Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. …...literature literature Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global Schmied History English SS

SchmiedHistory English

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Technicalities: attend to pass (PVL for most)Tutorial : Tuesday, 07:30-09:15 am in 2/W038, starting 24/04/19Requirements for credits: Participation, 60-minute test 04/07/19 or ten quizzes passed before!3 ECTS credits normally, 5 for ERASMUS students with a special task (by July 1st):https://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/english/sections/ling/course/index.phpObjectives:By the end of the semester, students can* interpret language as texts as well as language as a system,* identify the relationship of text and author in their historical contexts and

the development of text types and related language forms, and* evaluate the authentic historical language systems of English

in comparison to present-day English and German beyond a purely descriptive level.

Recommended Literature (References):Stephan Gramley (2012). The History of English: An Introduction. London: Routledge.http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/Bergs, A. & L. J. Brinton (eds. 2017). The History of English. Varieties of English. Volume 5. Berlin: Mouton de Grouter

Graddol, D. (1997). The Future of English. British Council. http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-elt-future.pdf

Graddol, D. (2006). English next. British Council. http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf

Hickey, R. (2012). Studying the History of English. http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/

Kortmann, B. (2012). The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English. Berlin: de Gruyter. http://www.ewave-atlas.org/home

Schmied: History of English Language & Culture


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1. Introduction: Why? Why? Why?1. Introduction: Why? Why? Why?

Why are we interested in the History of the English language?Why do we study language change?Why can language not be fixed?Language attitudes! - Perceiving change as decay?The language & culture interface• language always has variation because language users vary and variation is the basis of change • language always has to change because culture changes and language reflects culture•new cultures, inventions/technologies•new contacts and language-external influences •but also internal adaptations: systematisation, analogy, etc. external and internal reasons for language change

cultural studies systems thinking/self-organising mental constructlanguage as culture language as systemOE times a series of invasions loss of inflections fixed word orderRenaissance as 1st globalisation Great Vowel Shift

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Problems of & Approaches to HistoryProblems of & Approaches to History

segmenting time? segmenting language & culture & literature & “politics”“Englishes”:• “Old” - “Middle” - “Modern”• “Anglo-Saxon?” • “Early Modern” - “Present-Day”combine texts & people (writers/speakers?) & language systems & cultures• texts e.g. Lords’ Prayer through 1500 years; Chronicles in Old English• people e.g. “Venerable Bede”, King Alfred and Caxton• system e.g. personal pronouns in OE,ME,PDE• culture e.g. “invasions” in OE,ME,PDEreconstruction problems: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runic_alphabet (03/04/19)

pronunciation? general vs. E-specific: writing systems, esp. c and ggeneralisations: “rules?”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_change (03/04/19) i-mutation sound changes grammaticalization

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History timeline: language influences, periodizationhttps://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/56/35/7e/56357ebf54000763d75af9773918a0a8.jpg (06/04/16)History timeline: language influences, periodizationhttps://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/56/35/7e/56357ebf54000763d75af9773918a0a8.jpg (06/04/16)


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Which “approach” to history? Which “approach” to history?

History as a combination of:A) language developments/rules,B) people & stories,C) authentic texts

Political History + Literature & Culture + Language Developments

popular, but not as popular as:The History of English in 10 Minuteshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njJBw2KlIEohttp://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/english-language/the-history-english-ten-minutes(03/04/19)

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runestone (cf. futhorc)

Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global SchmiedHistory English

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In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as sing, sang, sung, and song. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European language) of the vowel e with the vowel o or with no vowel. For a more detailed explanation see Indo-European ablaut.To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of verbs, called strong verbs, in which the vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical tense-aspect.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut =apophony(03/04/19)

Imperative Preterite Past Participle vowel alternation

swim swam swum (i-a-u)phonetically: /ɪ-æ-ʌ/

fall fell fallen (a-e-a)phonetically: /ɔ-ːɛ-ɔ/ː

drive drove driven (i-o-i)phonetically: /aɪ-oʊ-ɪ/

A) “rules”: ablautA) “rules”: ablaut



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definitions:• Croft: “process by which constructions with specific lexical items develop

grammatical functions, leading to the reinterpretation of the lexical items as possessing grammatical functions” (Croft, William (2000). Explaining language change: An evolutionary approach. Harlow: Longman. p. 156)

• other → lexical item develops a grammatical function (= unidirectional drift)• is a cognitive process, not only a type of syntactic change, but a global

change affecting morphology, phonology and semanticsEnglish examples:• all auxiliaries develop from full verbs (is, do, have, make; can, may, must,

shall)• lexical full verbs develop into affixes lic –ly (like German marker -lich in

clause adverb sicherlich), ship – -ship (friendship)• prepositional groups or participles become prepositions (with regard to,

regarding)• demonstratives became definite articles, conjuncts, etc. (that)

A) “rules”: grammaticalizationA) “rules”: grammaticalization

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B) People & storiesB) People & stories

Depiction of the Venerable Bede (on CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede(03/04/19)

Historia ecclesiastica gentisAnglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by Bede on the history of the Christian Churches in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict between Roman and Celtic Christianity.It is considered to be one of the most important original references on Anglo-Saxon history. It is believed to have been completed in 731, when Bede was approximately 59 years old.



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C) TextsC) Texts

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The beginning of the Lord's Prayer in Old English, Early Modern English, and Modern English (late 20th century)

http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/learning-texts.asp(03/04/19)


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The philological triangleThe philological triangle

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language

language

creates

is the core ofculture

culture

literature

literature

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2. The origins of English on the continent2. The origins of English on the continent

What distinguishes Latin/Greek from English/German? - (Jacob) Grimm’s Law (+exceptions = Verner’s Law)a set of regular correspondences between Proto-IE/early Germanic stops and fricatives andthe stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). 3 consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:• Proto-IE voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives: L. pēs, pedis > foot/Fuß• Proto-IE voiced stops become voiceless stops: L. gelū > cold/kalt• Proto-IE voiced aspirated stops *gʰ become voiced fricatives; ultimately, in most

Germanic languages voiced stops: Sanskr. hamsa (swan) > goose/GansWhat distinguishes Low Germanic from High Germanic (English/Frisian-German)?- the High German consonant shift:• The three Germanic voiceless plosives became fricatives in certain phonetic

environments: ship maps to German Schiff;• The same sounds became affricates in other positions: apple : Apfel; and• The three voiced plosives became voiceless: door :Tür.


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The origins of English (before 450/700)The origins of English (before 450/700)

What happened on the continent before the settlement of Saxons, Angles, Jutes and Frisians in England (i.e. 450)?- Latin influences on German, Frisian and English, e.g. cheese=KäseMany words (some originally from Greek) for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people via Latin even before the tribes reached Britain (what is known as the Continental or Zero Period): anchor, butter, camp, cheese, chest, cook, copper, devil, dish, fork, gem, inch, kitchen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pound(unit of weight), punt (boat), sack, street, wall, wine.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_influence_in_English (03/04/19)

What happened in England before written sources (i.e. 700)?What can be read in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (cf. 3.1 below)?= a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. Multiple copies were made of that original which were distributed to monasteries across England, where they were independently updated. In one case, the chronicle was still being actively updated in 1154.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle (03/04/19)



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Map: Pre-Conquest Germanic CemeteriesMap: Pre-Conquest Germanic Cemeteries

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(Gramley 2012: 16)


http://www.jpkc.sdu.edu.cn/culture/final/contents/content7_img88.jpg


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Table: Latin words borrowed into the early Germanic languages (here: Old English)Table: Latin words borrowed into the early Germanic languages (here: Old English)

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(Gramley 2012: 14)



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Table: The Indo-European language familyTable: The Indo-European language family

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(Gramley 2012: 3)

cf: Where did English come from? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEaSxhcns7Y(03/04/19)


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Fig.: The Romance language familyFig.: The Romance language family

Fig.: The Germanic language familyFig.: The Germanic language family

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(Gramley 2012: 2)

(Gramley 2012: 3)



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Table: Grimm’s Law (simplified)Table: Grimm’s Law (simplified)

Table: Verner’s Law (simplified) in phonetic symbolsTable: Verner’s Law (simplified) in phonetic symbols

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(Gramley 2012: 9)

(Gramley 2012: 9)


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The Old English writing system: futhorchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futhorc (03/04/19)The Old English writing system: futhorchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futhorc (03/04/19)

Franks Casket: side inscription



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I-MUTATION ("i-umlaut") = raising and fronting of a root vowel in anticipation of "i/y" sound in a suffixI-MUTATION ("i-umlaut") = raising and fronting of a root vowel in anticipation of "i/y" sound in a suffix

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You probably do it every time you speak. Think of the difference between the -o sound in the do of "How do you do?" and that of the last word in "How are you doing?" The last word of that sentence might be written *diwin if it were spelled phonetically the way the average modern American pronounces it. When that -o- shifts up to an -i-, that's i-mutation. I-mutation is caused by the very human habit of laziness: taking the shortest distance between two points. The plural of man in ancient West Germanic, the ancestor of Old English, used to be a word something like *manniz. The speakers "cheated" on the first vowel in the word to be in position for the second vowel. It's the same thing you do with doing. It doesn't change the meaning of the word to do so. So after hundreds of years of this, the plural came out as *menniz, or something similar, when people said it. Eventually, the shifted vowel itself comes to stand for the plural, and since laziness dislikes doing the same job twice, the syllable at the end of the word slowly shriveled and dropped off.

http://www.etymonline.com/imutate.php (03/04/19)


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Patterns of I-MUTATION ("i-umlaut")Patterns of I-MUTATION ("i-umlaut")

• Abstract nouns formed from adjectives by adding -ith: foul-filth, hale-health,long-length, slow-sloth, strong-strength, wide-width, deep-depth.

• Verbs formed from noun or adjective roots by adding -jan: doom-deem, food-feed, tale-tell, full-fill, blood-bleed, hale-heal.

• Causative verbs formed from preterites of strong verbs by adding -jan: drank-drench, lie-lay, rose-raise, sat-set, drove-drive. Fell-fell is also an example, though it's not so obvious now.

• Noun plurals in -iz: man-men, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, goose-geese, louse-lice, mouse-mice. Along with woman-women (derived from wif-man)these are the only survivors of this class, which was numerous in Old English and included such words as the ancestors of modern book, goat, and friend,which now have gone over to the -s plural.

• Comparatives in -ir: old-elder, late-latter . • an adjective formed from a noun by adding -ish in at least one important case:

English (O.E. Englisc) from the people called Angles.

http://www.etymonline.com/imutate.php (03/04/19)



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According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, Viking raiders struck England in 793 and raided Lindisfarne, the monastery that held Saint Cuthbert’s relics. … This raid marks the beginning of the "Viking Age of Invasion", made possible by the Viking longship. There was great but sporadic violence from the last decade of the 8th century on England’s northern and western shores: Viking raids continued on a small scale across coastal England. While the initial raiding groups were small, it is believed that a great amount of planning was involved. The Norwegians raided during the winter between 840 and 841, rather the usual summer, having waited on an island off Ireland. In 850 Vikings overwintered for the first time in England, on the island of Thanet, Kent. In 854 a raiding party overwintered a second time, at the Isle of Sheppeyin the Thames estuary. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age (03/04/19)

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3. Old English3.1 Invasions + consequences (700-1100)3. Old English3.1 Invasions + consequences (700-1100)


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Alfred the Great (Ælfrēd, Ælfrǣd, "elf counsel“: 849 –899; King of Wessex 871 to 899)Alfred the Great (Ælfrēd, Ælfrǣd, "elf counsel“: 849 –899; King of Wessex 871 to 899)

Alfred's first translation was of Pope Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, which he prefaced with an introduction explaining why he thought it necessary to translate works such as this one from Latin into English. Although he described his method as translating "sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense," Alfred's translation actually keeps very close to his original, although through his choice of language he blurred throughout the distinction between spiritual and secular authority. Alfred meant his translation to be used and circulated it to all his bishops.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great (14/05/13)

The King turned his attention to the deterioration of learning in England. Due to the continued pillage of monasteries by the Vikings, which essentially formed a network of rudimentary education at the time, educational standards had diminished. Alfred founded a court school to educate the nobles and encouraged the great scholars of his day to take up residence in England. "It is most needful for men to know" he is recorded as stating "and to bring it to pass, if we have peace, that all the youth now in England-may be devoted to learning." The royal court was to become a magnet for scholars. On the insistence of the King, English became the official written language. Alfred personally translated into English 'The History of the Venerable Bede', 'Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy', 'Dialogues of Gregory the Great', Gregory's 'Pastoral Care' and Orosius' Soliloquies of St. Augustine'. Prior to this, all books had been written in Latin.http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/saxon_6.htm (14/05/13)



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Text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicles for 787 “The Invasion of the Vikings” Text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicles for 787 “The Invasion of the Vikings”

Alfred is also noted for beginning the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 890's and had many copies made. The chronicle was written in Anglo-Saxon, rather than the usual Latin. Alfred decreed that these copies be placed in monasteries and churches and frequently updated. The chronicle was updated until the twelfth century, some of the original copies still survive to the present day. It remains one of the few literary sources we possess for English historyfrom the departure of the Romans to the Norman conquest. http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/saxon_6.htm (14/05/13)

… 7 on his [Brihtric cing] dagum comon ærest .iii. scipu Norðmanna, 7 þa se gerefa þærto rad… and in his [King Bertric] days came first three ships of Northmen, and at this the reeve there rode 7 hie wolde drifan to þæs cinges tune, þy he nyste hwæt hie wæron, 7 hine man ofsloh. and them he wanted to drive to the king‘s town, for he didn‘t know what they were, and him they killed. þæt wæron þa ærestan scypu Deniscra manna þe Angelcynnes land gesohton. These were the first ships of the Danes that England sought out.

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(Gramley 2012: 46)


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle

Chronicle name Location Manuscript

A Winchester (or Parker) Chronicle

Parker Library, Corpus Christi College

173

B Abingdon Chronicle I British Library Cotton Tiberius A. vi

C Abingdon Chronicle II British Library Cotton Tiberius B. i

D Worcester Chronicle British Library Cotton Tiberius B. iv

E Peterborough (or Laud) Chronicle Bodleian Library Laud misc. 636

F Bilingual Canterbury Epitome British Library Cotton Domitian viii

G or A2 or W

copy of Winchester Chronicle British Library Cotton Otho B. xi +

Otho B. x

H Cottonian Fragment British Library Cotton Domitian ix

I An Easter Table Chronicle British Library Cotton Caligula A. xv



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle


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Political divisions

„Heptarchy“=7 kingdoms(Cornwall, Wales, Scotland speak Celtic!)

Political divisions

„Heptarchy“=7 kingdoms(Cornwall, Wales, Scotland speak Celtic!)

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Map 3.1 Danelaw and Wessex in 878(Gramley 2012: 47)



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Scandinavian settlements in Anglo-Saxon EnglandScandinavian settlements in Anglo-Saxon England

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Background to dialect features until today?


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Table: Creolization features applied to OE–ON language contact (in Danelaw)(Gramley 2012: 59)Table: Creolization features applied to OE–ON language contact (in Danelaw)(Gramley 2012: 59)

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Why did English change so radically compared to German? - because of the special contact situation in the North?



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3.2 OE Literature The National Epic: Beowulf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf

3.2 OE Literature The National Epic: Beowulf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf

“In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats in Scandinavia, comes to the help of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall (Heorot) has been under attack by a being known as Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland in Sweden and later becomes king of the Geats. After a period of fifty years has passed, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is fatally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants bury him in a tumulus in Geatland.”“Beowulf was written in England, but is set in Scandinavia. It has variously been dated to between the 8th and the early 11th centuries. It is an epic poem told in historical perspective; a story of epic events and of great people of a heroic past. Although its author is unknown, its themes and subject matter are rooted in Germanic heroic poetry, in Anglo-Saxon tradition recited and cultivated by Old English poets called scops.”“The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through oral traditionprior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than the mere matter of how it was composed.”


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Beowulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulfhttp://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-1-X.html

Beowulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulfhttp://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-1-X.html

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Beowulf … is the only surviving heroic epic of its era, and the lone early manuscript dates from ca. 1000 A.D. The date of the poem's composition is uncertain, but probably lies in the 7th or 8th century on the basis of its language. While the story in its legendary monster aspects is not factual, it is considered quite reliable in its historical details, for example concerning 6th century armor, weaponry, burial customs, and the names of Germanic tribal leaders. Set in a factual background, it might almost be considered historical fiction..



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Beowulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeowulfBeowulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf

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Hwæt! We Gardena in gear dagum, þeod cyninga, þrym gefrunon, hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, monegum mægþum, meodo setla ofteah, egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearðfeasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, weox under wolcnum, weorð myndum þah, oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymb sittendra

http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/Beowulf.Readings/Prologue.html


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“The Voyage of Ohtere”“The Voyage of Ohtere”http://www.ucalgary.ca/UofC/eduweb/engl401/texts/ohthfram.htmhttp://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-4-X.html

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The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan relates certain travels attributed to Ohthere, whose story … was included in King Alfred's translation from Latin of the Compendious History of the Worldby Paulus Orosius (d. 420). Ohtherewas a Norwegian hunter, whaler, andtrader who tells … of his voyages north and east of the Scandinavian peninsula, round the Kola peninsula to the White Sea (all of these terms being modern). Orosius' History did not include Ohthere's tale, nor that of Wulfstan; rather, these stories were composed or copied from an unknown source and inserted into the Anglo-Saxon translation of the History.



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“The Voyage of Ohtere”http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/iallt2003/oldenglish/OEparagraph-1.xml (Ӿ06/04/16)“The Voyage of Ohtere”http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/iallt2003/oldenglish/OEparagraph-1.xml (Ӿ06/04/16)

Ōhthere sǣde his hlāforde, Ӕlfrede cyninge, þӕt he ealra Norðmonna norþmest būde. Hēcwӕð þӕt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ. Hē sǣde þēah þӕt þӕt land sīe swiþe lang norþ þonan; ac it is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum stycce-mǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ond on sumera, on fiscaðe be þǣre sǣ. Hēsǣde þӕt hē æt summe cirre wolde fandian hū lo̧nge þӕt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþehwӕðer ӕnig mon be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þӕt wēste land on ðӕt stēorbord, ond þā wīdsǣ on ðӕt bӕcbord, þrīedagas. Þā wӕs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwӕlhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīetnorþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag þӕt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on þӕt land, hē nysse hwӕðer, būtan hē wisse þӕt hē þǣr bād westanwindes and hwōn norþan, ond gesiglde þā east be lande swā swā hēmeahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, forðǣmþӕt land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðӕt land, hē nysse hwӕþer. Þā sigldehē þonan sūðryhte be lande swā swā hē meahte on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā lӕg þǣr ānmicel ēa up in on þӕt land. Þā cirdon hīe up in on ðā ēa, forðǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bīþǣre ēa siglan for unfriþe; forðǣm ðӕt land wӕs eall gebūn on oþre healfe þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē fram his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wӕs ealneweg wēste land on þӕt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond huntum, ond þӕt wǣron eall Finnas; ond him wӕs ā wīdsǣ on þӕt bӕcbord. Þā Beormas hӕfdon swīþewel gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac þāra Terfinna land wӕs ealwēste, būton ðǣr huntan gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.


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3.3 OE Script3.3 OE Script

The basic letter-forms of Old English script, illustrated in a late Old English styleTake particular note of these features:

the rounded shape of d;the f that extends below the baseline instead of sitting on top of it;the distinctive Insular g;the dotless i;the r that extends below the baseline;the three shapes of s, of which the first two (the Insular long s and the high s,) are most common;the t that does not extend above the cross-stroke;the ƿ (“wynn”), usually transliterated as w but sometimes retained in print, derived from the runic letter ᚹ;the y, usually dotted, which comes in several different shapes.

Old English has no use for q or z. J and v do not have the status of separate letters but are occasional variant shapes of iand u (more common in roman numbers than elsewhere). Old English scribes used k rarely, and only to represent the [k] sound, never the [ʧ] (ċ).

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http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/mss.html (Ӿ06/04/16)



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3.4 OE Pronunciation:consonantshttp://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/pronunciation.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

3.4 OE Pronunciation:consonantshttp://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/pronunciation.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

c [k] as in Modern English cowċ [ʧ] as in Modern English chewcg [ʤ] like the dge in Modern English edge

f [f] as in Modern English fox; between voiced sounds [v]

g [ɡ] as in Mod.E good; between voiced sounds [ɣ], a voiced velar spirant

ġ [j] as in Modern English yes; after n [ʤ] as in angel

h within words or finally, [x] or [ç] like German ch

s [s] as in Modern English sin; between voiced sounds [z]

sc [ʃ] usually as in Modern English show; occasionally [sk]

þ/ð [θ] as in Modern English thin; between voiced sounds, [ð] as in then


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fricative or plosive? c and ghttp://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/pronunciation.html (Ӿ06/04/16)fricative or plosive? c and ghttp://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/pronunciation.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

The dots that we print over c and g are not in the manuscripts that preserve the Old English language for us; rather, modern scholars have supplied them. fricative: We print dots over c and g when they come in these environments:Before the front vowels i and ie and the diphthongs ea and eo.Before y in late West Saxon, but only in words where it was spelled ie in early West Saxon.At the end of a syllable, we print ġ following any front vowel (æ, e, i), unless a back vowel (a, o, u) immediately follows. The same is true of ċ, but only after i;In a few words where g is not descended from an older [ɡ] or [ɣ], as is usually the case, but rather from [j]: ġeāra ‘of yore’, ġeoc ‘yoke’, ġeoguð ‘youth’, Ġeōl ‘Yule’, ġeōmor‘unhappy’, ġeong ‘young’; internally, in smēaġan ‘ponder’, frēoġan ‘set free’ and a few other words.plosive: We generally print plain c and g.C was pronounced [k] in camb ‘comb’, cǣġ ‘key’, cēne ‘keen, brave’, bacan ‘bake’, bōc‘book’. It was pronounced [ʧ] in ċeaf ‘chaff’, ċīdan ‘chide’, ċierran (late West Saxon ċyrran) ‘turn’, iċ ‘I’.G was pronounced [ɡ] in gōd ‘good’, glæd ‘glad’. It was pronounced [ɣ] (the voiced velar spirant) in dagas ‘days’, sorga ‘sorrows’, sīgan ‘descend’. It was pronounced [j] in ġiestrandæġ ‘yesterday’, sleġen ‘slain’, mæġ ‘may’, seġl ‘sail’ (noun), seġlode ‘sailed’. It was pronounced [ʤ] in enġel ‘angel’, senġe ‘I singe’.



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3.5 OE Grammar:The noun systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_grammar#Strong_nouns

3.5 OE Grammar:The noun systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_grammar#Strong_nouns


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Development of the English pronoun system: 1st personhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_languageDevelopment of the English pronoun system: 1st personhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language

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Old English also had a separate dual, wit ("we two") etc.; however, no later forms derive from it.



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Word order in OEhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/learning/intro-oldEnglish.pdfWord order in OEhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/learning/intro-oldEnglish.pdf

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Word order in OE falls into four major patterns which you need to be aware of before attempting to read an OE text. The patterns are the following, where S = subject (if present); V = verb; and O = object (if present), and anyway all sorts of linguistic material may share the O-position, e.g. prepositional phrases (PP), adverbial expressions, or object complements (aka predicate nouns or adjectives): SVO: S V O We witan oþer egland her be easton (Text 2.5) =“we know another island here by/to the east” S V Object complement, aka predicate adjectiveBeowulf wæs breme (Text 2.3) =“Beowolf was famous” VSO: V S V S O [inverted subject-verb order in a question] Cwyst ðū gaderaþ man wīnberian of þornum, oðe fīc-æppla of þyrncinum? (Matt. 7:16) =“Sayest thou gathereth one grapes (wine-berries) of/from thorns or figs (fig-apples) of/from thistles?” V Complement [In this sentence the subject position is empty.] Bið stiþ ond heard (Text 3.5) =“Is stiff and hard”


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Word order in Englishhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdfWord order in Englishhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdf

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Word order in English has chiefly to do with the relative sequence of Subject, Verb, and Object in a sentence. In OE it was relatively free with SVO, AdvVSO, and SOV as the main variants, often however, conditioned by clause type. ModE is more rigid using chiefly SVO in most declaratives and (Wh-word)VauxSVO in most questions. See also periphrastic verb structure. Under a number of conditions SV order inverts to VS. Most obviously, this is the case with questions (see NICE). Verb-second order, as this is sometimes called, is the case not only in SVO, but also after initial adverbials (AdvVSO), became increasingly infrequent, yielding to AdvSVO. Note that AdvVSO is still a part of in two variants. Variant (1) non-assertive adverb + auxiliary + S+V. Examples: Seldom does she agree with me; Never had I seen such a sight. Variant (2), optional after initial adverbial expression of place or direction/goal and less strongly prescribed than (1) has Adverb of place + V + S. Examples: Into the Valley of Death rode the six hundred (Tennyson: “The Charge of the Light Brigade” 1854) or The inky-pinky spider went up the water spout / Down came the rain and washed the spider out / …; Down the road came the bus; There goes John. Optional inversion of a noun subject and lexical verb also occurs when direct speech is given. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion is restricted to the verb say. Examples: “Never,” replied the captive. Or: “Never,” said he. Inversion of auxiliary and subject is found after initial negatives and semi-negatives (see negation).



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Grammatical casehttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/learning/intro-oldEnglish.pdfGrammatical casehttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/learning/intro-oldEnglish.pdf

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Case in OE is a grammatical feature noun phrases (NPs) in which not only the noun head, but also the adjectives and determiners preceding it are marked for the cases nominative (for sentence subjects), genitive (for possession), dative (for indirect objects), and accusative (for direct objects). OE examples: scip (nom./acc. sg.), but scipe (dat. sg.) and scipes (gen. sg.). … a-declension [the designation “a-declension” is due to the vowel which came between the root and the ending of these nouns in an earlier Proto-Germanic stage of the language; the same applies to the i-, o-, and the u-declensions]: The a-stem declension consists of masculine and neuter nouns only. The designation “a-declension” is due to the vowel /a/ which came between the root and the ending of these nouns in an earlier Proto-Germanic stage of the language; the same applies to the i-, o-, and the u-declensions. Examples of masculine a-stem nouns: stōl “chair,” heofan“heaven”, here “army,” æ・fen “evening,” ðēaw “custom.” Examples of neuter a-stem nouns: scip “ship,” wæter “water,” cynn “kin,” wēsten “waste,” hlēow “protection.”


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Verb classes of OEhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdfVerb classes of OEhttp://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdf

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The verb classes and principal parts of OE determine the forms of the verb base to which conjugational inflections (see also concord) may be added. There are four such forms for the strong verbs of OE and three for the weak verbs (as in ModE): the infinitive, the past (for OE strong verbs two forms), and the past participle.

Verb classes of OE are basically divided into weak verbs and strong ones. The former mark the past and past participle with an ending, either {-d(e)}, as with lufian-lufode-(ge)lufod “love,” or {-t(e)}, as with mētan-mētte-gemēt “meet” or bringan-brōhte-(ge)broht “bring.” The strong verbs undergo vowel gradation or ablaut. Seven classes are commonly recognized. Examples:I. “bid” bīdan-bād-bidon-biden; II. “offer” bēodan-bēad-budon-boden; III. “bind” bindan-band-bundon-bunden; IV. “bear” beran-bær-bæron-boren; V. “give” giefan-geaf-gēafon-giefen; VI. “stand“ standan-stōd-stōdon-standen; VII. “fall” feallan-fēoll-fēolloon-feallen.

A third set of verbs recognized for OE are the irregular verbs, which include bēōn/wesan“be,” willan “will, wish,” dōn “do,” gān “go,” perhaps habben “have,” as well as the preterite-present verbs (cf. the ModE modal auxiliaries).



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Personal pronouns (systems of)http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdfPersonal pronouns (systems of)http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/language/grammar.pdf

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Personal pronouns (systems of) are a sub-grouping of the pronouns which have a deictic function and indicate the person(s) speaking (1st person); the person(s) spoken to (2nd person); and the person(s) spoken about (3rd person).

In English they are marked for case, number, and gender (3rd person singular only). The possessive pronouns and the reflexive pronouns are also differentiated by person. As the comparison of the pronoun systems of English shows, there have been alterations within the system over time and geographical spread. There is a basic stability in the system in the maintenance of the person-distinction (see second person pronoun usage), but there has also been some loss of number distinctions as well as significant case leveling (see also nominative you and pronoun exchange) and a certain amount of discussion about the use of gender and inclusive / exclusive pronouns.


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Table: The third person pronouns of OE in comparison to ME changes (more advanced in the North)Table: The third person pronouns of OE in comparison to ME changes (more advanced in the North)

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(Gramley 2012: 55)



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4. Middle English: “The Non-Standard Period”4.1 Sociolinguistic Contact4. Middle English: “The Non-Standard Period”4.1 Sociolinguistic Contact

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Why “Middle” English? transition period or a new start?

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“Middle English” emphasises the continuity from Old English despite the great disruption in the Middle Ages, when English was not an official language, but only used by (Anglo-Saxon) peasants and not the Anglo-Norman elite


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4.1 Dynastic conflict and the Norman Conquest4.1 Dynastic conflict and the Norman Conquest


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1066 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles1066 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjXmKOt7hns

Þus com, lo, Engelond in-to Normandies hond: And Þe Normans ne couÞe speke Þo bote horowe speche, And speke French as hii dude atom, and hor children dude also teche, So Þatheiemen of Þis lond, Þat of ho blod come, HoldeÞ alle Þulke speche Þat hii of hom nom: Vorbote a man conne Frenss me telÞ of him lute. Ac lowe men holdeÞ to Engliss, and to hor owe speche-ute. Ich wene Þer ne beÞ in al the world contreyes none Þat ne holdeÞ to hor owe speche, bote Engelond one.Ac wel me wote uor to conne boÞe wel it is, Vor Þe more Þat a mon can, Þe more wurÞe he is. (Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester, ~1300)Thus came, lo, England into Normandy's hand: and the Normans then knew how to speak only their own language, and spoke French as they did at home, and also had their children taught it, so that noblemen of this land, that come of their stock, all keep to the same speech that they received from them; for unless a man knows French, people make little account of him. But low men keep to English, and to their own language still. I think that in the whole world there are no countries that do not keep their own language, except England alone. But people know well that it is good to master both, because the more a man knows the more honoured he is.

The Domesday book: http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/



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Middle English dialect developments (Hickey 2012)Middle English dialect developments (Hickey 2012)


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Middle English Society & Multilingualism (Görlach 1995)Middle English Society & Multilingualism (Görlach 1995)

50 / 186Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global


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The separation of France and England (Gramley 2012: 71)The separation of France and England (Gramley 2012: 71)


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4.2 Development of language form4.2 Development of language form

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Table: The vowels of late OE and early ME(Gramley 2012: 76)



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Table: French loan words and their English equivalents (Gramley 2012: 87)Table: French loan words and their English equivalents (Gramley 2012: 87)


Table: Romance (French) derivational morphemes (suffixes) (Gramley 2012: 89)Table: Romance (French) derivational morphemes (suffixes) (Gramley 2012: 89)


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4.3 Dialectal diversity in early ME(Gramley 2012: 92) 4.3 Dialectal diversity in early ME(Gramley 2012: 92)



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4.4 Literary text: creating the nationGeoffrey Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer

4.4 Literary text: creating the nationGeoffrey Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer ( /ˈtʃɔsːәr/; c. 1343 – 25 October 1400), known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was the first poet to have been buried in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey. While he achieved fame during his lifetime as an author, philosopher, alchemist and astronomer, composing a scientific treatise on the astrolabe for his ten year-old son Lewis, Chaucer also maintained an active career in the civil service as a bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat. Among his many works, which include The Book of the Duchess, the House of Fame, the Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde, he is best known today for The Canterbury Tales. Chaucer is a crucial figure in developing the legitimacy of the vernacular, Middle English, at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin.


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Geoffrey Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_ChaucerGeoffrey Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer



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/16857

Life

Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and location of his birth remain unknown. His father and grandfather were both London vintners; several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. (His family name derives from the French chausseur, meaning "shoemaker".[1]) In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve-year-old boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure—bourgeois, if not elite.[2]


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InfluenceHis early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a regional dialect, apparently making its first appearance in The Reeve's Tale.The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to standardise the London Dialect of the Middle English language from a combination of the Kentish and Midlands dialects.[18] This is probably overstated; the influence of the court, chancery and bureaucracy—of which Chaucer was a part—remains a more probable influence on the development of Standard English. Modern English is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the Great Vowel Shift some time after his death. This change in the pronunciation of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience. The status of the final -ein Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final -e was dropping out of colloquial English … Chaucer is also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the first author to use many common English words in his writings. These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are just some of the many English words first attested in Chaucer.



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Canterbury Tales: Prologhttp://www.philfak.uniduesseldorf.de/anglist1/staff/holteir/introme/2_4Text_Geoffrey_ct.html (Ӿ06/04/16)Canterbury Tales: Prologhttp://www.philfak.uniduesseldorf.de/anglist1/staff/holteir/introme/2_4Text_Geoffrey_ct.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

Geoffrey Chaucer, General Prologue ll. 43-78 Chaucer begins the gallery of the pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales with the portrait of the Knight. The Knight, his son the Squire, and his servant the Yeoman form a group usually referred to as the Knight's group, which we will read and translate during the next three units.Listen to the text read by Verena Kock.


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Canterbury Tales Prologue http://pages.towson.edu/duncan/chaucer/index.htmCanterbury Tales Prologue http://pages.towson.edu/duncan/chaucer/index.htm



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4.5 Religious texts testify conflictJohn Wycliffe (1324-1384): Lifehttp://www.britannia.com/bios/jwycliffe.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

4.5 Religious texts testify conflictJohn Wycliffe (1324-1384): Lifehttp://www.britannia.com/bios/jwycliffe.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

John Wycliffe is remembered as the "Morning Star of the Reformation" and one of Oxford University's last great medieval Schoolmen. He was an English statesman as well as a theologian, once representing the King on the continent in negotiations with the legate of the pope. Although the papacy was, at this time, dominated by the King of France, even to the point of its removal from Rome to the French city of Avignon, Wycliffe defended the political rights of England. He is best remembered, however, as the prime mover in first translating the Bible into the common language of the English people. Born in Yorkshire in 1324, he chose not to return to his family estate after attending Oxford University. Instead, he presided over a rural parish in Leicestershire, nearer libraries and other scholars. He organized a band of poor preachers, known as the Lollards, who went from village to village, teaching the Bible to all who would listen. He was probably the exemplar for the pious country parson in the Canterbury Tales of his contemporary, Chaucer.


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John Wycliffe: Why?http://www.britannia.com/bios/jwycliffe.html (Ӿ06/04/16)John Wycliffe: Why?http://www.britannia.com/bios/jwycliffe.html (Ӿ06/04/16)

He challenged a number of Roman Catholic doctrines with arguments which centuries later would echo during the Protestant Reformation. He spoke out against the monastic system, the sale of indulgences for the forgiveness of sins and the doctrines of baptismal regeneration and transubstantiation. He proclaimed predestination and salvation by faith alone, in a time of great fear and superstition. In the late summer of 1348, the Black Plague had reached England and Wycliffe heard reports of the death of half the population! This had much to do with his ideas of personal reverence for God. Although there is debate as to what role Wycliffe played in the translation of the version now associated with his name, no-one doubts that he was leading the movement which culminated in that first widespread version of an English Bible. Although translated from Latin, instead of the original Greek and Hebrew texts, copied by hand a century before Gutenberg's printing press could insure uniformity, still over 150 copies of the Wycliffe version exist today. Many of these represent a revision of the translation made following Wycliffe's death in 1384, but their unprecedented number attests to the impact his English Bible had upon the entire nation.



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Wycliffe’s Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyclif%27s_Bible 11.04.2012Wycliffe’s Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyclif%27s_Bible 11.04.2012

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Wycliffe's Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English that were made under the direction of, or at the instigation of, John Wycliffe. They appeared over a period from approximately 1382 to 1395. These Bible translations were the chief inspiration and chief cause of the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformationmovement that rejected many of the distinctive teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. In the early Middle Ages, most Western Christian people encountered the Bible only in the form of oral versions of scriptures, verses and homilies in Latin (other sources were mystery plays, usually conducted in the vernacular, and popular iconography). Though relatively few people could read at this time, Wycliffe’s idea was to translate the Bible into the vernacular.“[…] it helpeth Christian men to study the Gospel in that tongue in which they know best Christ’s sentence.”Long thought to be the work of Wycliffe himself, it is now generally believed that the Wycliffite translations were the work of several hands. Nicholas of Hereford is known to have translated a part of the text; John Purvey and perhaps John Trevisa are names that have been mentioned as possible authors. The translators worked from the Vulgate, the Latin Bible that was the standard Biblical text of Western Christianity, and the text conforms fully with Catholic teaching.

186Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global SchmiedHistory English

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William Tyndale (1492-1536): Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TyndaleWilliam Tyndale (1492-1536): Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale

… an English scholar who became a leading figure in Protestant reform in the years leading up to his execution. He is remembered for his translation of the Bible into English. He was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus, who made the Greek New Testament available in Europe, and by Martin Luther.[1]

While a number of partial and complete translations had been made from the seventh century onward, the popularity of Wycliffe's Bible in the 14th century resulted in a ban on the publication of the Bible in English; almost all vernacular Bibles were confiscated and burned. Tyndale's illegal translation was the first of the new English Bibles of the Reformation, and the first to draw directly from Hebrew and Greek texts, and the first to take advantage of the new medium of the print, which allowed for wide distribution. This was taken to be a direct challenge to the hegemony of both the Roman Catholic Church and the English church and state. …In 1535, Tyndale was arrested and jailed in the castle of Vilvoorde outside Brussels for over a year. He was tried for heresy, choked, impaled and burnt on a stake in 1536. The Tyndale Bible, as it was known, continued to play a key role in spreading Reformationideas across the English-speaking world.[2] The fifty-four independent scholars who created the King James Version of the bible in 1611 drew significantly on Tyndale's translations. One estimation suggests the New Testament in the King James Version is 83% Tyndale's, and the Old Testament 76%.[3]



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William Tyndale: Why?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TyndaleWilliam Tyndale: Why?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale

Controversy over new words and phrasesThe hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church did not approve of some of the words and phrases introduced by Tyndale, such as "overseer", where it would have understood as "bishop," "elder" for "priest," and "love" rather than "charity." Tyndale, citing Erasmus, contended that the Greek New Testament did not support the traditional Roman Catholic readings. More controversially, Tyndale translated the Greek "ekklesia," (literally "called out ones") as "congregation" rather than "Church." It has been asserted this translation choice "was a direct threat to the Church's ancient—but so Tyndale here made clear, non-scriptural—claim to be the body of Christ on earth. To change these words was to strip the Church hierarchy of its pretensions to be Christ's terrestrial representative, and to award this honour to individual worshipers who made up each congregation."


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Tyndale’s Bible: historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Bible 11.04.2012Tyndale’s Bible: historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Bible 11.04.2012

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The Tyndale Bible generally refers to the body of biblical translations by William Tyndale. Tyndale’s Bible is credited with being the first English translation to work directly from Hebrew and Greek texts. Furthermore it was the first English biblical translation that was mass produced as a result of new advances in the art of printing. The term Tyndale's Bible is not strictly correct, because Tyndale never published a complete Bible. Prior to his execution Tyndale had only finished translating the entire New Testament and roughly half of the Old Testament.[1] Of the latter, the Pentateuch, Jonahand a revised version of the book of Genesis were published during his lifetime. His other Old Testament works were first used in the creation of the Matthew Bible and also heavily influenced every major English translation of the Bible that followed.[2]

The chain of events that led to the creation of Tyndale’s New Testament started in 1522. It was in this year that Tyndale illegally acquired a copy of Martin Luther’s German New Testament. Tyndale was inspired by Luther’s work and immediately set out to imitate Luther’s work but in English.[3] He made his purpose known to the Bishop of London at the time Cuthbert Tunstall. Hewing to his Catholic faith, for which he would later be imprisoned, Bishop Tunstall refused Tyndale permission to write this heretical text. After this rejection Tyndale moved to the continent and ended up in Hamburg where he completed his New Testament in 1524.[4] During this time period Tyndale frequented Wittenberg where he consulted with Martin Luther and his associate Melanchthon.[3] The first version of Tyndale’s New Testament was put into print in 1525 in Cologne however the process was not finished. From there Tyndale moved the publishing process to Worms where the first recorded complete edition of his New Testament was published in 1526.[5] Two revised versions were latter published in 1534 and 1536, both personally revised by Tyndale himself. After his death in 1536 Tyndale’s works have been revised and reprinted numerous times.[6]



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Tyndale’s Bible: why is it dangerous?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Bible 11.04.2012Tyndale’s Bible: why is it dangerous?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Bible 11.04.2012

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The Catholic Church had long proclaimed that the church was an institution. The word church to them had come to represent the organizational structure that was the Catholic Church.[17] Tyndale’s translation was seen as a challenge to this doctrine because he was seen to have favored the views of reformers like Martin Luther who proclaimed that the church was made up and defined by the believers, or in other words their congregations. Some radical reformers preached that the true church was the “invisible” church, that the church is wherever true Christians meet together to preach the word of God. To these reformers the structure of the Catholic Church was unnecessary and its very existence proved that it was in fact not the “true” Church.[18] When Tyndale decided that the Greek word εκκλησία (ekklesia) is more accurately translated congregation he was undermining the entire structure of the Catholic Church. Many of the reform movements believed in the authority of scripture alone. To them it dictated how the church should be organized and administered.[19] By changing the translation from church to congregation Tyndale was providing ammunition for the beliefs of the reformers. Their belief that the church was not a visible systematized institution but a body defined by the believers themselves was now to be found directly in the Holy Scripture. Furthermore Tyndale’s use of the word congregation attacked the Catholic Church’s doctrine that the lay members and the clergy were to be separate.[20] If the true church is defined as a congregation, as the common believers, then the Catholic Church’s claim that the clergy were of a higher order than the average Christian and that they had different roles to play in the religious process no longer held sway.Tyndale’s translation of the Greek word πρεσβύτερος (presbuteros) to mean elder instead of priest also challenged the doctrines of the Catholic Church.[21] In particular, it asked what the role of the clergy should be and whether or not they were to be separated from the common believers as they were in the current Catholic system. The role of the priest in the Catholic Church had been to lead religious sermons and ceremonies like mass, to read the scripture to the people, and to administer the sacraments. They were considered separate from the common believers.[22] In many reform movements a group of elders would lead the church and take the place of the Catholic priests. These elders were not a separate class from the common believers; in fact, they were usually selected from amongst them.[23] Many reformers believed in the idea of the “priesthood of all believers,” which meant that every Christian was in fact a priest and had the right to read and interpret scripture.[24] Tyndale’s translation stripped away the scriptural basis of Catholic clerical power. Priests no longer administered the church: it was the job of the elders, which implied that the power rested in the hands of the people.


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Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CranmerThomas Cranmer (1489-1556)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranmer

Thomas Cranmer (2 July 1489 – 21 March 1556)was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build a favourable case for Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon which resulted in the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See. Along with Thomas Cromwell, he supported the principle of Royal Supremacy, in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm.During Cranmer's tenure as Archbishop of Canterbury, he was responsible for establishing the first doctrinal and liturgical structures of the reformed Church of England. Under Henry's rule, Cranmer did not make many radical changes in the Church, due to power struggles between religious conservatives and reformers. However, he succeeded in publishing the first officially authorised vernacular service, the Exhortation and Litany.



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Book of Common Prayer (1548–1549)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CranmerBook of Common Prayer (1548–1549)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranmer

As the use of English in worship services spread, the need for a complete uniform liturgy for the Church became evident. Initial meetings to start what would eventually become the Book of Common Prayer were held in the former abbey of Chertsey and in Windsor Castle in September 1548. The list of participants can only be partially reconstructed, but it is known that the members were balanced between conservatives and reformers. These meetings were followed by a debate on the Eucharist in the House of Lords which took place between 14 and 19 December. Cranmer publicly revealed in this debate that he had abandoned the doctrine of the real presence and believed that the Eucharistic presence was only spiritual.[69] Parliament backed the publication of the Prayer Book after Christmas by passing the Act of Uniformity 1549; it then legalised clerical marriage.[70]

The use of the new Prayer Book was made compulsory on 9 June 1549. This triggered a series of protests …, the Prayer Book Rebellion.


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Book of Common Prayer (1548–1549): exampleshttp://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/daily/morning.html 11.04.2011Book of Common Prayer (1548–1549): exampleshttp://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/daily/morning.html 11.04.2011

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The Order for Morning Prayer,Daily Throughout the Year.At the beginning of Morning Prayer the Minister shall read with a loud voice some one or more of these Sentences of the Scriptures that follow. And then he shall say that which is written after the said Sentences.WHEN the wicked man turneth away from his wickedness that he hath committed, and doeth that which is lawful and right, he shall save his soul alive. Ezek. xviii. 27.

I acknowledge my transgressions, and my sin is ever before me. Psalm li. 3. …The Absolution, or Remission of sins, to be pronounced by the Priest alone, standing; the people still kneeling.ALMIGHTY God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who desireth not the death of a sinner, but rather that he may turn from his wickedness, and live; and hath given power, and commandment, to his Ministers, to declare and pronounce to his people, being penitent, the Absolution and Remission of their sins : He pardoneth and absolveth all them that truly repent, and unfeignedly believe his holy Gospel. Wherefore let us beseech him to grant us true repentance, and his Holy Spirit, that those things may please him, which we do at this present; and that the rest of our life hereafter may be pure, and holy; so that at the last we may come to his eternal joy; through Jesus Christ our Lord.The people shall answer here, and at the end of all other prayers, Amen.If no priest be present the person saying the service shall read the Collect for the Twenty-First Sunday after Trinity, that person and the people still kneeling.



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Authorized VersionKing James Bible (1611)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12

Authorized VersionKing James Bible (1611)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12

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an English translation of the Christian Bible by the Church of England … the third official translation into English. The first was the Great Bible commissioned by the Church of England in the reign of King Henry VIII, and the second was the Bishop's Bible of 1568. In January 1604, King James VI of Scotland and I of England convened the Hampton Court Conference where a new English version was conceived in response to the perceived problems of the earlier translations as detected by the Puritans …James gave the translators instructions intended to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England.


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In a period of rapid linguistic change the translators avoided contemporary idioms, tending instead towards forms that were already slightly archaic, … The pronouns thou/thee and you are consistently used as singular and plural respectively, even though by this time you was often found as the singular in general English usage, especially when addressing a social superior (as is evidenced, for example, in Shakespeare). For the possessive of the third person pronoun, the word its, first recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1598, is avoided. The older his is usually employed, as for example at Matthew 5:13: "if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted?"; in other places of it, thereof or bare it are found. Another sign of linguistic conservativism is the invariable use of -eth for the third person singular present form of the verb, as at Matthew 2:13: "the Angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dreame". The rival ending -(e)s, as found in present-day English, was already widely used by this time (for example, it predominates over -eth in the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe). Furthermore, the translators preferred which in preference to who or whom as the relative pronoun for persons, as in Genesis 13:5: "And Lot also which went with Abram, had flocks and heards, & tents" although who(m) is also found. …The AV is notably more Latinate than previous English versions, especially the Geneva Bible. This results in part from the academic stylistic preferences of a number of the translators—several of whom admitted to being more comfortable writing in Latin than in English—but was also … a consequence of the royal proscription against explanatory notes.

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Authorized Version King James Bible (1611): Stylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12Authorized Version King James Bible (1611): Stylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12



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Blayney's 1769 version, with its revised spelling and punctuation, helped to change the public perception of the Authorized Version to a masterpiece of the English language. By the 19th century, F. W. Faber could say of the translation, "It lives on the ear, like music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church bells, which the convert hardly knows how he can forego."The Authorized Version has been called "the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most important book in English religion and culture", and "the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world". It has contributed 257 idioms to English, more than any other single source, including Shakespeare; examples include feet of clay and reap the whirlwind. Although the Authorized Version's former monopoly in the English-speaking world has diminished—for example, the Church of England recommends six other versions in addition to it—it is still the most popular translation in the United States, especially among Evangelicals.

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Authorized Version King James Bible (1611): Influencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12Authorized Version King James Bible (1611): Influencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version 08/05/12


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AV soundshttp://www.believersresource. com/downloads/king-james-audio-bible-8.html(Ӿ06/04/16)

AV soundshttp://www.believersresource. com/downloads/king-james-audio-bible-8.html(Ӿ06/04/16)

Prince Charles reading:http://www.kingjamesbibletrust.org/the-king-james-bible/john/14 (Ӿ06/04/16)



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4.5 Anglo-Norman and Central Frenchhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/4.5 Anglo-Norman and Central Frenchhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/

The difference between Anglo-Norman and Central French loans in English is to be seen in famous pairs of words like catch and chase, both of which go back originally to Latin captiare, which itself furnished English with the later loan capture. The main differences between Anglo-Norman and Central French:

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/k/ /tʃ/

cattle /k-/ chattels /tʃ/

pocket /-k-/ poach /tʃ/

/tʃ/ /s/

catch /-tʃ/ chase /-s/

launch /-ntʃ/ lance /-ns/

pinch /-ntʃ/ pincers /-ns-/

/w/ /g/

warranty, war /w-/ guarantee (Mod.Fr. guerre) /g/

warden /w-/ guardian /g-/

reward /-w-/ regard /-g/

waste /w-/ Mod.Fr. gâter ‘spoil’

/ei/ /oi/

convey convoy

display deploy

DIFFERENCES between French and English words ALSO because (Central) French changed!e.g. /s/ before /t/ was lost in French but many loans in English were made before this took place, hence one has estate but état, forest but forêt in Modern French. E.g. hostel and hotel, the /s/ in the first word shows that it is an older borrowing from the same root, cf. Modern French hôtel (the accented vowel in the French examples here indicates that previously an /s/ followed the vowel).


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Influence of Medieval French on Englishhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/Influence of Medieval French on Englishhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/

semantic fieldsGeography: country; coast; river; valley; lake; mountain; frontier; border; city; hamlet; village; estate Noble titles: emperor; duke; duchess; duchy; prince; count; countess; baron; squire; noble(man/woman); gentle(man/woman); dame; damselSociety: peasantry; people; subjects; burgesses; nobility; gentry; knighthood; chivalry; Admin: sovereign; crown; sceptre; ruler; power; policy; government; administration; court; office; chancery; treasury; parliament; counsel; administrator; governor; ambassador; wardon; mayor; charter; seal; accord; agreement; covenant; treaty; alliance; curfew; duty; reign; civil; empire; nation; tyrant; oppressionLaw: justice; privilege; statute; ordinance; judge; chief; crime; fraud; trespass; transgression; accusation; coroner; plaintif; defendant; client; claimant; executor; notary; process; appeal; bail; evidence; decree; divorce; exile; heir; heritage; prison; jail; dungeon; arrest; plead; punish; banish; treason; releaseMilitary: peace; war; armour; artillery; fortress; host; army; warrior; archer; soldier; chief; captain; admiral; enemy; conqueror; victor; robber; expedition; resistance; banner; battle; besiege; destroyChurch: charity; chastity; chaplan; abbot; abbess; dean; friar; confessor; person/parson; preacher; evangelist; saint; fraternity; chapel; closter; abbey; faith; bible; chapter; commandment; divine; service; prayer; sermon; absolution; procession; parish; baptise; praise; glorifyEmotional: ease; disease; joy; delight; felicity; grief; despair; distress; courage; folly; passion; desire; jealousy; ambition; arrogance; despite; disdain; malice; envy; avarice; certainty; doubt; enjoy; despise; furiousTrades and crafts: barber; butcher; carpenter; carrier; draper; forester; fruiterer; grocer; mason; mercer; merchant; spicer; painter; tailor; victualler; apprentice; surgeon; physician; bargain; fair; merchandise; price; money; coin; dozen; double; measure; gallon; bushel; purchase; profit; pay; usury; debt; prosperity; barrel; bottle; basket; vesselClothing/ornamentation: blouse; chemise; cloak; coat; frock; garment; gown; robe; veil; cotton; fur; boot; ornament; brooch; jewel; pearl; button; scissors; brush; mirror; towel; carpet; curtain; blanket; couch; cushion; table; chair; fashionFood and cooking: boil; fry; roast; mince; dine; dinner; supper; appetite; flour; grease; sugar; spice; vinegar; bacon; victuals; lard, pork; beef; mutton; veal; venison; sausage; sauce; gravy; jelly; salad; juice; cabbage; cream; biscuit; fritter; cider; cucumber; onion



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stylistic splitting of the vocabulary of English:for many words Germanic equivalents already existed in English and continued to exist: work is a Germanic word and the normal everyday word whereas labour is a Romance loanword regarded on a higher level, cf. ‘I have some work to do now’, ‘The value of labour in our society’. dress : clothe; amity : friendship; commence : begin; conceal : hide; nourish : feed; liberty : freedom. Romance loanword has come to have a slightly different meaning to the Germanic base word, cf. ask and demand where the latter (Romance) word has the implication of insisting on something.

assimilation in which an English word was created on the basis of a similar sounding French word:e.g. choose obtained a noun choice on the basis of a borrowing of French choix.

In some cases one can no longer decide whether the Germanic or the Romance form of a word has survived into Modern English. Thus in the case of the adjective rich one cannot tell whether it is a continuation of the Old English rice or the later French borrowing riche. contamination of the morphology of words due to French borrowing: richess as opposed to Old English richdom with the Romance ending -ess.

unetymological spelling: The form changed without its meaning having been affected. e.g. Old English word iegland / iland (cf. German Eiland) one arrives at the later spelling island under the influence of French isle, i.e. the –s was never pronounced in English!


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relative chronology of borrowings

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The Great Vowel Shift took place in English after most of the loans from French had entered the language. Thus original French pronunciations inasmuch as they involved long vowels were also subject to the shift:e.g. change of /i:/ to /ai/ as in fine, price, lion, or shift of /u:/ to /au/ as in spouse, tower, proud. This does not apply to later loans such as machine /mәˡʃi:n/, i.e. this is not pronounced /mәˡʃain/.

Similar argumentation applies to words like cuisine and prestige which are even later loans, the latter with /i:/ and with /ʒ/ rather than /dʒ/.



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orthography adopted practices of French spelling were superfluous in English: M.E. /u:/ = u as in OE hus ‘house’. M.E. ‘house’ is based on the use of the digraph ou to represent the vowel /u/ in French. in French simple u grapheme stood for a phonetic /y/, cf. Modern French vu /vy/ ‘seen’ , fou /fu/ ‘mad’. in English, the digraph ou was not necessary because /y/ had been unrounded in EME (with the exception of the West Midlands area), cf. OE þymel (ME thimble) ‘thimble’. It was nonetheless used so that by Late Middle English the /u:/ of Old English had come to be written with ou (OE /y/ being written simply as i), cf. out, now (the latter with the variant ow at the end of a word). Later loanwords in English do not have the spelling ou for the /u:/ vowel, irrespective of their origin. Thus one has, for example, chute from later French and acute from Latin, both with u for /u:/. Other: h > gh, þ, ð > th, æ > a, cw > qu, i > j (partly), u > v at the beginning, u in the middle of a word, sc > sh [ʃ], c > ch [tʃ], cg, gg > dg [dʒ]. French scribal practice is behind the spelling –ough, which in Middle English indicated the pronunciation /-u:x/ or /-oux/. Because of later phonetic developments this spelling came to be one of the most notorious cases of incongruence between pronunciation and orthography in Modern English as it can represent at least seven different sound sequences as seen from the following random set: plough /-au/, cough /-ɒf/, although /-әʊ/, hiccough /-ʌp/, thorough /-ә/ (unstressed), through /-u:/, rough /-ʌf/. final –e was added to English words to show that the vowel of the previous syllable was long, as in ice(from OE is). This ‘discontinuous sequence’ is used very much in Modern English to keep original short and long vowels apart graphically, e.g. pan and pane, ban and bane.


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hybridisation (= 2 elements of different origin)The ending of a word is Germanic in origin and the stem is French: formation of verbal nouns from a French stem and the Germanic ending {ing}:

preaching, serving. formation of nouns by the addition of Germanic suffixes: {ness}: faintness,

secretiveness; {dom}: martyrdom; {ship}: companionship, relationship. addition of the ending {ly} (< OE -lich) to French loanwords: {ly}: courtly, princely. endings {ful}: beautiful, powerful; {less}: colourless, pitiless, noiseless. The ending of a word is French in origin and the stem is Germanic: formation of nouns by the addition of suffixes: {age}: mileage, shortage, leakage;

{ment}: endearment, enlightenment, bewilderment. formation of adjectives: {able}: likeable, loveable, provable, drinkable, bearable.

productivity: the French adjective verioriginally meant ‘true, real, genuine’ (like You're the very man I'm looking for)came to be used in LME as an intensifying adverb and which has retained and expanded since. originally full was used as an intensifier, today still found in fixed phrases like You know full well.



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4.6 Development of Standards:Standard English emerging=London+Chancery+Caxton+Sh?4.6 Development of Standards:Standard English emerging=London+Chancery+Caxton+Sh?

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most of Old English: no standard – King Alfred: Wessex dialectMiddleE diglossia (Norman upper class – Saxon peasants) Anglo-Norman – French prestige vs. different English dialects people's language14th century a London-East Midland dialect emerges as a prestigeful standardgoes together with new social developments rise of the 'bourgeoisie' new nationalism (against France)why unification? nation-wide organization of administration (centralisation), church, sciences etc. new educational institutions (universities, public schools) new national consciousness (against continent) [1362 Parliament E] new economic development (early capitalism and long distance trade) new techniques (Caxton 1476 printing) literature for bougeoisie


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London English emerging as a new standardhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/ (Hickey 2012)London English emerging as a new standardhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/ (Hickey 2012)

Reasons:In the group of varieties of English that of the city of London occupies a special position. The early development of English in this city is marked by migration from various parts of England as of the early Middle English period. The language of the migrants into the city has had a pronounced influence on that which emerged later here (Strang 1970: 160). The supremacy of midland forms in the formation of the late Middle English London dialect had a reason which should not be underestimated: the midland variety of Middle English, because of its central position in the country, represented a comprehensible form for a large number of speakers. Leith (1983: 38f.) views the east midland variety as a kind of lingua franca in a triangle between London, Oxford und Cambridge, which was also used as a means of communication between the students who travelled to these cities to study. The development of a form of English with the upper classes of the population of London took a separate course from that of the city dialect, Cockney. The split between this variety and the standard became greater in the course of the following centuries and led to the codification of a pronunciation norm in the 19th century, above all in the schools of the middle and upper classes and for areas of public life, which was given the label Received Pronunciation by the phonetician Daniel Jones at the beginning of the century.



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London English emerging as a new standard:linguistic evidenceLondon English emerging as a new standard:linguistic evidence

In the late 13th and in the course of the 14th century a re-orientation would seem to have occurred away from southern forms towards those typical of the midlands. The transition, inasmuch as it is attested, is characterised by mixed varieties which show various features of surrounding dialects (Samuels 1972: 166). For instance the ending -and(e) is found for the present participle in London texts, something which is probably due to the influence of Norfolk and Suffolk. Nonetheless by the time of Chaucer — late 14th century — there is a preponderance of midland forms. These increase in the 15th century, especially after English replaced Latin and French as an official language (after 1430). Among the forms of midland origin which entered London English were many of ultimately northern origin but which had spread into the south:e.g. Chaucer still has a /j-/ at the beginning of the verb ‘give’, e.g. yaf ‘gave’. This is replaced in the 15th century by an initial /g-/ which has its source in a Scandinavian pronunciation in the north of the country. The same is true of an initial /ð-/ in forms of the third person plural - Chaucer has hir(e) which corresponds to the later their(e). http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/ (30/05/18)


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Chancery Englishhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/ (30/05/18)Chancery Englishhttp://www.uni-due.de/SHE/ (30/05/18)

The language of the Chancery, an official department in London which prepared documents for the court, played a considerable role in the emergence of a written standard (Fisher 1977, 1996). The Chancery was responsible for legal and parliamentary documents as well as for those which were written on the commission of the king (Fisher 1977: 875f.). The Chancery recruited its scribes from all parts of England and had its seat at Westminister (from the middle of the 14th century). Because of the diverse backgrounds of those employed there, a linguistic norm was all the more necessary. The spelling and morphology of Chancery English was conservative. For example one finds orthographic renderings of velar/palatal fricatives (gh as in slaughter; right, high) which may well have already disappeared from the spoken language of the time. The ending -th for verbs in the third person singular present tense was used for some considerable time although these were replaced by forms in -s which have their origin in the north of England. Other preferences of Chancery English were such for s(w)ich(e), not for nat, through for thurgh, etc. It is clear that already by the 15th century the language of the Chancery was not a regional variety but a mixed form of English, which was used as a general means of communication between dialects. Here one can recognise the seed of a development which was to become typical for the later standard of English, i.e. a form of language which was not regionally bound and which was used by speakers of widely differing dialectal backgrounds.



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CHANCERY STANDARD, also Chancery Englishhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-CHANCERYSTANDARD.html (Ӿ06/04/16)Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language (1998)

CHANCERY STANDARD, also Chancery Englishhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-CHANCERYSTANDARD.html (Ӿ06/04/16)Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language (1998)

Present-day terms for the 15c written usage of the clerks of Chancery in London, who prepared the king's documents. Before the 1430s, official records were mainly in Latin and French, but after that date mainly in an English based on the Central Midland dialect, with such usages as gaf (gave) not Chaucer's East Midland yaf, such not swich, and theyre (their) not hir. Until the end of the 15c, Chancery and the Exchequer built a foundation of written English that was developed by CAXTONwhen he set up his press in Westminster in 1476. Over the years, printers replaced some features of Chancery usage with London equivalents, such as third person -s instead of -th (hopes, not hopeth), and are instead of be. See STANDARD ENGLISH.Neither the office of the Privy Seal nor of the Signet made copies of their outgoing correspondence on rolls. The documents themselves were kept by the recipients and filed. Warrants were therefore preserved as many individual small documents. Many writs sent out from the Chancery were also not enrolled, if the recipients did not pay to have this archiving service performed. Some writs, particularly those directed at officials such as sheriffs, had to be returned to a royal justice to ensure that they had been received and acted upon, and these were returned to the Chancery and filed. Any single item of business could therefore generate a whole series of documents: petitions, annexed schedules, endorsements, warrants, writs, letters patent, letters close. These encapsulated the stories of dealings between the monarch and his subjects. But then something nasty happened to the filing system.Warrant of Richard II (National Archives, C.81/461) under the privy seal ordering letters under the great seal appointing John Seynesbury to the vicarage of the church of Okeham. http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/word/englishchancery3.htm


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Chancery Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancery_Standard#Chancery_Standard (30/05/16)Chancery Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancery_Standard#Chancery_Standard (30/05/16)

Chancery Standard was largely based on the London and East Midland dialects, for those areas were the political and demographic centres of gravity. However, it used other dialect forms where they made meanings clearer; for example, the northern "they", "their" and "them" (derived from Scandinavian forms) were used rather than the London "hi/they", "hir" and "hem." This was perhaps because the London forms could be confused with words such as he, her, and him. (However, the colloquial form written as "'em", as in "up and at 'em", may well represent a spoken survival of "hem" rather than a shortening of the Norse-derived "them".)In its early stages of development, the clerks who used Chancery Standard would have been familiar with French and Latin. The strict grammars of those languages influenced the construction of the standard. It was not the only influence on later forms of English — its level of influence is disputed and a variety of spoken dialects continued to exist — but it provided a core around which Early Modern English could crystallise.By the mid-15th century, Chancery Standard was used for most official purposes except by the Church (which used Latin) and for some legal purposes (for which Law French and some Latin were used). It was disseminated around England by bureaucrats on official business, and slowly gained prestige.



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The Concept of Text in the Manuscript Tradition http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/word.htmThe Concept of Text in the Manuscript Tradition http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/word.htm

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There is a popular conception of the process of textual copying in the medieval period, in which it is envisioned that serried ranks of copyist scribes, often perceived as monks, painfully reproduced in exact detail multiple copies of standard works. Variants in the text produced are counted as errors, and they mounted up to haunt less diligent scribes in Purgatory. This is only partly true, for certain texts and for certain parts of the medieval era. For the great majority of texts, variation, compilation and innovation combined to produce, not just one text, but a family of related texts, varied to suit different needs and, in many cases, endlessly additive.The advent of the printing press rapidly changed the mode of production of books. Works requiring multiple copies could be replicated with far greater speed and efficiency than through generational sequences of hand copying. The selection of particular works for early inclusion in the printed corpus ensured that certain works became more widely dis-seminated through the literate community. The use of manuscript continued for much longer in the business and legal areas, where each document produced had to be unique. In the legal area, handwritten documents maintained a weightier significance even when printing could be used to produce standard formats. Hand lettered indentures and title deeds were produced well into the modern era.


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Caxton: Life (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March 1492) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caxton 11.04.2012Caxton: Life (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March 1492) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caxton 11.04.2012

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was an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. [+translator!]William Caxton's parentage is uncertain. His date of birth is unknown, but records place it in the region of 1415–1424, based on the fact his apprenticeship fees were paid in 1438. Caxton was in London by 1438, when the registers of the Mercers' Company record his apprenticeship to Robert Large, a wealthy London mercer, or dealer in luxury goods, who served as Master of the Mercer's Company, and Lord Mayor of London in 1439. After Large died in 1441, Caxton was left a small sum of money (£20). As other apprentices were left larger sums, it would seem he was not a senior apprentice at this time.He was making trips to Bruges by 1450 at the latest and had settled there by 1453, when he may have taken his Liberty of the Mercers' Company. There he was successful in business and became governor of the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London. His trade brought him into contact with Burgundy and it was thus that he became a member of the household of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of the English king. This led to more continental travel, including travel to Cologne, in the course of which he observed the new printing industry, and was significantly influenced by German printing. He wasted no time in setting up a printing press in Bruges, in collaboration with a Fleming, Colard Mansion, and the first book to be printed in English was produced in 1473: Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,[2] a translation by Caxton himself. His translation had become popular in the Burgundian court and requests for copies of it were the stimulus for him to set up a press.[3] Bringing the knowledge back to England, he set up a press at Westminster in 1476 and the first book known to have been produced there was an edition of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.



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Caxton: importance (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March 1492) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caxton 11.04.2012Caxton: importance (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March 1492) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caxton 11.04.2012

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Caxton and the English languageCaxton printed four-fifths of his works in English. He translated a large number of works into English, performing much of the translation and editing work himself. Caxton is credited with printing as many as 108 books, 87 of which were different titles. Caxton also translated 26 of the titles himself. His major guiding principle in translating was an honest desire to provide the most linguistically exact replication of foreign language texts into English, but the hurried publishing schedule and his inadequate skill as a translator often led to wholesale transference of French words into English and numerous misunderstandings.[4]

The English language was changing rapidly in Caxton's time and the works he was given to print were in a variety of styles and dialects. Caxton was a technician rather than a writer and he often faced dilemmas concerning language standardization in the books he printed. (He wrote about this subject in the preface to his Eneydos.[5]) His successor Wynkyn de Worde faced similar problems.Caxton is credited with standardising the English language (that is, homogenising regional dialects) through printing. This facilitated the expansion of English vocabulary, the regularisation of inflectionand syntax, and the ever-widening gap between the spoken and the written word.However, Richard Pynson, who started printing in London in 1491 or 1492, and who favouredChancery Standard, was a more accomplished stylist and consequently pushed the English language further toward standardisation.It is asserted that the spelling ghost with the silent letter h was adopted by Caxton due to the influence of Dutch spelling habits.[6]


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Caxton example: Prologue to the AeneidsCaxton example: Prologue to the Aeneids

1 And also my lorde abbot of westmynster *ded do *shewe (ordered; show)2 to me late, certayn *euydences wryton in olde (documents)3 englysshe, for to *reduce it in-to our englysshe now (translate)4 vsid / And certaynly it was wreton in suche wyse that5 it was more lyke to dutche than englysshe; I coude6 not reduce ne brynge it to be vnderstonden / And7 certaynly our langage now vsed varyeth *ferre from (far)8 that whiche was vsed and spoken whan I was borne /9 For we englysshe men / ben borne vnder the

10 domynacyoun of the *mone, whiche is neuer stedfaste / (moon)11 but euer *wauerynge / *wexynge one season / and *waneth (changing; waxing; decreases)12 and dyscreaseth another season/ And that *comyn (common)13 englysshe that is spoken in one shyre varyeth from a14 nother. In so moche that in my dauyes happened that15 certayn marchauntes were in a shippe in *tamyse, for (River Thames)16 to haue sayled ouer the see into *zelande / and for (Zealand)17 lacke of wynde, they *taryed atte *forlond, and wente (waited; coast)18 to lande for to refreshe them; And one of theym named19 sheffelde, a *mercer, cam in-to an hows and axed for (dealer in textiles)20 *mete; and specyally he *axed after eggys; And the (food; asked)21 goode wyf answerde, that she coude speke no frenshe.22 And the marchaunt was angry, for he also coude speke23 no frenshe, but wolde haue hadde egges / and she24 vnderstode hym not / And thenne at laste a nother25 sayd that he wolde haue *eyren / then the good wyf (eggs)26 sayd that she vnderstod hym wel / *Loo, what sholde a (lo, look)27 man in thyse dayes now wryte, egges or eyren /28 certaynly it is harde to *playse euery man / by cause (please)29 of dyuersite & chaunge of langage.



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Caxton: Prologue to Eneydos (1490)Excerpt from the printed edition of the prologue to 'Eneydos‘, in which Caxton comments on misunder-standings in the English language http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/lang_gallery_05.shtml

Caxton: Prologue to Eneydos (1490)Excerpt from the printed edition of the prologue to 'Eneydos‘, in which Caxton comments on misunder-standings in the English language http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/lang_gallery_05.shtml

Although a pioneer of printing in England, Caxton showed no great typographical originality and produced no books of remark-able beauty. Kings, nobles, and rich merchantswere Caxton’s patrons and sometimes commissioned special books. His varied output—including books of chivalric romance, conduct, morality, history, and philosophy and an encyclopaedia, The Myrrour of the Worlde(1481), the first illustrated English book—shows that he catered also to a general publicThe large number of service books and devotional works published by Caxton were the staple reading of most literate persons. He also printed nearly all the English literatureavailable to him in his time: Canterbury Tales(1478? and 1484?) and other poems by Chaucer, John Gower’s Confessio amantis(1483), Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte Darthur(1485), and much of John Lydgate. Caxton translated 24 books, some of them immenselylong. By the time of his death, he had published about 100 items of various kinds.


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Wynkyn de Worde Wynkyn de Worde

… native of the Duchy of Lorraine in the town of Worth?… brought to England by Caxton, whose assistant he was and in whose service he remained for some fifteen years until Caxton’s death in 1491. … took over Caxton’s house in Westminster and his types and printed more than onehundred books there before the end of the fifteenth century. Late in 1500 or early in 1501he moved to Fleet Street in London, to a house opposite Shoe Lane, at the sign of the Sun.De Worde’s place in history is that of the first publisher and printer to popularise the products of the printing press. Duff "by far the most important and prolific of all the early English printers". http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/printing/ (10/04/14)

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… was responsible for more than eight hundred publications, including romances, outline histories, children’s books, instructions for pilgrims, works on good manners, marriage, household practices, medicines for horses, names of gods and goddesses, and husbandry. the first to use italic type (1528) and Hebrew and Arabic characters (1524) in English books; … his 1495 version of Polychronicon by Ranulf Higdon was the first English work to use movable type to print music.



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Developments in printing after CaxtonDevelopments in printing after Caxton

Once luxury items, books are now more affordable, and the spread of literacy suddenly makes publishing a profitable business. Over 20,000 titles appear following the setting up of England’s first printing press by William Caxton in 1476.Literary output in Scotland reaches an all time high in the 15th century, driven by the works of writers like Robert Henryson and William Dunbar.(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/lang_gallery_05.shtml)

As printing technology grew and the costs and difficulties decreased, punctuation systems constantly changed, often playing schizophrenic roles. Caxton's virgule was quickly dropped, but the period, comma and colon would continuously be used for both rhetorical and grammatical purposes. By the 1700s, most punctuation marks in common use were known, but some were still debated, such as the quotation mark; and some continued to change in meaning, such as the colon moving from indicating a short pause to introducing a list [:]. With the rise in printing cultures, authors began to write “either for studious private reading or for a public reading more along the lines we are familiar with today” (Coleman). The need for clarification of text drove the need for grammatical punctuation marks – marks that guided the silent reader and not the speaker.(http://educ.ubc.ca/courses/etec540/May08/mcminns/researchtopic/Conclusion.html) (Ӿ06/04/16)


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5. Early Modern English5.1 The Great Vowel Shifthttp://facweb.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm (30/05/18)

5. Early Modern English5.1 The Great Vowel Shifthttp://facweb.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm (30/05/18)

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= a massive sound change affecting the long vowels of English during the 15th to 18th centuries. Basically, the long vowels shifted upwards; that is, a vowel that used to be pronounced in one place in the mouth would be pronounced in a different place, higher up in the mouth. The Great Vowel Shift has had long-term implications for, among other things, orthography, the teaching of reading, and the understanding of any English-language text written before or during the Shift. Any standard history of the English language textbook (see our sources) will have a discussion of the GVS. This page gives just a quick overview; our interactive See and Hear page adds sound and animation to give you a better sense of how this all works.



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The Great Vowel Shifthttp://facweb.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm (30/05/18)The Great Vowel Shifthttp://facweb.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm (30/05/18)

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When we talk about the GVS, we usually talk about it happening in eight steps. It is very important to remember, however, that each step did not happen overnight. At any given time, people of different ages and from different regions would have different pronunciations of the same word. Older, more conservative speakers would retain one pronunciation while younger, more advanced speakers were moving to a new one; some people would be able to pronounce the same word two or more different ways. The same thing happens today, of course: I can pronounce the word "route" to rhyme with "boot" or with "out" and may switch from one pronunciation to another in the midst of a conversation. Please see our Dialogue: Conservative and Advanced section for an illustration of this phenomenon.


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The Great Vowel Shift in Southern England and in Northern England / Scotland(Gramley 2012: 134) The Great Vowel Shift in Southern England and in Northern England / Scotland(Gramley 2012: 134)



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Short Vowel System (Lass 2000: 223) Short Vowel System (Lass 2000: 223)

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Great Vowel Shift involves the raising of low and mid vowels and the diphthongisation of the two original high vowels /i:/ and /u:/. …Some sections of the shift advanced more quickly than others. In some varieties of English the Great Vowel Shift did not go to completion, e.g. in vernacular varieties of Irish English which do not always have the shift of /ɛ:/ to /e:/ and on to /i:/. In other varieties, the Great Vowel Shift has gone beyond the stage which it reached in Received Pronunciation, e.g. in Cockney English (vernacular London English) where the vowel in the FACE lexical set is more strongly diphthongised – with a lower starting point – than in less vernacular forms of English in the South-East of England, the same is true for the GOAT-vowel.

Note than the Great Vowel Shift also affected the two Middle English diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ in words like sail and law respectively. The vowel in words like sail coalesced with that in words like face while the vowel in words like law merged with that in words like thought so that these two groups of words show the same vowel in present-day English.


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http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/



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The Great Vowel Shift: details http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/The Great Vowel Shift: details http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel_shift (11/04/12)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel_shift (11/04/12)



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1) selectionWhy London dialect basis?linguistic reasons: o central dialect intelligibility N+S (bridge function)o immigration from E Midlands (most populous & prosperous region) -> majoritysocio-political reasons:o court as prestigious meeting place for influential peopleo literary (Chaucer) & intellectual eliteo influence through administration (documents) expandingo centre of craftsmen, traders, printers etc.

2) codification18th century 'appeal for authority' (model académie francaise)philosophical principles:

ratio, ordo, logic -> new linguistic norms (Dr Johnson)social background: exclusion of new social risers

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5.2 The story of Standard English & RPThe Standardisation of English: 3 typological steps I5.2 The story of Standard English & RPThe Standardisation of English: 3 typological steps I


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The Standardisation of English: 3 typological steps IIThe Standardisation of English: 3 typological steps II

3) expansion19th century factors:o agricultural sector less and less economic importance (dialect stronghold)o industrial revolution -> urbanizationo direct contacts through mobilization, public transport (train, car)o Compulsory education:One of the last areas in Europe to adopt a compulsory system was England and Wales, where the Elementary Education Act of 1870 paved the way by establishing school boards to set up schools in any places that did not have adequate provision. Attendance was made compulsory until age 10 in 1880.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education 22/05/12

20th century factors:o indirect contacts through writing and telephones / radioo mass media: radio, newspapers, TVo (universal primary)o general / mass education (schooling through StE)o after WW2: democratization 'modified Standard' =+ regional features



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The Standardisation of English pronunciation: RPThe Standardisation of English pronunciation: RP

19th century 'fixing of the pronunciation' in prep(aratory) & public schools ('classy' pronunciation)to limit social rise?

only used by 3% ! not valuable in US, etc.

principles of innovation and diffusion of pronunciation from SE England (regionalism)spread of pronunciation innovations through the lexicon

but the loss of inflections is completed in Northern English earlier than in Southern English

contrasts to Germany: much later unity of state (1871) and language? (Konrad Duden)


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5.3 National poet – national languageShakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare

5.3 National poet – national languageShakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare

born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon SW England English: rhotic!InfluenceIn Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now, and his use of language helped shape modern English. Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type.Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.



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Shakespeare’s “quotable quotes”McCrum. Robert … The Story of English. 1986: 103 book+filmShakespeare’s “quotable quotes”McCrum. Robert … The Story of English. 1986: 103 book+film

Shakespeare loved to experiment with new words. Allurement, armada, antipathy, critical, demonstrate, dire, emphasis, emulate, horrid, initiate, meditate, modest, prodigious, vast – all these are new to English in the sixteenth century and they all appear in Shakespeare. It is arguable that without such encouragement – the imprimatur of genius – many of these words would not have survived. Shakespeare had an extraordinary ability to spin off memorable combinations of words. Scores of phrases have entered the language and have become, in some cases, clichés. Just one play, Hamlet, is a treasure house of “quotable quotes”:

Frailty, thy name is woman!More in sorrow than angerSomething is rotten in the state of DenmarkThe time is our of jointBrevity is the soul of witMore matter with less artThough this be madness, yet there is method in itTo be or not to be: that is the questionThe rest is silence


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The Language of Shakespearehttp://www.bardweb.net/language.htmlThe Language of Shakespearehttp://www.bardweb.net/language.html

The most striking feature of Shakespeare is his command of language. It is all the more astounding when one not only considers Shakespeare's sparse formal education but the curriculum of the day. There were no dictionaries; the first such lexical work for speakers of English was compiledby schoolmaster Robert Cawdrey as A Table Alphabeticall in 1604. … grammar texts would not appear until the 1700s. Despite this, Shakespeare is credited by the Oxford English Dictionary with the introduction of nearly 3,000 words into the language. His vocabulary, as culled from his works, numbers upward of 17,000 words (quadruple that of an average, well-educated conversationalist in the language). Shakespeare's English … is only one linguistic generation removed from that which we speak today. Although the Elizabethan dialect differs slightly from Modern English, the principles are generally the same. There are some (present day) anomalies with prepositional usage and verb agreement, and certainly a number of Shakespeare's words have shifted meanings or dropped, with age, from the present vocabulary. Word order, as the language shifted from Middle to Early Modern English, was still a bit more flexible, and Shakespeare wrote dramatic poetry, not standard prose, which gave some greater license in expression. …This facility with language, and the art with which he employed its usage, is why Shakespeare is as relevant today as he was in his own time.



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Shakespeare‘s Vocabularyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_influenceShakespeare‘s Vocabularyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_influence

Among Shakespeare's greatest contributions to the English language must be the introduction of new vocabulary and phrases which have enriched the language making it more colorful and expressive. Some estimates at the number of words coined by Shakespeare number in the several thousands. However Warren King clarifies by saying that, "In all of his work - the plays, the sonnets and the narrative poems - Shakespeare uses 17,677 words: Of those, 1,700 were first used by Shakespeare."[24]

He is also very known for borrowing from the classical literature and foreign languages.[22]

Many of Shakespeare's original phrases are still used in conversation and language today: "seen better days, full circle, a sorry sight," and "strange bedfellows"[25]

Shakespeare's effect on vocabulary is rather astounding when considering how much language has changed since his lifetime ...Shakespeare's gift involved using the exuberance of the language and decasyllabicstructure in prose and poetry of his plays to reach the masses and the result was "a constant two way exchange between learned and the popular, together producing the unique combination of racy tang and the majestic stateliness that informs the language of Shakespeare".[22]

But "the Victorian scholars who read texts for the first edition of the OED paid special attention to Shakespeare: his texts were read more thoroughly, and cited more often, so he is often credited with the first use of words, or senses of words, which can, in fact, be found in other writers."[28]


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Shakespeare Dictionary, Q - ZShakespeare Dictionary, Q - Z



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Shakespeare’s Pronunciation: love-prove, reason-raison, Rome-room http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/literature/language/pronunciation.html#roomShakespeare’s Pronunciation: love-prove, reason-raison, Rome-room http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/literature/language/pronunciation.html#room

“Elizabethan pronunciation differed significantly from our own. Vowels were in the process of changing, in a process known as a "vowel shift"--the same process that has given us so many different accents today. Thus there are a number of words that would have made perfect rhymes that now sound like half-rhymes: "love" and "prove," for example. In Henry IV, Part One, Falstaff tells Hal, seemingly inexplicably, "If reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would give no man a reason upon compulsion." There is a pun here, but the modern audience would be hard-pressed to notice it, unless "reason" were pronounced in the Elizabethan manner, which would sound something like "raisin." The pun then becomes obvious, and the line makes much more sense. (Click to listen* to this passage.) In Julius Caesar, Cassius puns on "Rome" and "room"-- and again the words were pronounced alike. (Click to listen* to this passage.)”


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5.4 Changes in English Grammar 1600-2000 Changes in the Noun Phrase5.4 Changes in English Grammar 1600-2000 Changes in the Noun Phrase

Pronounsmaximising pronoun distinctions: acceptance of she (from OE heo) and 17C its (before he/his)deictic 3- > 2-way system: this (close by) – that (over there) – yon(der) (in a distance)relative pronouns specialisation: which =– persons, that =+ defining and 0 (except Subj)but extreme in Cockney: This is the man 0 went to townreflexive pronouns: -self was only used for emphasis, now obligatory (but dialectal: I washed me quickly)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_English#Pronouns, 10/04/14)



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Changes in the Verb PhraseChanges in the Verb Phrase

Morphology "backgrounded" (Hickey 2012)Verb PhraseInflectional forms reduced:3rd person sing. verbal–s reinterpreted in dialects as narrative: They walks out the door and they meets him coming up the drive.habitual: The lads walks the night shift in the summer if they can.auxiliary verbs he is come > he has come. (cf. German)cf. graph: increase of have with motion verbs in the (present and past) perfect (1500 8 % - 1900 92 %)subjunctive (esp. US) I move that this be postponedif it were necessary, we would go. Analytical forms grammaticalized:double negation left in dialects He don’t take no money from nobody.expansion of perfect Told you him the story? > Have you told him the story? (“no time gap/relevance today”)Did you ever go to New York? (AmE! despite signal word ever)expansion of progressive, esp. in "New Englishes" except stative verbs in StE *I am knowing.


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Special typological changes (cf. 7.6)Special typological changes (cf. 7.6)

do expanded as an empty operator since 1400 (NOT causative: I shal do casten him in the se)cf. graph: 1400 – 1700 increase in patterns negative direct questions > affirmative direct questions > negative declarative sentences > negative imperativesunstressed lexical do re-functionalised in IrishE or AfAmE as habitual I do be working all the night.

phrasal verbs expandedfrom (increasingly unproductive) prefixes: for- (-get, -bear); with- (-stand, -draw) and be- (-get, -tray, -hold)vs. hard words: put s.o. up (offer accommodation), up with (tolerate), off (postpone), s.o. off (dissuade), down (kill an animal), through (connect), out s.o. (inconcenience), in for (apply)even phrasal-prepositional verbs: get on with (2 meanings!), look forward to, run out of

New word formation patterns:use prepositions as full verbs: to down a few beers (generally, much more conversion)backformation: to opt (<option), edit (<editor), enthuse (<enthusiasm), peddle (<peddler)


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Frequency of do-periphrasis based on a restricted corpus (after Ellegård 1953: 162) Frequency of do-periphrasis based on a restricted corpus (after Ellegård 1953: 162)



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Phrasal/prepositional verbs in EnglishPhrasal/prepositional verbs in English

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surprise, storm


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5.5 Prescribing Language

Prescriptive traditions from 1650http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_Grammar_Prescriptivism.htm 11.04.2012

5.5 Prescribing Language

Prescriptive traditions from 1650http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_Grammar_Prescriptivism.htm 11.04.2012

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The uncertainties of the 16th and 17th century about the suitability of English as a language of science and learning led to quite massive borrowing from classical languages. It also engendered a frame of mind where people thought English was deficient and this in its turn gave rise to many musings in print about just what constitutes correct English. With this one has the birth of the prescriptive tradition which has lasted to this very day. Much of this was well-meaning: scholars of the time misunderstood the nature of language variation and sought to bring order into what they saw as chaos. Frequently this merged with the view that regional varieties of English were only deserving of contempt, a view found with many eminent writers such as Jonathan Swift who was quite conservative in his linguistic opinions. The basic difficulty which the present-day linguist sees in the prescriptive recommendations of such authors is that they are entirely arbitrary. “There is no justification for the likes and dislikes of prescriptive authors. These writers are self-appointed guardians and defenders of what they regard as good style.” (RH) They established a tradition which was to have considerable influence in English society and was continued in a remorseless fashion by such authors as Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933) who saw it as their mission in life to wage war on what they regarded as signs of decay and decline in the English language.



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Writing Grammars 1600-1900http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_Grammar_Prescriptivism.htm 11.04.2012Writing Grammars 1600-1900http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_Grammar_Prescriptivism.htm 11.04.2012

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The tradition of grammar writing goes back at least to the 17th century in England. The playwright Ben Jonson was the author of a grammar and John Wallis published an influential Grammatica linguae Anglicanae in 1653. This led to a series of works offering guidelines for what was then deemed correct English. The next century saw more grammars in this vein such as Joseph Priestley’s The rudimentsof English grammar (1761). But the pinnacle of prescriptive frenzy was reached by Bishop Robert Lowth (1710-1787) who published his Short introduction to English grammar in 1762. This work was influential in school education and enjoyed several editions and reprints. It is responsible for a whole series of do’s and don’ts in English such as using whom as the direct object form of who or not ending a sentence with a preposition as in The woman heshared a room with. Lowth also formulated a rule for shall and will for the future tense in English which has been reiterated ever since but which is however non-existent for many speakers (the reduced form ’ll [l] is normal and the full form will [wɪl] is used for emphasis while shall is completely neglected). Other influential authors: Lindley Murray (1745-1826) English Grammar in 1794 and William Cobbett English Grammar in 1829.


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The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rudiments_of_English_Grammar 11.04.2012The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rudiments_of_English_Grammar 11.04.2012

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= a popular English grammar textbook written the 18th-century British polymath [=homo universalis] Joseph Priestley.While a minister for a congregation in Nantwich, Cheshire, Priestley established a local school; it was his first successful educational venture. Believing that all students should have a good grasp of the English language and its grammar before learning any other language and dismayed at the quality of the instruction manuals available, Priestley wrote his own textbook …The book was very successful—it was reprinted for over fifty years. Its humor may have contributed to its popularity; for example, Priestley illustrated the couplet with this rhyme:Beneath this stone my wife doth lie: She's now at rest, and so am I.[2]

Priestley also quoted from the most famous English authors, encouraging the middle-class association between reading and pleasure, a reading that would also, Priestley hoped, foster morality. Priestley's innovations in the teaching and description of English grammar, particularly his efforts to disassociate it from Latin grammar, made his textbook revolutionary and have led 20th century scholars to describe him as "one of the great grammarians of his time."Rudiments influenced all of the major British grammarians of the late 18th century: Robert Lowth, James Harris, John Horne Tooke and even the American Noah Webster.



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Robert Lowth FRS (1710 –1787) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowth 11.04.2012Robert Lowth FRS (1710 –1787) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowth 11.04.2012

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Lowth is also remembered for his publication in 1762 of A Short Introduction to English Grammar. Prompted by the absence of simple and pedagogical grammar textbooks in his day, Lowth set out to remedy the situation.

Bishop of the Church of England, Oxford Professor of Poetry and the author of one of the most influential textbooks of English Grammar.Lowth was born in Hampshire, Great Britain, the son of Dr William Lowth. He was educated at Winchester College and became a scholar of New College, Oxford in 1729. Lowth obtained his BA in 1733 and his Master of Arts degree in 1737. In 1735, while still at Oxford, Lowth took orders in the Anglican Church and was appointed vicar of Ovington, Hampshire, a position he retained until 1741, when he was appointed Oxford Professor of Poetry.


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A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowth 11.04.2012A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowth 11.04.2012

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Lowth's grammar is the source of many of the prescriptive shibboleths that are studied in schools, and established him as the first of a long line of usage commentators who judge the English language in addition to describing it. An example of both is one of his footnotes: "Whose is by some authors made the Possessive Case of which, and applied to things as well as persons; I think, improperly." His most famous contribution to the study of grammar may have been his tentative suggestion that sentences ending with a preposition—such as "what did you ask for?"—are inappropriate in formal writing. In what may have been intentional self-reference, Lowth used that very construction in discussing it. "This is an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the Preposition before the Relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated Style."2

Lowth's method included criticising "false syntax"; his examples of false syntax were culled from Shakespeare, the King James Bible, John Donne, John Milton, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and other famous writers. His understanding of grammar, like that of all linguists of his period, was based largely on the study of Latin, a misapplication according to critics of a later generation (and his own stated principles; he condemned "forcing the English under the rules of a foreign Language"1). Thus Lowth condemns Addison's sentence "Who should I meet the other night, but my old friend?" on the grounds that the thing acted upon should be in the "Objective Case" (corresponding, as he says earlier, to an oblique case in Latin), rather than taking this example and others as evidence from noted writers that "who" can refer to direct objects.



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Early Modern English Social DevelopmentsDeclining illiteracy in England 1500-1900Early Modern English Social DevelopmentsDeclining illiteracy in England 1500-1900


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The Tatler (1709-11)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatler 11.04.2012The Tatler (1709-11)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatler 11.04.2012

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The original Tatler was founded in 1709 by Richard Steele, who used the nom de plume"Isaac Bickerstaff, Esquire", the first such consistently adopted journalistic persona,[2] … Steele's idea was to publish the news and gossip heard in London coffeehouses, hence the title [to tattle=to gossip], and seemingly, from the opening paragraph, to leave the subject of politics to the newspapers,[3] while presenting Whiggish views and correcting middle-class manners, while instructing "these Gentlemen, for the most part being Persons of strong Zeal, and weak Intellects...what to think." To assure complete coverage of local gossip, a reporter was placed in each of the city's popular coffeehouses, or at least such were the datelines: accounts of manners and mores were datelined from White's; literary notes from Will's; notes of antiquarian interest were dated from the Grecian Coffee House; and news items from St. James’s Coffee House.In its first incarnation, it was published three times a week. The original Tatler was published for only two years, from 12 April 1709 to 2 January 1711. A collected edition was published in 1710–11, with the title The Lucubrations [=meditations] of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.[4] Two months after the final edition, Steele and Joseph Addison, another major contributor to Tatler, co-founded The Spectator magazine.



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The Spectator (1711/12)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spectator_%281711%29The Spectator (1711/12)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spectator_%281711%29

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The Spectator was a daily publication of 1711–12, founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in England after they met at Charterhouse School. Eustace Budgell, a cousin of Addison's, also contributed to the publication. Each 'paper', or 'number', was approximately 2,500 words long, and the original run consisted of 555 numbers. These were collected into seven volumes. The paper was revived without the involvement of Steele in 1714, appearing thrice weekly for six months, and these papers when collected formed the eighth volume.


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An English Expositor (1616)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_English_Expositor (29.05.12An English Expositor (1616)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_English_Expositor (29.05.12

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An English Expositor: teaching the interpretation of the hardest words used in our language, with sundry explications, descriptions and discourses is a dictionary of hard words compiled by John Bullokar …The book is significant as the second monolingualdictionary to be printed in the English language. Its aim, as laid out in the preface, was to catalogue the "great store of strange words" in the English language, and "open the signification of such words, to the capacitie of the ignorant". It was extensive in scope, covering not only foreign loanwords and words that had become obsolete, but also terms associated with science and philosophy. It contained twice as many entries as its sole predecessor, Cawdrey's A Table Alphabeticall, from which it borrowed heavily.John Bullokar lived only to see the second edition of his book, but at least sixteen more editions and revisions appeared over the next 150 years, including An English Expositor, or, CompleatDictionary (1698), and The English Expositor Improv'd (1719).



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‘Hard Words’ The Idler (1758–1760)‘Hard Words’ The Idler (1758–1760)

No 70. Hard words defended (Johnson)Published: Saturday, August 18, 1759Johnson says people who are confused by hard words in books should ask themselves whether it is the author's fault or theirs. An author writing for a learned audience is entitled to use harder words than one writing for the ignorant. Moreover, "every science and every trade" must of necessity have its own vocabulary. The simplest language is not always the clearest."That the vulgar express their thoughts clearly, is far from true; and what perspicuity can be found among them proceeds not from the easiness of their language, but the shallowness of their thoughts. He that sees a building as a common spectator, contents himself with relating that it is great or little, mean or splendid, lofty or low; all these words are intelligible and common, but they convey no distinct or limited ideas; if he attempts, without the terms of architecture, to delineate the parts, or enumerate the ornaments, his narration at once becomes unintelligible. The terms, indeed, generally displease, because they are understood by few; but they are little understood, only because few that look upon an edifice examine its parts, or analyse its columns into their members."


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‘inkhorn’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkhorn‘inkhorn’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkhorn

Controversy over inkhorn terms was rife from the mid-16th to the mid-17th century, during the transition from Middle English to Modern English. It was also a time when English was replacing Latin as the main language of science and learning in England, although Frenchwas still prevalent. Many new words were being introduced into the language by writers, often self-consciously borrowing from Classical literature. Critics regarded these words as useless, usually requiring knowledge of Latin or Greek to be understood. They also contended that there were words with identical meaning already in English. Some of the terms did indeed seem to fill a semantic gap in English (often technical and scientific words) whereas others coexisted with native (Germanic) words with the same or similar meanings and often supplanted them. The term "inkhorn term" appeared as early as 1560.Writers such as Thomas Elyot and George Pettie were enthusiastic borrowers of new words whereas Thomas Wilson and John Cheke argued against them. Cheke wrote:I am of this opinion that our own tung should be written cleane and pure, unmixt and unmangeled with borowing of other tunges; wherein if we take not heed by tiim, ever borowing and never paying, she shall be fain to keep her house as bankrupt.Many of these so-called inkhorn terms, such as dismiss, celebrate, encyclopedia, commit, capacity and ingenious stayed in the language and are commonly used. Many other neologisms faded soon after they were first used; for example expede which is now all but obsolete, although the derivative expedient and the similar word impede survive.


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Samuel Johnson (1709-84)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_JohnsonSamuel Johnson (1709-84)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson

128

Dr Johnson was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history".[1]

He is also the subject of "the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature": James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson.[2] …

His later works included essays, an influential annotated edition of William Shakespeare's plays, and the widely read tale Rasselas. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he later travelled to Scotland; Johnson described their travels in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, a collection of biographies and evaluations of 17th- and 18th-century poets.



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A Dictionary of the English Language (1755)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_JohnsonA Dictionary of the English Language (1755)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson

129

Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 [O.S.[change 1752] 7 September] – 13 December 1784)After nine years of work, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755; it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship.“There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £230,000 as of 2012.[1] Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single-handedly, with only clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he had marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life.This work brought Johnson popularity and success. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary150 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary.[4]


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From Dr. Johnson's dejected introduction:http://www.viacorp.com/dictionary-dejection.html 11.04.2012From Dr. Johnson's dejected introduction:http://www.viacorp.com/dictionary-dejection.html 11.04.2012

130

“It is the fate of those who toil at the lower employments of life, to be rather driven by the fear of evil, than attracted by the prospect of good; to be exposed to censure, without hope of praise; to be disgraced by miscarriage, or punished for neglect, where success would have been without applause, and diligence without reward. Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dictionaries; whom mankind have considered, not as the pupil, but the slave of science, the pionier of literature, doomed only to remove rubbish and clear obstructions from the paths through which Learning and Genius press forward to conquest and glory, without bestowing a smile on the humble drudge that facilitates their progress. Every other authour may aspire to praise; the lexicographer can only hope to escape reproach, and even this negative recompense has been yet granted to very few. ... When I took the first survey of my undertaking, I found our speech copious without order, and energetick without rules: wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated; choice was to be made out of boundless variety, without any established principle of selection; adulterations were to be detected, without a settled test of purity; and modes of expression to be rejected or received, without the suffrages of any writers of classical reputation or acknowledged authority. ...“



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Noah Webster, Jr. (1758 –1843)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Webster 11.04.2012Noah Webster, Jr. (1758 –1843)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Webster 11.04.2012

131

Webster's New Haven homeNow relocated to Greenfield Villagein Dearborn, Michigan.

a lexicographer, textbook pioneer, English spelling reformer, political writer, editor, and prolific author. He has been called the "Father of American Scholarship and Education." His blue-backed speller books taught five generations of American children how to spell and read, and made their education more secular and less religious. His name became synonymous with "dictionary," especially the modern Merriam-Webster dictionary that was first published in 1828 as An American Dictionary of the English Language.For decades, he was one of the most prolific authors in the new nation, publishing textbooks, political essays, a report on infectious diseases, and newspaper articles for his Federalist party.


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NOAH WEBSTER URGES REFORM OF SPELLING (1789)http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/DKitchen/new_655/webster_language.htm (Ӿ11.04.2012)NOAH WEBSTER URGES REFORM OF SPELLING (1789)http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/DKitchen/new_655/webster_language.htm (Ӿ11.04.2012)

132

From Noah Webster, "An Essay on the Necessity, Advantages, and Practicality of Reforming the Mode of Spelling and of Rendering the Orthography of Words Correspondent to Pronunciation," Dissertations on the English Language: With Notes, Historical and Critical, to Which is Added, by Way of Appendix, an Essay on a Reformed Mode of Spelling, with Dr. Franklin’s Arguments on That Subject (Boston. 1789). pp. 391. 393-98. 405-6.It has been observed by all writers, on the English language, that the orthography or spelling of words is very irregular; the same letters often representing different sounds, and the same sounds often expressed by different letters. For this irregularity, two principal causes may be assigned:1. The changes to which the pronunciation of a language is liable, from the progress of science and civilization.2. The mixture of different languages, occasioned by revolutions in England, or by a predilection of the learned, for words of foreign growth and ancient origin.The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults which produce innumerable inconveniencies in the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the AMERICAN TONGUE? Let us consider this subject with some attention.Several attempts were formerly made in England to rectify the orthography of the language. But I apprehend their schemes failed to success, rather on account of their intrinsic difficulties, than on account of any necessary impracticability of a reform. It was proposed, in most of these schemes, not merely to throw out superfluous and silent letters, but to introduce a number of new characters. Any attempt on such a plan must undoubtedly prove unsuccessful.



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Webster’s concrete proposals http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Webster 11.04.2012Webster’s concrete proposals http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Webster 11.04.2012

133

The principal alterations, necessary to render our orthography sufficiently regular and easy, are these:1. The omission of all superfluous or silent letters; as a in bread. Thus bread, head, give, breast, built, meant, realm, friend would be spelt bred, hed, giv, brest, bilt, ment, relm, frend. Would this alteration produce any inconvenience, any embarrassment or expense? By no means. On the other hand, it would lessen the trouble of writing, and much more, of learning the language; it would reduce the true pronunciation to a certainty; and while it would assist foreigners and our own children in acquiring the language, it would render the pronunciation uniform, in different parts of the country, and almost prevent the possibility of changes.2. A substitution of a character that has a certain definite sound, for one that is more vague and indeterminate. Thus by putting ee instead of ea or ie, the words mean, near, speak grieve, zeal, would become meen, neer, speek, greev, zeel. This alteration could not occasion a moments trouble; at the same time it would prevent a doubt respecting the pronunciation; whereas the ea and iehaving different sounds, may give a learner much difficulty. Thus greef should be substituted for grief; kee for key; beleev for believe; laf for laugh; dawter for daughter; plow for plough; tuf for tough; proov for prove; blud for blood; and draft for draught. In this manner ch in Greek derivatives, should be changed into k:character, chorus, cholic, architecture, should be written karacter, korus, kolic, arkitecture …3. Thus ch in French derivatives should be changed into sh; machine, chaise, chevalier, should be written masheen, shaze, shevaleer; and pique, tour, oblique, should be written peek, toor, obleek.4. A trifling alteration in a character, or the addition of a point would distinguish different sounds, without the substitution of a new character. Thus a very small stroke across th would distinguish its two sounds. A point over a vowel … might answer all the purposes of different letters. And for the dipthong ow, let the two letters be united by a small stroke, or both engraven on the same piece of metal, with the left hand line of the w united to the o.


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http://www.merriam-webster.com/info/spelling-reform.htm 11.04.2012http://www.merriam-webster.com/info/spelling-reform.htm 11.04.2012



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6. The Spread to World Language

Figure: The spread of English from Britain (Gramley 2012: 158)

6. The Spread to World Language

Figure: The spread of English from Britain (Gramley 2012: 158)


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Figure: The spread of English in and from America (Gramley 2012: 159)Figure: The spread of English in and from America (Gramley 2012: 159)



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Differences between British and American Standard English usage

Baker, Paul (2017). American and British English. Cambridge: CUP.

Differences between British and American Standard English usage

Baker, Paul (2017). American and British English. Cambridge: CUP.

(Baker 2017: 44)

(Baker 2017: 40)

special meaning: software

spell checker does not correct!


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Figure: The spread of English from Jamaica (population movements)(Gramley 2012: 159)Figure: The spread of English from Jamaica (population movements)(Gramley 2012: 159)



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Figure: An external view of English after Kachru 1985 (Gramley 2012: 177+353)Figure: An external view of English after Kachru 1985 (Gramley 2012: 177+353)


SS 2019 7. Global English? 7.1 Typologies todayENL: The branches of world English

7. Global English? 7.1 Typologies todayENL: The branches of world English


(Graddol 2000: 11)


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Global English: functions and formsENL -> ESL -> EIL/ELFGlobal English: functions and formsENL -> ESL -> EIL/ELF

ENL = English as a native languageESL = English as a second languageESL1 = in native English immersionESL2 = in official language situation / colonial heritage

ELF = English as a lingua francaEU-ELF = in the European Union

EIL = English as an International Language(EIL? = English as Internet Language)EST = English for Science and TechnologyEAP = English for Academic Purposes


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Figure: A two-dimensional model of English showing status variation (ENL, ESL, EFL, Pidgin and Creole English) (Gramley 2012: 177)

Figure: A two-dimensional model of English showing status variation (ENL, ESL, EFL, Pidgin and Creole English) (Gramley 2012: 177)

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To sum up again, To sum up again,



SS 2019 ENL: Estimates of first language speakers of English from 1950 to 2050 as calculated by the engco model, together with speculations regarding L2 and EFL communities(Graddol 2000: 60)

ENL: Estimates of first language speakers of English from 1950 to 2050 as calculated by the engco model, together with speculations regarding L2 and EFL communities(Graddol 2000: 60)


SS 2019 ESL: „Anglophone“ African/Asian countries: diversity (Gramley 2012: 307-314)ESL: „Anglophone“ African/Asian countries: diversity (Gramley 2012: 307-314)


country UK contact colonialstatus

indep. total pop. (in Mill.)

English speakers% total (in Mill.)

Botswana 19th C. 1985 1966 1.6 38 0.63Lesotho protectorate 1966 1.8 28 0.5Malawi 1878 1891 1964 13.0 4 0.54Namibia 1878 1920 (LN/UN) 1990 1.8 17 >0.3South Africa 1795 1795 1910 47.85 >28 13.7Swaziland 1894 1902 (UK) 1968 1.14 4.4 0.05Zambia 1888 1924 1953, 1964 13.0 15 2.0Zimbabwe 1890 1923 1953, 1980 13.0 42 5.55Cameroon 1914 1916 1960 18.5 42 7.7Gambia 1661, 1816 1894 1965 1.7 2.3 0.4Ghana („Gold Coast“) 1814, 1850 1874, 1902 1957 23.5 6 1.4Liberia US: 1822 none 1847 3.75 83 3.1Nigeria 1851 1884, 1900 1960 148 53 79Sierra Leone 1787 1808 1961 5.8 83 4.9Kenya 1886 1895, 1920 1963 39 9 2.7Tanzania 1880s 1890, 1920 1961/64 42 11 4Uganda 1860s 1888, 1890 1962 31 10 2.5Bangladesh 1690 1858 1947 162 2 3.5India 1660 1858 1947 1200 >20 230Nepal none 25 >25 7Pakistan 1857 1858 1947 164 11 18Sri Lanka 1796 1802 1948 20 10 2Singapore 1819 1867 1965 5 80 4,0Hong Kong 1841 1842 1997 6.9 36 2,5Philippines USA: 1898 1898 1946 97 >50 50Malaysia 1786 1995 1957, 1963 27 27 7.4


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http://www.tekstlab.uio.no/cambridge_survey/


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Types of Englishes in eWAVEhttp://ewave-atlas.org/languagesTypes of Englishes in eWAVEhttp://ewave-atlas.org/languages



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EIL: The proportion of the world’s books annually published in each language(Graddol 2000: 9)EIL: The proportion of the world’s books annually published in each language(Graddol 2000: 9)


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The future of English through academic disciplines(Graddol 2000: 9)The future of English through academic disciplines(Graddol 2000: 9)


Table 3 Disciplines in which German academics

claim English as their working language


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Lingua Franca Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_francaLingua Franca Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca

Characteristics"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic history or structure of the language: though pidgins and creoles often function as lingua francas, many such languages are neither pidgins nor creoles. Whereas a vernacular language is used as a native language in a single speaker community, a lingua franca goes beyond the boundaries of its original community, and is used as a second language for communication between communities. International auxiliary languages such as Esperanto have historically had such a low level of adoption and use that they can only be described as potential rather than functioning lingua francas.EtymologyThe original Lingua Franca was a mixed language composed mostly (80%) of Italian with a broad vocabulary drawn from Turkish, French, Greek, Arabic, Portuguese and Spanish. It was in use throughout the Eastern Mediterranean as the language of commerce and diplomacy in and around the Renaissance era. At that time, Italian speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the Ottoman empire. Franca was the Italian word for Frankish. Its usage in the term lingua franca originated from its meaning in Arabic and Greek, dating from before the Crusades and during the Middle Ages, whereby all Western Europeans were called "Franks" or Faranji in Arabic and Phrankoi in Greek during the times of the late Eastern Roman Empire. The term lingua franca is first recorded in English in 1678.


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Lingua Franca EnglishMeierkord, Ch. (2012). Interactions across Englishes. Cambridge: C.U.P.: 25 Lingua Franca EnglishMeierkord, Ch. (2012). Interactions across Englishes. Cambridge: C.U.P.: 25


• as a lingua franca, English is employed for a wide variety of purposes;

• as a lingua franca, English is used by speakers who have very diverse regional, social, and educational backgrounds;

• consequently, individuals have very divers Englishes reflecting these regional, social, and educational backgrounds;

• they bring these Englishes into the interactions in which English serves as a lingua franca; and

• in sum, these interactions fit within the concept of IaEs [= Interactions across Englishes].

break up lingua franca? into• English for tourism• English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

• English as an International Conference Language• English for Academic Publication (EAP) /

Science and Technology (EST)

http://chiasuanchong.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/elf-barchart-of-users1.jpg


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Global English formsGlobal English forms

151/

Codifying the Standard & Non-StandardOxford English Dictionary (OED)Survey of English Usage (SEU)

Received Pronunciation (RP) only in England?

today an unusually wide rage of forms and functions• more variation in pronunciation than grammar• “glocal” communication with unifying and diversifying forces and

features from a “feature pool” (Mufwene 2001) to choose from?


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7.2 Oxford English Dictionary (OED): the projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary 11.04.20127.2 Oxford English Dictionary (OED): the projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary 11.04.2012

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), published by the Oxford University Press, is the self-styled premier dictionary of the English language. Work began on the dictionary in 1857 but it was not until 1884 that it started to be published in unbound fascicles as work continued on the project under the name A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society. In 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was first used unofficially on the covers of the series and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, it fully replaced the name in all occurrences to The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one volume supplement …According to the publishers, it would take a single person 120 years to "key in" text to convert it to machine readable form which consists a total of 59 million words of the OED second edition, 60 years to proofread it, and 540 megabytes to store it electronically. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries. Supplementing the entry headwords, there are 157,000 bold-type combinations and derivatives; 169,000 italicized-bold phrases and combinations; 616,500 word-forms in total, including 137,000 pronunciations; 249,300 etymologies; 577,000 cross-references; and 2,412,400 usage quotations. The dictionary's latest, complete print edition (Second Edition, 1989) was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages.(cf. also http://www.oed.com/public/oedhistory/history-of-the-oed)



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Oxford English Dictionary: comparisonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary 11.04.2012Oxford English Dictionary: comparisonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary 11.04.2012

153

The OED's official policy is to attempt to record a word's most-known usages and variants in all varieties of English past and present, worldwide. Per the 1933 "Preface":“The aim of this Dictionary is to present in alphabetical series the words that have formed the English vocabulary from the time of the earliest records [ca. AD740] down to the present day, with all the relevant facts concerning their form, sense-history, pronunciation, and etymology. It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang.”

Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the world's largest nor earliest dictionary. The Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, which has similar aims to the OED, is the largest and it took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers' dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838 and completed in 1961. The first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, which is the first great dictionary devoted to a modern European language (Italian), was published in 1612; the first edition of Dictionnaire de l'Académie française dates from 1694. The first edition of the official dictionary of Spanish, the Diccionario de la lengua española(produced, edited, and published by the Real Academia Española) was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published even earlier, in 1716.


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Oxford English Dictionary: entry of World Englishhttp://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/robot?q=robot 06.06.2012Oxford English Dictionary: entry of World Englishhttp://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/robot?q=robot 06.06.2012

154

robot

Pronunciation: /ˈrәʊbɒt/noun 1 a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially one programmable by a computer: half of all American robots are making cars or trucks [as modifier]: a robot arm(especially in science fiction) a machine resembling a human being and able to replicate certain human movements and functions automatically: the robot closed the door behind usa person who behaves in a mechanical or unemotional manner: public servants are not expected to be mindless robots2 another term for crawler (in the computing sense).3 South African a set of automatic traffic lights: waiting at a robot I caught the eye of a young womanOrigin:from Czech, from robota 'forced labour'. The term was coined in K. Čapek's play R.U.R.'Rossum's Universal Robots' (1920)



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7.3 Documenting traditional native English dialectshttp://www.yorkshiredialect.com/SED.htm 11.04.20127.3 Documenting traditional native English dialectshttp://www.yorkshiredialect.com/SED.htm 11.04.2012

155

'Harold Orton often told us that it was the eleventh hour, that dialect was rapidly disappearing, and that this [the Survey of English Dialects] was a last-minute exercise to scoop out the last remaining vestige of dialect before it died out under the pressures of modern movement and communication.' (Ellis, 1992: 7).

The following information regarding the SED is based on that provided by Harold Orton (1962) himself. The notion of a survey of English dialects was first proposed in 1946 by Eugen Dieth, Professor of English Language at the University of Zürich, and Harold Orton of the Department of English Language and Medieval English Literature, University of Leeds. (The latter university's commitment to dialect research continues to this day within the School of English.) The underlying aim was to compile a linguistic atlas of England. The survey commenced in 1950 and spanned eleven years reaching its conclusion in 1961. The map below shows the selected survey sites in Yorkshire. The numbers therein signal the numerical order assigned to the individual locations. An old Yorkshire Evening Press article reporting the start of the SED may be viewed by clicking here.


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The Survey of English DialectsThe Survey of English Dialects

156

The Survey of English Dialects was undertaken between 1950 and 1961 under the direction of Professor Harold Orton of the English department of the University of Leeds. It aimed to collect the full range of speech in England and Wales before local differences were to disappear.[1] Standardisation of the English language was expected with the post-war increase in social mobility and the spread of the mass media. The project originated in discussions between Professor Orton and Professor Eugen Dieth of the University of Zurich about the desirability of producing a linguistic atlas of England in 1946, and a questionnaire containing 1,300 questions was devised between 1947 and 1952.[2]

313 localities were selected from England, the Isle of Man and some areas of Wales that were located close to the English border. Priority was given to rural areas with a history of a stable population. When selecting speakers, priority was given to men, to the elderly and to those who worked in the main industry of the area, for these were all seen as traits that were connected to use of local dialect. One field worker gathering material claimed they had to dress in old clothes to gain the confidence of elderly villagers.[3] Most of the recordings are of inhabitants discussing their local industry

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_of_English_Dialects 11.04.2012)



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Traditional map of English dialectology

SED map: chaff, grass, last, laugh, shaft(Kolb et al., 1979: 227)

Traditional map of English dialectology

SED map: chaff, grass, last, laugh, shaft(Kolb et al., 1979: 227)

157/99

Intro Origin Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global

/186 SchmiedHistory English

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http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/unit0031/genunstart.htmlhttp://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/unit0031/genunstart.html

158/99

Intro Origin Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global

/186

Interactive map of American English socio-dialectologyInteractive map of American English socio-dialectology


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Map 11.15. An overall view of North American dialects(Labov et al. 2006)Map 11.15. An overall view of North American dialects(Labov et al. 2006)


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7.4 Received Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation7.4 Received Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation

RP DefinitionReceived Pronunciation (RP), also called the Queen's (or King's) English, is the standard accent of Standard English in Great Britain, with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in other European languages between their standard varieties and their regional forms. RP is defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as "the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England", although some have argued that it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales. RP is sometimes referred to as Oxford English or BBC English because those organizations are often considered standard-bearers for it. Although there is nothing intrinsic about RP that marks it as superior to any other variety, sociolinguistic factors have given Received Pronunciation particular prestige in parts of Britain. It has thus been the accent of those with power, money and influence since the early to mid 20th century, though it has more recently been criticised as a symbol of undeserved privilege. However, since the 1960s, a greater permissiveness towards allowing regional English varieties has taken hold in education and the media in Britain; in some contexts conservative RP is now perceived negatively.



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Received Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_PronunciationReceived Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation

RP HistoryThe introduction of the term Received Pronunciation is usually credited to Daniel Jones. In the first edition of the English Pronouncing Dictionary (1917) he named the accent "Public School Pronunciation", but for the second edition in 1926 he wrote "In what followsI call it Received Pronunciation (abbreviation RP), for want of a better term."[11]

However, the expression had actually been used much earlier by Alexander Ellis in 1869[12]

and Peter DuPonceau in 1818[13] … The word received conveys its original meaning of accepted or approved – as in "receivedwisdom".[15] The reference to this pronunciation as Oxford English is because it was traditionally the common speech of Oxford University; the production of dictionaries gave Oxford University prestige in matters of language. The extended versions of the Oxford English Dictionary give Received Pronunciation guidelines for each word.RP is an accent (a form of pronunciation) and a register, rather than a dialect (a form of vocabulary and grammar as well as pronunciation).[16] It may show a great deal about the social and educational background of a person who uses English. Anyone using RP will typically speak Standard English although the reverse is not necessarily true (e.g. the standard language may be pronounced with a regional accent, such as a Scottish or Yorkshire Accent; but it is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak the Scots or the Yorkshire Dialect).


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Historical VariationLike all accents, RP has changed with time. For example, sound recordings and films from the first half of the 20th century demonstrate that it was usual for speakers of RP to pronounce the /æ/ sound, as in land, with a vowel close to [ɛ], so that land would sound similar to a present-day pronunciation of lend. RP is sometimes known as the Queen's English, but recordings show that even Queen Elizabeth II has changed her pronunciation over the past 50 years, no longer using an [ɛ]-like vowel in words like land.[59]

The 1993 Oxford Dictionary changed three main things in its description of modern RP, although these features can still be heard amongst old speakers of RP. Firstly, words such as cloth, gone, off, often were pronounced with /ɔ/ː (as in General American) instead of /ɒ/, so that often sounded close to orphan (See lot–cloth split). The Queen still uses the older pronunciations, but it is rare to hear them on the BBC any more. Secondly, there was a distinction between horse and hoarse with an extra diphthong /ɔә/ appearing in words like hoarse, force, and pour.Thirdly, any final y on a word is now represented as an /i/ – a symbol to cover either the traditional /ɪ/ or the more modern /i ː /, the latter of which has been common in the south of England for some time.In the 1960s the transcription /әʊ/ started to be used for the "GOAT" vowel instead of Daniel Jones's /oʊ/, reflecting a change in pronunciation since the beginning of the century.Joseph Wright's work suggests that, during the early 20th century, words such as cure, fewer, pure, etc. were pronounced with a triphthong /iuә/ rather than the modern /juә/.



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RP Variation todayThe change in RP may even be observed in the home of "BBC English". The BBC accent of the 1950s was distinctly different from today's: a news report from the 1950s is recognisable as such, and a mock-1950s BBC voice is used for comic effect in programmes wishing to satirise 1950s social attitudes such as the Harry Enfield Showand its "Mr. Cholmondley-Warner" sketches. There are several words where the traditional RP pronunciation is now considered archaic: for example, "medicine" was originally said /ˈmedsɪn/ and "tissue" was originally said /ˈtɪsju/ː.[66]

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A comparison of the formant values of /i ːæ ɑ ːɔ ːʊ u/ː for older (black) and younger (light blue) RP speakers. From de Jong et al. (2007:1814)


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RP StatusTraditionally, Received Pronunciation was the "everyday speech in the families of Southern English persons whose men-folk [had] been educated at the great public boarding-schools"[34] and which conveyed no information about that speaker's region of origin prior to attending the school.It is the business of educated people to speak so that no-one may be able to tell in what county their childhood was passed. A. Burrell, Recitation. A Handbook for Teachers in Public Elementary School, 1891. In the 19th century, there were still British prime ministers who spoke with some regional features, such as William Ewart Gladstone.[35] From the 1970s onwards, attitudes towards Received Pronunciation have been changing slowly. The BBC's use of announcers with strong regional accents, such as Yorkshire-born Wilfred Pickles, during the Second World War (in order to distinguish BBC broadcasts from German propaganda) is an earlier example of the use of non-RP accents.[36]

Although admired in some circles, RP is disliked in others. It is common in parts of Britain to regard it as a south-eastern English accent rather than a non-regional one and as a symbol of the south-east's political power in Britain.[8] A 2007 survey found that residents of Scotland and Northern Ireland tend to dislike RP.[37] It is shunned by some with left-wing political views, who may be proud of having an accent more typical of the working-classes.[38] The left-wing British band Chumbawamba recorded a song protesting against the accent: "R.I.P. RP" from their album The Boy Bands Have Won.



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7.5 Current Changes in English Syntax/Grammar Mair, Christian/Geoffrey Leech (2006). Current changes in English syntax. Bas Aarts/April McMahon (eds). The Handbook of English Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 318-342.Baker, Paul (2017). American and British English. Cambridge: CUP.

7.5 Current Changes in English Syntax/Grammar Mair, Christian/Geoffrey Leech (2006). Current changes in English syntax. Bas Aarts/April McMahon (eds). The Handbook of English Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 318-342.Baker, Paul (2017). American and British English. Cambridge: CUP.

1. Features of syntactic change abrupt change (Lightfoot) vs. gradual evolution shift of frequency of occurrences = indicator for change whether the construction is obligatory/or not may indicate the recentness of an ongoing change factors of genre, register can constrain (spread) innovation throughout the language and community2. Trends/Factors influencing syntactic change “densification”=get to the point (“No Parking Wednesday”,-s genitives,nominalization,that/zero clauses,no adverb) grammaticalization=lexical words become semantically bleached and adapt grammatical functions (need to,looks like,thanks to) democratization=from social hierarchy to equal status: shift from titles, hedging: strong modals (should > might) informalisation/colloquialization=tendency of written/formal language to adapt the features of spoken/informal language “technologisation”=influence of digital forms, tools, contexts on language (spell checker, smart phone, twitter)

Americanisation=tendency in BrE to follow AmE changes, NO: AmE is “ahead/advanced”! (s.7.5.4)3. Constructions loosing ground

modal auxiliariesinfinitive complementbe-passiveof-phrasewh-relativegender neutral he


Constructions gaining groundsemi-modalsgerundial complementget passives-genitivethat/ zero relativizationsingular they/coordinated pronouns


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Current Changes in English Syntax Christian Mair / Geoffrey Leech (2006)Current Changes in English Syntax Christian Mair / Geoffrey Leech (2006)

4. Selected Examples

Progressive Aspect/Continuous Form

Modality Nonfinite Verbal Forms Passives and Contractions

1)increasing in frequency in general

2)establishing the progressive in the remaining niches of the verbal paradigm

3)e.g. emergence of the progressive passive

4)either genuinely new uses or extensions of basic uses of the progressive

1)ongoing grammaticalization of some verbal constructions like “semi-modals”, e.g. have to, be going to

2)overlap in function with the modals

3)semi-modals = grouping of verbal idioms → more frequent in spoken than written English

1)infinitives, gerunds and participles have become more prominent

2)gerund increases to an extent that would not have been necessary to compensate for the declining retrospective infinitive → indicates other reasons

3)grammatical context, partly contrasting semantic import of the gerundial and infinitival complement types, text type specific preferences, and the regional origin of a speaker/writer

1)be-passive declining in frequency

2)passive is indicator of style, e.g. in academic writing

3)prescriptive rules regarding the use have changed

4)written language is moving closer to spoken language

5)also shift toward contracted forms →written language is moving closer to spoken language



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7.6 Typological summary of English today7.6 Typological summary of English today


Pronunciation: discrepancy with spelling (reform?)Lexicon: extremely large through integration of Germanic, Romance and world-wide loans synonyms, cognates: etymologically identical, but today different meanings:

Old English – Old Norse (shirt – skirt)Anglo-Norman – French (warden – guardian)Latin – Greek (dish – disk)

Grammar: morphologically restrictedIdiomaticity: wide range from fixed idioms to pref. collocatesDiscourse: very adaptable to cultural contexts (particles)


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7.7 EU English

Knowledge of English EU map.svg Wikipedia 11.04.12

7.7 EU English

Knowledge of English EU map.svg Wikipedia 11.04.12


A language hierarchy for the European Union (Graddol 2000: 13)

A language hierarchy for the European Union (Graddol 2000: 13)

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Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. …...literature literature Intro Origins Old English Middle English Early Mod. English Spread Global Schmied History English SS