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International Relations
Unit 4 Notes
“A New Age” 1913-1921
WWI, or The Great War, had enormous physiological and economic consequences for people and societies
First war involving many of the new industrial technology, with old time warfare
Shaped the outbreak of revolutionary challenges that set off an era of conflict the rest of the century
Forever changed the face of international relations
Woodrow Wilson
Became president in 1912 mainly due to conflicts between incumbent Taft and Theodore Roosevelt
Had a national reputation for his writing and speeches
A religious individual which gave a special fervor to his sense of personal and national destiny
Woodrow Wilson (Con’t)
Greatest flaws were his difficulty working with strong people and, once his mind was made up, a reluctance to hear dissenting views
Suffered from culture-blindness and little experience in diplomacy
Disavowed gun-boat diplomacy in Latin America
However inadvertently paints himself a hypocrite
Woodrow Wilson (Con’t)
Believed foreign policy should serve broad human concerns rather than narrow selfish interests
America’s power put it in a position to promote its ideals
Fought along side Britain for disarmament and removal of trade barriers with Japan and Germany
Woodrow Wilson (Con’t)
Expanded presidential authority even beyond Theodore Roosevelt’s precedents
Made decisions without consulting much of the State Department
Named William Jennings Bryan his Secretary of State
Much more qualified than Wilson to Shape foreign Policy However believed that Christian beliefs should animate
foreign policy
Worked most of his Presidency on developing an internationalist foreign policy
Dealing with Revolutions
Traditionally, the U.S. had sympathized with revolutions in principle, until they turned violent
In Dealing with Chinese and Mexican revolutions, Wilson sympathized with the forces of revolution
Failed to recognize that in seeking to direct the future of these nations he limited their ability to work out their own destiny
China
Optimistically supported the Chinese revolution, however did not understand revolution leaders sought to advance their own power rather than build a modern state
Wilson also hoped to check European and Japanese interests in East Asia
Japan drove the Germans from the Shandong province of China
Creating issues later during the Great War U.S. was able to check other nations interest,
however did little to gain support from Chinese people
Latin America
The Growing U.S. economic and diplomatic presence had further destabilized an already volatile region
U.S. had the power and willingness to use it to contain revolutions and maintain hegemony over small, weak states who people were deemed inferior
Latin America (Con’t) Wilson had denounced Taft’s dollar
diplomacy and military interventionism and talked of treating Latin America’s on “equal terms”
They assumed that U.S. help would be welcomed
When it wasn’t welcomed, they fell back on diplomatic and military force
Through all his rhetoric of “equal treatment,” Wilson continued to use military intervention throughout Latin America
Placed Haiti under military occupation greatly hurting U.S. record in Latin America
Mexico Starting in 1911
Revolution in Mexico was extremely complex A rebellion of middle and lower classes against a
deeply entrenched old order and foreigners who dominated the nation’s economy followed by an extended civil war
Wilson sought to undermine Madero, who had come to power through revolution
Jefferson had set the precedent of recognizing any government formed by the will of the nation
Mexico Starting in 1911 (Con’t)
Wilson introduced a moral and political test after Huerta overthrew Madero in 1913
Through political maneuvering, Huerta able to maintain power and Wilson began to push military threats and incursions to push Huerta out of office
Only helped Huerta and other Mexican rebels to rally Mexican citizens to the banner of nationalism
Using morality, U.S. began building infrastructure for Mexican citizens, however it did not leave a lasting impact
Mexico Starting in 1911 (Con’t)
After Carranza took power in 1914, Wilson continued to push U.S. involvement in mediations between factions in Mexico
After Pancho Villa murdered engineers in U.S., he fled and avoided John J. Pershing’s militia
U.S. also mobilized forces along border, only increasing Mexican nationalism and hurting U.S. image across Latin America
The Great War
Dominated President Wilson and eventually destroying him political and even physically
Europe was threatened by each other due to their fears and suspicions
Manifested into a complex and rigid system of alliances, an arms race, and war plans design to secure an early victory
Both sides believed a quick victory was imminent
The industrial revolution and the capacity of the modern nation-state to mobilize vast human and material resources produced unprecedented destructiveness and cost
The Great War (Con’t)
Started after the death of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in June of 1914
Though truly an isolated event, it was magnified due to alliances and treaties that engulfed all of Europe
In August of 1914 Germany pushed to within 30 miles of Paris
But were pushed back to the Eastern boundary of France by November and remained there until 1917
Trench warfare
U.S Impression of Great War
Americans were shocked by the start of the war
Wilson sought to maintain neutrality for several reasons
Diversity of U.S. could split the country The seeming remoteness of the conflict gave it
advantages of trading with both sides Also could provide relief assistance to war torn
areas
U.S Impression of Great War (Con’t)
Emergence as a world power made it extremely problematic
Emotional and cultural ties to Allies made it difficult to remain impartial
The U.S. military power would be decisive factor in conflict
Balancing both sides for demands for trading with the enemy
Inconsistency During War
British blockade of Northern Europe met minimum complaints from Wilson early in the war
Same maneuver Union used in American Civil War U.S. likely viewed trade with Germany not as important
as conflict with British Very pragmatic approach
Wilson however took a firm response to Germany’s use of U-Boats
Considered the U-Boats as a violation of international laws
Inconsistency During War (Con’t)
Sinking of the Lusitania by a German U-Boat had major impact within U.S.
Brought the war to the U.S. citizen as 128 U.S. citizens were killed in the attack
Wilson demanded the end of U-Boat activities and a warning on any further attacks on unarmed vessels
Later it was determined that the Lusitania had weapons on board
Wilson’s actions pushed Bryan to resign from Secretary of State due to contradictory actions between treatment of Germany and Britain by U.S.
Taking away an important dissenting voice from Wilson’s cabinet
Inconsistency During War (Con’t)
Robert Lansing, new Secretary of State, and Wilson demanded an end to submarine warfare, or else the U.S. would break diplomatic relations
A general step towards war U.S. began pushing for renewed military
training and “reasonable” increases in the armed services
Collective Security With the onset of war in Europe, Wilson
sought to use the opportunity to push for the formation of a league of nations
Would be used to modify international law and use arbitration to resolve disputes
Wilson adamantly believed that this type of league could have helped avoid WWI
Believed that peace was essential to ensure advancement of domestic reforms
Eliminating the arms race and economic causes of war
Use of Sanctions to deter and punish aggression Use the “Concert of Nations” to replace the balance
of power
Collective Security (Con’t)
Wilson pushed both sides during 1914-1917 to have peace without victory, through the development arbitration
Of course the U.S. leading the way through the negotiations
However, U.S. did not understand the great bitterness developing between nations due to the costs of the Great War
By 1917 though none of the countries involved in the war were willing to compromise for peace
Isolationism V. Internationalist
Isolationist Preserve America’s long-standing tradition of
non-involvement as a way of safeguarding the nation’s way of life
Became firmly implanted in the nation’s political vocabulary during the Great War
Isolationism V. Internationalist (Con’t)
Internationalist Believed that their nation must play a key role
developing a new world power Give equality to nations great and small and avoid
wars like The Great War
During this time period constant battles between the two different foreign policy directions
US Involvement
Towards the end of 1916, Germany began determining that the an all-out submarine campaign could win the war before the U.S. intervention had any effect
By February of 1917 Germany had pushed U.S. to break relations between the two countries
Wilson still had not developed a war message
Campaign almost succeed, until a year later when nearly a million U.S. troops were in Europe, demoralizing German troops
US Involvement (Con’t)
By mid-March events had greatly changed Britain had released the “Zimmerman
Telegram” Revealed that Germany had offered Mexico an
alliance in return for conquered land in U.S.
Three U.S. merchant vessels had been destroyed by German U-Boats
US Involvement (Con’t)
Wilson was thus was forced into asking for a declaration of war
It would allow U.S. to be part of negotiations, which could be used to develop a postwar order
He believed that the Great War had been created due to the “Old World Order” and that a League of Nations would prohibit such future wars
His speech to Congress set extremely lofty goals and eventually disillusionment about U.S. power
Yet he formulated and articulated a set of principles that would influence U.S. foreign policy and world politics for years to come
US Involvement (Con’t)
Fourteen Points Public statement of 1918 that Wilson sought for a
peace program Most notably he insisted that in dealing with colonial claims
the “interests” of colonial peoples should be taken into account
Eventually became known as self-determination Used international media to spread his views and
speeches During the war he pushed his military leaders
to cooperate with British and French leaders to give a solid basis for postwar collaboration
However maintained freedom of action
Bolshevik Revolution
Lenin helped lead the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
Called for the end of capitalism and pushed for communism
Wilson greatly distrusted Lenin and believed Lenin did not represent the Russian people
Supported the opposition group however was not willing to be pulled into another “Mexico Situation”
America’s Moment
By late summer and early fall of 1918, U.S. forced were able to help push the German’s back to the Hindenburg Line
As negotiations began towards ending the Great War, the nations struggled to determine the extent that Germany deserved to be punished
Wilson sought to develop the “Concert of Nations” through the negotiations
Even personally attending the peace conference in 1919, first ever by a sitting President
Also Wilson hoped to formulate the “Fourteen Points” into the treaty
Including freedom among nationalities and oppressed peoples across the world
Lofty Yet Unachievable Goals
Wilson mainly depended upon himself during the peace negotiations
Overestimated the leverage the U.S. would have in dealing with the Allied counterparts
Took a tour throughout Europe, with crowds cheering his speeches
Assumed then that there was great European support for a League of Nations
Lofty Yet Unachievable Goals (Con’t)
Due to his push for League of Nations, France and Britain used it to achieve many of their own ambitions
Developed a mandate system that was annexation in disguise
Development of new nations as buffers throughout Europe and Middle East paid little attention to rival ethnic groups
Negotiations generally on focused on European issues
Greatly discrediting Wilson throughout the world as a hypocrite
League of Nations Concessions
Wilson believed that concessions had to be given in order to attain the goal of a League
Article X provided that member nations would “respect and preserve as against external aggression the political integrity and existing political independence of all Members in the League”
League of Nations Concessions (Con’t)
Wilson viewed Article X as the linchpin to the concert of nations, however it created great deals of protests
Viewed as an abandonment of his original “Fourteen Points”
Treaty eventually signed in Versailles in 1919
Debate in U.S.
Wilson went throughout the U.S. seeking to gain support for the treaty
However, the years leading up, he had done little to gain bipartisan support
Also had a stroke during the tour, leaving him partially incapacitated for sometime
Debate in U.S. (Con’t)
Many struggled with what they viewed was that Wilsons League would surrender U.S. sovereignty to a world body
Surprising numbers supported a League of some type, however, one that was generally very weak
After his stroke, Wilson seemed unwilling to compromise, ultimately forcing the defeat of his League of Nations treaty
Wilson articulated a set of principles that in various forms would guide U.S. foreign policy for years to come
“Involvement Without Commitment” 1921-1931
Though considered by many as an isolationist era, the U.S. vigorously promoted its interests while scrupulously guarding against entanglements
Did not embrace Wilsonian collective security agreements
Did continue to use peace and economic pressures to achieve their foreign policy goals
Instability of Europe
The European continent had suffered incalculable destruction from the war
Many nations maintained strong hatred for each other
Ideologies of the extreme right and left gained numerous adherents
Germany remained potentially a great power Treaty of Versailles saddled the country with
substantial reparations Leaving great resentment and frustrations
France and Great Britain sought to use the reparations on Germany, to keep them from regaining strength
Instability of Europe (Con’t)
Central and Eastern European countries struggled to establish themselves
Diverse ethnicities within the newly created nations created conflict and allowing great power interference
Shift of the center of world financial power from London to New York
U.S became the leading lender for much of Europe
Self-Determination Wilson and Lenin’s calls for self-
determination, along with the Great War, accelerated the nationalist revolts that would begin after WWII
The use of the colonies for supporting war, while giving them very little in return
Rhetoric of self-determination encouraged local nationalisms, and the obvious weakening of the European powers spurred thoughts of revolt
Brutal repression of postwar revolts exposed as sham the Europeans talk of justice, further boosted nationalism
Continued Growth of U.S. Power
Largest agricultural and manufacturing producer during the 1920’s
More industrial output than the next six powers combined
Militarily continued to remain adequate, not dominating
However the world’s largest navy
Continued Growth of U.S. Power (Con’t)
Began using “Soft Power” Global influence deriving from its economic
might, technological superiority and cultural sway
Standard of Living the envy of the world
Became a center of mass culture Spreading of American way of life and selling U.S.
products
Continued Growth of U.S. Power (Con’t)
The war and Wilsonianism boosted popular interest in the outside world
Large number of missionaries went abroad to spread the Gospel and American values
Set up schools and hospitals around the world
Continued Growth of U.S. Power (Con’t)
Number international groups in U.S. doubled from 1916-1921
Organization of Council on Foreign Relations Stressed internationalism
Establishment that would shape U.S. foreign policy through much of the 20th Century
During the 1920’s, the President’s generally inactive with foreign policy
Leaving the Secretaries of State to conduct foreign policy
Congress was more assertive in foreign policy in the 1920’s
The Business of America is Business
America’s new creditor status opened promising opportunities and imposed urgent responsibilities
Voraciously devoured the world’s resources Overseas trade and investments were
important to American prosperity Many still believed that the spread of liberal
capitalism would help promote a stable and prosperous world order by improving standard of living
U.S. sought to modernize “backward” areas
The Business of America is Business (Con’)
President Hoover’s administration vigorously sought out foreign trade and lending
Primarily pushed the private sectors to do the negotiations
A trend highly used during the 1920’s
Many companies began using direct investments abroad
They would often cut favorable deals with friendly local governments
Many would end up wielding enormous political power
Also exploited curial raw materials
The Business of America is Business (Con’)
U.S. continued to have high tariffs to protect American companies
Brought about unprecedented U.S. involvement in the world and fueled a short-term prosperity
Desire to maintain low domestic taxes did not allow forgiveness of European debts
Continued high tariffs discouraged trade Bankers self interest over government
foreign policy interests
U.S. “Isolationism”
U.S. unwillingness to sit on the League of Nations court due to stipulations
Wanted to prevent the Court from giving advisory opinions on matters in which the U.S. claimed an interest
Unilateralism met strong opposition from other members of the International court
U.S. “Isolationism” (Con’t)
Yet U.S. assumed unprecedented leadership in promoting international arms limitations
Signed the Five-Power Treaty in 1922 Joined nations on limiting the size of certain
navy boats Japanese government activity involved in order
to promote cooperation with the West without sacrificing vital interests in Manchuria
Included agreement to abstain from affairs not involving the other countries
U.S. “Isolationism” (Con’t)
Also signed the Nine-Power Treaty, in order to try and stabilize the power competition in China
Yet it did little because it called on each country to “respect China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity”
Both Five and Nine-Power Treaties were highly criticized after WWII, because the agreements lacked enforcement provisions and were therefore essentially worthless
Also the U.S. was the only country to adhere to limitations
Looking back, the agreements stabilized a dangerous arms race and dramatically eased great-power tensions
European Reconstruction
U.S. played a key role because they were keenly aware of the importance of a stable, prosperous Europe to America’s economic and political well-being
Europe had been devastated by WWI Due to domestic political constraints,
Republicans had to rely on economic rather than political methods
Also used unofficial and private emissaries to negotiate and implement solutions
European Reconstruction (Con’t)
European problems were monumental Germans were angry at the victor’s peace
imposed on them France sought to use economic pressures
to keep Germany at heel Issues of Reparations created a hotbed of
issues France sought full payment to keep Germany
weak and under control Germany believed it far exceeded its ability to
pay
European Reconstruction (Con’t)
Big issue for U.S. was “how to assert a helpful influence abroad without sacrificing anything of importance to our people.”
Ultimately Britain and U.S. were able to create a settlement that set a precedent for further Anglo-American cooperation
Dawes Plan 1924
U.S. tried to stay out of the Germany-France arguments
France, frustrated at Germany’s unwillingness to pay reparations, seized the coal mines and extended it’s area of occupation to the Ruhr
Devastated both German and French economies Secretary Hughes then stepped in, in order
to avert “utter economic chaos” Sought to have an independent commission
work out a compromise
Dawes Plan 1924 (Con’t)
Independent commission had the task of creating a settlement that satisfied allied concerns, yet soft enough to be accepted by Germany
The settlement called for the payments by Germans to be increased as the economic activity increased
American’s strong armed both Germany and France to accept the agreement
Dawes Plan 1924 (Con’t)
By 1925 another agreement between France, Belgium, and Germany called for respect of boundaries and to keep the Rhineland demilitarized
These actions provided for some hope for European recovery and stability
U.S. was able to renegotiate the European loans U.S. viewed the renegotiated loans as generous Many Europeans viewed it as U.S. trying to “enslave a
whole continent”
Consequences of Dawes Plan
U.S. believed that economic recovery of Germany would bring about stability and peace throughout Europe
While keeping the U.S. taxpayer from paying the bill
U.S. did not understand the full extent of the war’s impact on Europe or the real depth of resentments it stirred
Also the U.S. did not recognize the advantage of Germany at France’s expense
Consequences of Dawes Plan (Con’t)
U.S. played an even less significant role in reconstruction of Eastern Europe
Wilson used rhetoric of assistance, yet neither side seemed eager to commit together
Eastern Europeans wanted the U.S. money and protection without interference
U.S. wanted new investment capital and new markets for their products without political involvement
Poland Considered the “nutcracker” of Russia and
Germany made Poland an issue Americans could not ignore
Polish American voters also increased Poland’s significance to U.S. government
Yet U.S. did not meet Poland’s need for security from bigger neighbors, or generosity of U.S. loans
Harding and Coolidge administrations avoided entanglement on the border dispute between Poland and Germany
Mainly relied on private sector to develop and implements programs
Poles, like other Eastern Europeans, looked suspiciously on foreign capital
Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
When the Bolshevik’s took power, with Lenin, in 1917 the U.S. refused to recognize the revolutionary government Using Huerta’s Mexico as precedent
Came to power through force, thus not representing the Russian people
When Lenin pulled Russia out of WWI in 1918, U.S. frustration only increased
American hoped non-recognition and Allied military interventions would topple the hated Bolshevik government or cause it to collapse under its own weight
Later changed to become part of U.S. “Containment Policy” in the 1950-80’s
Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (Con’t)
Yet the Bolshevik government did not collapse
Communism position on fundamental beliefs such as religion and private property made it the anathema to many Americans
Communist International, supported by Lenin, sought to overthrow other governments Only reinforcing U.S. fears
U.S.-Soviet Economic Ties
U.S. did engage economically, hoping to teach the wonders of capitalism
However it only helped preserve the Soviet state
Presidential Administrations were leery to participate with Soviets, yet were deeply committed to the expansion of American trade and investment
Most investments in Russia were unprofitable due to Russian restrictions and control
U.S.-Soviet Economic Ties (Con’t)
American technical expertise was crucial to Stalin’s Five-Year Plan, adopted in 1928
U.S. Engineers built factories and plants within Russia
Helped stabilize economics within Russia, thus allowing political stability
East Asia
America sought to establish a “Pax Americana maintained not by arms but by mutual respect and good will and the tranquilizing process of reason”
U.S. officials hoped that trade and loans would promote peace
Japanese Relations was greatly improved by U.S. generosity after earthquake in 1923 in Japan
Goodwill destroyed by legislation Congress passed restricting all Japanese from immigrating to U.S.
Provoked an outburst of Anti-Americanism in Japan
East Asia (Con’t) Chinese nationalism the biggest
challenge for U.S. design of peace and order in East Asia
China broke into civil war with different factions seeking political power
Kuomintang Party sought power, initially supported by the Soviet Union
created an anti-imperialism mood Ultimately Kuomintang Party leader Chiang
Kai-Shek split from the Soviet’s and sought U.S. support
Showed that Gunboat diplomacy was out of fashion by the 1920’s
Shift in policy by 1920’s
U.S. began moving away from the gunboat diplomacy and military interventionism of previous decades
Began demands for U.S. to actually following through with allowing Latin American self-determination
Yet, determining stability around the canal as vital, U.S. sought ways to maintain order and protection
Use of loans to stabilize Latin Economies Promoted dependency U.S. foreign trade and capital
and over-borrowing
Shift in policy by 1920’s (Con’t)
Also sought to amend ills from previous years
Paid nearly $25 Million for Panama Canal Change in Monroe Doctrine
Henry Clay began giving speeches in 1923 asserting:
U.S. “asserts no rights for ourselves that we do not accord to others”
limited intervention to the region near the canal and vowed use would be “last resort”
Shift in policy by 1920’s (Con’t)
Began changing protectorates throughout Latin America
Still not allowing full self-determination Dominican Republic was allowed to create
a legislature Allowed the rise of a dictator, who respected
U.S. interests Enabled U.S. to reconcile its conflicting interests in
Latin America
Passage of the Kellogg-Briand Pact
Outlawed war as an instrument of national policy French Foreign Minister capitalized on the
surge of goodwill over Lindbergh’s trans-Atlantic flight
Main purpose was to serve as a deterrent to Germany
Ultimately becomes the Pact of Paris which included nearly 15 nations Yet lacked true enforcement provisions Reinforced American “Power”
Great Depression
Not only destroyed the Hoover Administration, weakened U.S. foreign policy used by Republicans
Use of loans and trade as leverage U.S. protectionism, though good
intentioned, provoked huge resentment abroad and retaliation