framed guidelines to propagate human rights through various methods and means both in the International and the National levels.

6. Human Rights Education in India

Education is a powerful means of influencing people and changing their attitudes. Unfortunately, the Indian education system has only recently begun to promote human rights.

Human rights studies in India became more important as increasing violations of human rights, cases of custodial violence, mass detentions without trial, bonded and child


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labour, and environmental degradation and the like were brought to the public's attention by NGOs, the media, and public interest litigators.

The work of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) became more high-profile contributing to this new ethos. The National Human Rights Commission of India; the Indian Institute for Peace, Disarmament and Environmental Protection (IIPDEP); and many NGOs have launched a countrywide public information campaign for human rights. It aims to make everyone more conscious of human rights and fundamental freedoms and better equipped to stand up for them. At the same time, the campaign spreads knowledge of the means which exist at the international and national levels to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. Human rights educators believe that a grassroots and indigenous orientation and a focus on local human rights problems are more important than projecting international human rights conventions and norms.

7. Conclusion

As many people do not know about their rights as human beings, they are in need of education and awareness of their rights and how they are abusing, how they can be protected and the authority to be approached when such rights are violated. In India there are many NGO’s working for promotion of human rights. Human rights are introduced as an optional subject for many academic courses. As illiteracy rate is more in India, people who do not go to educational institutions are remained unaware of their rights as born as human beings. Such people should be educated at such places where they work.

- For prisoners, a human rights camp should conducted in prisons giving awareness of human rights.

- For women, there are Self Help Groups (SHG) like DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas), APWCFC (Andhra Pradesh Women’s Cooperative Finance Corporation Ltd), SEWA (Self-Employed Women's Association) Velugu, Integrated Child development scheme (ICDS) etc. where large number of women


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gathers for some specific purpose and such place should be made as a platform at which the education of human rights can be given.

- Human rights education can be promoted through multi media like short films, news reals, television ads, through advertisement in daily news papers.

References:

http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/violations-of-human-rights/article-3.html

http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/hrhandbook/part1D.html

http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/human-rights-education-in-india-needs-and-future-actions.html


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Technology in non-Violence Culture: Gandhian Philosophy & Strategy

1. Dr.M.Ramesh Teaching Associate, Department of Rural

Development Dr.B.R.Ambedkar University, Srikakulam,A.P. 2. Mr.V.Mallikarjuna Rao Teaching Associate, (Environmental

Economics) Department of Economics Dr.B.R.Ambedkar University, Srikakulam

Abstract

Obviously, it is imperative that the technological process be brought within the moral domain of non-violence. The issue of rural diversification, in particular rural industrialization has attracted considerable attention in recent years as a critical component of rural transformation in the developing economies. Hence, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the role of technology in a process of rural transformation and Gandhi’s view of technology that who was by no means anti-technological. The paper concluded that Technology can be at the service of humans only in a non-violent culture because there it has to recognize fundamental human rights and respect the dignity of the human person. The many technological inventions expected in the next millennium must be judged according to whether they contribute to the development of the human person as truly free and creative. Absolute preference should be given to the alleviation of human suffering, to the eradication of hunger and disease, to the fight against social injustice and to the struggle for lasting peace. As in a society without love technology can become a monster, we are called upon to seek love above all else. In this, Gandhi, with his common sense approach to technology, can be relied upon as a sure guide for the forthcoming millennium Key words: Non-violence, technology, philosophy, Chlorofluorocarbons, Socio-Economic Impact, Sarvodayas


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1. Introduction

The issue of rural diversification, in particular rural industrialization has attracted considerable attention in recent years as a critical component of rural transformation in the developing economies. Hence, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the role of technology in a process of rural transformation. It is imperative that the technological process be brought within the moral domain of non-violence. Failure to do this will spell chaos and tragedy. We confront technology everywhere. Technology has come to stay largely and permanently the modern person is homo technologic. At the beginning of the 21st Century was astounded by how technology has changed the face of the earth and how it has revolutionized modern living. Science and technology are the new religions; they do wonders and perform miracles. If a person from a primitive society were to visit a modern techno polis, would believe that they were in wonderland. Very ordinary things of everyday use which we have taken so much for granted with a vanishing sense of wonder would appear

miraculous to the primitive person. For example press more and more buttons, more and more buttons, more and more things turn on and go zooming from domestic appliances to spacecraft. Rejoice, hopefully we will have many exciting technological inventions in the third millennium.

2. Experience of Technology

The first sentence of Aristotle’s Metaphysics reads “All men by nature desire to know”. Our innate curiosity has resulted in the advancement of knowledge in the arts and sciences. Our knowledge of the world has helped us to gain greater control over nature and to use nature for our purposes. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution in the West, life has become very comfortable as more and more goods are produced. Time-saving, labour-saving devices have increased out comfort. Technology today has entered every field of human activity. The immense benefits of technology have been a boon to humanity. The use of electricity, petrol, nuclear energy and so on has been the soul of modern industry and technology. Modern transportation and communications have accelerated the growth of


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technology. Jet-age travel and satellite communications have made the world shrink. Even an ordinary thing like moving around on a two-wheeler has tremendously contributed to faster, independent, personal mobility. The entire world has become a global village due to ultramodern transportation, communications media and computer global networking. Medical technology has contributed to the eradication, control and healing of diseases and to longevity. Biotechnology offers a host of marvelous and unprecedented opportunities in terms of human health and reproduction, agriculture, poultry, dairy, fishery and so on. The benefits bestowed on us by technology are numerous that it would not be an exaggeration to call technology a miracble worker. But at the same time we cannot desist from asking: At what cost have these miracles of technology been performed? In other words, given our experience, what is the negative impact of technology on human beings, nature and society? Therefore, we shall now turn out

attention to the adverse effects of technology1.

3. Impact of Technology on Environment

Technological growth has resulted in environmental decay and degradation. Excessive exploitation of nature threatens the environment. Poisonous gases emitted from factories increasingly pollute the atmosphere. In certain highly industrialized cities more than half the population suffers from respiratory diseases caused by pollutants in the air, if a person lives in a city like Calcutta for a long period they develops a lung disease called locally, ‘Calcutta lungs’, consisting of tiny holes in one’s lungs caused by the pollutants. Added to the industrial pollution of the air is the pollution caused by the motor vehicles which emit deadly carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. In a city like Bombay, half the pollutants in the air are emitted by motor vehicles owned by urban citizens.

Untreated industrial effluents are diverted into streams, rivers and the sea, which in turn are poisoned. Aquatic life is the worst hit by;


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industrial wastes, so much so that some species are becoming extinct. Industrial effluents affect the land too, damaging soil fertility and turning fresh water into salty water unfit for consumption dioxide into oxygen during the day, there is a limit to this capacity, beyond which they perish. As a result, we have noticed the extinction of some plant species. In some places excessive pollution causes acid rain, which in turn causes great havoc. In certain mining areas children are born with irreparable genetic damage caused by pollution. Industries and transport cause excessive noise leading to noise pollution beyond the acceptable level. Excessive noise harms people, causing deafness, blood pressure, hypertension, nervous disorders, irritability, headaches, insomnia, restlessness and, in some cases, even heart attacks.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) emitted by refrigerators in millions of homes goes up in the air and cause holdes in the ozone layer. The ozone layer is a protective layer in the atmosphere and prevents the ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth. Due to ozone

depletion ultraviolet rays of the sun have had harmful effects on humans and animals. Ultraviolet rays’ causes’ skin cancer in humans and it is reported that some animal species like frogs and turtles are vanishing in some countries due to depletion of the ozone layer. Oil tankers which spill oil into the sea destroy marine life. Mechanized deep-sea fishing too ruins marine life. Mercury has been found in the fish sold in the markets of some Countries.

Forests are disappearing at a faster pace due to the indiscriminate felling of trees. Environmental scientists tell us that the forest cover which is the source of rain and oxygen should be 30 percent of the total land mass of a Country. The Amazon forests are known as the lungs of the world, as they supply 70 per cent of the oxygen to the World. Deforestation causes both floods and drought. Soil erosion caused by deforestation leads to floods. Trees in the forest prevent soil erosion as the roots of the trees tightly hug the soil. With soil erosion, rain water flows down from the tops of the mountains without resistance and floods the plains. Drought in the summer, too,


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is caused by deforestation. Trees in the forest soak up the rain water in the bosom of their roots like a sponge and keep releasing it gently and gradually. That is why there are streams and brooks flowing even in the summer, in the absence of trees in the forests, nothing else can soak up water and release it gradually for the benefit of humans, animals and plants.

Hit by deforestation and pollutions, some species of fauna and flora have already vanished from the earth forever. The use of chemical fertilizers has robbed the earth of its fertility. Pesticides and insecticides have killed many animal species. Through the consumption of food grains chemical pesticide enter the human body to alter it genetically. For millions of years solar energy has been stored in coal or fossil fuels. Modern technology especially in developed nations’ uses colossal volumes of non-renewable fossil fuels. It is feared that the oil wells of Arabia will dry up in thirty years. At present there is hardly any evidence of the judicious use of fossil fuels, which are known to be highly polluting. The environment is threatened by

untreated waste. Heaps of garbage chokes the environment. Empty cans and polygene bags litter the area. Mountain-climbers all along Mount Everest leave behind garbage which threatens the fragile ecosystem of the mountains. Even in outer space, garbage in the form of about 30,000 disintegrated parts of spacecrafts life rockets and satellites orbit the earth and occasionally hit it. Nothing is beyond our reach to pollute: space air, water, soil, the mountains and oceans.

As technology advances, out habits, too, keep changing. For instance, instead of eating healthy food, people go for junk food with high chemical contents detrimental to health, Millions of gallons of soft drinks are consumed daily which do not contain even a single drop of natural fruit juice. Fast food is becoming more popular with the urban population who may not realize that fast foods are not equivalent to healthy wholesome food from the poison in the air, water and soil harmful chemicals have been detected in the milk of mothers though which it has enters human to cause genetic disorders.


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The existence of nuclear reactors is a matter of great concern for those who care for the earth. They produce cheap and abundant energy, but the problem is with nuclear waste. It is highly radioactive, and so far no safe method has been found to dispose of it. Nuclear waste from some developed countries has been dumped into the sea or soil of some poor nations after bribing their political leaders. The Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident is a great warning to humanity about the hazards of nuclear energy reactors, it is said that the nuclear reactors in India are already leaking, and the surrounding neighborhood is being affected by radioactivity.

We are concerned about another serious problem the greenhouse effect. The continuous emission of pollutants into the air increases global temperature. As global temperature increases, ice melts in the Polar Regions which in turn cause the sea level to rise. If the sea level rises, the sea will devour the land. About thirty Island nations of the world face the threat of being submerged in the sea after some years. It is said that at the present

rate of rise in global temperature the Island nation of Maldives will disappear in to the sea within some thirty years. The Association of Island States has appealed to the industrial states to scale down the level of pollution, but one wonders whether such an appeal will ever be needed. The greenhouse effect alters the seasons in the World, and the rhythmic functioning of nature is seriously impaired or interfered with so that the world climate is adversely affected.

Cities with a technological base attract more and more people from villages. The exodus from the rural to the urban areas results in the heavy pressure of the population in the cities. Consequently, in the cities of the developing countries we find overcrowding, sanitary chaos, and garbage, slums and shanties, polluted drinking water, and so on nearly half the population of these cities lives in slums under subhuman conditions. We are unable to check the exodus from villages to townships and cities.

The greatest threat from technology comes from highly sophisticated nuclear arsenals. The best brains of the World are pressed


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into the service of military technology. Huge quantities of deadly weapons are heaped upon the earth. Nations compete with each other in obtaining the most sophisticated arms. Humanity today is capable of global suicide be the entire human race can be wiped of the face of the earth anytime any day. The threat of nuclear holocaust looms large before us.

4. The Socio-Economic Impact of Technology

Technology has increased the wealth of the industrial nations; the more sophisticated the technology, the greater the accumulation of wealth. As the Industrial Revolution spread from England to the rest of Europe, those nations were in dire need of raw materials to support their industries. Colonialism was the outcome of such a need. Nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America were plundered for the sake of capitalism in the home countries of the colonial powers. This resulted in mass poverty in the colonies. Economic exploitation of the colonies was coupled with political ruthlessness so that the nations reeling under the yoke of colonialism had to struggle for

decades to be freed from the shackles of slavery and oppression.

Even after Independence from foreign powers these nations are still bleeding from the wounds of colonialism. We witness mass poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, malnutrition and subhuman living conditions in the so called developing nations, which are really poor nations. The wretched of the earth are found in these poor nations. With the globalization of economy these days there is a fresh threat of neocolonialism due to superior technology which is the key to greater power and wealth. Marxists are right in their observation that the owners of the means of production would have their welath multiplied even in their sleep. Technocrats rule the world today. Multinational corporations, backed by their governments, are the most powerful force in the world of today, and run the world as they deem fit.

5. The Psychological Impact of Technology

In the rich nations the technocrats have created techno polis in which the most important question


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regards the quality of life. In techno polis the ruling monarch is technology, which is soulless and faceless; hence automation, the mechanized characterize the life-style. The danger that the people will be uprooted from the soil, alienated from fellow humans, devoid of tenderness and joy, and steeped in drudgery and melancholy. This is due to being estranged from the healing powers of nature, from the warmth and simplicity of the people, from the ordinary and enriching pleasures of life which abound in social intercourse with good-natured people who love the smell of the earth, the feel of the air, rain and sunshine, and are passionately in love with the world. Techno polis can create psychopathic killers, nihilists and terrorists: excessive technology can ruin human nature and the joy of living just as, for example, themes media can enslave the masses by destroying their capacity for thinking.

The Northern Hemisphere with its excessive technology takes its toll in the Southern Hemisphere. Exploitation and unfair global trade practices leave their victims in perpetual subhuman conditions,

devoid of dignity decency and self respect. Life is an eternal nightmare for those condemned to live in utter misery. But can we blame technology for its negative impact, or are we to blame ourselves for the abuse of technology? What would Gandhi say about technology?

6. Gandhi’s Views on Technology

The focus of this research paper is Gandhi’s view of technology. Given his views, how would he visualize the role of technology in the next millennium? In some circles Gandhi is portrayed as an obscurantist, anti-technological and outdated. But a careful examination of his view falsifies such a portrayal. The ensuing passages have been gleaned from his writings. Industrialism is, I am afraid, going to be a curse for mankind. Industrialization depends entirely on your capacity to exploit, on foreign markets being open to you, and on the absence of competitions2.

True, industrialism has not banished poverty. Millions of people go to bed hungry and in conditions of incompatible with human dignity. Added to that, even life sustaining


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eco-systems have become fragile due to excessive and thoughtless modes of industrialization. Such industrialization can be termed a curse for humanity. Therefore, Gandhi maintains. “The future of industrialism is dark”3 and in the third millennium could reach the height of darkness unless priorities are rearranged.

Further, Gandhi holds: “Machinery has its place; it has come to stay. But it must not be allowed to displace necessary human labour”4. Gandhi rightly recognizes that we cannot do away with machinery, but it should not put people out of jobs and rob them of the dignity of labour, without which human beings cease to be human beings. This is what Gandhi calls necessary human labour. “That use of machinery is lawful which sub serves the interest of all.5

The use of machinery becomes unlawful when it is solely meant for increasing the profit of the owner of the machinery at any cost. Gandhi would reject anything that does not fit into his scheme of sarvodayas (welfare of all not of a few of many). “would favour the use of the most elaborate machinery, if thereby

India’s pauperism and resulting idleness could be avoided”6. Gandhi has a practical approach as he favour compel technology aimed at the eradication of poverty and the creation of employment. “Are you against all machinery?” Gandhi’s answer to this question is an emphatic ‘No’. “You are against this machine age”. To say that is to caricature many views. I am not against machinery as such, but I am totally opposed to it when it masters us. “You will not industrialize India?” and would indeed, in my sense of the term. The village communities should be revived.7

Gandhi was by no means anti-technological. But, at the same time and unlike Nehru, he not bewitched by ties power. He opposes the indiscriminate multiplication of technology, an obsession of the modern person, the technocrat the citizen of a teach polis: What I object to is the craze for machinery, as such. The craze is for what they call labour saving machinery. Men go on ‘savings labour’ till thousands are without work and thrown on the open streets to die of starvation. I want to save time and labour, not for fraction


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of mankind, but for all, I want the concentration of wealth, not in the hands of a few, but in the hands of all. Today machinery merely helps a few to ride on the backs of millions. The impetus behind it all is not the philanthropy to save labour, but greed. It is against that constitution of things that I am fighting with all my might8.

Gandhi is too correct in saying that machinery helps a few to ride on the backs of millions, as is true today of multinational corporations (The New Indian Express9 reports under the heading Microsoft bigger than India). The market value of Microsoft Corp touched $507 billion, about Rs.21,268 core on Friday, the first time ever any company has passed the half trillion dollar level. This value is much higher than India’s Gross Domestic product (GDP) of labour Rs.17,70,000 core,” Gandhi would relentlessly fight such a state of affairs. I am personally opposed to great trusts and concentration of Industries of elaborate machinery”. I opposed to machinery, only because and when it concentrates production and distribution in the hands of the few?

“You are right. I hate privilege and monopoly. Whatever cannot be shared with masses is taboo to me. That is all.10.

Gandhi was rudely shocked by the exploitative use of machinery by the English capitalist. He wrote in Hindi Swaraj: “It is machinery that has impoverished India. It is difficult to measure the harm that Manchester has done to use. It is due to Manchester that India handicrafts have all about disappeared.”11 In pain and anguish at the starvation and death of many villagers caused by British exploitation12. Gandhi wrote in Hindi Swaraj: “Machinery is the Chief symbol of modern civilization it represents a great sin”. A major component of his vision of Sarvodaya is preservation of the villages: The revival of the villages is possible only when they are no longer exploited. Industrialization on a mass scale will necessarily lead to passive or active exploitation of the villagers as the problems of competition and marketing came in. Therefore we have to concentrate on the village being self contained: manufacturing mainly for use. Provided this character of the village industry is


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maintained, there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.13

7. Alternative Technology

Alternative technology is very much in keeping with the spirt of Gandhi ever since E.F.Schumacher’s classic, small is Beautiful, was published14 and should becomes more relevant in the next millennium. Many people are dissatisfied with the technology we have, and would like to replace it with another, called “alternative”, more viable, appropriate, careful, frugal or participatory. Small group initiative than on societal mobilization it presents radical challenge to contemporary technological practice. Examples energy devices, agricultural practices and tools, transportation vehicles, and building design in which the emphasis is one hardware, but the attempt is to transform the organizational arrangement whereby technology is developed, controlled and delivered. They include cooperative organizations for medicine, farming, food delivery,

marketing, financial credit, communications, insurance, banking, and so on which, to banish the anonymity of city life, emphasize a re-emergence of neighborhood identify by tapping the artisan skills of various members of the community through “sweat equity” exchanges of services.15

Alternative technology groups insist that technology should follow two design norms: sustainability and democratic patterns of organization. The concept of sustainability leads to the selection of only practices that can be confined into the indefinite future. Some current industrial practices which proved air, water, fertile land and a stable climate now are recognized as interferingly with the regenerative capacities of the earth’s life-sustaining process will have to be drastically modified. Since the stock of fossil fuels and other materials is very limited, we need to develop an economic philosophy which would treat this scarce resource as capital, rather than as raw materials. Artifacts of the future should be made renewable materials that can be grown, not made from finite material stocks. The emphasis


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is on conservation and curtailing the flow of materials from manufacture to consumption.

Democratic management of technological enterprises is the second design norm of alternative technology groups; this call for decentralization of productive facilities into small, relatively autonomous units, which could be the only way to the realization of demorcratic self-management. Technology can be made more democratic in an additional way: “When technological tools and products are intelligible to the user, a new form of power results. The user is no longer at the mercy of a mysterious, alien object, but instead can adapt, repair, and thus preserve it. In this light the produce of flimsy, disposable objects becomes both irresponsible and politically suspect. “Finally, proponents of alternative technology hold “That in fashioning a technology the character of work it must be included as a design constraint, rather than a mere afterthought.” Schumacher has proposed that every job be required to meet three desiderate 1) a means to attain an appropriate existence: 2)

the enhancement of human skill: and 3) overcoming ego centeredness through joint participation in common asks. By these criteria a humanly repressive workplace is clearly immoral. Schumacher distinguishes between moral and immoral apparatus, with the distinction turning on whether the pace of production is under human or machine control.

The advocacy of alternative technology has come under severe attack. Some consider alternative technology as impractical since it aims at restructuring industrial practices which are deeply embedded in socio-political philosophies which define what reasonable goals of technology are. Others think of alternative technology as “an ill formed ideological movement, a kind of radical chic for generally well-educated dropouts from the integrated, capital-intensive society”. Yet others dismiss it for lack of feasibility. Alternative technology cannot be dismissed as a mere fad or impractical and impossible venture. Small is beautiful, especially when the local communities can look after and manage their needs on a co-


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operative basis rather than being recipients of consumer goods and services corporations, as huge heavy industries are the global sources of their income. If small is beautiful, electricity, for instance, can be produced through the use of biogas for every village, for which a centralized Electricity Board is not necessary. Through alternative technology, human sanity and ecological balance can be preserved, whereas large-scale industries and consumerism may eventually create a sick world.

8. Technology Assessment

The search for an appropriate normative basis for evaluating technology is conditioned by type of policy analysis known as technology assessment. This aims at a comprehensive picture of the factors involved in technological choices and directs attention to the broader social context that is affected, often unintentionally, when a new technology is introduced, or an existing one modified. Technology assessment is not a critique of technological means or ends, but a search for strategies for mitigating unwanted side effects.

Within the past quarter century, concern about the undesirable features of modern industrial technology have taken new forms. These challenges have gone beyond the already painfully obvious fact that twentieth-century technology, in concert with evil human intensions, has developed the capacity to obliterate our species. Instead, what is now being questioned are certain systemic properties of industrial technology itself, properties which, despite the good intentions of human actors, lead to unwanted and unanticipated results that are the threatening the species. Technology assessment originated in the U.S.A. and initially was concerned with the environment.16 Technology assessment reflected the fact that while technologies based on market economies were responsive to short-term consumer demand, some long-term results were beginning to be recognized which ultimately threatened life. Technology assessment was proposed as a new form of political analysis that would assist in the separation of negative impact that might occur when a new


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technology was introduced or an existing one was significantly modified.

Technology assessment certainly reflects disappointment with the contemporary technology of the industrial nations and is supposed to be neutral. Impact analysis performed by such technical experts as economists, scientists and engineers assumes that the identification of impacts is basically an exercise in scientific prediction. It is expected to predict what effects the introduction of a particular technology may produce through economic, legal, environmental, social political and technological means. Though it faces the danger of manipulation in as much as it is funded and potentially influenced by industrialists, legislators and policymakers, technology assessment has a proper positive role to play in the contemporary industrial world. Technology assessment and legislation are extrinsic to the intrinsic moral imperative; we must turn to the realm of values for further and more decisive understanding and handling of technological issues.

9. Revolution in Values

For Gandhi, without a revolution in values, humans will be ill-prepared to handle technology. We are already overpowered by our own inventions and lack maturity in our relation to them. One of the great problems of humanity is the wide gulf between our scientific progress and our moral progress. We have become materially richer, but morally and spiritually poorer. The human person lives in both internal and external realism: the former is expressed in art, literature, morality and internal and external realism: the former is expressed in art, literature, morality and religion, which the latter is the mechanical gadgets, techniques and instruments. Our problem is that the internal is lost in the external or, to paraphrase Thoreau that we have “improved means to an unimproved end”. The abundance of Western civilization has brought people neither peace nor serenity of spirit. Certainly science has been a blessing to humanity, but that does not mean we should minimize the internal and maximize the external dimension of our lives. Creative living in the modern world


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demands re-establishment of the moral ends of personal character and social justice lest we be destroyed in the misuse of the instruments of our creation. As Arnold Toynbee said, in the rise and decline of some twenty-six civilizations on earth, the decline has been caused not by external invasions, but by internal decay. Self-centered, consumerist societies may collapse prematurely if the technological process is divorced from moral practice.

The stability of global living calls for a revolution of values to match the revolution in science and freedom in modern times. The present increasing tendency to love things and use people must be reversed: things are to be used, and people to be loved. When machines, profit and property are treated as more important than persons, the trio of racism, materialism and militarism cannot be overcome and a civilization can easily disintegrate due to moral and spiritual bankruptcy. A genuine revolution of values means that our loyalties must become universal, rather than parochial. Each nation must foster an overriding loyalty to humanity as a family in order to

preserve the best in individual society. Moreover, the survival of human beings requires worldwide fellowship based on love of which all religions speak. As the supreme unifying principle of life, love is the key to understanding the ultimate reality and hence the fundamental reality of all creatures.

Love has to become the mode of daily life because we no longer can afford to hate or retaliate. History shows that hatred and retaliation bring only destruction. Arnold Toynbee remarks: “Love is the ultimate force that makes for the saving choice of life and good against the damning choice of death and evil. Therefore, the first hope in our inventory must be the hope that love is going to have the last world. There is a tremendous sense of urgency for humanity to choose between non-violent co-existence and violent co-annihilation before it is too late. This may be humanity’s final choice between destruction and community because of the very real technological potential of a nuclear war.

Moral bankruptcy gradually is eating into societies all over the world; today materialism engulfs


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humanity. Overemphasis on materialism in the form of a consumer culture weakens the moral and spiritual fabric of humanity. As materialism unchecked may swallow up our civilization there is an urget need to re-order our priorities. Life in its wholeness ought to be accepted and an integrated value system must assume its rightful place in society. Embracing a part, as if it were the whole, spells disaster. Clearly the physical is no substitute for the moral and the spiritual, for materialism certainly is not the whole of existence; hence, the need to restructure our priorities.

The essence of morality for a moral being is love through non-violence. The human person is neither merely a sensuous being of desires nor one of praxis, but a moral being. The human person is not a brute following the law of the animal kingdom the survival of the fittest. On the contrary, tolerance, the spirit of “live and let live” and ahimsa are bonds of love that bind people together. In a moral perspective, equality, justice and liberty are just political rights, but moral values

which insist more on duty and obligation than on rights.

In the history of philosophy, there has been a glorification of the human being as rational animal, not only in contrast but in opposition to non-rational nature. The conception which views the human being as “lord of beings”, rather than in truth the “shepherd of Being,”17 implies a challenging and dominating attitude towards nature which is regarded as the more stuff upon which to exercise the human will such an attitude leads not only to the ecological disruptions we perceive today, but to a truncation of the human experience.

Affirmation of the primacy of the moral leads to a recognition that human beings are primarily moral beings and as such not the master of the world, but its caretaker, steward and custodian. This requires humility on the part of humans. As rational beings they cannot treat non-rational nature at whim, for non-rational nature takes shelter in humans as moral beings. Human beings are called to respect the unity of life including the non-human. They are the spokespeople for the world, certainly not its rulers: the


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logic of domination has no place in the genuine thinking of the moral being.

Secondly, moral persons relate to the world with a great sense of moderation: they depend on nature for their livelihood and treats nature as finite and limited therefore, they exercise moderation in dealing with the world. As homo-technologies, they believe in science and the advancement of knowledge, they must use the world and do so with a sense of moderation. They do not run away from the world, or call for a halt to science and technology, nor do they believe in indiscriminate and endless exploitation of the world to satiate consumer greed guided by maximum consumption. Rather they believe in careful, guarded, moderate use of the world’s resources. The principle of moderation must guide the moral person who cares for the welfare of generations yet unborn.

Thirdly, moral persons are deeply aware of the fact that there are irrational people who reject rational behavior, which is bound to a moral sense. Irrational human beings are guided incorrigibly by passions to which the rational makes

no sense. When in control they turn the world into a hell, for they reject the rationality which is the “given” foundation for moral actions; when multinational corporations, power-mongers, chauvinists and racists pose a threat to the world, both physical irrational and immoral. This choice implies suffering and sacrifice without which nothing significant can ever be achieved. As “shepherds of being”, moral persons must protect beings from technological predators. Leaders of movements for environmental protection and for a safer and cleaner world must be eternally vigilant against the enemies of nature and money-mongers. Non-violent resistance must be adopted for such protests without fear or favour.

Lastly, moral persons perceive the contemporary technological threat to be rooted in and to originate from violence. Having driven God the creator out of the universe, humans have no respect for creation and would destroy nature. Creation experiences brokenness, because human begins themselves are in a state of brokenness which they impose on creation. Moral persons understand that violence has crept


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into the world in our thinking, in our attitude towards the other, in our interpersonal relations, and finally in our relations with nature, resulting in ecological catastrophes.

10. Technology and Non-Violence

Over powered by violence, the modern person has lost sense of justice, balance, respect and tenderness. Instead is filled with just for power, hatred, anger, ruthlessness and covetousness in a word, ‘wickedness’. The moral person has the tremendous task of transforming everything on the basis of non-violent, universal, unselfish love which alone can guarantee not only the survival of the world and the species, but also and more basically a joyful, meaningful and rich experience of life for humans.

In our increasing confrontation with the abuse of technology by the rich and the mighty, we need a powerful means to achieve a just, rational and human use of technology. As stated earlier, our technological practice is already rooted in violence. To counter this further violence cannot be employed

for violence to counter violence leads only to a vicious circle. Therefore there is but one strategy to adopt, namely, that non-violent resistance. It is imperative that the technological process be brought within the moral domain of non-violence: failure to do so will spell chaos and tragedy.18

One of the great virtues of non-violent resistance is that it reduces hostilities to a minimum. Non-violent coercion not only produces good will, but also offers the greatest opportunities for evolving communal harmony. It maintains moral, rational and co-operative attitudes amidst conflict; thus it increased moral forces rather than destroying them. Another important merit of non-violent resistance is its practicality, especially for an oppressed minority group. Non-violent tactics put enormous pressure on the governments and force those in power to act justly; they can be employed in all conflict situations. Moreover, non-violence is not merely a tactic but a moral imperative and way of life that seeks to restore the wholeness of a community by reconciling the oppressor with the oppressed. We need serious study


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and experiment with non-violence as a philosophy and strategy.

11. Conclusion

Technology can be at the service of humans only in a non-violent culture because there it has to recognize fundamental human rights and respect the dignity of the human person. The many technological inventions expected in the next millennium must be judged according to whether they contribute to the development of the human person as truly free and creative. Absolute preference should be given to the alleviation of human suffering, to the eradication of hunger and disease, to the fight against social injustice and to the struggle for lasting peace. As in a society without love technology can become a monster, we are called upon to seek love above all else. In this, Gandhi, with his common sense approach to technology, can be relied upon as a sure guide for the forthcoming millennium.

References:

1) P.T.Durbin, Philosophy and Technology (Dordrecht: D.Reidel, 1983)

2) Young india, 12 No., 1931.

3) Ibid. 12 Nov, 1931.

4) Ibid. 5 Nov, 1925.

5) Ibid. 15 April, 1926

6) Ibid. 3 Nov, 1921

7) Harijan, 27 Feb., 1957. See also Young India, 17 June, 1926.

8) Young India, 13 Nov., 1924.

9) The New Indian Express (Madurai Edition), 18 July, 1999.

10) Harija, 2 Nov., 1934. See also Young India, 24 July, 1924.

11) M.K.Gandhi, Hindi Swara (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1998)

12) This fact is recorded by Marx in his Capital, Vol.P.406. The English cotton machinery produced an acute effect in India. Marx quotes the Governor General who reported in 1834-35. “The misery hardly finds a parallel in the history of commerce. The bones of the cotton-weavers are bleaching the plains of India. “K.Marx, Capital, Vol.1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1986)


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13) Harijan, 29 Aug, 1936. See also M.K.Gandhi, Sarvodaya (Ahmedabad Navajivan Publishing House, 1984).

14) E.F.Schumacher, Small is Beautiful (Delhi: Rupa & Co, 1990).

15) See M.L.King, where do we go from here: Chaos or Community? (New York: Harper & Row, 1967). See also M.L.King, Stride toward Freedom (New York: Harper & Row.1953).

16) In the U.S. the National Environmental Protection Act of 1969 and the Technology Assessment Act of 1972 made technology assessment and

environmental impact analysis obligatory for technological project receiving government financing. Technology assessment policy is seriously viewed in Canada, Japan and Western Europe, with France, Germany and England taking the lead.

17) ‘Shephered of Being’ is a Heldegger an concept. See M.Heidegger. The Question Concerming Technology and other Essays. Trans. William Lovitt (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).

18) Martin Luther King. Why we cannot wait (New York: The New American Library of World Literature, Inc.1964)


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Micro Finance through SHGs Towards Empowerment of Tribal women:

A Study of Chintapalli Mandal in Visakhapatnam District Dr. V.Paradesi Naidu, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam,AP

Abstract

The earlier studies on the functioning of SHGs reveal that an in depth analysis of SHG scheme is very essential to find out whether such a programme is contributing for women enlistment economically and socially. In the study area, the selected SHG members are participating in the discussion on various developmental aspects to be organized by them. Majority of respondents participated in thrift (73.33 percent), family welfare and health campaign and Mahila mandal activities (68.69 percent), Prajapadam, pallebata (45 percent) and literacy aspects (57.78 percent) respectively. The findings of this study ultimately suggests that, In view of fast changing scenario in tribal areas, a vision for self reliance and urge for development has to be inculcated in tribal societies especially in the women folk.

Key words: Self help, vision, rural development, poverty eradication

1. Introduction

The Indian Government has been vigorously working for the empowerment of women in general, rural and tribal women in particular by launching various developmental programmes of which Development of Women in Rural Area is prominent

one. Therefore an attempt has been made to look through the impact of the above said scheme on alleviation of poverty of rural women. One such effort is the SHG scheme which was introduced in 1982 as a subcomponent of IRDP to accelerate the integration of women with the


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rural development programmes. The primary objectives of the SHG scheme are to focus attention on the women members of rural families below the poverty line with a view to providing them with opportunities of self employment as sustained balls. Later, SHG scheme has renamed as SHG programme and in India it is initially introduced in 50 selected districts. Later, it was extended to more districts in a phased manner.

1. Need for the study

The earlier studies on the functioning of SHGs reveal that an in depth analysis of SHG scheme is very essential to find out whether such a programme is contributing for women enlistment economically and socially. There is also a need to identify the loopholes in the scheme for making them operationally successful. The above analysis shows that SHG is an important programme to rural women and it is a boon to the rural women-folk. The studies in the context of working patterns of SHGs in the tribal areas of Visakhapatnam district are very few. On the other side the earlier studies have more gaps and not covered the determinants of productive activities

various independents and appropriate statistical tools to analyze the study.

2. Objectives and methodology

The need for tribal development programmes specifically for the development of tribal women is much imperative in the interior region like Visakhapatnam District. Hence an attempt is made in this study to evaluate the SHG programme in Chintapalli tribal Mandal of Visakhapatnam District. This study is based on both primary as well as secondary date sources. The Chintapalli mandal of Visakhapatnam district is selected for the study because it is one of the most tribal concentrated areas in the state. The selected mandal has high poverty, lowest female literacy rate, high birth and infant mortality rates, poor health status and concentrated with much extent of tribal population. Thus the Chintapalli mandal is a typical case for analyzing the social dynamic operating against the emancipation of tribal women through social mobilization and economic support and self-employment programmes.


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Secondary data on status of SHG program me in the selected mandal have been collected from annual reports of ITDA, Paderu.

To select the sample Multi Stage Random Sampling technique is applied in sample selection. From the Chintapalli mandal two villages Levidi and Gumma are selected. From each village 6 SHGs are selected. From each selected SHG ten member households are selected. Totally 12 SHGs from Chintapalli mandal are selected for evaluating the functioning of SHGs at group levels. For purpose of studying the impact of SHG on socio economic conditions of the SHG members 10 members from each SHG, a total of 120 households are selected by following the Multi stage, Probability Proportionate Sampling (PPS). Data was ascertained from each selected SHG member with the help of a structured questionnaire by Personal Interview method.

3. Analysis of the study

Functioning of Selected SHGs:

The center and state Governments have been implementing the SHG scheme with a

sacred objective of alleviating the poverty among downtrodden sections and women section of the society. In this study an attempt has been made to evaluate the performance of SHG scheme. More specifically an attempt has been made to study to what extent the scheme is helpful to increase the awareness of the tribal women in the Chintapalli mandal of Visakhapatnam district.

SHGs participation in Developmental Activities:

At the outset to assess the functioning of selected SHGs important aspects like participation of SHG members in various developmental activities, the level of, matching/grant/revolving fund drawn and amount fertilization particulars, amount repaid by the SHG members in the study area have been discussed. Along with thrift, the SHG/SHG has been giving priority to health, family welfare, literacy, and social awareness activities like convergence activities as a basic determinant of the families’ economic development and welfare. These activities also recognized by SHGs of Chintapalli mandal in Visakhapatnam District and the


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SHG members are playing very active role in various developmental activities like participation in Mahila Mandal meetings, craft centers, thrift movement, health & family camp, prohibition literacy complain, and Pallebata etc. in the study area.

It is noticed that, a majority of respondents participated in thrift (73.33 percent), family welfare and health campaign and Mahila mandal activities (68.69 percent), Prajapadam, pallebata (45 percent) and literacy aspects (57.78 percent) respectively. Among the two villages SHGs the proportion is relatively higher in Levidi groups ranging from 65percent in Mahila Mandal and in thrift (100 percent). In the case of Gumma groups the selected SHG members ranging from 23.33 percent in literacy aspects and 73.33 percent in thrift. It is also noticed that, the thrift activities have occupied a good position in all aspects of SHGs. Thrift concepts linked with bank linkage and bank loans. So it may be a reason behind well performance of the SHG members in thrift activities rather than in other activities. As a whole it is observed that, a major number of the respondents have

participated in village development activities for the free of cost and they consist of 61.17 percent of the total respondents.

SHGs Participation in Different Activities:

The selected SHG members of all the selected two villages participating in different programmes. It can be noticed that, the selected SHG members are participating in the discussion on various developmental aspects to be organized by them. Among the SHG members, majority of respondents discussed about thrift (73.89 percent), followed by family planning and health (60 percent), participating in the programmes like pallebata to place their problems before the administration (48.89 percent) ,literacy aspects (43.33 percent) and Mahila Mandal activities (43.33 percent). It is also revealed that the selected SHGs are viable alternatives to achieve the objectives of rural development and to get community participation in all the rural


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Financial Assistance received by selected SHGs from different sources:

SHG is a viable organization set up to disburse micro credit to the rural women for the purpose of making them enterprising women and encouraging them to enter into entrepreneurial activities. The women led SHG and SHG have successfully demonstrated how to mobilize and mange thrift, appraise credit needs, maintain linkages with the bank and enforce financial self – discipline. The drawn money by the SHGs may be used for productive and non-productive purposes. In tribal areas the families are very poor and they are unable to reach their daily transactions they needed money for, health, marriages, functions, cloth, education, house repairs, unforeseen distress, deliveries and maintenance of old age people child care etc. These people are depending more on moneylenders. SHGs attacking the situation and releasing money to their own needs taking into consideration the needs of respondents pushed them to draw funds from the financial institutions.

It is observed that the selected SHGs are able to tap Government support. The selected SHGs raised their resources to the tune of Rs. 88.235 as matching grant. But the above grant was kept with the concerned banks in the form of fixed deposits according to the Government rules. In recent months, by the pressure of SHGs releasing the money basing on the rate of saving and matching grant to income generating activities to eradicate middle men and bogus group formation in field, the authorities made a policy they released matching grant in the name of groups and kept with Banking institutions as the group avail credit linkage with the bank. Total amount of matching grant of SHGs is Rs. 1, 20,000 and drawn in 4 times. The drawn amount utilized for productive purposes and little portion of amount is also used to un-productive activities like family maintenance expenditure. The pattern of matching grant drawn during 1st to 4th times is registered as 44.71 per cent, 57.50% 70% and 45.83 percent respectively by unanimous decision of all SHG members. In the case of two villages, the proportion of the amount


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drawn during the said period, Levidi groups drawn higher compared to the two categories. It is ranging from 75 to 100 percent. Regarding Gumma groups the percentages indicating a fluctuating trend in the drawn position. The highest amount is drawn in the third time and later it is recorded to 35.50 percent

Utilization Patterns:

The concerned Banks have not able to release or accept to draw amount if the saving position of SHGs are not in good position and if they are not able to fulfill the required ratio with matching grant. It is found that Levidi groups are better in saving position in the study area. In addition to the matching grant, SHGs have bank linkage facilities. The concerned branches extended their support to SHGs in the form of credit advance. The three selected villages SHGs have receive the bank facilities but Levidi village stood in first place in utilizing the amount to income generating productive activities. The utilization pattern of bank finance towards productive and other purposes shows that from the total amount sanctioned to SHGs , only 67.91 per cent of amount is utilized in

various income generating productive activities viz; sheep rearing, vegetable cultivation and vegetable vending, jute based products, dairy, petty trade and agarbathi production. The proportion of amount utilized on the above-mentioned productive economic activities is 67.91 percent. Out of which 16.65 percentage of amount utilized on sheep raring, petty trade has occupied 9.56 percent of amount. The remaining amount is utilized for vegetable cultivation and vegetable vending (18.26), Jute based products (16.22%), Agabatti Production (11.28%) and Dairy (4.83%). Among the three village SHG members, large proportion of amount is utilized in Levidi (80.0%) when compared to Gumma..

Repayment Position:

Amount repaid by SHG members of bank loans including, Bank linkages, bank micro enterprises credit loan shows that the loan repayment performance of the SHG members out of the total amount taken by the groups is quite satisfactory, As a whole the proportion of amount repaid is 88.83 percent and the remaining 11.17 per cent is recorded as outstanding registered with the


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institutions. Among the selected villages SHG members, the proportion of amount repaid is sent percent in case of Levidi village groups where as the repayment of Gumma groups is recorded as 87.91 percent. Similarly the amount outstanding is recorded as zero in case of Levidi groups and 12.09 percent in case of Gumma groups. This situation explains that the proportion of amount outstanding is different from village to village. Low level of incomes, returns, high consumption may be attributed as the reasons behind the poor recoveries of loans in the Gumma village. It is observed from this study that the amount drawn by different SHGs in the selected villages shows that, the SHGs in Gumma village drawn finance from the banks on the name of productive activities and the amount are utilized for consumption purposes. The SHGs in Gumma are spending the loan amounts received by them for consumption purposes. Hence this study suggests the need for providing proper guidance and supervision to all the SHGs in the adoption of productive and income generating activities.

4. Conclusions & Suggestions:

There are several benefits being bestowed by the different activities under the SHG scheme. According to the study, the women respondents are receiving both the employment opportunities and the income under the scheme in the study villages. Among the villages, the respondents of Levidi are able to get more employment opportunities and incomes as the resources are available at cheaper rate for their activities when compared to other villages. Regarding activities, the vegetable marketing activity, kirana business activity and dairy activity under this scheme are providing more employment opportunities and incomes to the tribal women in the study area. The findings of this study ultimately indicate that micro finance is playing very vital role in the upbringing of the living conditions of tribal women. The findings of this study ultimately suggests that, In view of fast changing scenario in tribal areas, a vision for self reliance and urge for development has to be inculcated in tribal societies especially in the women folk. These


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vital changes can be accomplished by establishing thrift and credit societies. SHG groups have to be established adult literacy centers in all the interior tribal villages. The local organisations have to be empowered and guided properly in functioning and maintenance by women liaison workers and community coordinators

Based on the findings of this study, the following suggestions are made. In view of various problems faced by tribal women, empowerment of tribal woman is essential not only improve their quality of life styles but also improving the conditions of tribal families and tribal villages. In this regard the exploitative traditional hierarchical relations have to be replaced by empowered local institutions. The empowerment process encompasses social, cultural, financial, skill and knowledge empowerment. Unless all these vital aspects are integrated and greater vision is developed in local female population, the sustainable development among tribals cannot ensure. To promote awareness and to motivate the tribal women about SHG roles, literacy has to be carefully

formulated to suit changing scenario in tribal areas. To empower local tribal communities and traditional institutions, greater awareness has to be created among tribal women about sustainable exploitation of forest resources and eco development and for the effective participation of tribal women in the SHG activities it should be made as mandatory to all the Departments to introduce all the Government programmes through participatory management. Tribal women folk have to be imparted skills in exclusive groups in management of various development activities.

References

1. Agarwal. B (1998). Patriarchy and the modernizing state: An introduction; in Bina Agarwal (ed) structures of patriarchy: State Community and house hold in Modernizing Asia, New Delhi, Kalifor women, PP 1-28.

2. Batliwala Srilatha (1997) “ Empowerment women”, Seminor No:449, New Delhi, P-89.

3. GOI (1974), towards equality New Delhi.


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4. GOI (1999), 9Th Five Year Plan Document, New Delhi.

5. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2001 ‘Strategy paper on Women’s Empowerment’, Department of Women Development and Child welfare, Hyderabad.

6. Hall C.M. (1992) Women and Empowerment: Strategies for Increasing Autonomy, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington.

7. Hasan Zoya (ed) 1994, forging Identities: Gender Communities and the state, New Delhi, Kalifor Women.

8. Jet Buss maker and keep van Kersbergan; “Gender and

welfare states: Some Theoretical Reflection” in Gendering welfare states, by Diane Sainsbury, London, says Publication, 1994.

9. Kate young (1993) Planning Development with women: Making a world of Difference, Mac Millian, P-157.

10. Kosambi Meera (1997). “Gender Reform and Competing state controls over women: The Rakhmabai lax (1884 – 1988) in Social Reform, Sexuality and the state (ed by) Patricia Uberoi, New Delhi, Sage Publications.

11. Marilee Karl (1995) Women and Empowerment: Participation and Decision Making, London, Zed Books Ltd.


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Determinants and Indices of Human Development in Guntur District of

Andhra Pradesh

Dr. D.Thirupathaiah, Lecturer in Economics, S.K.R.B.R College, Narasaraopet, Guntur - district, A.P.

Abstract

The concept of development should extended to be more comprehensive and go beyond the mere material dimension of increase in per capita income, complemented by the non-material dimension like levels of education, status of health and access to basic amenities. The results show a wide disparity between the Mandals of Guntur district. The causes for disparities shows the need of hour to take necessary steps to improve literacy rate, health conditions and reduce per capita disparities among the districts of Coastal.

Key words: Human Development, capita income, Basic amenities, Disparities

Introduction

Many statistical investigations carried out in the western countries have shown that output increased at a much higher rate than can be explained by increase in physical inputs like labor and physical capital. The reason is that the quality of human beings as a productive source has been consistently improving due to improvement in education and health services, skills development etc. Therefore, side by side with

physical capital formation, human resource development has also been playing a useful role in economic development. In the recent, economists has shifted from economic growth to human development. It is fact that many of the developed nations are back ward in human development compared with the less developed nations. Thus, now the economics of all the nations are giving priority to human development along with GDP growth of the


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nations. In India, state level calculations have also taking in this regard. The accepted notion of what constitutes economic development has undergone a paradigm shift in recent times.

The concept of development has been extended to be more comprehensive and go beyond the mere material dimension of increase in per capita income, complemented by the non-material dimension (like levels of education, status of health and access to basic amenities).

Thus development, apart from income, relates to general well-being and economic capabilities of the people. Sen (1999) says that besides income and wealth we have reason to value many things which ensure real choices and opportunities to lead the kind of life we would value living. It is argued that development should facilitate every human being to live, as she/he likes: expanding the potential capabilities of every human being (HDR, 1990). He says that development is a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. Therefore, development can be seen in terms of expansion of the real freedoms where the expansion of

human capability can be seen as the central feature of the process of development. After consistent debates and discussions, this development approach has been converging with the notion of human development

Objectives

The main objective of this paper is to discuss and highlight the importance of human development in economic development with help of some eminent studies of philosophers and economists. Further, factors involved in measuring the HDI, GEMI, Guntur district coefficient of variations and its reasons have also discussed.

Methodology

Secondary source of information has used in the analysis. Coefficient of variation (CV) method is operated to find out inter state variation in HDI, GDI and Gender Empowerment Measure Index

Human Development Index

It is fact that human development is determined by many factors. Education including adult education, primary education, enrolment ratio of girls and boys,


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health indicators like infant mortality rate, birth rate, fertility rate, hospital deliveries, immunization etc. On the economic front, per capita income has also one of the important indicators in this regards. On the other hand, the human development index is a simple composite measure that gauges the overall status of a region in terms of three basic dimensions - long and healthy life, knowledge and decent standard of living - of human development.

long and healthy life: Life expectancy at birth

Access to knowledge: Mean years of schooling and Expected years of schooling

A decent standard of living: GNI per capita

Basing on the three parameters, human development has been measuring in the nations. These factors have also influences by different factors such as socio economic conditions of the area.

Following the methodology of UNDP and Centre for Economic and Social Studies (CESS), Hyderabad, Human development Indices (HDI) are

calculated for 360 households in 12 mandals obtaining data on the basis of field survey. The survey is carried out in 4 mandals in each of the three revenue divisions – Narasaraopet, Tenali and Guntur Divisions – by selecting two villages in each mandal. 30 households have been selected in each mandal from the two sample villages.

Human Development indices have been calculated for each household and an analysis has been made household-wise and mandal-wise and division-wise in order to examine the intra-district variations in Human Development. Also the Human Development Indices have been analysed for different caste groups both mandal and division wise.

An analysis of Human Development Index for different mandals and the respective ranks reveals wide variations. It may be observed from the data that Guntur mandal of Guntur Revenue division occupies the first rank with a HDI value of 0.724 followed by Narasaraopet mandal of Narasaraopet division which has (second rank) an HDI value of 0.705.


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Similarly, Kolluru mandal of Tenali revenue division occupies the third rank with a HDI value of 0.698 while the last three ranks are bagged by Bellamkonda, Nuzendla and Karempudi scoring HDI values of 0.641 and 0.647 respectively.

In other words two mandals from Narasaraopet and one mandal from Guntur revenue divisions occupy the last three ranks. Thus gross disparities are found in HD within each revenue division and also within the district. Simon Kuznets pointed out that this is an essential feature of a developing economy. Tracks of high levels of human development and low levels of human development are found within each of the revenue divisions in Guntur district.

Further analysis of PCI shows that the mandals of Bellamkonda Nuzendla and Karempudi are having index less than the district average. Similarly the mandals of Karempudi, Veldurthi and Nuzendhra in Narasaraopet division and Tadepalle and Bellamkonda mandals in Guntur revenue division are having education index less than the district average. This implies that a special strategy is

needed to develop education is these mandals.

The revenue division wise analysis of HDI reveals that the PCI index values varies between 0.608 of Sirigiripadu village and 0.799 of Narasaraopet the division average being 0.693. The education index varies between 0.548 and 0.647 for different villages and averages at 0.593for the revenue division as a whole. It may be observed that the villages of Petasannigandla, Voppicherla Sirigiripadu Kambampadu for having human development indices less than the division average indicating the need for special focus.

In Tenali revenue division the PCI is 0.725. the education index for the Tenali revenue division averages at 0.637 while Kuchinapudi, Balusulapalem, Kolluru and Muttupalli are having PCI less then the division average the villages of Kondavudi Balusudpalem Kuchinpudi and Nuhupalli have obtained education indices less than the division average. These villages may be given thrust in the overall economics development and


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specifically education development of education.

An analysis of Human development indices in Guntur revenue division shows a HDI value for the Guntur revenue division at 0.680. The villages Rajupalem, Kolanukonda, Bellamkonda and Bodanam have Human development Indices less than the division average. Similarly the villages of Rajupalem, Kolanukonda, Bellamkonda and Bodanam have less than the division of PCI while the villages of Rajupalem, Kolanukonda, Penumaka and Bodanam have less than the division average index.

The caste-wise Human development for the three revenue divisions have recorded considerable differences in the HDI values across three revenue divisions. It is to be noted that in all the three revenue divisions Open Category households obtained first rank of Human Development followed by Backward Class households, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe households respectively. It is pertinent to note that not only the households belonging to BCs, SCs, and STs are lagging behind in that order

compared to the OC households. The HDI scores of SC and ST households are much below the divisional averages which needs to be corrected through a suitable policy by the district authorities. The HDI analysis among different mandals revenue divisions and different caste groups reveals wide disparities in Human Development in Guntur District. This may be due to disparities in income levels and levels of educational attainment.

The indices of HD revenue division - wise obtained on the basis of field data reveal that the Tenali division is faring better than Guntur and Narasaraopet divisions in that order by having values 0.687, 0.680 and 0.662. Similar variations are also evident with reference to PCI and education index. This implies that there is a need to improve the HD in the revenue divisions of Narasaraopet and Guntur, by initiating more economic development projects.

Determinants of Human Development

Though HD is a comprehensive term encompassing the level of income, education and


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health conditions of the people and at the same time it is a complex phenomenon. It is influenced by various factors like heredity, social environment, caste, religion, sex, income levels, education levels, medical and health facilities, drinking water, housing facilities, freedoms of various types which are necessary for the well being and dignity of the people. But all these factors are not quantifiable to be used in an analytical and empirical study. Therefore, the UNDP, the Planning Commission in India and several research organizations have estimated HD indices and indentified the determinants of HD in the framework of the three dimensions of HD viz., per capita income, literacy and life expectancy. In view of the existence of considerable differences in HD indices at mandal, revenue division and district levels in Guntur district, an attempt is made to identify the determinants responsible for these differences by using a regression dummy variable model. In this model the HDI is hypothesised to depend upon both qualitative and quantitative factors. Education Index, Income Index and >60 population are

chosen as quantitative variables and caste and drinking water facilities are taken as qualitative variables. For the qualitative variables of caste and drinking water facility OC and tap water variables are chosen as benchmark categories and all the other caste (BC, SC and ST) and drinking water variables (bore-well, well) are compared with these variables etc., On a priori it is expected that positive and increasing values of these variables in the regression analysis indicate increased importance and is considered as a determinant of HD. The analysis has been carried out for all the 12 sample mandals, three revenue divisions and for the District. The results of the determinants analysis are presented below.

The empirical analysis at mandal level reveals that education and income variables have emerged as important determinant of HD in almost all the 12 sample mandals. >60 years population variable has emerged as significant only in Veldurthi and Ponnur mandals and has becoming insignificant in the remaining mandals. This implies that health dimension needs to be


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improved in all the 10 mandals other than Veldurthi and Ponnur mandals. The caste variable BC has emerged as a significant variable in Nuzendla, Cherukupalli and Bellamkonda mandals while the SC factor has become a significant determinant in Nuzendla mandal only. The ST factor has become significant factor of HD in Narasaraopet, Veldurthi, Ponnur Cherukupalli Kollur, Nizampatnam and Pedanandipadu mandals and has become insignificant in Karempudi, Nuzendla, Guntur, Tadepalle and Bellamkonda mandals. The variables of Bore-well, well water not been significant determinants of HD in any of the 12 mandals. The only exception is Ponnur mandal in which well water has become a significant determinant.

The empirical analysis at the revenue division level reveals that education and income variables have emerged as significant determinants of HD in all the three revenue divisions. The variable >60 population has become an insignificant factor in all the three revenue divisions.

In all the three revenue divisions the castes of SC and ST have become significant while the

variable well water is significant only in the Guntur division while insignificant in the other two revenue divisions. This implies in order to improve HD in Guntur district protected safe drinking water facility needs to be provided.

The results of the empirical analysis at the district level reveal that the education and income variables have become significant determinants while the variable >60 years population has become insignificant. Similarly the quantitative variables of BC, SC, and ST caste have emerged as significant determinants while the water variables have become insignificant. This implies that the district needs to provide more and more medical and health and drinking water facilities to increase the HD further.

Policy Suggestions

The following suggestions are made in view of the findings of the study.

1. The study reveals that several households in some sample mandals have obtained incomes less than 20000 per annum. As income is considered to be a an


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important indicator that influences Human Development, it is to necessary augment the income levels of these households by providing wage employment opportunities as well as encouraging them to participate self help-groups.

2. It is necessary to apply corrective measures through public expenditure programmes in all the backward mandals in view of the glaring disparities found in the study across mandals. The mandals of Nuzendla, Bellamkonda and Veldurthi need special attention.

3. Similarly, the target group approach with regard to implementation of governmental projects benefits the SC and ST households in view of substantial disparities in social-economic indicators comparative to the other communities in the district.

4. More than 64 per cent of the households depend on agricultural and allied activities. This may be the reason for the low level of household’s incomes in some of the backward mandals. Non-

agricultural activities such as small scale and tiny industries, agro-based and food processing units may be encouraged in these areas.

5. The proportion of BC, SC and ST communities the employment of organized sector is less in comparison with OC communities. The government and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) can undertake skill developed programmes targeted at these communities so that they would get more opportunities.

6. A large proportion of households belonging to BCs, SCs and STs are deprived of the basic minimum household amenities. There is a need to empower these communities especially STs by undertaking income and employment generating programmes.

7. It has been observed in the field study that there are no schools for primary and secondary education level in the some villages in the mandals of Nuzendla, Bellamkonda and Veldurthi. As a


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result the households are not sending their wards. Therefore at least primary schools need to be established which will increase the enrolment ratio in those backward mandals.

8. In view of the glaring intra-district Human Development Indices, it is necessary to gear up the provision of rural amenities in the mandals of Bellamkonda, Veldurthi, Karempudi, Nuzendla by channeling more funds.

References

Dev, Mahendra (2001): ‘Social Mobilization for Getting Children out of Work and into School: Impact of MV foundation Activities ’ , Evaluation Report of

the UNDP/NORAD supported MV Foundation Project, March.

HRD report (2007), published in 2010, Prepared for Government of Andhra Pradesh, by Centre for Economic and Social Studies

Rajan, S. I. and P. Mohanachandran (2007) District Level Infant Mortality Rate Estimates for Andhra Pradesh in 2001, Background paper, Andhra Pradesh Human Development Report, CESS, Hyderabad.

Sen, A. K (1999) Development as Freedom, O U P, New Delhi.

UNFPA (2007) State of World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth, United Nations Population Fund.


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Mark Cubbon’s Initial Endeavours at Modernizing Mysore and Administrative Strategies

Dr. Puttaraju .K, Lecturer in History, Sri M.V Post Graduate Center, Mandya District, Karnataka

Abstract: An attempt is made in this paper to discuss the Administrative Strategies of Mark Cubbon which led to modernizing Mysore. Early Life & Career and Economic Impact of his efforts have briefly analyzed. In the conclusions it is mentioned that he was considered as pioneer in commencing administrative, economic, judicial reforms in Mysore which helped Mysore later on to earn the epithet of a model state.

Key words: Administration, strategies, Endeavors, modernizing, British army, bureaucrat, East India Company's

Introduction:

March of Mysore towards modernity was seeded during the commissionership of Mark Cubbon. As an administrator & a proficient bureaucrat he was able to breathe in several administrative reforms in Mysore which later on became a legacy. Mysore was modeled & nurtured to devise its own administrative setup during his period. He encouraged & shifted the capital from Mysore to

Bangalore, helped reform the finances of Mysore, and created a peaceful and prosperous government. This paper focuses on the key areas of Mark Cubbon’s administrative strategies & their impact on Mysore. The present paper spotlight on the several administrative works of Mark Cubbon which helped in becomes model state Mysore. Cubbon restructured the government of Mysore, helped reform its finances, and created a peaceful and prosperous state.


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Early Life & Career

Mark Cubbon was a British army officer with the East India Company who became the British Commissioner of Mysore state in 1834. He retained this office until 1860.Cubbon was born at the vicarage of Maughold, Isle of Man, the son of Vicar Thomas Cubbon and Margaret Wilks. He arrived in Calcutta in the summer of 1801, as a cadet. He soon gained an appointment to the 2nd Madras Battalion, and in July 1804 to the 2nd Battalion 5th Native Infantry, serving with the Field forces commanded by Col. Chalmers in Travancore. Cubbon had great admiration for the Sepoys and respected their religious views.

By 1809 he had secured a civilian appointment in the East India Company's administration in 1827 Cubbon succeeded Sir William Morrison as Commissary-General, and in 1831 served as Commissioner to inquire into the Mysore rebellion. He was appointed Colonel in the same year. In 1834 the Governor-General of India, William Bentinck, in pursuit of fiscal efficiency, appointed Cubbon as Commissioner of Mysore state.

Cubbon restructured the government of Mysore, helped reform its finances, and created a peaceful and prosperous state. Cubbon is credited with the construction of over one thousand miles of roads, hundreds of dams, coffee production and improvements in the tax and revenue systems. Mark Cubbon remained in the post till 1860, a period which included the 1857 rebellion, during which time he had the assistance of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III in keeping affairs under control. He strongly resisted an attempt by the British administration in 1860 to shift the centre of administration to Madras, resulting in the proposal’s being withdrawn. Cubbon resumed duties as Commissioner, but resigned owing to a sudden and severe illness the next year. Soon after, he went to Madras to board a ship back to England .He died en route.

Mark Cubbon is known for his excellent handling of the kingdom. He made Bangalore the capital and divided the princely state into 4 divisions, each under a British superintendent. The state was further divided into 120 taluks with 85 taluk courts, with all lower level


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administration in the Kannada language. The Amildar was in charge of a taluk to whom a Hoblidar, the caretaker of a Hobli comprising a few villages, reported. The office of the commissioner had eight departments; revenue, post, police, cavalry, public works, medical, the animal husbandry, judiciary and education. The judiciary was hierarchical with the commissioners' court at the apex, followed by the Huzur Adalat, four superintending courts and eight Sadar Munsiff courts at the lowest level.Mark Cubbon is credited with the construction of over one thousand miles of roads, hundreds of dams, coffee production and improvements in the tax and revenue systems.

Economic Impact

The colonial government made institutional changes in agriculture by transforming traditionally circumscribed property rights into unencumbered private property characteristic of Western capitalism. The beneficiaries of these new rights varied in different parts of India. Improvements in transport services & facilities helped agriculture by permitting some

degree of specialization on cash crops. This increased yields somewhat, but the bulk of the country stuck to subsistence farming. Plantations were developed for indigo, sugar, jute and tea. These items made a significant contribution to exports. The laying of first railway line initiated during the regime of Commissioner Mark Cubbon, started functioning from 1864, when Bowring was the Commissioner. He was also responsible for the construction of new roads exceeding 2560 km in length.Coffee plantations, also started by him covered over 1.50 lakh acres. The work for public works demanded his attention & he founded the Public Works and Forest Departments. In order to District Savings Bank were started in Princely Mysore in 1870. Dewan Rangacharlu got the Bangalore-Mysore meter gauge rail line ready by 1882, by spending a sum of Rs.55.48 lakhs.

Diwan Purnayya raised a dam across the river Cauvery at Sagarakatte to improve irrigation facilities.The colonial government made some contribution towards increased output through irrigation. The irrigated area was increased


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about eightfold, and eventually more than a quarter of the land of British India was irrigated. Irrigation was extended both as a source of revenue and as a measure against famine. The work on the line was started as famine relief during the severe famine of 1876-78, which took the toll of one million lives in Mysore State alone.

Sheshadri Iyer who initiated gold mining in Kolar region in 1886, created the Departments of Geology (1894), Agriculture (1898), and launched the Vanivilasa Sagara Irrigation Scheme in Chitradurga district. The Shivanasamudra Hydro-Electric Project, which supplied power to Kolar Gold Fields in 1902, later, also provided Electricity to Bangalore city in 1905 and for Mysore in 1907, was the first major project of its kind in India. Although it is interesting to note that in 1887, a Hydro Electric project was started at Gokak in a small scale. India was the first country in Asia to have a modern textile industry, preceding Japan by twenty years and China by forty years. Cotton mills were started in Bombay in 1851, and they concentrated on coarse yarns sold

domestically and to China and Japan; yarn exports were about half of output.

Conclusion

Mark Cubbon was a good administrator & a proficient bureaucrat who ably breathed freshness by initiating several administrative reforms in Mysore which later on became a legacy. Mysore was modeled & nurtured to devise its own administrative setup during his period. He encouraged & shifted the capital from Mysore to Bangalore, helped reform the finances of Mysore, and created a peaceful and prosperous government. Thus, He was considered as pioneer in commencing administrative, economic, judicial reforms in Mysore which helped Mysore later on to earn the epithet of a model state.

References:

Bhagavan, Manu (2008), "Princely States and the Hindu Imaginary: Exploring the Cartography of Hindu Nationalism in Colonial India", The Journal of Asian Studies 67 (3): 881–915,


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Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) -A Concise History of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books.

Shastri, K. N. Venkatasubba (1932)- The Administration of Mysore under Sir Mark Cubbon (1834–1861). London: George Allen & Unwin


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Reflections on Defense Structures in South India – The Historicity of Fort of Srirangapattana through the Ages

Lingaraju, Asst. Professor in History, Government College (Autonomous) Mandya, Karnataka

Abstract

This paper analyses the historicity of Srirangapattana, an island fort city through the ages. The place was subjugated by several dynasties. It owns the perfect boundary disposition. It had a river running through the area, a strategic balance of elevation for forming a jaladurga as evinced in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. It was the most planned & designed forts of India being known for its inaccessibility. It served as a military bastion. It defended the enemy marches successfully. It was built, renovated, rebuilt & restructured from time to time. But each time the fort was strengthened. The fort has a double wall defense system, which is what makes it impenetrable. The legendary Tipu Sultan's residence was inside this fort. Hence, it is also known as Tipu Sultan Fort. The changing fortunes of this island fortress found a champion in Tippu Sultan who made it one of the strongest forts in south India, and secured for it a treasured place in the history of Indo-British wars. Major Dioram of the designing British army in 1792 exclaimed this insulted metropol must have been the richest, most convenient and beautiful spot possessed in the present age by any native prince in India.

Key words: Fortress, Strategy, Planning, Military Safeguards, Bastion.

Introduction:

The fort city of Srirangapattana was subjugated by

several dynasties which lead to its growth as a fortress city. It owns the perfect boundary disposition. It has a river running through the area, a


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strategic balance of elevation for forming a jaladurga as evinced in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. It was one of the most planned & strategically designed forts of India being known for its inaccessibility. It served as a military bastion for rulers of dynasties ranging from Hoysalas to Tipu sultan. It was operated as a frontrunner security center. It had defended the enemy marches successfully since centuries. It was built, renovated, rebuilt & restructured from time to time. But each time the fort was strengthened to defend the territorial possessions with manifest dignity. But today the fort has become a remote desolated region with people vandalling it without even knowing the invaluable historicity of the fort.

The Historic Background

Srirangapattana is located in Mandya district of Karnataka state in the course of River Cauvery. The island measures approximately 5 kilometers east to west and 1.5 kilometers south to north. Near this town, river Cauvery divides into two branches called North and South Cauvery creating the central land mass as an Island. This Island is

called Srirangapattana after the presiding deity of the place Sriranganatha. A little upstream, the river Cauvery deviates to west before it creates the island and called Pashchimavahini. It is a well-known place of pilgrimage and the people of Southern Karnataka visit the place to perform the final rites of the deceased. There is a check dam in the dividing part of this river which was built by Ranadhira Kanthirava Narasaraja and excavated a channel called Bangaradoddi Nale. For a short distance it runs along the South bank and irrigates the southern part of the island right up to Sangam or Lalbagh. The fort is situated in the western part of the island. Except Dariya Daulat Bagh, Gumbaz and a few other monuments constructed after 1799 are situated outside the fort; the major monuments are within the fort area.

Traditional Background

According to the Mythological tradition, the great sage Gautama lived here and worshipped Lord Sri Ranganatha Swamy. Even today, a small island to the west of the main island is called Gautama Kshetra in commemoration of this visit. The


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local tradition associate this place with a natural cave where Gautama did the penance was also here. According to another tradition the principal deity of Sri Ranganatha Swamy temple of Srirangapattana was built by one Devadasi namely Hambi. This is referred in one of the works of Timmakavi, namely Pashchima Rangakshetra Mahatyamam. Hence this place has mythological legend linked with it.

Literary Evidences

The history of Srirangapattana commences from the 9th Century A D as revealed in the record of a Ganga chief namely, Tirumalaiah. The record is dated 894 AD which credits the Ganga chieftain namely Tirumalaiah, founded two temples - one dedicated to Sri Ranganatha Swamy and the other to his sanctified deity Tirumala Deva, and named the place as Srirangapura which was later identified as Srirangapattana. A record of Sri Ranganatha Swamy temple states that grant was given by the Hoysala king Ballala II to the Brahmans who formed an agrahara or an educational center here called as Tiruvaranga Narayana Chaturvedi Mangala at

Srirangapattana. There are references to state that Udayaditya, the brother of Vishnuvardhana, built the town in 1120 AD.

Fort during Hoysalas

The fort at Srirangapattana was built by Hoysala Udayaditya brother of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana around 1120 AD After the fall of Talakadu, it was necessary to build strong military reinforcement to stop the recapturing of this region by the Chola military forces. Hence Hoysala kings oriented towards fortification of their southern territorial boundaries & this fort was the result of such a political vision. The fort was held as a strategic strongpoint till the Hoysala rule which ended in 1346 A D.

Fort during Vijayanagara Empire

After the fall of Hoysalas this region came under the sway of the ambitious Vijayanagara Empire. The literary references on the history of Mysore, states that Timmanna Hebbar ,a descendant of Nagmangala chiefs, visiting the court of Vijayanagara King Devaraya , obtained a royal order to build the fort at Srirangapattana. Then, he was


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designated as Dandanayaka and ruled the region as feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire. Later on the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya attacked this fort to subdue the rebellious chiefs of Ummattur. His attack on this region concluded between 21st January 1511 and 3rd November 1511. He also appointed a governor at Srirangapattana province. After the attack it became the seat of the Viceroy of Vijayanagara kingdom. From then on, the fort was ruled by the viceroys of Vijayanagara kingdom up to 1610 CE, when Raja Wodeyar took over its possession.

Fort during Nagamangala Chiefs

The descendants of the Hebbar family of Nagamangala seems to have continued to rule the region until the Ummattur chiefs rose to power and annexed it to their territory.

Fort during Ummattur Chiefs

The Srirangapattana city along with its adjacent region was captured by the chiefs of Ummattur and they further strengthened the fortresses. During the reign of Immadi Raya of Ummattur his sons divided their ancestral estate. The

elder kept the family seat Ummattur with independent territory and the younger was ruling from Srirangapattana and its neighborhood. Srirangapattana was attacked by Salva Narasimha Nayaka (1485-1503 A.D.) the king of Vijayanagara who defeated the Ummattur chiefs and subjugated the Srirangapattana fort.

Fort during Wodeyar Kings

In 1610 AD when Thirumala Raya, was the viceroy at Srirangapattana, the ruler of Mysore, Raja Wodeyar, invaded the fort and captured it. Some sources say that the capture of Srirangapattana by Raja Wodeyar was without military action. According to some reliable sources Raja Wodeyar had an official royal order Rajanirupa to occupy the vice regal seat at Srirangapattana. In 1610 CE Raja Wodeyar started his rule as a subordinate king of the Vijayanagara kingdom. An inscription of Raja Wodeyar states this fact. Since then , Srirangapattana continued as the capital of Mysore & the fort remained as priced possessions of the Wodeyar kings until Hyderali seized the throne from Wodeyars. Between 1610 and 1799


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CE, Srirangapattana was busy with political activities, especially during the period of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, i.e., between 1761 and 1799 CE, it was the centre of South Indian political activity. Then early ruler of the Wodeyar family and in 1654 CE, Kanthirava Narasaraja had strengthened the fort and made provisions within the fort to store the fundamental items for the public and stationed an army for political emergency.

The Fort under Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan being very ambitious in his fight against the mighty British East India Company turned his attention to the strategic defense of the country. He renovated the fort and constructed gateways with the help of French engineers.

The Fort

Srirangapattana fort was probably a mud fort at the beginning which was later turned to inaccessible water forts with the escalation in political activity in this region. The region Srirangapattana could house this fort because the region was well-protected by the river Cauvery on all sides. The fort is now confined to the

Western part of the island and it has an area of about 5 square kms. Since, it is surrounded by the river Cauvery the fort may be classified under Jaladurga class of forts .There are square or rectangular or oblong bastions, guarded by batteries. Each bastion is named after important persons, e.g., the bastion above the dungeon was called Sultan Bateri and a bastion in the South-East corner of the fort, is called Kaalegaudana Bateri. In the absence of epigraphical evidences, it is very difficult to identify the names of other bastions.

The Fort Walls

The fort walls of Srirangapattana are built robustly. The first and second enclosure walls from the outer side were protected by tight stone casing. These walls are very thick which is measured in meters. The third or innermost wall is designed differently like a right angle triangle. The outer face is protected by stone wall and in the inside mud ramping is done. It has a considerable slope to move loaded cannons to the top. At the top of the inside fort wall there is a 2 to 3 m. wide platform made of natural pebbles and lime mortar and a


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parapet wall with provision to employ cannons and long rifles. These portions of the fort walls were built of brick and lime mortar.

Defense Features

The fort of Srirangapattana exhibits the best defense features like fort design, bastions and fortification method. It is very interesting to note that the fort has three man-made moats in the southern and eastern directions, whereas in the North and West, it has only two man-made and one natural moat. In other words the river Cauvery functions as the third moat in the North and West. The first fortification in the North and West was erected just on the bank of river Cauvery, and damaged due to floods and human defacement. The fort was one of the unconquerable forts of India. It was considered as the second strongest fort in India.

Fort Gateways

The fort has six gateways and among them two gates are very important, namely Aneya Bagilu or Anekote Bagilu which means Elephant Gate. It is situated in the Southern walls of the fort and the Bangalore or Ganjam Gate is situated

in the Eastern enclosure walls of the fort. The relevance as well as a brief reference to Gateways is emphasized. The Mysore Gate or Elephant Gate- It is known as Anekote Bagilu in the local tongue. It was constructed in 1791 CE, by Tipu Sultan to enter the city on the back of elephant, sitting in the howdah. Actually the entrance had three Gates, each one in three enclosure walls. All the three gates had proper links to pass through. These gates were made of stone, brick and lime mortar. They measure 5.50 m in height, 3.75 m in width and 14.75 m. in length. The gateway in the central fort wall which was badly damaged was repaired in the recent past by the then Government, providing small key- stone arches.

The Bangalore Gate- The Bangalore Gate, formerly known as Ganjam Gate, is also designated as the Elephant Gate. All the three fort walls have a gate, with a considerable height to pass through, sitting on the back of an elephant in a howdah. It is built of stone, brick and lime mortar. Now it is used as the main entrance to the town.


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Dungeons

Apart from the Gates, the fort wall is also known for the creation of dungeon in those days to keep the most wanted war captives. In the Northern and North-eastern side of the fort wall, there are dungeons named after Col. Bailey and Inman respectively.

Colonel Bailey’s Dungeon

On the Northern side of the Srirangapattana temple, in the fort wall, there is an oblong bastion in which heavy battery was kept and it is called Sultan Bateri. Below the bastion, there is a dungeon which is not visible to any passerby. It measures about 30 meters in length and 12 meters in width. It is designed with vaulted roof and constructed using brick and lime mortar. In the Eastern, Northern and Western walls there are fixed stone slabs with holes, to which the chains of the prisoners were tied. Several English war prisoners like Col. Bailey, Captain Baird, Col. Braithwaite, Sampson, Frazer, Lindsay and Captain Rulay were imprisoned by Tipu Sultan. Since Col. Bailey died on 13th November 1782 in the dungeon after

a prolonged illness, it is named after him.

Like this the city of Srirangapattana developed as a small township outside the fort. Economy of the East India Company, non-availability of trained engineers and use of local materials and artisans resulted in the simple design and construction initially. The vulnerability of the earlier construction, hostilities with the French and the growing might of the Company resulted in stronger and more complex designs for the second round of construction which made it an impenetrable fort in India.

Conclusion

The kings who ruled this region emphatically comprehended the strategic utility of this fort & showed interest in strengthening it. Though, the fortification of Srirangapattana started at the time of the Hoysalas it gained military prominence at the time of the Vijayanagara Empire. Later dynasties furthering its voluminous strategic boundary line amplified its inner precincts as a bastion & made it inaccessible.The escalation of military activities in this


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region after Ummattur chiefs declined to hold this region , was a turning point in the history of this fort city & later on fort became a strategic stipulation . Several forts were built in south India but this fort stands exclusive because the fort records unsurpassed historicity. It surpasses all other forts of this stature.

References

1. Anne Buddle, Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana Gallery, 2001p 1-34

2. Conjeeveram Hayavadana Rao Mysore gazetteer, Volume 2, Issue

4, (Rao sahib), Government Press, 1930, p. 2697, 2698

3. Richard Hamilton Campbell, Tippoo Sultan: The fall of Seringapatam and the restoration of the Hindu raj, Govt. Press 2011 p 1-23

4. Robert Home, Select Views in Mysore: The Country of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services,India,

5. Toy, Sidney (1965). The Fortified Cities of India. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.


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Failure behind Success- An Analytical view of Leadership Training Programs

Nandan .P. Asst. professor in Commerce, Sri H D Devegowda G F G C, Paduvalahippe, Holenarasipura Taluq, Hassan District, Karnataka

Abstract: In today’s business management, the aptitude of leadership is most sought after skill. To lead effectively, it is based on a number of key skills which are highly sought after by employers as they involve dealing with people in such a way as to motivate, enthuse and build respect. These days training people in leadership roles is becoming increasingly popular there have been several colleges giving degrees, certificates & courses in Leadership. The institutes giving such training are targeted these days because of several critical issues linked with the outcome of the leadership trainings& inherent loopholes. This paper addresses the issues behind the failure of leadership training programs in India & focuses on the issues connected with the failure.

Key words: Leadership, Training, Management Ethics, Skill Aptitude

“Don’t train leaders, coach them, mentor them, disciple them, and develop them, but please don’t attempt to train them”

Introduction:

Today, businesses and organizations face a storm of problems that have profound implications on current and future leaders; at the same time companies cannot settle for incremental improvement. They must periodically undergo performance transformations to get to the top and more importantly stay there. To lead

effectively is based on a number of key skills which are highly sought after by employers as they involve dealing with people in such a way as to motivate, enthuse and build respect. These skills can be applied to any situation where one is required to take the lead, professionally, socially and at home in family settings. Ideally, leaders become leaders because they have credibility, and because people want to follow them.


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Employers’ difficulty with filling vacancies is sector agnostic. In the 2012 Manpower Talent Shortage Survey, a global survey of employers, 48 percent of the respondents based in India reported difficulty finding qualified candidates for their managerial positions. Nearly 17 percent reported a lack of any candidates for these positions, qualified or not. Employers’ difficulty with filling vacancies is sector agnostic. In the 2012 Manpower Talent Shortage Survey, a global survey of employers, 48 percent of the respondents based in India reported difficulty finding qualified candidates for their managerial positions. Nearly 17 percent reported a lack of any candidates for these positions, qualified or not.

These days training people in leadership roles is becoming increasingly popular there have been several colleges giving degrees, certificates & courses in Leadership. The institutes giving such training are targeted these days because of several critical issues linked with the outcome of the leadership trainings& inherent loopholes. This paper addresses the issues behind the

failure of leadership training programs in India & focuses on the issues connected with the failure.

Leadership skills

Historically, Indian business leaders have focused on developing technology rather than people. As a senior manager at a large Indian conglomerate put it, “We have quality technical experts, but can’t convert them into business leaders.”But often certain loopholes are observed in tackling these issues connected with leadership training. Most of these training are being reconsidered because no desired outcome is forth coming because they suffer from these problems.

1. Situational Lagging: A trained brilliant leader in one situation may not necessarily perform well in another situation

2. Limited Patterns of Training Methodology: Too many training initiatives rest on the assumption that one size fits all and that the same group of skills or style of leadership is appropriate regardless of strategy, organizational culture.


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3. Limited Focus: Focusing on context during training period inevitably means equipping leaders with a small number of competencies (two to three) that will make a significant difference to performance. Instead, one finds a long list of leadership standards, a complex web of dozens of competencies, and corporate-values statements. Leadership Training is something leaders try and avoid, whereas they will embrace and look forward to development. But in most of the cases these leadership trainings are offering nothing but waste of time.

4. Limited Focus: Most leadership development programs focus solely on the leader and leadership behaviour. While this approach is very limiting in personalizing his behavior .In many cases behavior trained in one session of training may lose its significance when the trainee finishes his training. Leaders are faced with the dilemma of developing enhanced team productivity along faster and faster timelines. As a result,

focusing on teams on key results and outputs, build energy and momentum toward achieving goals, negotiate on their team’s behalf, and handle difficult dynamics within a team that impact performance leadership training should be focused.

5. Impact of outside Coaching: The design of many leadership development programs are stuck in misguided notions of humanistic developmental psychology. The outcome of this misguided thinking is an over emphasis on face-to-face instruction from outside “experts” that provide limited opportunities in giving job learning experiences, critical reflective practice, critical action learning or collaborative and reflective enquiry

6. Lack of Work Requirements: Many leadership development programs lack any type of scientifically valid means of stratifying the value added work requirements in their organizations. The leadership programs subsequently developed


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are nothing more than a stab in the dark attempt to identify the value adding work requirements at each level and have little prospect of aligning to the appropriate work context for the learner. As a consequence leadership development programs are seen as low value and an interruption to business. When leadership development programs are designed in this way they have little chance of integrating with other core HR process such and performance, talent or succession management.

Though the leadership deficit in Indian business is widely recognized, few companies have successfully addressed it. That’s because the requisite solutions, including the development of a strong leadership pipeline, require immediate and focused efforts by Indian companies.

Conclusion:

Thus young talent requires proper leadership development and supervision skills. Since several Indian companies have expanded their reach both domestically and abroad, the lack of managers capable

of providing this leadership guidance has become more acutely felt. The country’s economy is growing at a faster pace than the rate at which the leadership pipeline is maturing. A decade of rapid expansion and exponential growth has left companies in deep need of leadership talent that is in short supply. Thus Companies can avoid the most common mistakes in leadership development and increase the probability of success by matching precise leadership skills and traits to the context at hand; embedding leadership development in authentic & genuine work; fearlessly investigating the mind-sets that strengthen behavior and monitoring the impact so as to make improvements discerningly visible.

References:

1. Peter Cappelli, Harbir Singh, Jitendra V. Singh, and Michael Useem Leadership Lessons from India Harvard business review

2. Fiedier Fred E (1967) A theory of Leadership effectiveness Mcgraw –Hill Harper & row publishing


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A Time Bound Strategy for Eliminate the Rural Poverty in India

Dr.T.V. Ramana, Faculty Member, Dept of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Abstract

Poverty in India is widespread a third of the world’s poor live in India. As poverty is remaining constant, this paper proposes a strategy for rural poverty eradication by 2015 based on the Mission Mode approach/strategy of Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. The strategy envisages that poverty can be removed by 2015. Under the Mission Mode approach the SGSY scheme was restructured to provide self-employment to about 1.4 crore households. In addition, about 1.7 crore households/youth would be provided skill development and placement. The under supplementary on-going schemes of the Ministries other than the Ministry of Rural Development would be covered by self employment by 1.4 crore households. However, poverty is remaining stable even for 2013-14. Thus, there is need of hour to search for alternatives to reduce poverty. Government of India should be coordinated and come under single umbrella at the same time, corrupted less good governance, commitment should be incorporated in Millennium Development Goals.

Key words: Poverty, Head count ratio, Millennium goals, Rural development, purchasing power parity


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1. Introduction

During the last six decades, Indian economy a drastic structural changes have been taken place in Indian Economy. It is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. As a result, now India placed 4th largest economy after USA, China and Japan as per the purchasing power parity (PPP). On the other side India is 12th richest country in the world in terms of GDP growth (World Bank report). However, as a both sides of one coin, there are many impediments such as Population explosion, illiteracy, unemployment, gender inequality, economic inequalities, high mass poverty etc are attacking the economy. Poverty is considered as plague to the economy. To eradicate the poverty, chaining efforts have been put together. Studies poverty show that there has been a gradual declining trend is accomplished in India during last decades, but unsatisfactory level. Poverty in India is widespread a third of the world’s poor live in India.

Inclusive Growth- Rural Poverty Eradication

India’s GDP grew by 9.6 percent in 2006-07 and now expecting 5-7 percent of growth rate. As a result of the rapid growth in recent years, the percentage of people living below poverty line has declined from 55 percent in 1973-74 to 36 percent in 1993–1994 to 27.5 percent in 2004–2005. The decline in the percentage of people living below poverty line in the rural areas during the corresponding periods was from 56.4 percent to 37.3 percent to 28.3 percent. However, despite the steady growth and strong macroeconomic fundamentals, the gains have not been inclusive enough. Poverty and unemployment continue to be the central challenges confronting policymakers. Keeping this in mind, the following issues are considered as main objectives of the study

2. Purpose and practice of this paper

The main objectives of this paper are to assess the trends of poverty and estimate future poverty in India. Further, the role of past strategies for


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poverty reduction and to find out the impact of on-going programmes has also considered. Basing on the past experience, hypothetical time bound machinery (Mission Mode) to exclude poverty by 2015 from India has made with help of available information from the MRD, planning commission of India, NSSO, Ministry of Human Resource, Government of India, and Journals etc.

The major limitation of this paper is the poverty is remain constant and no more adding to the existing level during the time bound.

3. Poverty line

The Planning Commission is the nodal agency in the Government of India for estimation of poverty at national and state levels. The poverty line is framed with per capita consumption expenditure level which meets the per capita daily calorie requirement of 2400 kcal in rural areas and 2100 kcal in urban areas along with a minimum of non-food expenditure. The official poverty line based on consumption poverty (2400 Kcal) is estimated by NSSO reports of 61st and 63rd round that the national poverty line Rs.356.30 per capita per month expenditure in rural

areas, or Rs 21,378 or say Rs 22,000 per annum and Rs.538.60 per capita per month or say Rs.32, 316 per annum in the urban areas of household for five members. The poverty ratio at all-India level is obtained as the weighted average of the state wise poverty ratios.

4. Consequences of poverty

There are many reasons for causes of poverty. Poverty is complex and multi-dimensional in nature. It is reflected in multiple deprivations like inadequate resources/ assets/ capital required for a minimum living / livelihood; lack of access to skill development, education, and health and other facilities/ amenities. The marginal farmers, landless laborers and casual worker households are the worst sufferers of these deprivations. Within the category of the poor, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, woman-headed households, the elderly and female children are the worst affected.

5. Trends in poverty in India

The proportion of India's population below poverty line has fluctuated widely in the past, but the overall trend has been downward.


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Basing on the changes in trends, it is analyzed by three periods.

1950 to mid-1970s: During this period, income poverty reduction shows no discernible trend. In 1951, about 47 percent of India's rural population was below the poverty line. The proportion went up to 64 percent in 1954-55 and it came down to 45 percent in 1960-61 but in 1977-78, it went up again to 51 percent.

Mid-1970s to 1990: Income poverty declined significantly between the mid-1970s and the end of the 1980s. The decline rate was more pronounced between 1977-78 and 1986-87, with rural income poverty declining from 51 percent to 39 percent. It went down further to 34 percent by 1989-90. Urban income poverty went down from 41 percent in 1977-78 to 34 percent in 1986-87, and further to 33 percent in 1989-90.

After 1991: The post-economic reform period is evidenced both setbacks and progress. To sum up, a recent World Bank estimates, based on purchasing power parity (PPP) that about 45.6 crore persons (42 percent of total population) are living below poverty line in India at the new international poverty line of $1.25 per

day. At $ 2 per day expenditure, level is considered, and then about 75.6 percent population fall below the poverty line. The Study also suggests that the proportion of the poor based on poverty line of $ 1.25 (PPP) per day in India decreased from 60 percent in 1981 to 42 percent in 2005 (There is some difference between NSSO and World Bank estimates).

Table -1 provides (summary) data on temporal profile of poverty reduction from 1973-1974 up to 2004-05. Poverty in the rural areas, in percentage terms, has declined to half from 56.4 percent in 1973-74 to 28.3 percent in 2004-05. But, in absolute terms, the reduction is not very significant. The population living below the poverty line (BPL) in the rural areas is still unacceptably high, at over 22 crore (4.5 crore BPL households).

Whatever the source of poverty estimates is, whether the Planning Commission at 27.5 percent and 30.2 crore or the World Bank Study at 42 percent and 45.6 crore, both figures are very high and point to the need for a time-bound Mission Mode approach to poverty eradication.


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Table -1. Trends in estimates of poverty in India

Year Percentage of peoplebelow poverty line Rural Urban Combined

1973 56.44 49.01 54.88 7983 45.65 40.79 44.48 1993 37.27 32.36 35.97 2004 28.30 25.70 27.50 2006-07 21.1 15.1 19.3

Source: Planning Commission

6. Projected rural BPL population by 2015

The Millennium Development Goal to reduce proportion of poor by half by 2015 is likely to be achieved, as the proportion of poor in the 1990 was about 36 percent, which declined to 27.5 percent in 2004-05 and is likely to fall further to 18 percent in 2015, thereby would be achieved the MDG. However, the absolute number of poor even with 18per cent rural

population below poverty will still be unacceptably high at 18.53 crore. The projected population and the rural BPL population in India for the period 2008-15 are given in Table-2. It is evident from the figures that there will be about 18.53 crore BPL population in rural areas in 2015. Hence there is a need of strategy regarding more rapid control of poverty.

Table -2. Trends in Projected rural BPL population by 2015 ( (in cr)

Year Total Population

Rural Population

Rural BPL Population

Rural HH

2008-09 114.75 80.45 20.92 4.23 2009-10 116.25 81.13 20.50 4.12 2010-11 117.76 81.81 20.09 4.02 2011-12 119.27 82.49 19.69 3.94 2012-13 120.78 83.17 19.29 3.86 2013-14 122.29 83.85 18.91 3.78 2014-15 125.31 84.53 18.53 3.71

Source: Ministry of Rural development, Govt. of India


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7. Strategies for Poverty Reduction (up to 1990s)

Until introduction of Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY, April, 1999), a major self employment scheme, many rural developmental programmes were launched. Some of them are: The Community Development Programme was launched in the First Five Year Plan. The decade of the 1960s witnessed import of huge food grains in the face of food crisis necessitating launching of Intensive Agriculture Development Programme (IADP), Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP). The introduction of modern scientific practices and the adoption of high yielding varieties ushered in the Green Revolution that brought in its wake self-sufficiency in food production by early 1970s. The technology was not suited to the arid and rain fed areas. In order to address this problem, area development programmes such as Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP), Small Farmer, Marginal Farmer and

Agricultural Laborers Development Programmes, Food for Work Programme, Minimum Needs Programme, were launched for arid, semi-arid and other eco-fragile regions and the targeted people.

In the 1970s and 1980s it was realized that an integrated approach was required. A holistic self-employment programme, viz., Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) followed by Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) were launched in early 1980’s. This strategy of direct attacks on rural poverty was launched as the normal ‘trickle down’ effects of growth did not appear to be reaching the rural poor. During the same decade Wage Employment Programmes, viz., National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) were launched which were later merged into Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) and Indira Aawas Yojana (IAY) were launched in early 1990’s. The


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EAS focused on drought prone, desert, tribal and hilly blocks of the country. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) were launched as social security measures.

By the 1990s it was realized that the programmes appeared to be conceptually sound but were not having the desired effect. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were enacted to empower village panchayats (local self-governing bodies) and make development programmes more participatory, people centric, transparent and responsive. The gram (village) and nagar (town) panchayats have the power and responsibility to prepare plans and implement schemes for economic development including 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule (Article 243 G) in case of gram panchayats. Most of the rural development programmes are implemented by the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and the selection of the beneficiaries in all Rural Development Programmes is done in the Gram Sabha.

In the late 1990s, various programmes in place for poverty reduction were reviewed and it was observed that there was a multiplicity of programmes. A number of separate programmes had resulted in lack of desired linkages among these programme thereby having a less than optimal impact on household income generation and poverty reduction. The wage and self-employment programmes were modified and restructured.

8. Mission Mode Approach (Time bound Strategy) to eliminate the poverty (through on-going Schemes)

The proposed strategy envisages that through a Mission Mode approach to implementation of the poverty reduction schemes it is possible to lift the 4.5 crore BPL households above poverty line by 2015. The regular flow of income to at least one member of BPL household either through self-employment or gainful employment through placement linked skilled development would enable the BPL household to move above the poverty line.


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a. SGSY-Self employment schemes

Recognizing the importance of Self Help Group (SHG) and Micro-Enterprise (ME) approach, the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) a major self employment scheme was launched in April, 1999 after merging the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) with allied programmes.

Since inception of the SGSY scheme in 1999, the number of SHGs formed is 29 lakh having about 2.9 crore members (assuming on an average 10 members per SHG).Given that SHGs formed so far may also comprise of about 30 per cent members from above poverty line (APL), the coverage of BPL members in the SHGs may be around 200 18 lakh. This implies that about 2 crore households are already covered; presuming that one member from each BPL household is a member of the SHG. To cover all 4.5 crore BPL households, the SHG movement

needs to be universalized in a time-bound manner i.e. the remaining households need to be brought under the SHG umbrella. While it has taken 10 years to form 29 lakh SHGs that includes 30per cent or more of APL families in some of the States and thus there is need to form about additional 28 lakh BPL SHGs, to reach the goal of universal coverage by 2012. If this is achieved, then economic activity of all the mature groups so formed could begin by 2015, the cutoff date by which poverty is to be eradicated

The proposed strategic framework envisaged to cover entire BPL households under various programmes implemented by the Ministry and other Ministries/departments to eradicate poverty by 2015. The tentative number of rural BPL households likely to be covered under the self-employment, wage employment & social security net are given in the table-3


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Table- 3 Proposed strategic framework for covered self-employment by 2015

Sl.No Programme/Scheme Number of BPL household to be brought to APL (In crore)

1. SGSY 1.4

2. Skill Development & Placement 1.7

3. NRGEA & IGNOAPS To supplement income of BPL HH

4 Schemes of other

Ministries/Departments

1.4

Total 4.5

Source: Ministry of Rural development, Govt. of India

b. Skill Development & Placement Mission for rural BPL youth

The Sub-Group on Employment & Labour Force Projections for the 11th Plan, Planning Commission projected 52.1 crore labor force consisting of 36 crore persons in rural and 16.1 crore persons in urban areas by 2017. In view of this, Government has taken initiatives through coordinated action for skill development by augmenting capacity to create 50 crore certified and skilled technicians by the year 2022. To achieve this, broad institutional structure consisting of a

National council for Skill Development, a National Skill Development Coordination Board and National Skill Development Corporation have been set up. It is expected that at least 1.7 crore rural BPL youth would be able to take benefit of skill development programme of the Ministry and other institutional arrangements made under the National Skill Development Mission (table-3)

c. NREGA & IGNOAPS

A considerable portion of rural BPL households are marginal & small


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farmers of which large numbers would have level of income near to the poverty line. The supplementary income through NREGA & IGNOAPS (Indira Gandhi Old Age Pension Scheme) will enable them to get at least desired level of income. It is expected that about 1.57 crore persons above 65 years of age will receive a minimum pension of Rs. 2400 per annum in 2008-09. In some states this would be more depending upon the additional amount supplemented by the States.

d. Schemes of other Ministries/Departments/Agencies

Various programmes implemented by other Ministries/ Departments/Agencies are directly or indirectly providing benefits/opportunities for the rural BPL household to strengthen their livelihood support. Such target oriented focused programmes for certain groups like handloom weavers, craft persons, small & marginal farmers, fisherman, dairy development etc will help the rural BPL households to generate reasonable level of income at least to cross poverty line. It is expected that with the initiative of other Ministries/

Departments/Agencies, the remaining 1.40 crore rural BPL household will be able to earn adequate level of income to support their livelihood by 2015.

e. Small and Marginal Farmers Income

The rural BPL households have multiple sources of income. This includes income from wages, cultivation, animal husbandry, and non-farm activity, etc. Large number of small and marginal farmers, especially in rainfed areas, falls under the BPL category. The households of farmers can be broadly categorized into nearly landless, marginal, small farmers, semi-medium, medium and large farmers according to size of their land holdings.

The national poverty line at 2004-05 prices is Rs 22000 (per hh per annum) in the rural areas. The income from agriculture of nearly landless, marginal farmer households is Rs 829 & Rs.5910 per annum respectively which is much lower than the desired level. These families may also be having some income from agriculture & non agriculture labour but the total income will not enable


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them to move above the poverty line. The income of small farmers is Rs 14020 from agriculture is also not up the required level.

f. Other schemes

Some of the families may also be benefited under NREGA. At present Income from NREGA is estimated Rs. 3200 & Rs. 2400 respectively per member per annum and income from other sources like livestock, business etc will make their total annual income in the range of Rs 10000-15000 which may still be considerably lower than the required level of income. This shows a need of additional income to these households to cross the poverty line.

9. Total Fund Requirement

The implementation of aforesaid schemes under Mission Mode by the Ministry will involve the total financial implication of Rs.226300 Crore during the period 2008-09 to 2015-16. In addition to this, an amount of Rs140000 Crore would also be required as bank credit. Other programmes of the Ministry like NREGA, PMGSY, IAY etc will continue as usual at present with

periodic enhancement of budgetary allocation

10. Summary of Expectations on Mission Mode approach

Through the above strategies, Rural BPL households subsist on livelihood strategies which incorporate multiple sources of income. In a rural BPL household (i) an income of Rs. 24,000 – Rs. 36,000 per annum is generated from credit-linked self-employment or skill development and placement under the SGSY Mission Mode, (ii) supplemented by wage income of Rs. 5000 – Rs. 8000 per annum from NREGA, (iii) further add-on of annual pension of Rs. 2400 for members above 65 years, widows and disabled , (iv) together with the normal agriculture and allied activities undertaken, such a strategy would enable the household to cross the poverty line.

Current position

Since the appropriateness of the poverty lines in use so far for poverty estimation was questioned in some quarters, the Government appointed an Expert Committee under the Chairmanship of late Prof. Suresh Tendulkar. As per the revised


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methodology adopted by Planning Commission, on the basis of recommendations of Tendulkar Committee, the poverty line provides a higher estimate of rural poverty and therefore also of total poverty. In 2009-10, the all-India Head count ratio (HCR) has declined by 7.3 percentage points from 37.2per cent in 2004-05 to 29.8per cent, with rural poverty declining by 8.0 percentage points from 41.8per cent to 33.8per cent and urban poverty declining by 4.8 percentage points from 25.7per cent to 20.9per cent.

In the current year 2014, the World Bank reported that 11.8 per cent of all people in India fall below the international poverty line of US$ 1.25 per day (PPP).Over the last decade, poverty has witnessed a consistent decline with the levels dropping from 37.2per cent in 2004-05 to 29.8per cent in 2009-10 and 21.9per cent in 2012 to 11.8per cent in 2014. The number of poor is now estimated at 148 million in 2014 as compare to 396 million in 2004-05. According to the Planning Commission of India, poverty in India declined to a record 21per cent in 2011-12. In 2012 the total number of

people below the poverty line was estimated to be 250 million, but more recent surveys by the World Bank in 2014 give a figure of 148 million people. According to the new estimate of HCR at the national level (47.8per cent), the Country is required to achieve a HCR level of 23.9per cent by 2015 in order that MDG target 1 is achieved. With the historical rate of decline the Country is likely to achieve poverty HCR level of 26.72per cent but not zero level by 2015. 11. Conclusions

The income effects of schemes of infrastructure creation lead to income benefits through improved access to education and health facilities input and output markets etc. but to achieve the goals, additional fund requirement to completion the goal, can be met through a combination of additional budgetary support to the restructured SGSY. Better coordination with employment generation and social security schemes of other Ministries, project support from multi-lateral funding agencies, enhanced credit mobilization, National Skill Development Corporation/ Fund and Public Private Partnerships as rightly


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pointed out by Department of Rural Development and Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India should be coordinated and come

under single umbrella at the same time, corrupted less good governance, commitment should be incorporated in Millennium Development Goals.

References

New Global Poverty Estimate-What it means for India-Martin Ravallion, and Shaohua Development Research Group, World Bank, 2008.

Selected Labour & Employment Statistics, Ministry of Labour & Employment 2005-2008

Basic Data from CII, FICCI, Special Group on targeting 10 Million Employment Opportunities per year (Dr. S P Gupta, Planning Commission (2008)

Farmers, Suicides and Agrarian Crises in India” is there A Way Out ? by Srijit Mishra, IGIDR, Mumbai (September, 2007) , 67th Annual Conference of the Indian Society of Agricultural Economics

Ahluwalia, M. (2002) 'Economic reforms in India since 1991: Has graduation worked?', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16 (3): 67–88.

Chandrasekhar, C.P. and Ghosh, J. (1999) 'Services sector growth: What does it mean?', Hindu Businessline, 16 November.

Sundaram, K. (2001) 'Employment and poverty in 1990s: Further results from NSS 55th Round Employment–Unemployment Survey 1999–2000', Economic and Political Weekly, 11–17 August, 36 (32): 3039–3051.

World Bank (2006) Development Policy Review, India: Inclusive Growth & Service Delivery: Building on India's Success, New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.

World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2006: Equity


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and Development, Washington, DC.

Estimates of NSS unit-level Data of 55th, 60th and 61st rounds on poverty

Strategic paper on poverty, Ministry or Rural Development, Govt. of India

www.ruralpoverty portal.org

www.gamma.nic


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Books

Sundara Rao M., (1996), "Tribal Development." Tata McGraw, Hill, New Delhi, page. 250

Contributions to books

Ramana T.V (2008) ,” Education- A multi Dimentional weapon for allround Development: Edited by D.Pulla Rao, Development of Education-Emerging Dimentions in 21st Century, Chapter 13, pp.190-202.

Journal and other articles

Schemenner, R.W., Huber, J.C. and Cook, R.L. (1987), "Geographic Differences and the Location of New Manufacturing Facilities," Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 83-104.

Conference papers

Chandel K.S. (2009): "Ethics in Commerce Education." Paper presented at the Annual International Conference for the All India Management Association, New Delhi, India, 19–22 June.

Unpublished dissertations and theses

Kumar S. (2006): "Customer Value: A Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Customers," Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.

Online resources

Always indicate the date that the source was accessed, as online resources are frequently updated or removed.

Website

Kelkar V. (2009): Towards a New Natural Gas Policy, Economic and Political Weekly, Viewed on February 17, 2011 http://epw.in/epw/user/viewabstract.jsp

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