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Intro to Geomorphology
Key Concepts
Geomorphology • Literally means the study of earth landforms
- Geo = Earth
- Morph=Form
- Logos= Study of
• Involves understanding of Involves understanding of
- Mineralogy
- Structure
- Tectonics
- Stratigraphy
- Chemistry - Physics
- Meteorology & Climatology
Why Bother?
• Critical toward understanding
- Climate change > systems respond differently to changes in rainfall, temperature changes, systems respond differently to changes in rainfall, temperature changes, and changes in storm strength and changes in storm strength
- Past tectonic activity > distinctive stratigraphic and landform features form in response to tectonics distinctive stratigraphic and landform features form in response to tectonics
- Engineering problems > Construction of bridges, highways, houses, etc depend on past, current and Construction of bridges, highways, houses, etc depend on past, current and future understanding of potentially destructive events future understanding of potentially destructive events
- Hazard assessment > map out locations that have good have high risk of potential changes map out locations that have good have high risk of potential changes
- Stratigraphy > all of the sedimentary stratigraphic record is the end product of all of the sedimentary stratigraphic record is the end product of
geomorphic activity/ processes geomorphic activity/ processes
Agents of Change...
Glaciers Glaciers
Rivers & Oceans Rivers & Oceans
Wind Wind
Gravity Gravity
And human beings... • • Significant agents of Geomorphic change Significant agents of Geomorphic change - - causes changes themselves causes changes themselves > > remove or oversteepening slopes causes mass wasting remove or oversteepening slopes causes mass wasting > > improperly operated dams and levee management cause catastrophic failures improperly operated dams and levee management cause catastrophic failures
- - Accelerate processes already occurring Accelerate processes already occurring > > Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail > > construct jettis along coastlines that are experiencing erosion problems construct jettis along coastlines that are experiencing erosion problems
Significant agents of change - > > Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail > >
> >
Why we are significant agents of change - - Accelerate processes already occurring Accelerate processes already occurring > > Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail Build buildings along cliffs that are poised to fail > > construct jettis along coastlines that are experiencing erosion problems construct jettis along coastlines that are experiencing erosion problems
> > construct dams, often where they shouldn't be construct dams, often where they shouldn't be
Paradigms (1 of 2) • Two end members
- 1. Evolutionary Geomorphology
> championed by William Morris Davis championed by William Morris Davis
> part of trend toward seeing everything in light of part of trend toward seeing everything in light of Darwinian Evolutionary Theory Darwinian Evolutionary Theory > landscapes evolve throughout time, landscapes evolve throughout time,
> stage of evolution can be determined by stage of evolution can be determined by examining the characteristics of the landscape examining the characteristics of the landscape
> implies that TIME is the critical factor in determining what the landscape looks like implies that TIME is the critical factor in determining what the landscape looks like
Davis' Landscape evolution model
(most notably identified for streams and mountains as in this example from an intro geology textbook)
(most notably identified for streams and mountains as in this example from an intro geology textbook)
Paradigms (2 of 2) • Process Geomorphology
> > Originally proposed by G.K. Gilbert Originally proposed by G.K. Gilbert
> > Drew upon his Engineering background Drew upon his Engineering background
> > landforms are a balance between resisting framework and landforms are a balance between resisting framework and the forces acting to alter the landscape the forces acting to alter the landscape
> > Implies that time is one component of many that affect the Implies that time is one component of many that affect the appearance of the Earth appearance of the Earth
> > Inferred that the landscape was in equilibrium Between driving forces and resisting forces Inferred that the landscape was in equilibrium Between driving forces and resisting forces
Time = 1 Time = 1
Time = 0 Time = 0
Time = 2 Time = 2
Landscape in equilibrium- slope example from Gilbert Landscape in equilibrium- slope example from Gilbert
Dynamic Equilibrium • Davisian Geomorphology & TIME as dominant factor Davisian Geomorphology & TIME as dominant factor
dominated the scientific literature until the 1960's dominated the scientific literature until the 1960's
• John Hack proposed landscape development occurred John Hack proposed landscape development occurred
similarly to the way Gilbert had espoused similarly to the way Gilbert had espoused
- Hack recognized, however, that there was considerable Hack recognized, however, that there was considerable
variability in most geomorphic systems variability in most geomorphic systems
> most were in dynamic equilibrium most were in dynamic equilibrium
i.e., There is a balance between opposing forces that has considerable variation.
Once overcome, balance must be re-established under the new conditions
Equilibrium & Time
• Steady
- no changes over short time
• Graded Time
- small changes over longer time - due to fluctuations in boundary conditions
• Cyclic time
- the same changes occur over time - as conditions dictate
- Average conditions change with time
Driving Forces in geomorphology • Climate
- - Originally recognized as an agent of change by Walther Penck Originally recognized as an agent of change by Walther Penck
- - Ultimately driven by the Sun and incoming solar radiation Ultimately driven by the Sun and incoming solar radiation (insolation) interacting with Earth’s major systems (insolation) interacting with Earth’s major systems
- - Variable at a number of temporal and spatial scales Variable at a number of temporal and spatial scales
- - includes temperature, moisture, and pressure/wind systems includes temperature, moisture, and pressure/wind systems
• Gravity
- - acts in conjunction with other driving forces acts in conjunction with other driving forces
- - determines how much work will operate on all systems determines how much work will operate on all systems
• Internal Heat
- drives plate motion and tectonic activity
- Ultimately controls potential energy for work
Work = Force (F) x distance (s) Fs = Potential Energy (PE) F=mass (m) x acceleration (a) • on earth F=mg
Weight (W) = m x gravity (g)
In simplified terms work is related to the amount of potential energy and the mass of the stuff being transported
Resisting Framework • Rocks!
- Strength of the rocks/sediments affects the potential processes that might act upon the materials
- e.g., some lithologies behave as a brittle solid, some behave as a plastic solid
- controls processes at a variety of temporal and spatial scales
• Structure (Tectonics)
- causes zones of weakness
- causes redistribution of lithologies
- causes climatic variability
Basin and Range- Structure and geomorphology
Ridge and Valley - structure and geomorphology
San Andreas Fault on the Carrizo Plain in California
Structure, climate and geomorphology
Thresholds of Change • Implied within dynamic equilibrium
- - some variability is absorbed by the systems without some variability is absorbed by the systems without
discernable changes discernable changes
• two kinds of thresholds
- - Extrinsic= external thresholds Extrinsic= external thresholds
> > e.g., climate changes e.g., climate changes
- - Intrinsic=internal to the system Intrinsic=internal to the system
> > e.g., gullying of streams? Difficult to identify e.g., gullying of streams? Difficult to identify
when and what controls the when and what controls the
- - some variability forces the system to change some variability forces the system to change
creating permanent changes creating permanent changes
intrinsic thresholds. intrinsic thresholds.
Complex response • can occur at a variety of scales
- common in larger systems
• different areas in the systems respond
differently depending on a variety of factors
• some may respond in exactly the opposite way to
the same event
Stream gradient profiles adjusting to climatically driven change
Process Linkage
•Operates on domino principle
•one part of a system changes, which triggers changes in another part
•Complicates what is known as “complex response”
•Example the Post Creek Cut-off of the Cache River in Southern Illinois
Process Linkage
•Operates on domino principle
•one part of a system changes, which triggers changes in another part
•Complicates what is known as “complex response”
•Example the Post Creek Cut-off of the Cache River in Southern Illinois
Internal Influences • • Endogenic changes Endogenic changes
- - keep the world from progressing to a featureless ball keep the world from progressing to a featureless ball
- - In theory this could occur In theory this could occur
- - idea proposed by William Morris Davis called idea proposed by William Morris Davis called peneplanation peneplanation
- - doesn't happen on earth (in most areas) because doesn't happen on earth (in most areas) because internal forces cause uplift internal forces cause uplift > > increases potential energy increases potential energy
> > usually initiates change usually initiates change
Categories of Endogenic influence • Epeirogeny
- regional uplift with minimal deformation of strata
> Geomorphic responses are less than with other categories
- influenced by GEOID
> equipotential surface of the Oceans
> has considerable distortions that appear as topography
> hypothetical equipotential surface called the SPHEROID
> all the minor perturbations in the surface due to interaction of all
the gravitational forces are removed
- Isostasy
> adjustment of crust due to mass of rocks, sediments, & water
> elevation of continents and other crust is a function of density of
crustal materials and the forces acting inside the earth
Geoid / Spheroid
Why worry about this? Why worry about this? • • Motion dictates geomorphic reaction Motion dictates geomorphic reaction
- - Upward vertical motion Upward vertical motion
> > increases potential energy- can be used by exogenic processes to act increases potential energy- can be used by exogenic processes to act
on the surface- see slide 13 of this set on the surface- see slide 13 of this set
- - Downward vertical motion Downward vertical motion
> > decreases potential energy decreases potential energy
Isostatic equilibrium Isostatic equilibrium • • continents are in some balance with the internal continents are in some balance with the internal
materials materials
Exogenic Forces- Climate change
Primary influence on surface processes
Has its own subcategory called climatic geomorphology
relates climate to why certain landforms form under a given set of climate conditions
•Glacial and periglacial landforms
•Aeolian and arid region landforms
•Mass wasting landforms
•River response and form
•Coastal processes
Exogenic Forces- Climate change
Primary influence on surface processes
Has its own subcategory called climatic geomorphology
relates climate to why certain landforms form under a given set of climate conditions
•Glacial and periglacial landforms
•Aeolian and arid region landforms
•Mass wasting landforms
•River response and form
•Coastal processes
Major climatic zones influencing Earth’s surface processes
What are the dominant agents and processes likely to influence surface processes in each zone?
What are the dominant agents and processes likely to influence surface processes in each zone?
Langbein and Schumm, 1958
Climatic implications…?
Moisture distribution- where are worlds largest rivers? Moisture distribution- where are worlds largest rivers?
Maximum precipitation
August 2004 Flood Event in Death Valley, CA
Remnant debris flow deposit(s), indicating significant aggradation and then in later stages degradation during the event. Note the high water scour line above the deposit.
Remnant debris flow deposit(s), indicating significant aggradation and then in later stages degradation during the event. Note the high water scour line above the deposit.
aggradation aggradation
scour line scour line
degradation degradation
aggradation aggradation
Climate-related geomorphology Climate-related geomorphology
Eustasy- Changes in the volume of water in ocean basins relative to the size of the basins
Strong influence on climate AND geomorphic processes in coastal and fluvial settings
Eustasy- Changes in the volume of water in ocean basins relative to the size of the basins
Strong influence on climate AND geomorphic processes in coastal and fluvial settings