Intrinsic Religiousness

8/6/2019 Intrinsic Religiousness

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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1990 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.1990, Vol. 59, No. 3,562-574 0022-3514/90/$00.75

Intr insic R el ig iousn ess a nd Rel ig ious C op ing as Life Stress M oderatorsfor Catholics Versus ProtestantsCrystal Park, Lawrence H . Cohen, and Lisa HerbU n i v e r si t y o f D e l a w a r e

Two prospect ive s tudies were con ducted to tes t the s t ress-moderat ing ef fects of in t r ins ic re l ig ious-ness and overal l re l ig ious coping on the d epress ion and t ra i t anxie ty of Cathol ic and P rotes tantcol lege s tudents . B oth s tudies found a s igni f icant cross-sect ional in teract ion between control lablel i fe s tress and re l ig ious coping in th e predic t ion o f Cathol ics ' depress ion, w i th re l ig ious copingserving a protect ive function a t a h igh level of cont rol lable negative events . Both s tudies a lso found asignificant prosp ective interaction betw een un contro llable l ife stress and intrinsic religiousness inthe p redic t ion of Pro tes tants ' depress ion; the re la t ionship between uncontrol lable s t ress and de-press ion was posi tive for low int r ins ic Protes tants , f ia t for med ium int r ins ic Protes tants , but nega-t ive for h igh in t r ins ic Protes tants . The f indings are discussed in terms o f thei r impl icat ion s for therole of re l ig ion in l i fe s tress adjus tment .

R e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n l if e s t re s s a d j u s t m e n t h a s i n c l u d e d m e a -s u r e m e n t o f v a r i a b l e s h y p o t h e s i z e d t o m o d e r a t e ( b uf fe r) t h ede l e t e r i ou s e f fec t s o f nega t i ve l i f e even t s . S t r e s s bu f f e r i ng r e f e r st o a v a r i a b l e ' s m i t i g a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o n r e a c t i o n s t o h i g h l eve l s o fr ecen t l i f e s t r e s s ( e .g , S . C o hen & W i l l s , 1985). Th e l i f e s t r e s sl i t e r a t u r e h a s t e s t e d t h e s t r e s s - b u f f e r i n g r o l e o f s u c h v a r i a b l e s a sl o c u s o f c o n t r o l ( e .g , J o h n s o n & S a r a s o n , 1 9 7 8) , h a r d i n e s s ( e.g .,K o b a s a , M a d d i , & C o u r i n g t o n , 1 9 81 ) , i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y ( e. g,T o w b e s , C o h e n , & G l y s h a w , 1 9 89 ) , a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t ( e . g, S.C o h e n & W i l l s , 1 9 8 5) .

A p e r s o n a l i t y o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e c a n f u n c t i o n a s a l i fes t r e s s b u f fe r i n a n u m b e r o f w a y s (S . C o h e n & E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 9) .F i r s t , i t c a n i n f l u e n c e n e g a t i v e e v e n t a p p r a i s a l , s p e c i f i c a l l y e v a l -u a t i o n s o f t h e m e a n i n g o f e v e n t s (i . e, d e g r e e o f t h r e a t o r l o s s) .S e c o n d , i t c a n i n f l u e n c e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e e f f e ct i v en e s s o f c o p -i n g r e s o u r c e s . T h e s e t w o e v a l u a t i o n s , o f c o u r s e , re f e r to p r i -m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y a p p r a i s a l , re s p e ct i v el y ( L a z a r u s & F o l k -m a n , 1984) . F ina l l y , a va r i ab l e can s e rve a s a s t re s s bu f f e r byi n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e l i a n c e o n s p e c i f ic c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s (S . C o h e n& Edw ards , 1989) .

P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n t h a t r e l i g i o u s n e s s , b r o a d l y d e -f i n e d , c a n m o d e r a t e t h e e f fe c ts o f s e v e r e l i fe c r i s e s ( s ee P a r g a -m e r i t , in p r e s s , f o r a s u m m a r y o f t h i s l i te r a t u r e) . F o r e x a m p l e ,C o o k a n d W i m b e r l y (1 9 83 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t r e l i g io u s c o m m i t m e n ti n f lu e n c e d t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f p a r e n t s w h o h a d r e c e n tl y l o s t ac h i l d t o c a n c e r o r b l o o d d i s e a s e. H o w e v e r , n o p u b l i s h e d s t u d yw i t h i n t h e l i fe e v e n t s p a r a d i g m h a s t e s t e d t h e s t re s s - m o d e r a t in g

This ar t ic le i s based on a m aster ' s thes is completed by Crysta l Parkand a senior thes is comp leted by Lisa Herb, both u nder the di rect ion ofLawrence H . Cohen in the D epar tm ent o f Psychology a t the U nivers ityof Delaware .Kenn eth Pargam ent and Bernard Sp i lka provided very helpful com-ments on an ear l ier draf t o f th is ar tic le .C or r e spond ence conce rn ing t h i s a r t i c l e shou ld be add re s se d t oLawrence H . Cohen, Dep ar tme nt o f Psychology, Univers ity of De la-ware, Newark, Delaware 19716.56 2

r o l e o f v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s spec i f ic r e l i g i o u s b e -l ie f s o r o r i e n t a t io n . G i v e n t h a t m o r e t h a n 9 0 % o f t h e a d u l t s i nt h i s c o u n t r y b e l i e v e i n a G o d ( e.g ., S p i l k a , H o o d , & G o r s u c h ,1 9 8 5 ) , i t w o u l d n o t b e a n o v e r s t a t e m e n t t o c o n c l u d e t h a t l i f ee v e n t s r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e i g n o r e d a s e t o f v a r i a b l e s th a t h a v e a tl e a s t a m o d e r a t e r o l e i n t h e l i v es o f m o s t a d u l t s .

F r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , re l i g i o u s b e l i e f s s h o u l d p l a ys o m e r o l e i n l i f e s t r e s s a d j u s t m e n t . S p e c i fi c a ll y , t h e s e b e l i e f sm i g h t i n f l u e n ce p r i m a r y a p p r a i s a l ; t h e s a m e l if e e v e n t c a n b ev i e w e d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ly d e p e n d i n g o n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e l i g i o u sv i e w s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n T a y l o r ' s ( 1 9 83 ) s t u d y o f c a n c e r v i c t i m s ,s o m e v i c t i m s i n t e r p r e te d t h e c a n c e r a s a c h a l l e n g e , o r s o m e -t h i n g f r o m G o d d e s i g n e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r f a i t h ; o t h e r v i c -t i m s p e r c e i v e d i t a s a th r e a t . M o r e g e n e r a l ly , s o m e i n d i v i d u a l sm i g h t b e l ie v e t h a t G o d w o u l d n o t h a r m t h e m o r v i si t u p o nt h e m m o r e t h a n t h e y c o u l d h a n d l e , w h e re a s o th e r s m i g h t b e -l i ev e t h a t G o d i s t r y i n g to c o m m u n i c a t e s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n tt h r o u g h t h e e v e n t , o r t h a t t h e e v e n t i s G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t ( P a r k& C ohen , i n p r e s s ) .

S e c o n d a r y a p p r a i s a l , to o , m i g h t b e i n f l u e n c e d b y a n i n d i v i d -u a l ' s r e l i g i o u s b e li e f s . T h e s e b e l i e f s m i g h t i n f l u e n c e t h e p e r -c e i v e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c o p i n g o p t i o n s , w h i c h , i n t u r n , m i g h t i n -f l u e n c e a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s e v a l u a t i o n o f c o p i n g e f f ec t iv e n e s s. R e -l i g i o u s b e l i e f s m i g h t a l s o a f f e c t s e c o n d a r y a p p r a i s a l b yi n f l u e n c i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d a b i l i t y t o p e r s e v e r e .

F i n a l l y , r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s m i g h t s e r v e a s a l i f e s t r e s s b u f f e r b yi n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e l i a n c e o n s p e c i f i c c o p i n g s t r a t e g ie s . A n i n d i -v i d u a l i n c r is i s m i g h t t u r n t o G o d a n d p r a y f o r r e l i e fo r s t r e n g t h ,p r a y t o a s a i n t f o r h o l y i n t e r c e s s i o n , o r a s k f o r h e l p f r o m ar e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n o r c o n g r e g a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , E b a u g h ,R i c h m a n , a n d C h a f e t z ( 1 9 8 4 ) f o u n d t h a t , f o r c r i s i s s i t u a t io n s ,B a h a 'i s a n d C a t h o l i c C h a r i s m a t i c s w e r e m o r e l i k el y t o p r a y a n dt o s e a r c h f o r s o c ia l s u p p o r t f r o m t h e i r g r o u p s ( t he C h a r i s m a t i c sf o r e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t , t h e B a h a 'i s fo r a d v ic e b a s e d o n s a c r e dw r i t i n g s ) t h a n w e r e C h r i s t i a n S c i e n t i s t s , w h o w e r e m o r e l i k e l yt o e n g a g e i n p o s i t i v e t h i n k i n g .


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R E L I G IO N A N D L I F E S T RE S S 563R e l i g i o u s n e s s

E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h o n t h e l i f e s t r e s s - m o d e r a t i n g r o l e o f r e -l i g io u s b e l ie f s re q u i r e s r e l ia b l e a n d v a l i d m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h o s eb e l i e f s. M o s t r e l i g i o n r e s e a r c h e r s c o n s i d e r r e l i g i o u s n e s s a m u l -t i d i m e n s i o n a l c o n s t r u c t ( S p i l k a e t a L 1 9 85 ). A l t h o u g h v a r i o u ss c h e m e s f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d ,r e s e a r c h e r s i n g e n e r a l h a v e f o l l o w e d t h e l e a d o f A l l p o r t ( 19 5 9 ),w h o i n t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t r i n s i c a n d e x t r in s i c r el i g io u s -n e s s a n d c r e a t e d s c a l e s f o r t h e i r m e a s u r e m e n t . I n t r i n s ic r e -l i g i o u s n e s s " r e g a r d s f a it h a s a s u p r e m e v a l u e i n i t s o w n r i g h t . I ti s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d a u n i f i c a t i o n o f b e i n g , t a k e s s e r i o u s l y t h ec o m m a n d m e n t o f b r o t h e r h o o d , a n d s t ri v es t o tr a n s c e n d a l ls e l f - c e n t e r e d n e e d s " ( A l l p o r t , 1 9 6 6 , p . 4 5 5 ) . I n d i v i d u a l s w i t ht h i s o r i e n t a t i o n f i n d t h e i r m a s t e r m o t i v e i n r e l i g i o n , a n d r e l i -g i o n t h u s s e r v e s a s t h e f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e t h e i rl i v e s ( A l l p o r t , 1 9 66 ) . E x t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,i s " s t r i c t ly u t i l i t a r i a n ; u s e f u l f o r t h e s e l f i n g r a n t i n g s a fe t y, s o c i a ls t a n d i n g , s o l a c e a n d e n d o r s e m e n t f o r o n e ' s c h o s e n w a y o f l if e "(A U PO rt , 1966 , p . 455 ) . I nd iv id ua l s w i th t h i s o r i en t a t i o n a r ed i s p o s e d t o u s e r e l i g io n i n s t r u m e n t a l l y t o a c h i e v e ot h er , m o r eu l t i m a t e e n d s .

I n t r in s i c a n d e x t r i n si c o r i e n t a t i o n s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e p t u -a l i z e d a l o n g a s in g l e b i p o l a r c o n t i n u u m , b u t a l a rg e n u m b e r o fs t u d i e s h a v e c h a l l e n g e d t h i s a s s u m p t i o n ( A l l p o r t & R o s s , 1 9 6 7 ;F e a g i n , 1 9 6 4; K a h o c , 1 9 8 5 ; K i n g & H u n t , 1 9 6 9 ). A s a r e s u l t , t h et w o r e l i g i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e n o w c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e u n i p o l a rc o n s t r u c t s ( D o n a h u e , 1 9 8 5 a ) .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o " m e n t a l h e a l t h , " t h e r e a r e s o m e d a t a t h a ts u g g e s t t h a t e x t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s i s p o s i t iv e l y r e l a t e d t o t r a i ta n x i e t y ( e .g , B a k e r & G o r s u c h , 1 9 8 2 ; P e t e r s e n & R o y , 1 9 8 5 ;S t u r g e o n & H a m l e y , 1 9 7 9) , w h e r e a s i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s isn e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t r a i t a n x i e t y ( e .g . B a k e r & G o r s u c h , 1 9 8 2 ;B e r g i n , M a s t e r s , & R i c h a r d s , 1 9 8 7 ; L o v e k i n & M a l o n y , 1 9 7 7 ;P e t e r s e n & R o y , 1 9 8 5 ). H o w e v e r , m o s t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a r e r e l a -t iv e ly u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ly , a n d t h e s e c o r r e l a -t i o n a l f i n d i n g s s h o u l d b e v i e w e d a s s u g g e s t iv e .

O u r m a j o r h y p o t h e s i s w a s t h a t i n t r i n s i c re l i g io u s n e s s w o u l ds e r v e a s a l i f e s t r e s s b u f f e r i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t r a i t a n x i e t y a n dd e p r e s s i o n . F i c h t e r (1 98 l ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t b e c a u s e a n i n t r i n s i co r i e n t a t i o n p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k f o r l i v i n g o n e ' s l i f e i n f a i t h ,t h o s e w i t h a h i g h i n t r i n s i c o r i e n t a t i o n c o u l d t u r n t o r e l i g i o nm o r e e a s i l y i n t i m e s o f c r i s is . H a v i n g a n d u s i n g a n i n t r i n s i cr e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s y s t e m i n t i m e s o f l if e s t r e s s m i g h t p r o v i d em e a n i n g , a s e n s e o f m a s t e r y , a n d s e l f - e s t e e m t h r o u g h o n e ' s r e l a -t i o n s h i p w i th a b e n e v o l e n t a n d o m n i p o t e n t G o d . M o r e s p e ci f i-c a ll y , a n i n t r i n s i c o r i e n t a t i o n m i g h t r e d u c e t h e p e r c e i v e d t h r e a to r l o s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p e r i e n c e d n e g a t i v e e v e n ts , m i g h t e n -h a n c e a n i n d i v i d u a l 's e v a l u a t io n o f c o p i n g r e s o u rc e s , a n d m i g h tr e s u l t i n a r e l i a n c e o n e f fe c t iv e re l i g i o u s c o p i n g s t r a t e g ie s .

W e a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s w o u l d s e r v e a s al i f e s t r e s s b u f f e r p r i m a r i l y f o r u n c o n t r o l l a b l e nega t i ve even t s . I th a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , r e l i g i o n w i l l b e m o s t u s e f u li n t i m e s o f m a j o r , s e v e r e l i f e s t r e s s ( P a r g a m e n t , i n p r e s s) .P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n t h a t u n c o n t r o l l a b l e s t re s s isu s u a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s m o r e a v e r s iv e t h a n c o n t r o l l a b l e s t r e s s (e .g .P a t e r s o n & N e u f e l d , 1 9 87 ) .

F i n a ll y , w e a s k e d s u b j e c t s d i r e c t l y h o w m u c h t h e y h a d u s e dr e l i g i o n t o d e a l w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e li f e e v e n t s t h a t t h e y h a d r e -

c e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d . P r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e f o u n d r e -l i g i o u s n e s s , b r o a d l y d e f i n e d , t o b e a n i d e n t i f i a b l y s e p a r a t e c o p -i n g s t ra t e g y o f te n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o s i t iv e o u t c o m e s ( e ~ S t o n e ,H e l d e r , & S c h n e i d e r , 1 9 8 8 ). I n t h i s s tu d y , w e p r e d i c t e d t h a t o u rg l o b a l i n d e x o f r e l i g i o n - b a s e d c o p i n g w o u l d s e r v e a s a l i f e s t r e s sb u f fe r , a g a i n p r i m a r i l y f o r u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t i v e e v e n t s .

T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s p e r t a i n e d t o o u r e n t i r e s a m p l e o f r e s p o n -d e n t s. H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r o f t h e o r e t i c a l a r ti c l e s o n t h e r o l e o fr e l i g i o n i n l i f e s t r e s s a d j u s t m e n t h a v e a r g u e d f o r t h e n e e d f o rs e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s o f t h e m a j o r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s ( e ~ , P a r g a m e n t ,i n p r e s s ; P a r k & C o h e n , i n p r e s s) . T h e r e f o r e , w e p l a n n e d s e p a -r a t e a n a l y s e s fo r C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s . S e p a r a t e a n a l -y s e s w e r e a l s o p l a n n e d t o t e s t f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l e f fe c t s a s a f u n c -t i o n o f t y p e o f l i f e s t r e s s ( u n c o n t r o l l a b l e v s. c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a -t ive events) .

S t u d y 1M e t h o d

S u b j e c t sSub jec t s w e re 83 und e rg radua t e s w ho pa r t i c i p a t ed i n t he s t udyto par t ia l ly ful f i ll research-par t ic ipat ion requirements for an in t ro-ductory psychology c lass. Fo r ty-four were Cathol ic (19 men and 25w om en) and 39 w ere P ro t e s t an t , b roa d ly de f ined (19 m en and 20women).l

P r o c e d u r eThe re lig iousness measures were group ad minis tered to the ent i repsychology c lass (n = abo ut 300) a t the very beginning o f the 1987spring semester. The se m easures co nsiste d of Fcagin's (1964) sho rt ver-s ions of the In t r ins ic and E xtr ins ic re l ig iousness scales and one i temfrom H ood (1973) concerning re l ig ious nteres t . Two weeks la ter (Timel) , subjects , in groups o f approxim ately 15, completed a b at tery of

quest ionnai res that assesse d recent (pas t 2 months) l i fe events and t ra i tanxie ty and depress ion. Subject se lect ion for th is smal l grou p tes t ingwas based o n the cr i ter ia of(a) being e i ther Protes tant or Cathol ic , (b)an indicat ion that re l ig ion was a t least somewhat im por tan t (see de-scr ipt ion of Hood 's , 1973, ques t ion in M ea su res section), and (c) ap-p roach ing an equa l com pos i t ion o f m en and w om en . The anx i e ty anddepress ion quest ionnai res , in conjunct ion wi th oth er measures , werereadm inis tered in smal l -group format about 8 weeks la ter (Time 2) .M e a s u r e s

Religiousness measures. Because the assessment of the in t r ins icand ext r ins ic d imen sions required that subjects have a t leas t some inter -es t in re l ig ion (Hood, 1973) , responses to the i tem "E st imate how im -por tan t re l ig ion i s to y ou" (Ho od, 1973) were used for subject se lection.This i tem w as answered on a 5-point Like r t - type scale (l = n o t a t a l limportant. 3 = fairl y important, 5 = extr em ely important). Only subjectswho scored 3 or h igher on th is i tem (72% of the c lass) were consideredfor the study.Feagin ' s (1964) measures o f In t r ins ic and Extr ins ic re l ig iousnesscom prise 6 i tems each, scored on 5-poin t scales. Th ese scales, whosei tems are found on the o r iginal Religious O rienta t ion Scale (Al lpor t &Ross , 1967) , have adeq uate re l iab i l i ty and val id i ty (e .g . , Do nahu e,

' P rotes tant subjects in Study I repo rted the following specific affil ia-t ions : Presbyter ian (9) , Method is t (9), Pro tes tant (7) , Bapt is t (6) , Lu-theran (5) , and Episcopa l ian (3) .


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5 6 4 C . P A R K , L . C O H E N , A N D L . H E R B1985b; Feagin , 1964; Hood, 1971). I t ems on the In t r ins i c s ca l e inc lude" I t ry h a rd to c a r ry m y re l ig ion ove r in to a l l my othe r dea l ings in l i fe "and "My re l ig ious be l i e f s a r e wha t r ea l ly l i e beh ind m y whole approachto l i f e " I t ems on the E xt r ins i c s ca l e inc lude , "The pr im ary pu rpose o fpraye r i s t o ga in r e l i e f and prote c t ion"Life events. T he C o l l e ge S t ud e n t L i f e E ve n t s Sc he du l e ( CSLE S;Sandie r & Lakey, 1982) i s a wide ly used m easure of the l i f e expe r i encesof col l ege s tudent s . Su bjec t s r epor t t he r ecent occur ren ce of I 11 l i feevent s and ind ica te whe the r an expe r i enced even t is nega t ive , neut r a l ,or positive. T he CSLEShas high t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i abi l i t y Sandie r & Lakey) .Previous r e sea rch, howeve r, ha s sugges ted th a t t h e CSLES migh t bevu l ne r a b l e to a c o nc u r r e n t m ood- r e l a t e d re s pons e b i a s ( L . C ohe n ,Towbes, & Flocco, 1988). But , a s emp has ized by L. Coh en e t a l ., t h i sbia s on ly potent i a l ly a f fec ts i n t e rpre t a t ion of cross-sectionalf indings .A n um be r o f r e c e n t s t ud i e s ha ve de m on s t r a te d t ha t a s i m p l e c oun t(uni t scores) o f se lf- ra ted negat iv e l i fe events is an effic ient an d predic-t ive s t ra tegy to assess rece nt l i fe s t ress (e .g., Nelso n & C oh en, 1983;Swea r ingen & C ohen, 1985). Un i t s core s of nega t ive evems were the re -fore com puted in ou r s tudy.Six c l in i ca l psychology gradua te s tud ent s and two c l in i ca l f acul tymem bers eva lua ted the occur ren ce cont rol l abi l i t y of each of the 111CSLES events . R aters ca tego rized eac h ev ent as (a) un con trol la ble (" thee ve n t oc c u rs i nde pe nde n t l yof th e average col l ege s tudent ' s behavio r orpsychologica l condi t ion [ e .g , dea th of a f r i end ]" ) or (b) cont rol lable( " the event i s, a t l e a s t i n pa r t , a conseq uence of or i nf luenced by thebehavior and/or the psychologica l condi t ion of the ave rage col l egestud ent [e .g. , ma rr iage ]") . An ev ent was c lass if ied as e i ther un con trol la -ble or cont rol l able i f a t l e a s t 75% (6 or m ore) o f t he r a t e rs prov ided tha tclassific ation . Of the 111 CSLES events, 16 (14%) were classified as un -con trol lable (e.g., ma rr iage o f c lose f r iend or re la t ive , pa rent s separatedor d ivorced) and 87 (78%) a s con t rol l able ( e .g . , t e rmin a ted in t ima tere l a t ionship , dec rea sed nu mb er of f ri ends ). The r ema ining 8 event s(7%) did no t achieve 75% agreem ent ( e .g . , i nc rea sed d em and s f romacadem ic cour se work) . The refore , i n addi t ion to to t a l n um ber of expe -r i enced nega t ive events , e ach sub jec t a lso had sepa ra t e s core s for nu m-be r o f un c on t r o l l ab l ene ga t ive e ve n t s a nd num be r o f c on t r o l l ab l e ne ga -tive events.

For each expe r i enced CSLES event , subjec t s we re a sked to indica tethe degree to which they "u sed r e l ig ion to dea l wi th th e event " (1 = notat all, 2 = somewhat, 3 = very much).Three score s we re de r ived f romthi s r a t ing: ( a) mea n use o f r e l ig ion for expe r i enced nega t ive events , (b)me an use of r e l ig ion for expe r i enced unco nt rol l able nega tive event s ,a nd (c ) m e a n u s e o f r e l i g i on f o r e xpe r i e nc e d c on t r o l l a b l e ne ga t i veevents.Depression. The Beck Dep res s ion Inve ntory (BDI ; Beck, 1967) is awide ly used, 2 l - i t em m easure o f depre s s ion. Previous r e sea rch hasshow n tha t t he BDI i s sens i t ive to l i f e s t re s s ove r a 2-m onth p e r iod ( e .g .,Roos & Coh en, 1987).Anxiety. The Tra i t An xie ty Inventory (TAI ; Spie lbe rge r, Gorsuch, &Lushene , 1970) i s a w ide ly used, 20- i t em m easure o f anxiety . I t t oo h asbee n show n to be s ens i t ive to l i f e s t re s s ove r a 2-m onth p e r iod ( e .g .,Roos & Coh en, 1987).

ResultsDescriptive Dat a

T a b l e 1 p r e s e n t s th e m a j o r v a r i a b l e s ' m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n s f or t h e C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t s u b j ec t s.

A 2 (Se x) 2 ( C a t ho l i c s v s . P r o t e s t a n t s ) m u l t i v a r i a t e a na l y s i so f v a r i a n c e (MANOVA)was c o n d u c t e d o n t h e f o l lo w i n g d e p e n -d e n t v a r i ab l e s e t: n u m b e r o f u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a ti v e e v en t s,n u m b e r o f c o n t r o l l a b le n e g a t i v e e v e n ts , i n t r i n s i c r e l ig i o u s n e s s,

T a b l e 1Study I Means and Standard Deviations

Cathol i c s Prote s t ant sVariable M SD M SD

Un con trol lab le negat iv e events 1.21 1.79 1.03 1.29Con t rol l able nega t ive event s 3 .07 2 .90 2 .87 3 .19Intr in s ic 19.48 3.06 20.08 2.89Extr in s ic 16.68 4.07 16.44 4.59M ean r e l ig ious coping 1 .82 0 .61 1 .94 0 .69Dep ress ion 8.11 5.97 7.39 6.14An xiety 42.36 8.79 40.95 8.32De pres s ion - -Tim e 2 6 .98 5 .93 6 .41 6 .71An xie ty - -Tim e 2 40.88 8 .95 40.00 7 .87

e x t r i n s i c re l i g i o u s n e s s , m e a n r e l i g io u s c o p i n g w i t h n e g a t i v ee v e n ts , T i m e 1 ( T I ) d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i et y , a n d T i m e 2 ( T 2 )d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x ie t y . N o m u l t i v a r i a t e e ff ec t e v e n a p p r o a c h e ds i gn i f i c a nc e ( a ll F s < 1 . 13 ) .

Data-Analytic StrategyC o r r e l a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d f i r st . N e x t , w e r e p o r t f i n d i n g s

f r o m T 1 h i e r a r c h i c a l r e g r e s s i o n s w i t h m u l t i v a r i a t e c r it e r i a ( d e -p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i et y ) . D e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y w e r e t r ea t e d a s am u l t i v a r i a t e c r i t e r i o n s e t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h i g h i n t e r e o r r e l a t i o n( se e T a b l e 2 ) . T h e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s w e r e ( a) n u m b e r o f n e g a -t i v e l if e e v e n t s ( to t a l, c o n t r o l l a b l e , o r u n c o n t r o l l a b l e ) , (b ) i n t r i n -s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s o r m e a n r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g w i t h n e g a t i v e e v e n ts ,a n d ( c) t he ( a) ( b ) i n t e r a c t i on e f f ec t . I n e a c h r e g r e s s i on , e a c h o ft h e t w o m a i n e ff ec t p r e d i c t o r s w a s t e s te d w i t h t h e o t h e r p r e d i c -t o r c o n t r o l l e d . T h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e m o d e l t e s t s th e u n i q u e e f fe c tso f e a c h p r e d i c to r . I n a d d i t i o n , u n i v a r i a t e p r e d i c t i o n s w e r e n o te x a m i n e d u n l e s s t h e m u l t i v a r i a t e an a l y s is w a s s i g n if i c a n t o rn e a r s i g n i f ic a n t . S i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s w e r e g r a p h e d i n a c -c o r d a n c e w i t h J. C o h e n a n d C o h e n ( 1 9 8 3 ); p r e d i c t o r - c r i te r i o nr e g r e s s i o n l i n e s a r e p o r t r a y e d f o r v a r i o u s l e v e ls o f t h e o t h e rp r e d i c t o r c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s t h e m o d e r a t o r v a r i ab l e .

P r e s e n t e d l a s t a r e t h e prospective r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s , i nw h i c h T 2 d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y ar e p r e d i c t e d b y t h e T 1 p r e -d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s , w i t h t h e T 1 c r i t e r i o n s c o r e s e n t e r e d a s f i r s t -s t e p p r e d i c t o r s . T h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e w i t h r e -s p e c t t o c a u s a l i n f e r e n c e (S . C o h e n & W i l l s , 1 9 8 5 ) .

Initial ResultsO u r h y p o t h e s e s p e r t a i n e d t o t h e e n t i re s a m p l e o f su b j e c ts .

H o w e v e r , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f m a i n e f fe c ts f o r n e g a t i v e e v e n ts ,n o o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t e f fe c ts w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e o v e r a l lc r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a n d p r o s p e c t i v e m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s e s . T h e r e -f o re , a l l o f t h e r e s u l t s t o b e p r e s e n t e d a r e b a s e d o n o u r s u b s e -q u e n t s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s o f C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e ct s .A l s o , f o r t h e e n t i r e s a m p l e , w e c o n d u c t e d s e p a r a t e r e g r e s s i o na n a l y s e s f o r m e n a n d w o m e n a n d f o u n d n o s e x d i ff e re n c e s i nt h e e f f e c t s o b t a i n e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r eb a se d o n a n al y se s o f m e n a n d w o m e n c o m b i n e d .


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R E L I G I O N A N D L I F E S T R E S ST a b l e 2Study I Correlations for Catholic and Protestant Subjects

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 81. Negative events - - .20 .25 -.0 8 .46 ** * .55*** .37** .57***2. Intr ins ic .14 - - .56*** .26* .40** .24 .40** .48***3. Extr ins ic - .2 4 - .0 5 - - . 11 .25* .26* .19 .244. Mean re l ig ious coping .17 .28* - .3 1" m - .0 8 - . 18 .03 .055. An xiety .53*** -. 0 4 -.3 3* -.1 6 w .76*** .82*** .63***6. Depress ion .66*** .13 - .43** - .0 7 .68* ** - - . 59* ** .72***7. An xiety --Tim e 2 .40** .05 - .28* - . 14 .85* ** .55*** - - . 72** *8. De pres s ion wT ime 2 .61"** - .1 4 - .23 .01 .51"** .66*** .49*** - -Note.Correla t ions above the diag onal are for Catho l ic subjects. Corre la t ions below the d iagonal are forProtestant subjects.* p < . 0 5 . * * p < . 0 1 . * * * p < . 0 0 1 .

5 6 5

Correlational AnalysisT a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s t h e c o r r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n a l l o f t h e m a j o r T I

a n d T 2 v a r i a b le s fo r C a t h o l ic a n d P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s s e p a ra t e l yA s i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h i s t a b l e , n e g a t i v e e v e n t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l ya n d p o s i ti v e ly r e l a te d t o T I a n d T 2 d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y fo rb o t h g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s . I n t r i n s i c a n d e x t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s sw e r e s i g n i f i c a n t ly a n d p o s i t i v e ly r e l a te d f o r C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s ,b u t w e r e u n r e l a t e d f o r P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s . I n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s -n e s s a n d r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d p o s i t iv e l y r e -l a t e d f o r b o t h g r o u p s o f s u b je c t s , w h e r e a s e x t r i n s i c r e li g i o u s -n e s s a n d r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t ly r e l a t e d ( n e g a ti v e ly )f o r P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s o n l y I n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s w a s s ig n i f i-c a n t l y a n d p o s it iv e l y r e l a t ed t o T I d e p r e s s i o n a n d T I a n d T 2a n x i e t y f o r C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s , b u t n o t f o r P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s .E x t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d p o s i t i v e ly re l a t e dt o T 1 d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y f o r C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s , w h e r e a st h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y n e g a t i v e f o r P r o t e s t a n ts u b j e c t s .

Regression AnalysesF o r t h e c r o s s - se c t i o n a l a n d p r o s p e c t iv e r e g r e s si o n s, n u m b e r

o f n e g a t i v e e v e n t s w a s a l w a y s o n e o f t w o m a i n e f f e ct p r e d i c t o r s .T h e o t h e r m a i n e f fe c t p r e d i c t o r w a s i n t r i n s i c r el i g io u s n e s s o rm e a n r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g w i t h n e g a t i v e e v e n ts . T h e r e f o r e , f o r e a c hd e n o m i n a t i o n ( C a t h o li c o r P r o t e s t a n t) , t h e p r i m a r y c r o s s -s e c -t i o n a l a n a l y s e s c o m p r i s e d t w o m u l t i v a r i a t e re g r e s s io n a n a l y s es .I n o n e , t h e t w o m a i n e f fe c t p r e d i c t o r s w e r e n u m b e r o f n e ga t iv ee v e n t s a n d i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s . I n t h e o t h e r , t h e t w o m a i ne f fe c t p r e d i c t o r s w e r e n u m b e r o f n e g a t iv e e v en t s a n d m e a n r e -l i g i o u s c o p i n g w i t h n e g a t i v e ev e n t s . I n e a c h r u n , t h e a p p r o -p r i a t e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t w a s a l s o t e s t e d . O u r h y p o t h e s e s c o n -c e r n i n g t h e s t r e s s - m o d e r a t i n g e f fe c t s o f i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s sa n d r e l ig i o u s c o p i n g w e r e e v a l u a t e d b y i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s ig n i fi -c a n c e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s e r e g r e s s io n i n t e r a c t i o n t e r m s . S i m i -l ar ly , f o r e ac h d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e p r i m a r y p r o s p e c t iv e a n a ly s e sc o m p r i s e d t w o m u l t i v a r i a t e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s , w i t h t h e T 1c r i t e r i a s e r v i n g a s t h e f i r s t- s t e p m a i n e f fe c t p r e d i c t o r s .Cross-sectional analyses. T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l (T 1 ) m u l t i v a r -i a t e m a i n e f fe c ts f o r n e g a t i v e e v e n t s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t l y s i g n i fi -c a n t f o r b o t h C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s ( a l l F s > 7 . 3 7 ,

p s < . 0 1) . I n e a c h r u n , t h e u n i v a r i a t e a n a l y s e s r e v e a l e d t h a tn e g a t i v e e v e n t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d p o s i t i v e ly r e l a t e d t o b o t hT 1 d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y ( p s < .0 1 ) . F o r C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s on l y ,t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l m u l t i v a r i a t e m a i n e f fe c t f o r i n t r i n s i c re -l i g i o u s n e s s a p p r o a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e , F ( 1 , 3 0 ) = 2 . 8 1 , p < . 1 0.T h e u n i v a r i a t e a n a l y s e s r e v e a l e d t h a t f o r C a t h o l i c s u b je c t s , i n -t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t ly a n d p o s i t i v e ly r e la t e d t ob o t h T I d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y ( F s > 4 . 7 0 , p s < . 0 5 ) . N o o t h e rm u l t i v a r i a t e e f f e ct s in T I r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s i n v o l v i n g t o t a ln e g a t i v e e v e n ts w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t ?

Uncontrollable versus controllable negative events. T h e c r o s s-s e c t i o n a l r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s w e r e d u p l i c a t e d , w i t h t h e n e g a t i v ee v e n ts p r e d i c t o r r e p l a c e d f i r st w i t h u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t i v ee v e n t s a n d t h e n w i t h c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t i v e e v e n t s . A g a i n , i n t r i n -s ic r e l i g io u s n e s s o r m e a n r e l ig i o u s c o p i n g s e r v e d a s t h e o t h e rm a i n e f fe c t p r e d i c t o r . I n a n a l y s e s t h a t i n c l u d e d r e l i g i o u s c o p -i n g as a p r e d i c t o r, m e a n c o p i n g s c o r e s p e r t a i n e d t o t h e t y p e o fn e g a t i v e e v e n t t h a t w a s t h e o t h e r m a i n e f fe c t p r e d i c t o r ; f o r e x -a m p l e , i n a n a l y s e s i n v o l v i n g c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t iv e e v e n ts , t h ec o p i n g p r e d i c t o r w a s m e a n r e l ig i o u s c o p i n g w i t h c o n t r o l l a b l enega t i ve even t s .

A l l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a n a l y s e s i n v o l v i n g u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a -t i v e e v e n ts r e v e a l e d n o n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e ct s. F o r P r o t -e s t a n t s u b j e c t s , t h e r e w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t C o n t r o l l a b l e N e g a t i v eE v e n t s R e l i g i o u s C o p i n g e f f e c t a t t h e m u l t i v a r i a t e l e v e l , F ( 2 ,2 4 ) = 4 . 1 3 , p < . 0 5, w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t i o n o f T 1 a n x i e t y ,F(1, 25) = 6 .64, p < .05 (R ~ c h a n g e = . 1 7) , a n d T I d e p r e s s i o n ,F ( I , 2 5 ) = 5 . 5 6, p < . 0 5 (R 2 c h a n g e = . 1 5) . W h e n g r a p h e d , t h e s et w o i n t e r a c t i o n s r e v e a l e d i d e n t i c a l p a t te r n s . T h e d e p r e s s i o np r e d i c t i o n i s p o r t r a y e d i n F i g u r e 1 . T h i s f i g u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t a t al o w l e v e l o f c o n t r o l l a b l e l i f e s tr e s s , r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g i s p r o t e c -t i v e, b u t t h a t a t a h i g h l e v e l o f c o n t r o l l a b l e l i f e s t r e s s , r e l ig i o u sc o p i n g i s d e t ri m e n t a l

F o r C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s a ls o , th e r e w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t C o n t r o l l a -b l e N e g a t i v e E v e n t s R e l i g i o u s C o p i n g i n t e r a c t i o n a t t h e m u l -t i va r i a t e leve l , F (2 , 30 ) = 3 . 64 , p < . 05 , spec i f i ca l l y i n t he p r e -d i c t i o n o f T 1 d e p r e s s i o n , F ( I , 3 1 ) = 5 .3 8 , p < . 0 5 ( R2 c h a n g e = 1 4) . F i g u r e 1 s h o w s a p a t t e r n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t f o r P r o t -

2 For a l l regress ion analyses to be repor ted, the R 2 change for s igni fi -cant main ef fects was abou t . 10.


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Co n t r o l l a b l e Ne g a t i v e E v e n tsO Low Rel ig ious Coping ( -1 SD) Average Rel ig ious Coping (Mean) H i g h Rel ig ious Coping (+1 SD )

Figure 1. Study I cross-sectional regression of depression on co ntrollable negative eventsfor high, average, and low religious coping values.

es ta n t sub jec ts ; a t a h igh leve l o f contro l lab le l i f e s t r ess , r e -l ig io u s c o p in g i s p r o te c t iv e ?P r o s p e c t i v e a n a l y s e s . I n th e s e r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s e s , t h e T 2

mu l t iv a r i a t e c r i t e r i a ( d e p r e ss io n a n d a n x ie ty ) we r e p r e d ic t e d b yt h e T I p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s ( n e g a t i v e e v e n t s a n d i n t r i n s i c r e -l ig io u s n e s s o r me a n r e l ig io u s c o p in g ) , w i th th e T I c r i t e r io ns c o r e s e n te r e d a s f i r s t -s t e p p r e d ic to r s . F o r Ca th o l i c s u b je c t s , t h eo n ly p r o s p e c t iv e mu l t iv a r i a t e e f f e c t th a t a p p r o a c h e d s ig n i f i -c a n c e ( p < . 1 0 ) wa s a ma in e f f ec t fo r n e g a t iv e e v e n t s r e v e a le d inth e in t r in s i c a n a ly si s . I n th i s a n a ly s i s , n e g a t iv e e v e n t s we r e p o s i -t iv e ly r e l a t e d to T 2 d e p r e s s io n ( p < . 1 0 ) . P r o te s t a n t s u b je c t s 'n e g a t iv e e v e n t s h a d a n e a r s ig n i f i c a n t ( p < . 1 0 ) p r o s p e c t iv ema in e f f e c t o n ly in th e in t r in s i c a n a ly s i s , w i th th e s ig n i f i c a n t(pos i tive) p red ic t ion o f T2 d epress ion (p < .05).

T h e r e wa s a p r o s p e c t iv e mu l t iv a r i a t e m a in e f f ec t f o r P r o te s -t a n t s u b je c t s ' i n t r in s ic o r i e n ta t io n s c o r e s , F ( I , 3 1 ) = 3 . 5 7 , p 4 . 2 7 , p s < . 0 5 ). T h eu n i v a r i a t e p r e d i c t i o n s s h o w e d t h a t f o r t h e C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s ,c o n t r o l l a b l e s t r e s s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d p o s i t iv e l y r e l a t e d t od e p r e s s i o n ( a ll F s > 1 0 .6 3 , p s < . 01 ) , w h e r e a s f o r t h e P r o t e s t a n ts u b j e c t s, c o n t r o l l a b l e s t r e s s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d p o s i t i v e ly r e -l a t e d t o b o t h d e p r e s s i o n a n d a n x i e t y ( a ll F s > 4 . 0 8 , p s < . 0 6 ) .P r o s p e c t iv e l y , c o n t r o l l a b l e l i f e s t r e s s a p p r o a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e( p < . 1 0) a t t h e m u l t i v a r i a t e le v e l f o r t h e P r o t e s t a n t s b u t n o t f o rt h e C a t h o l i c s , b u t n o p r o s p e c t i v e u n i v a r i a t e p r e d i c t i o n w a s s i g -n i f i c a n t f o r e i t h e r g r o u p .

F o r t h e C a t h o l i c s , i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t o rn e a r s i g n i f ic a n t c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y a t t h e m u l t i v a r i a t e l e v e l ( F s >2 . 5 9 , p < . 1 0 ), w i t h n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o b o t h a n x i e t y a n dd e p r e s s i o n ( a ll F s > 4 . 2 3 , p s < . 0 5 ) .Stress-moderating effects. F o r r e g r e s s i o n s i n v o l v i n g c o n t r o l -l a b l e n e g a t i v e ev e n t s , t h e r e w a s a n e a r - s i g n i f i c a n t m u l t i v a r i a t ec r o s s - s e c t i o n a l e f f ec t f o r C a t h o l i c s ' C o n t r o l l a b l e L i f e S t r e s s R e l i g i o u s C o p i n g , F ( 2 , 2 8 ) = 3 . 1 7 , p < . 1 0 , w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n tp r e d i c t i o n o f d e p r e s s i o n , F ( 2 , 2 9 ) = 4 . 5 0 , p < . 0 5 ( R2 c h a n g e =. 0 9) . W h e n g r a p h e d , t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d i n


9/13

57 0 C . PA R K , L . C O H EN , A N D L . H ER BT a b l e 4Stud y 2 C orrelations for Catholic and Protestant Subjects

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101. Negative events - - .09 .08 .04 .15 .44*** .03 -.2 5* .12 .35***2. In t r ins ic - .1 0 - - . 05 .58*** - .29* - .2 2 .13 .19 - .21 - .083 . Ex t r in s i c - . 29* .36* - - - . 09 - . 1 3 - . 02 - .37** .07 - . 19 . 134. Mean re lig ious coping .12 .73*** .24 - - - .28* - .1 7 .32* .02 - .2 2 - .0 35. An xiety .35* .02 -.34 * .00 - - .67*** .02 -.57*** .82*** .39**6. Dep ression .31" .11 -.1 1 .11 .67*** - - - .0 7 -.67*** .53*** .66***7 . Locus o f con t ro l - . 20 . 02 - . 13 .01 - . 59*** - . 32* - - - . 01 .01 - . 068 . Soc i a l suppor t - . 13 - . 03 . 14 - . 06 - .54*** - . 46** . 24 - - - . 59*** - . 61"**9. An xiety--T ime 2 .54*** .27 - .0 8 .23 .43** - .33* - .37* - .0 3 - - . 50***10. De pre ssio n-- Tim e 2 .32* .18 .08 .15 .31" .39** -.3 5* .09 .78*** - -

Note.Correla t ions above the d iagonal are for Cathol ic subjects . Co rre la t ions below the diagonal are for Protes tant subjects .* p < . 0 5 . * * p < . 0 1 . * * * p < . 0 0 1 .

S t u d y I ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) , w i t h r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g s e r v i n g a s a c o n t r o l -l ab l e l i f e s t r e s s bu f f e r ( s ee F igu re 4 ) .

A l l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a n a l y s e s i n v o l v i n g u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a -t i v e e v e n t s r e v e a l e d n o n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s a t t h em u l t i v a r i a t e l e v e l . P r o s p e c t i v e l y , t h e U n c o n t r o l l a b l e L i f eS t r e s s I n t r i n s i c O r i e n t a t i o n e f f ec t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r P r o t e s -t an t s a t t he m u l t i va r i a t e leve l , F (2 , 24 ) = 4 . 50 , p < . 05 , spec i f i -c a l l y i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f d e p r e s s i o n , F ( l , 2 5 ) = 5 . 4 6 , p < . 0 5 ( R2c h a n g e = . 07 ) . W h e n g r a p h e d , t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n w a s v e r y s i m i l a rt o t ha t f oun d i n S tudy I ( s ee F igu re 3) . Spec i f i ca l l y , he r e l a t i on -s h i p b e t w e e n u n c o n t r o l l a b l e s t re s s a n d d e p r e s s i o n w a s p o s i ti v ef o r l o w i n t r i n s i c P r o t e s t a n t s , r e l a ti v e l y f l a t f o r m e d i u m i n t r i n s i cP r o t e s t a n t s , a n d n e g a t i v e fo r h i g h i n t r i n s i c P r o t e s t a n t s ( s ee F i g -ure 5) .

I n a d d i t i o n , f o r P r o t e s t a n t s , t h e U n c o n t r o l l a b l e N e g a t iv eE v e n t s R e l i g i o u s C o p i n g e f f e c t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t p r o s p e c t i v e l ya t t h e m u l t i v a r i a t e le v e l , F ( 2 , 9 ) = 5 . 2 2 , p < . 0 5; t h e p r e d i c t i o no f anx i e ty w as s i gn i f i can t , F ( I , 10) = 11 . 59 , p < . 01 (R 2 c h a n g e =

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C o n t r o l l a b l e N e g a t i v e E v e n t so Low Religious Coping (-1 St)) Avera ge Rel igious Coping (Mean) Hig h Rel igious Coping (+1 ED)

Figure 4. Study 2 cross-sect ional regression of Cathol ic subjects ' de-pressio n on con trollable negative events for high, average, and low re -ligious coping values.

. 28 ) , a n d t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f d e p r e s s i o n a p p r o a c h e d s i gn i fi c an c e ,F ( l , 10 ) = 3 . 37 , p < l 0 (R 2 c h a n g e = . 08 ) . W h e n g r a p h e d , t h ep a t t e r n s w e r e i d e n t ic a l . F i g u r e 6 s h o w s t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f a n x i -e ty . T h i s p a t t e r n r e s e m b l e s t h a t f o r t h e U n c o n t r o l l a b l e L i f eS t r e s s I n t r i n s i c O r i e n t a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d s h o w s t h e a n x i -e t y - r e d u c i n g e ff e ct s o f r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g w i t h a h i g h n u m b e r o fu n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t i v e e v e n t s .

Spec i f ic Re l ig ious Coping A c t ivi t iesS u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d t o s p e c i f y t h e n e g a t i v e e v e n t w i t h w h i c h

t h e y m o s t r e l i e d o n t h e i r r e l i g i o n fo r c o p i n g , a n d t o d e s c r i b eh o w t h e y u s e d t h e i r r e l i g i o n t o d e a l w i t h t h a t e v e n t . S i x t e e n( 42 % ) o f t h e 3 8 P r o t e s t a n t s r e s p o n d e d t o t h i s q u e s t i o n , c o m -pa red w i th 35 (78% ) o f t he 45 C a tho l i c s , 2 (1 , N = 82 ) - -- 9 . 61 ,p < . 01 . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , th i s q u e s t i o n f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e m e a n i n g -f u l d a t a . F o r t h e P r o t e s t a n t s , 5 (3 1% ) o f t h e 1 6 r e s p o n d e n t s h a dl o w i n t r i n si c s c o re s ( b a s e d o n a m e d i a n s p li t) , c o m p a r e d w i t h 1 6( 4 6 % ) o f t h e 3 5 C a t h o l i c r e s p o n d e n t s ( n o n s i g n i f i c a n t F i s h e r ' se x a c t p r o b a b i l i t y a n a ly s i s ). S i x t y -n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e n e g a t i v ee v e n ts r e p o r t e d b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t s f o r th i s q u e s t i o n w e r e c o n -t r o l l a b le ev e n ts , c o m p a r e d w i t h 6 0 % o f t h o s e r e p o r t e d b y t h eC a t h o l i c s ( n o n s i g n i f i c a n t F i s h e r ' s e x a c t p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y si s ) .

T h e s p e c i f ic r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g a c t i v i t i e s w e r e c a t e g o r i z e d u s -i n g d i m e n s i o n s b a s e d i n p a r t o n P a r g a m e n t ( i n p re s s ; e . g, p r a ya n d a t t e n d c h u r c h) . T h e o n l y a c ti v i ty d e s c r i b e d b y m o r e t h a nt h r e e r e s p o n d e n t s f r o m e i t h e r g r o u p w a s p r a y er , w i t h 4 4 % o ft h e P r o t e s t a n t r e s p o n d e n t s a n d 5 4% o f th e C a t h o l i c r e s p o n -d e n t s s p e c i f y i n g t h i s r e l ig i o u s c o p i n g s t r a t e g y ( n o n s i g n i f ic a n tF i s h e r ' s e x a c t p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y s is ) .

S u m m a r y a n d D i s c us s io nT h e S t u d y 2 a n a l y se s s h o w e d t h a t t h e t w o d e n o m i n a t i o n s

w e r e e q u i v a le n t o n t h e d e m o g r a p h i c d a t a , a n d t h a t t h e r e g r e s -s i o n f i n d i n g s w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l . I t s h o u l da l s o b e n o t e d t h a t w h e r e a s S tu d y 1 w a s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g as p r i n g s e m e s te r , S t u d y 2 w a s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g a f a ll s e m e s t e rm o r e t h a n 1 y e a r l a t e r . T h e r e f o r e , r e p l i c a t e d f i n d i n g s a r e n o ta t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f n e g a t i v e e v e n t s t h a t a r e s p e -c i fi c t o a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d i n t h e a c a d e m i c c a l e n d a r .

T h e c r o s s - s e c ti o n a l i n t e r a c ti o n b e t w e e n c o n t r o l l a b l e li f e


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Figure 5. Study 2 prospective regression o f Protestant subjects' depression o n uncontrollablenegative events for high, average, and low intrinsic religiousness values.

s t re s s a n d r e li g i ou s c o p i n g a p p r o a c h e d s i g n if i c an c e f o r t h eCa th o l i c s u b je c t s, s p e c i f i ca l ly in th e p r e d ic t io n o f d e p r e s s io n .T h i s s a m e e f f e ct wa s s ig n i f i c a n t in S tu d y 1 , a n d th e in t e r a c t io np a t t e r n s we r e s imi la r in th e two s tu d ie s , w i th r e l ig io u s c o p in gs e r v in g a s a c o n t r o l l a b le l i f e s t r e s s b u f f e r . On th e o th e r h a n d ,th e P r o te s t a n t s ' S tu d y 1 Co n t r o l l a b le L i f e S t re s s Re l ig io u sC o p i n g c r o s s- s e c ti o n a l e f fe c t w a s n o t o b t a i n e d i n t h i s s e c o n ds tudy .

S t u d y 2 r e p l i c a t e d t h e P r o t e s t a n t s ' U n c o n t r o l l a b l e L i f eS t r e s s I n t r i n s i c R e l i g i o u s n e s s p r o s p e c t i v e e f f e ct f o u n d i nS tu d y 1 . T h e in te r a c t io n p a t t e r n s in th e two s tu d ie s w e r e v i r-tu a l ly id e n t i c a l ; t h e r e l a t io n s h ip b e twe e n u n c o n t r o l l a b le n e g a -t iv e e v e n t s a n d d e p r e s s io n wa s p o s i t iv e f o r lo w in t r in s i c P r o te s -t a n t s , r e la t iv ely f i at f o r m e d iu m in t r in s i c P r o te s t a n t s , a n d n e g a -t iv e f o r h ig h in t r in s i c P r o te s t a n t s .

I n a d d i t io n , th e r e wa s a s ig n i f i c a n t S tu d y 2 Un c o n t r o l l a b leL i f e S t r e s s Re l ig io u s Co p in g p r o s p e c t iv e e f f e c t f o r P r o te s -t a n t s , a n in t e r a c t io n n o t o b ta in e d in S tu d y 1 . T h i s l a t t e r in t e r a c -t i o n w a s v i r tu a l l y i d e n t i ca l t o t h a t c h a r a c t e r iz i n g t h e S t u d y 2e f f ec t in v o lv in g P r o te s t a n t s ' u n c o n t r o l l a b le s t r e s s a n d in t r in s i cr e l ig io u s n e s s , w i th h ig h r e l ig io u s c o p in g a s s o c ia t e d w i th a n e g a -t iv e p r o s p e c t iv e r e l a t io n s h ip b e twe e n u n c o n t r o l l a b le n e g a t iv ee v e n t s a n d a n x i e t y a n d d e p r e ss i o n . O f co u r s e, i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d

th a t f o r S tu d y 2 P r o te s t a n t s , i n t r in s i c r e l ig io u s n e s s a n d m e a nr e l ig io u s c o p in g w i th u n c o n t r o l l a b le n e g a t iv e e v e n ts we r e v e r yhigh ly cor re la ted , r (32) = .69 , p < .001 .

De s p i t e s o m e c o n s i s t e n c y in th e s t r e s s - mo d e r a t in g e f fe c t s o fth e r e l ig io n v a r i a b le s , t h e two s tu d ie s d id p r o d u c e c o n f l i c t in gf in d in g s r e g a r d in g th e c o r r e l a t e s a n d m a in e f fe c t s o f in t r in s i ca n d e x t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s . I n S t u d y l , t h e t w o o r i e n t a t i o n swe r e p o s i t iv e ly r e l a te d f o r Ca th o l i c s b u t u n r e la t e d f o r P r o te s -t a n ts . S t u d y 2 f o u n d t h e o p p o s i t e - - t h e t w o o r i e n t at i o n s w e r ep o s i t iv e ly r e l a t e d f o r P r o te s t a n t s b u t w e r e u n r e la t e d f o r Ca th o -l i cs . T h e r e l a t io n s h ip b e tw e e n C a th o l i c s ' i n t r in s i c r e l ig io u s n e s sa n d T 1 d i s t r e s s wa s p o s i t iv e in S tu d y I b u t n e g a t iv e in S tu d y 2 .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b o t h s t u d i e s r e v e a l e d a n u n a n t i c i p a t e dn e g a t iv e r e l a t io n s h ip b e twe e n P r o te s t a n t s ' e x t r in s i c r e l ig io u s -n e s s a n d a n x ie ty , a s we l l a s a p o s i t iv e re l a t io n s h ip b e twe e n r e -l ig io u s c o p in g a n d in t r in s i c r e l ig io u s n e s s f o r b o th P r o te s t a n ta n d Ca th o l i c s u b je c t s .

T h e i n c o n s i s t en t c o r r e la t i o n a l f i n d i n g s a c ro s s t h e t w o s t u d -i e s a r e d i s q u ie t in g a n d d i f f ic u l t t o e x p la in . I f n o th in g e l s e, t h e yh ig h l ig h t th e n e e d f o r f u r th e r r e s e a r c h o n in t r in s i c a n d e x t r in s i cr e l ig i o u s ne s s a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n d u c t i n g s e p a r at e a n a l y -s e s f o r s p e c i f ic r el i g i o u s d e n o m i n a t i o n s ( P a r k & C o h e n , i npress).


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5 7 2 C . P ARK, L . COHE N, AN D L . HE RB


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R E L I G I O N A N D L I F E S T R E S S 573t r i n s i c P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s r e i n t e r p r e t n e g a t i v e e v e n t s o r i g i n a l l ye v a l u a t e d a s t h r e a t e n i n g , a s c h a l l e n g i n g , o r a s a t e s t f r o m G o d .O r , p e r h a p s i t is th ~ n e g a t i v e e v e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d f r o m T l t o T 2w h o s e e v a l u a t i o n s a r e i n f l u e n c e d . I n a n y c a s e , t h e s e e v e n t e v a l u -a t i o n s r ef l ec t s t r es s m o d e r a t i o n t h a t i s m e d i a t e d b y p r i m a r ya p p r a i s a l (S . C o h e n & E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 9 ). A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i st h a t h i g h i n t r i n s i c P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c ts e x p e r i e n c e d d e p r e s s i o nr e d u c t i o n f r o m T 1 t o T 2 b e c a u s e d u r i n g t h i s t im e , t h e i r e v a lu a -t i o n s o f t h e i r c o p i n g r e s o u r c e s b e c a m e m o r e p o s it iv e . A f t e re x p e r i e n c i n g u n c o n t r o l l a b l e n e g a t i v e e v e n t s (a t T 1 ) , p e r h a p s t h eh i g h i n t r i n s i c P r o t e s t a n t n o w ( a t T 2 ) f e e l s s t r o n g e r a n d b e t t e ra b l e t o c o p e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s o f l if e , a n d i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i ss t r e n g t h s t e m s i n p a r t f r o m h i s o r h e r f a i t h in G o d . T h i s e f fe c to n c o p i n g e v a l u a t i o n r e f l e c ts s t r e s s m o d e r a t i o n t h a t i s m e -d i a t e d b y s e c o n d a r y a p p r a i s a l ( S. C o h e n & E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 9) .

M o r e r e s e a r c h o n t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f r e l i g i o n , s p e c i fi c a l l y a s i tr e l a t e s t o i d e o l o g i c a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n C a t h -o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s , i s n e e d e d b e f o r e th i s r e p l i-c a t e d f i n d i n g c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h c o n f i d en c e . A s w e s t a t e de a r l i e r , w e b e l i e v e t h a t o n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s a v e r y b a s i cd i f f er e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o d e n o m i n a t i o n s , t h a t i s , t h e C a t h o l i ce m p h a s i s o n w o r k s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e P r o t e s t a n t e m p h a s i s o nf a i th . B e c a u s e i n t r i n s i c r e l i g i o u s n e s s i s , b y d e f i n i t io n , f a i t h m o -t i v a t e d , t h e P r o t e s t a n t ' s g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n f a i t h m i g h t a l l o wh i m o r h e r t o m o r e e f f e c t iv e l y u s e t h i s r e l i g i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n i nt i m e s o f u n c o n t r o l l a b l e l i f e s t r e s s .

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l L i m i t a t i o n sI n t e r p r e t a t io n o f o u r f i n d i n g s m u s t b e m a d e i n l i gh t o f m e t h -

o d o l o g i c a l l i m i ta t i o n s . O u r s a m p l e s w e r e p r i m a r i l y y o u n g ,m i d d l e - c l a s s W h i t e c o l le g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . T h e d e p t h a n dm e a n i n g o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t io n s m i g h t d i f fe r f r o m t h o s eo f o t h e r g r o u p s t o w h o m r e s e a r c h e rs m i g h t l i k e to g e n e r a l iz e .T h e n e g a t iv e e v e n ts t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s e x p e r i e n c e dm i g h t s e e m t r iv i a l c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e m a j o r l if e c r is e s o f a d u l t -h o o d . T h e c l a ss i f ic a t io n o f s u b j e c t s ' d e n o m i n a t i o n s i n t o C a t h o -l i c v e rs u s P r o t e s t a n t i s a d m i t t e d l y s i m p l i s t i c . O u r c l a s s i f i c a t i o no f n e g a t iv e e v e n ts w a s b a s e d o n t h e c o n t r o l l a b i l it y o f t h e i r o c -c u r r e n c e , b u t i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t r o l l a b i l i t yo f t h e i r o u t c o m e s .

O u r g l o b a l m e a s u r e o f r e l i g i ou s c o p i n g r e q u i r e s c o n s t r u c tv a l i d a t io n . W e h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e c o g n i t iv e f u n c t i o n s o f r e -l i g i o u s c o p i n g , b u t P a r g a m e n t ( i n p re s s ) h a s o u t l i n e d s i x m a j o rf u n c t i o n s t h a t r e l i g i o n m i g h t s e r v e in t h e c o p i n g p r o c e s s . F u r -t h e r r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h i c h f u n c t i o n s a r eo p e r a t i v e f o r s p e c i fi c g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s f a c e d w i t h c e r t a i nk i n d s o f l i f e s t r e s s. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s a l s o n e e d e d t o r e p l i c a t eo u r f i n d i n g s f o r li f e s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d o v e r a l o n g e r t i m e p e -r i o d . T h e i n c l u s i o n o f m e a s u r e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l h e a l t h ( e .g , li f es a t is f a c t io n ) s h o u l d p r o b a b l y a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d .

D e s p i t e t h e s t u d i e s ' l i m i t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t on o t e t h a t r e l i a b l e e f fe c t s w e r e o b t a i n e d d e s p i t e s e v e r a l f a c to r st h a t s e e m i n g l y e n h a n c e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r n u l l f i n d in g s : (a ) T h es a m p l e s w e r e c o m p o s e d o f n o r m a l c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w i t h m i n i -m a l h e t e r o g e n e it y o n t h e p r e d i c t o r a n d c r i t e r io n m e a s u r e s ; ( b)t h e r e w e r e o n l y a b o u t 4 0 s u b j e c t s w i th i n e a c h r e l ig i o u s d e n o m i -n a t i o n ; a n d (c ) e v e r y s u b j e c t h a d i n d i c a t e d a t l e a s t a m o d e r a t ei n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , o u r f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t r e l i g i o u s o r i e n t a t i o na n d r e l i g i o u s c o p i n g p l a y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n l i fe s t r e s s a d j u s t -m e n t . O u r r e s u l t s a ls o h i g h l i g h t th e n e e d f o r s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e so f s p e c i fi c re l i g io u s d e n o m i n a t i o n s i n s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h e s e .

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analys is for the behavioral sciences . Hil lsdale , N J: Er lbaum .Cohen, L. (Ed.). (1988). Lifeev ents a nd psycho logical funct ioning." Theo-ret ical an d methodo logical issues . Newb ury Park, CA: Sage.Cohen, L. , Towbes , L, & Floc co, R . (1988) . Effects of indu ced m ood onsel f - repor ted l i fe events and perceived and received socia l suppor t .Journal o f Personal i ty and Social P sychology, 55, 669-674.Coh en, S, & Edwards, J. (1989). Perso nality char acteris ticsa s m o d e m -tors of the re la t ionship between s t ress and disorder . In R . Neufeld(Ed.), Advances in the inves t igat ion of psychological s tress (pp. 235 -283). New York: Wiley.Cohen, S, & H oberm an, H . (1983). Posit ive events and socia l suppor tas buffers o f l ife change stress. Journal o f Appl ied So cial Psychology,13 , 99-125.Cohen, S., & W ills, T. (1985). Stress, soc ial supp ort, a nd the bufferinghypothesis. Psychological B ul let in, 92, 310-357.Coo k, T, & W imberly, D. (1983). IfI s hou ld die before I wake: Religiouscom m i tm en t and ad jus tm en t t o t he dea th o f a ch i l d . Journal f or t heScient i fic Stud y o f Rel igion, 22, 222-238.Don ahue, M. (1985a). Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Review an dmeta-analysis. Journal o fPersonal i ty and Social Psychology, 48, 40 0-419.Don ahue, M. (1985b). Intrinsic and ex trinsic religiousness: Th e em piri -cal research. Journal for the Scient if ic Stud y of Rel igion, 24, 4 1 8 -423.Ebaugh, H. , Richma n, K , & Chafetz, J. (1984). Life crises among thereligiously comm itted: Do sec tarian differences ma tter? Journal f orthe Scient i f ic Stu dy o f Rel igion, 23, 19-31.Eliade, M. (Ed.). (1987). Th e encyclopedia o f rel igion. New York: Mac-mil lan.Feagin, J. (1964). Prejudice and religious types: A focused study ofSouthern Fundamental i s t s . Journal f or t he Sci ent if ic S tudy o f Rel i-gion, 4, 3-13 .Fichter, J. (1981). Rel ig ion a nd pain . New York: Crossroad.Hinnells, J. R. (Ed.). (1984). The fa cts on f i le dict ionary o f rel igions .New York: Facts on Fi le .Hoo d, R . (1971). A co mpa r ison of the A l lpor t and Feagin scor ingprocedures for in t r ins ic /ext r ins ic or ienta t ion. Journal f or t he Sci en-t i fic Study of Rel igion, 10, 370-374.Hoo d, R , (1973) . Form s of re l ig ious com mitmen t and in tense re l ig iousexper ience . Review o f Relig ious Research, 15 , 29-36.Johnso n, J. , & Sam son, I . (1978). Life stress, dep ression , and anxiety:Internal - -external ocus of cont rol as a m oderato r variable . J o u r n a l o fPsychosomatic Research, 22, 205-208.


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