Introduction Environmental Decision-Making

8/9/2019 Introduction Environmental Decision-Making

1/47

Introduction:Environmental Decision-Making

cross the world, environmental decisions are constantly being taken. Theirsettings vary, as do the people and groups involved. Environmental decisionsoccur within neighbourhoods, small businesses, corporate boardrooms, and inthe offices of local, state and national governments. They involve different

people with different backgrounds. There is a constant need for understanding thevarious processes, actors and preconditions of decision-making processes forenvironmental management.

Environmental decisions anchor themselves on threeentities - businesses, government, and the civil societyat large. Facilitating interaction between them, andfocussing on sustainable use of earth's resources,have been key challenges for developed anddeveloping countries alike. What directions shouldresearch and development take? What specific rolesshould be played by the different actors so thatinnovation and creativity in environmental decisionscan be fostered? How can environmental decision-making at various levels be supported and promoted?

It is clear that a culture of study, research andpedagogy needs to be developed, that is primarily focussed on the earth, and on man'senvironmental footprint. Environmental research needs to be geared towards mitigatingcurrent problems, and securing the earth for future generations. What changes,modifications and adjustments are necessary for a turn-around to refocus our efforts onsustainable lifestyles?

Research insights, monitoring and evaluation results, and information dialogues need tobe incorporated into environmental projects, so that demonstrable successes can be aninspiration for further action and replication. What concrete steps should be taken?What is the nature of partnerships and networking that need to be put in place forsharing of knowledge gained?

This GDRC programme combines alternatives, information, outcomes, and preferencesto enable decision-makers achieve clarity of environmental action. The researhfocusses on ways of breaking down a problem into manageable parts and explicitlyconsidering all available courses of action. By systematically evaluating the implications

of their decisions, decision-makers can clarify their actions, understanding what theyshould do, even with uncertainities.


2/47

GDRC and Environmental Decision-Making (EDM)

It is interesting to look at the information available in the various programmepages of GDRC from the perspective of EDM - What kind of decisions are

necessary for each theme? At what level should it be taken? Who takes them,and who are affected by the decisions? What are the intended outcomes? Whatpre-conditions need to be met before the decisions are implemented? Whatinformation is necessary to be collected for the decision to be taken?

These questions are pertinent, and form the starting point for good decision-

making, particularly at the local level.

The Rio Summit's Principle 10 and itsImplications

number of developing countries and countries with economies in transitionhave initiated processes of strengthening public participation schemes,following the adoption of Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration in 1992 at theEarth Summit.

Public Participation:

Environmental issues are best

handled with the participation ofall concerned citizens, at the

relevant level.

Principle 10

Environmental issues are best handled with

participation of all concerned citizens, at therelevant level. At the national level, each individual

shall have appropriate access to informationconcerning the environment that is held by public

authorities, including information on hazardous

materials and activities in their communities, andthe opportunity to participate in decision-making

processes. States shall facilitate and encouragepublic awareness and participation by making

information widely available. Effective access tojudicial and administrative proceedings, including

redress and remedy, shall be provided.

See all 27 Principles of the Rio Declaration

Principle 10 promotes public participation in environmental decision-making and accessto information and justice in environmental matters. Some countries committed to theimplementation of Principle 10 have pointed to the challenges of implementing its publicparticipation provisions (such as lack of skills and resources) and called for thedevelopment of training and capacity building programmes in this area.
http://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=78&ArticleID=1163http://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.gdrc.org/decision/gdrc-edm.htmlhttp://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=78&ArticleID=1163


3/47

Programme facilitating the implementation of Principle 10 should facilitate the exchangeof experiences in the area of public participation, develop practical and flexible guidanceand training material to assist countries in making informed choices regarding desiredparticipation processes, and support skills building for governmental and other decision-making officials.

Recognising the importance of this issue, Paragraph 128 of the World Summit onSustainable Development Plan of Implementation, 2002 states:

"Ensure access, at the national level, to environmental information and judicial andadministrative proceedings in environmental matters, as well as public participation indecision-making, so as to further principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment, taking into full account principles 5, 7 and 11 of the Declaration."

Multilateral agreements supporting access to information, participation, and justice inenvironmental decision-making help to advance national level implementation ofPrinciple 10 in member countries:

Aarhus Convention (1998)

Inter-American Strategy for the Promotion of Public Participation inSustainable Development Decision-Making (2001)

Dublin Declaration (2000)

Malm Declaration (2000)

WSSD Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (2002)

Information for Decision-makingHari Srinivas

Defining the problem

Take time to properly define the problem. What is the issue to be covered? What is the prosometimes help in understanding the complex interlinkages that create a particular 'problemthat will be required, and clarify how that information will lead to a better decision.

1 2

4 3
http://www.participate.org/convention/Arhus-convention.pdfhttp://www.oas.org/usde/PDF%20files/ispenglish.pdfhttp://www.oas.org/usde/PDF%20files/ispenglish.pdfhttp://www.unep.org/infoterra/infoterra2000/report1.htmhttp://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/112/malmo.htmlhttp://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htmhttp://www.participate.org/convention/Arhus-convention.pdfhttp://www.oas.org/usde/PDF%20files/ispenglish.pdfhttp://www.oas.org/usde/PDF%20files/ispenglish.pdfhttp://www.unep.org/infoterra/infoterra2000/report1.htmhttp://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/112/malmo.htmlhttp://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm


4/47

Remember that sometimes, the real cause can lie hidden behind the 'visible' causes.

Finding the information

Determine the sources from where information needed for decision-making can be obtainethat information being collected by the source? Which component of the problem at hand winformation, and identify the mode and format in which the information is presented. Keepdifferent reasons!).

Information youknow you have

Information youknow you don't have

Information you

don't know you

have

Information you

don't know you don't

have

Four states of information possession

Remember that information can also lie in experiences and insights that are not 'recorded.

Processing the Knowledge

This where the information gathered is matched with the problem in hand. The relevant insources is organized. Which parts of the information collected needs to be used? What addpresented to be able to understand the situation and take decisions? The collected informatinterconnectedness.

1 2

4 3

1 2

4 3


5/47

Remember that it is critical to package the information to fit the audience using the right maudience.

Taking the decisionIn an interactive and inclusive process involving all the concerned parties, form an opiniontake the decision. Has the decision taken help in solving the problem at hand? Was the decA decision taken may need to be examined closely and refined, and modified to meet diffe

Remember that implementing the decision (actors and actions), as well as monitoring and

The Decision-Making Pyramid

Hari Srinivas

The objective of the decision-making pyramid is to illustrate that 'simple' decisionsand choices taken by individuals on a daily basis cumulatively have a global impact,and how vice versa, we need to break down global decisions into smaller frequentsustainability choices at the individual level.

1 2

4 3


6/47

A simple example of this process is to breakup a 'global' environmental problemsuch as desertification into individual causes (deforestation, water extraction,agricultural practices) and then further to choices and decisions that that influencesthese causes (lifestyle choices, consumption patterns, technology developmentetc.), ending up with one option that can be taken up at the local and individual

level, for example, choice of the foods we eat.

The pyramid has the individual level at the bottom level, and the global level at thetop. In between are aligned other levels of decision-making: a community, city, andnational.

While the bottom reflects simple decisions taken everyday, the top representscomplex decisions taken more infrequently. Activities at the local/micro levelinfluences the global level; activities at the global level influences the local/microlevel.

The pyramid is actually a continuum: as we go from the bottom to the top, we seethat -

individual decisions are replaced by decisions taken by groups, the largest (i.e.everyone) at the topmost

decisions become more complex covering a broader range of different aspects

quality and quantity information required for decision-making increases

short-term decisions are replaced by longer-term decisions.

The link between the top and the bottom of the sections of the pyramid is in factcyclical: the everyday choices and preferences at the bottom of the pyramidinfluences policies developed at the global level.

On the other hand, decisions and agreements made at the global level clearlyinfluences action at the bottom of the pyramid. For example, the Montreal Protocolon ozone depletion at the global level and product choices at the local level.

Thus, outputs generated at the top of the pyramid - the global level - are policyoriented and have indirect impacts on everyday life, while outputs generated at the

bottom of the pyramid - the individual level - are action-oriented and have directimpacts on everyday life.

What happens when we apply this decision-making pyramid to the building andconstruction sector? How can we break down a decision that needs complex long-term multi-stakeholder involvement, into smaller frequent individual decisions to betaken at the micro level on a daily basis?


7/47

In the example here, we start with a global goal: "CO2 levels need to be reduced"We then see how this global goal impacts other levels and generates action,initiated and carried out by multi-stakeholder partnerships.

LEVEL: Global

Actions and implications at this level:At the global level, much attention is paid totrends in CO2 concentration, how trans-national trade and other globalisationprocesses are increasing CO2 concentration, and build scenarios on what will be thelong-term impact of CO2 concentration. Causes and effects are also outlined, withtargets and plans of action for national governments.

Stakeholders involved:UN and international organizations, universities and researchinstitutions, international NGOs.

LEVEL: National

Actions and implications at this level: The commitment that national governmentsmake at global/UN forums to 'reduce CO2 levels' is converted into national policiesand programmes where support and guidance, in the form of rules, regulationslegislation, research and development, financial support etc. is outlined andimplemented.

Stakeholders involved:National government ministries, agencies and departments;research and training institutions; universities; business and industry associations;chambers of commerce

LEVEL: City

Actions and implications at this level:Cities and local governments take advantageof the special arrangements made at the national level to implement it locally, byintegrating the goals and objectives within their own environmental managementplans. Local ordinances, regulations, etc. are combined with information campaignsand other means of informing the local communities of the need to reduce CO2levels in the city. Campaigns can include special subsidies for developers,transportation planning, guidelines and checklists etc. Many cities have now keptsuch CO2 reduction goals at the center of their plans for an urban environmentalmanagement system based on ISO14001.

Stakeholders involved:local government agencies and departments, business andindustry associations, local chambers of commerce, financial institutions, NGOs andcommunity groups, local universities and research institutions etc.

LEVEL: Building

Actions and implications at this level:This is the critical step where the guidelines,checklists, and regulations are converted to planning and design specifications that


8/47

help in reduced CO2 emissions from buildings, and the activities that areundertaken within them. Material specifications, design features, technologychoices, and building usage procedures have a key role to play in achievingreducing CO2 levels.

Stakeholders involved:Individual users, clubs and NGOs, management teamsLEVEL: Individual

Actions and implications at this level:Much of the action at this level concerns theday-to-day use of the building. It is these activities that cumulatively have asubstantial impact on the environment, and provide the most critical opportunity foraction. Reducing electricity usage, minimizing the amount of water used and wastesgenerated, espousing the 3Rs - reduce/reuse/recycle are some of the actions takenat this level. These can follow strict procedures laid out by the management or canbe self-persuasion through education and awareness-building.

Stakeholders involved:Individual users, clubs and NGOs, management teams

The key message of the decision pyramid is clear - (1) We need to ensure thatglobal goals and objectives are translated to viable local actions that cumulativelyhelp achieve the objectives. (2) Appropriate stakeholders should be involved at theright level, and partner with each other for the purpose of taking the right action atthat level; (3) proper communication among stakeholders - between levels andwithin a particular level is very important.

Skills forEnvironmental Decision-MakingHari Srinivas

Much goes into the making of a good environmental decison-maker. This is a brief explorationof some of the skills that enhances the quality of decisions taken.

Knowledge and understanding

We take decisions everyday, as a part of our lives, our work, our future ... and every one of thesedecisions have an impact on the environment one way or another. Understanding the impact of

our decisions on the environment, and takingdecisions on proper management of theenvironment is a critical skill that we all have to possess, irrespective of our formal qualificationsor jobs that we hold.

We will need competent knowledge and understanding of environmental decision making andrelevant key concepts and how different perspectives and motivations of different people andgroups affect environmental decision-making. A knowledge of the principles of sustainabledevelopment will have to be combined with formal environmental decision making techniques,


9/47

including the role of models, monitoring and auditing; and abilities to define, plan and carryingout information gathering for decision making.

Cognitive skills

Cognitive skills remain an important component of the sliver of skills of a competentenvironmental decision-maker. The ability to analyse problems, sifting the irrelevant from the

relevant and expressing the results using standard formalisms and notations, needs to betempered with the ability to integrate knowledge and skills from various sources into a coherentwhole, making the appropriate abstractions to produce overarching conclusions and to criticallyevaluate proposed solutions using appropriate proven methods. A good decision-maker shouldalso be able to deal with complex issues both systematically and creatively, making informedjudgements in the absence of complete data and demonstrate self-direction and originality intackling and solving problems.

Practical and/or professional skills and attributes

Skills for effective decision-making are developed on a daily basis, from practical experienceand from our understanding the impacts of our everyday actions, on the environment around us(and also the 'invisible' environment far away, which has produced the goods/servcices weconsume). A professional who has to take decisions affecting the environment will have to beable to prepare cases advocating the appropriate use of environmental systems approaches andappraise technical or environmental systems developments and assess their applicability andimplications to a particular area of academic or professional interest.

Legal issues are an integral part of this - and we have to demonstrate an awareness of the legaland ethical implications associated with environmental issues, show a detailed knowledge of theimportance and application of environmental issues to businesses and society; and formulate anaudit of an organisation for proper environmental management.

Key skills

Many key skills go together to aid effective environmental decision-making. Communication is

one of the formost of them - to be able to communicate knowledge, ideas, and conclusionseffectively using written presentations, producing detailed critiques, coherent project reports andother appropriate media, for specialist and non-specialist audiences; and to seek relevantinformation from appropriate sources. Numeracy skills and ability to interpret statistical data willalso be important. The use of IT tools and skills, specifically retrieving information from theinternet, transferring information by email, and using commercial software packages, is nowbecoming an important part of the portfolio of key skills.

Ultimately, it will be a combination of formal knowledge along with everyday expereinces that

will facilitate good decision-making. A good decision-maker will have to be able to advance

his/her own knowledge and understanding through independent learning, develop problem-

solving skills and apply them independently to professional or equivalent level

tasks/projects/functions; work independently, reflecting on own actions and thoughts, and

making effective use of constructive feedback; and also work with others to refine ideas leading

to an improved understanding of key concepts within an environmental context.


10/47

To do or Not to do:Facilitating Decision-Making for

Sustainable Building and Construction (SBC)Hari Srinivas

The reduction of green house gases (GHGs) is central to a number of multilateral environmentalagreements, including the climate change convention.A number of human activities are responsible for therelease of GHGs, but a recent key area of focus hasbeen the building and construction sector that forms acore part of the development of any city.

The processes involved in a building's lifespan - conceptualization, design, construction, use,maintenance and demolition - have immense implications for the GHGs produced in terms ofresources and energy consumption. Building and construction processes can be subject to theprinciples of sustainability.

What would this mean to local governments? What are the key elements of a sustainablebuilding and construction policy? What policies and programmes are needed to ensure thesuccess of such a policy? Who needs to be involved - up and down the supply chain, besides thelocal government itself?

Incorporating sustainability principles in the buidling and construction sector is critical, but thedecision-making proicess is fraut with mind-sets that resist the change towards greatersustainability. The following table illustrate the common reasons for resisting action towardssustainability, and some of the strategies and justifications we can adopt in facilitatingappropriate decision-making.

Common reasons forlack of action

Stratigies for change in decision-making processes

"I dont benefit frommaking this buildingeasily disassembled ... "

some construction companies now provide servicesdirected at the full life-cycle of a building, thusbenefiting, for example, from making provisions fordisassemble in design.

professional ethics may force us to think of all stagesof a building, not only on the stage we are concernedwith

"Each stakeholderpursues his/her owngoals, ignoring others ... "

we may want to work in collaborative teams to ensurebetter understanding of other stakeholders

we have a responsibility sometimes to 'educate' theclient, whether it is the developer, financier or user, tothink life-cycle

Providing services of all stages of the buildings life-

W

heredo

we

go

fro

m

here

?

Makin

gth

ebui

lding

and

const

ructio

nse

ctor

susta

inable

se

ems

to

bea

forgo

neco

nclusi

on.Bu

t

attitude

sstil

lne

edto

bech

an

ge

d,more

th

anan

ythin

gels

e.


11/47

cycle may, in itself, be a business opportunity

Social development ismore important thanenvironmental issues ... "

Many times, action needed for solving environmentalproblems can generate income or create jobs!

Environmental management has many externalities inensuring good health, better air quality or efficientwater usage.

"One person (or onebuilding) cannot make adifference! ... "

But by embracing sustainability principles, we can beleaders and role models in the field!

All action starts small - one step at a time - whicheventually leads to its broad adoption within the entireindustry sector

Proper publicity and media coverage may educateclients to 'copy' a good green or sustainable building,the best pressure that can put pressure on building andconstruction professionals to 'go green'

"Its too expensive ... " Some initial costs may be high, or may be perceived as

unncessary 'extras'. But money will be saved in thelong term from energy efficiency, costly remedialaction, maintenance etc.

Costly litigation may be saved by ensuring all aspectsof a building's environmental impacts are considered(including the activities that take place within a

building - for example, through an ISO 14001certification process)

"Building codes(functional efficiency,comfort) are notfavourable towardssustainable buidlings andconstruction ... "

This is changing, and international action towards SBCis increasing (for example an SBC code is beingdeveloped by ISO)

Sometimes current building codes and standards haveto be interpreted to extract its sustainability roots

"Banks and clientsalways focus on bottom

lines and high profits ... "

Banks and clients need to be made aware ofsustainability's positive externalities and long-termcosts of not taking action

Environmental and sustainability aspects need to beincluded in budgeting and investment processes, andcan in itself be used as a 'selling' point.

"Professional ethics isvery weak, so

Sustainability has to made an integral part of theeducation of professionals involved in building and


12/47

implementing SBC isdifficult ... "

construction sector

Continuing education programmes, on-the-job training,awareness building workshops etc. should be used toplace emphasis on sustainability principles

Elsewhere on GDRC:GDRC's Urban Environmental Management Programme - Green Construction

Environmental Management (EM)ToolboxThe Environmental Management (EM) Tool Box includes a range of decision support tools

that can assist decision makers to improve the environmental outcomes of theirmanagement decisions. Understanding the differences between the different decision

support tools can help you decide which tool you should use, or recommend in a particularsituation. For example, while an EIA is typically undertaken to gain regulatory approval for a

project, an ERA is voluntary and can be carried out at any time.

Click on the title to view a short explanationClick the title again to close theexplanation!

Scoping StageThe initial phase of policy making,planning and project design, whenthe broad dimensions of theinitiative, critical success factors

and sources of significant risk areidentified and elaborated through aconsultative process withstakeholders, and used

subsequently to makerecommendations and decisions asto the conceptual design andoverall economic viability, socialacceptability and environmentalsustainability of the proposed

activity.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

A systematic process for evaluating the

environmental consequences of policies, plans,programmes or proposals, to ensure that they are

addressed early in the decision making process andon par with economic and social considerationsand. Undertaking strategic environmentalassessments can also contribute to sustainabledevelopment goals, promote accountability andcredibility among the general public and specificstakeholders, and lead to broader policy coherence.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Facilitates evaluation of how and to what extent a

process or product system impacts on theenvironment, for all stages of its life cycle. Thetypical life cycle consists of a series of stagesrunning from extraction of raw materials, throughdesign and formulation, processing, manufacturing,

packaging, distribution, use, re-use, recycling and,ultimately, waste disposal. With the entire productlife cycle as the focus for the assessment, acomplicated picture can often emerge, withenvironmentally significant inputs and outputs toair, water and soil identified at every life cycle stage.Unexpected impacts, or benefits, will often beassociated with some of the co-products or by-products which are produced by a given process.
http://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/uem/green-const/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/uem/green-const/index.html


13/47

Environmental Technology Assessment (ETA)

A systematic procedure whereby a proposed

technology intervention is described and appraisedin terms of its potential influence on theenvironment, the implications for sustainabledevelopment and the likely cultural and socio-

economic consequences. The assessment processrequires consideration of alternative technologies,and other options, thereby providing a mechanismfor comparing the impact of a variety of possibleinterventions. Thus EnTA helps planners, decisionmakers in government, the private sector,communities and other stakeholders, to reach aconsensus on the technology intervention that isexpected to be the most environmentally sound,socially acceptable and economically viable, for aspecified location and application.

Design andApproval StageThe phase of policy making,planning and project design andapproval when the specific detailsof the proposed activity, includingthe desired end results, aredeveloped and described, takinginto account the objectives,stakeholder views, regulatory andother requirements and bestpractices in design and

implementation.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

A structured procedure designed to help ensure that

development and investment proposals, activities,projects and programmes are environmentallysound and sustainable. EIA facilitates identification,analysis and evaluation of the significance of thepotential environmental impacts and theidentification and elaboration of measures that willavoid, remedy or mitigate any adverse impacts. Itallows informed decision making as to whether aproposal should proceed and, if so, under whatconditions. It also establishes a monitoring andenvironmental management regime forimplementing mitigation measures, monitoringimpacts for compliance and ascertaining if impactsare as predicted.

Social Impact Asessment (SIA)

If there is a need for a more comprehensive, in depth

and rigorous determination of the impacts a givenpolicy, plan, programme, project, activity or actionmay have on the social aspects of the environment,SIA is an appropriate tool. A basic part of SIA is toanalyze who wins and who loses with eachalternative considered, and to determine whether analternative may have high and disproportionateadverse environmental or health effects on a low-income population or a minority population. Impactequity must be considered in close and sympatheticconsultation with affected communities,neighbourhoods, and groups, especially low-incomeand minority groups.

Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA)

All decisions and actions have environmental

consequences, many of which are unintended. Thusno part of existence is risk free. Risk is thelikelihood that a harmful consequence will occur asa result of an action. EnRA determines the potentialimpact of a chemical or physical agent onecosystems, habitats and other ecologicalresources, and on human health and well being. The


14/47

assessment can be either qualitative or semi-quantitative. Two further steps are integral to riskassessment, namely risk management and riskcommunication. The use of EnRA in environmentalplanning and management is fast becoming astandard practice, either as a stand alone procedureor as a support or complement to an EIA.Appropriate use of EnRA will identify situations ofpotential environmental concern and allow decisionmakers to select management options with the least,and still acceptable level of risk.

Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)

This is one way to organize, evaluate, and present

information that will improve the quality of decisionmaking, by using as a metric a monetary measure ofthe aggregate change in environmental (includinghuman) well-being resulting from a decision.Individual welfare is assumed to depend on thesatisfaction of individual preferences, and monetarymeasures of welfare change are derived byobserving how much individuals are willing to pay,i.e., willing to give up in terms of other consumptionopportunities. This approach can be applied tononmarket "public goods" like environmental qualityor environmental risk reduction as well as to marketgoods and services, although the measurement ofnonmarket values is more challenging. Because ofthis need to place monetary values on attributes ofhuman well-being for which no market prices exist,CBA is often complicated, expensive and somewhatcontroversial.

Operational StageThe implementation stage, whenpolicy is made, plans are developed

and projects are undertaken.Throughout this stage monitoringand review procedures are used tofoster a process of continualimprovement, by identifying andreinforcing successful activities and

actions, and by identifying andrevising or halting unsuccessful

activities and actions.

Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

A systematic way to ensure environmental issues

are managed consistently and systematicallythroughout an organization. An EMS can also assistan organization to address environmental issues ina comprehensive manner, sending positive signalsto clients, consumers, regulators and otherstakeholders indicating that environmental issuesare being seriously considered. Effectively applied,an EMS can help integrate environmentalconsiderations with an organizations overallmanagement system. It sets out environmentalpolicies, objectives and targets for an organization,with pre-determined indicators that providemeasurable goals, and a means of determining if theperformance level has been reached. Often these arethe same performance indicators that are chosen forstrategic reasons.

Environmental Reporting (ER)

Reporting on environmental policies, targets,

performance and plans to improve, whether it be bya company an institution, a country, or some otherentity, can help improve environmental and widerreputations, aid communication with a wide varietyof stakeholders, play a major role in improvingmanagement of risk and help identify opportunitiesfor savings in resources used, wastes produced and


15/47

operating costs. Several codes and some majororganisations are moving towards wider sustainabledevelopment reporting. This also covers social andeconomic impacts. Many companies are finding thatothers in their supply chains want to do businesswith like-minded suppliers and are beginning to askfor evidence of environmental engagement.Investors too are increasingly aware ofenvironmental performance. Organisations that donot report on environmental performance will likelyhave more difficulty gaining access to capital, whilethose that can demonstrate attention toenvironmental management may well benefit fromeasier credit and lower insurance premiums.

Environmental Audit (EA)

A systematic, periodic and documented verification

process that obtains and evaluates objectively theavailable evidence, to determine whether specifiedactivities, events, conditions, equipment,management systems and organisations, orinformation about these matters, conform withenvironmental audit criteria. The results of thisprocess are communicated to the client and otherappropriate stakeholders. An EA will often facilitatemanagement control of environmental practices andassess compliance with policies that would includemeeting or exceeding regulatoryrequirements.

Source: UNEP-International Environmental Technology Center

ny developmental decision has an impact on the environment. The range of impacts and

effects that need to be taken into consideration is very broad and complex. This quick guideprovides a list of criteria for reference. It is in no way complete, as each decision to be

taken is unique. The list can be adopted and modified to the specific situation, locale andscale in which the decision is taken.

As the list shows, the fundamental question to be asked is if the decision protects theenvironment? The decision will have to be in compliance with local, national and regional

environmental standards or internationally recognized standards (e.g. ISO), and withrelevant multilateral environmental agreements. The cumulative air, water and waste

emissions and the decisions' ecological footprint will also have to be considered.

The proposed activity's overall impact on ecosystem health and integrity should be

analysed, along with more detailed and micro impacts, such as compatibility with immediateand adjoining facilities and systems and potential for geomorphological, landscape and

ecohydrological impacts


16/47

Most activities produce wastes and pollution in some form or the other. Is the proposedactivity less polluting, and handles wastes in a more acceptable manner? To verify this,

information on the total quantities of wastes (solid, water gaseous) generated should becollected, including toxic and secondary pollutants/byproducts.

Noise/vibration generation can also be a factor that affects decision-making, particularlywhen the surrounding communities and environment is considered. Thermal losses and

radiation emissions may also need to be considered in appropriate cases.

Many national and local governments have strict laws and regulations on waste (air, water,

and solid) treatment and disposal requirements. These will have to be effectively taken intoconsideration, along with any potential for long range transport of pollutants. Depending on

the activity, there could be disposal costs for unmarketable byproducts and wastes, andpotential for soil, water and air contamination that will have to accounted for.

In terms of resource use, the proposed activity will have to use all resources in a moresustainable manner. To achieve this goal, efficiency of energy, water and materials use,

relative to the product or service provided need to be taken into account. In considering thelife-cycle of the entire product cycle, the 'useful life' of technology, and of products/services

will be an important criteria.

Relative use of renewable/non-renewable resources, and conservation of water, includingportion of recycled water used will increase the overall long-term sustainability of theproposed activity. Other criteria include, for example, use of - environmentally-friendly

materials, or sustainable use of local resources.

With increasing attention being placed on the 3Rs - reduce, reuse, recycle - the proposed

activity will have to demonstrate higher rates of recycling its products and wastes. This hasto be done through the use of recycled, reused and waste materials and byproducts,

incorporation of closed loop processes. Such decisions will affect the quantity of byproductrecovered and its overall life cycle performance

The proposed activity will also have to handle residual wastes in a more acceptable manner,taking into consideration the cost of pollution abatement and waste disposal costs.

Finally, the quality and quantity of the information itself used to take the decision will haveto be questioned. Is the proposed activity characterized by verified and verifiable

information? Information on compliance with fundamental scientific and engineering

principles and performance at different settings and different locations (including sensitivity

to specific operating conditions) will affect the decision to be taken. The information to be

used will have to be reliable, replicable, taking into consideration the potential for system

failure, and the risks and uncertainties. Information verified by third parties will increase its

overall usablity

GDRC and Environmental Decision-MakingHari Srinivas

The 15 programme pages of GDRC provide an interesting backdrop to the kind of environmentaldecision making that is necessary to manage the complex problems faced by society today.


17/47

Considering some of the issues and topics mentioned in those theme pages, what kind of decisionmaking processes need to be put in place to achieve such results?

The programme pages have a whole range of documents covering case studies, policydocuments, strategies, etc. presented in different formats such as full documents, one pagers,checklists and others. For many of the issues covered in such documents, it is clear that a process

of environmental decision making needs to be put in place.What are these decisions that need to be taken? A number of questions come to mind when wethink of this question. At what level should this decision be taken? Should it be taken at the localor household level, or should it be taken at the sub-national, national or regional levels? It isinteresting to note that decisions taken at the local or household level have implications at thelocal level only and are taken daily covering every day life, whereas decisions taken at thenational or regional level are more infrequent-taken half yearly or annually and impacting amuch larger constituency. This correlation between the level of decision making and thefrequency of decision making needs to be kept in mind. Critical to decision making is of coursethe entity taking the decision. Who is the one taking the decision? Is it a single individual? Or isit a group?

Inherent to any decision is the intended outputs of the decision itself. These outputs can belimited in the space and time dimensions. They can cover short term and local issues, or longterm and international issues. It is indeed an analysis of the intended outputs that will start theprocess of informed decision making.

Parallel to the process of understanding the intended outputs is to understand what the necessarypreconditions are for a decision to be taken. A number of preconditions need to be met evenbefore the process of decision making can commence. It is important to determine what thesepreconditions are, with respect to the stake holders involved in the decision making process, andensure that these preconditions are met. Preconditions may relate to an organizations' aims andobjectives, rules and regulations, or working methodologies for the decision making processitself.

A key resource underlying it any effective decision making processes is information. Makingsure that the right information is made available at the right level to the right decision maker atthe right time is one of the most critical aspects of decision making. Many questions need to beasked-what kind of information is necessary to be collected? Who has that information? What isthe quality and quantity of information available? Is additional information necessary? Anotherkey aspect of information management is the format in which information is delivered to thedecision maker to make decisions.

For example, in GDRC ' s programme pages on Urban Environmental Management, thematicpages on urban energy (see URL: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/energy/key-issues.html), theintroduction document calls for a move where a reduction in use of fossil fuels has to go hand-in-hand with (a) exploring alternative energy sources, (b) linking energy with global environmental

issues (for example climate change or global warming), (c) co-relating environmentalmanagement efficiency with energy efficiency and (d) changes in lifestyles and increase incommunity involvement. For each of the four points mentioned above, what decisions arenecessary? What information will be needed to take those decisions? Who will take thosedecisions? What preconditions need to be put in place for these decisions to be taken? As we canimagine, the answers to these questions change as local conditions change. But it is absolutelyessential to make sure that the package of answers are put together in order for the desired
http://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/uem/energy/key-issues.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/uem/energy/key-issues.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/uem/energy/key-issues.html


18/47

decision to be taken. In fact, determining this "Desire decision" is in itself a critical part of thedecision making process.

This can become an interesting game in understanding the processes involved in decisionmaking. Take any page in GDRC in random and apply the above questions to the issuesmentioned in that page. It can be interesting to see how the decisions to be taken change

depending on who is taking them and at what level it is taken. For example, decisions on globalwarming, which is essentially a global issue, may seem irrelevant at the local level. This meansthat the ordinary man on the street, or household, cannot take decisions directly related to globalwarming. But they can take decisions relate it to resource consumption, recycling, and wastegeneration, which cumulatively can lead to a reduction in global warming. It is thiscontextualization that adds relevance to the decision taken and ensures that the intended outputwill be generated.

Environmental Decision-MakingSustainable Development

Oceans, Coasts and Small IslandsUrban Environmental Management

Urban GovernanceUrban Heritage and Conservation

NGOs and the Civil SocietyGender and DevelopmentMicrofinance

Informal SectorTechnology Management

Sustainable BusinessInternet and ICTs

Knowledge ManagementInformation Design

About the GDRC: Introduction

On the left is a list of the 15 programme pages of GDRC. Click on any

programme link, and explore the pages within, keeping the aboveenvironmental decision-making questions in mind. Or simply click thebutton below to randomly go to selected GDRC pages!

Agenda 21, Chapter 8:

Integrating Environment andDevelopment in Decision-Making

INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN DECISION-MAKING

8.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

a. Integrating environment and development at the policy, planning and management levels;

b. Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework;

c. Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other incentives;d. Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic accounting.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Integrating environment and development at the policy, planning and managementlevels

Basis for action
http://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/decision/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/decision/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/sustdev/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/oceans/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/oceans/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/uem/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/uem/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/u-gov/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/u-gov/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/heritage/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/heritage/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/ngo/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/ngo/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/gender/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/gender/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icm/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icm/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/informal/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/techtran/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/techtran/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/sustbiz/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/sustbiz/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icts/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icts/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/kmgmt/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/info-design/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/info-design/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/about/more-intro.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/decision/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/sustdev/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/oceans/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/uem/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/u-gov/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/heritage/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/ngo/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/gender/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icm/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/informal/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/techtran/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/sustbiz/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/icts/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/kmgmt/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/decision/info-design/index.htmlhttp://www.microsofttranslator.com/BV.aspx?ref=BVNav&a=http://www.gdrc.org/about/more-intro.html


19/47

8.2. Prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to separate economic, socialand environmental factors at the policy, planning and management levels. This influences theactions of all groups in society, including Governments, industry and individuals, and hasimportant implications for the efficiency and sustainability of development. An adjustment oreven a fundamental reshaping of decision-making, in the light of country-specific conditions,may be necessary if environment and development is to be put at the centre of economic andpolitical decision-making, in effect achieving a full integration of these factors. In recent years,some Governments have also begun to make significant changes in the institutional structures ofgovernment in order to enable more systematic consideration of the environment when decisionsare made on economic, social, fiscal, energy, agricultural, transportation, trade and otherpolicies, as well as the implications of policies in these areas for the environment. New forms ofdialogue are also being developed for achieving better integration among national and localgovernment, industry, science, environmental groups and the public in the process of developingeffective approaches to environment and development. The responsibility for bringing aboutchanges lies with Governments in partnership with the private sector and local authorities, and incollaboration with national, regional and international organizations, including in particularUNEP, UNDP and the World Bank. Exchange of experience between countries can also be

significant. National plans, goals and objectives, national rules, regulations and law, and thespecific situation in which different countries are placed are the overall framework in which suchintegration takes place. In this context, it must be borne in mind that environmental standardsmay pose severe economic and social costs if they are uniformly applied in developing countries.

Objectives

8.3. The overall objective is to improve or restructure the decision-making process so thatconsideration of socio-economic and environmental issues is fully integrated and a broader rangeof public participation assured. Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities inaccordance with their prevailing conditions, needs, national plans, policies and programmes, thefollowing objectives are proposed:

a. To conduct a national review of economic, sectoral and environmental policies, strategiesand plans to ensure the progressive integration of environmental and developmentalissues;

b. To strengthen institutional structures to allow the full integration of environmental anddevelopmental issues, at all levels of decision-making;

c. To develop or improve mechanisms to facilitate the involvement of concernedindividuals, groups and organizations in decision-making at all levels;

d. To establish domestically determined procedures to integrate environment anddevelopment issues in decision-making.

Activities

(a) Improving decision-making processes8.4. The primary need is to integrate environmental and developmental decision-makingprocesses. To do this, Governments should conduct a national review and, where appropriate,improve the processes of decision-making so as to achieve the progressive integration ofeconomic, social and environmental issues in the pursuit of development that is economicallyefficient, socially equitable and responsible and environmentally sound. Countries will developtheir own priorities in accordance with their national plans, policies and programmes for thefollowing activities:


20/47

a. Ensuring the integration of economic, social and environmental considerations indecision-making at all levels and in all ministries;

b. Adopting a domestically formulated policy framework that reflects a long-termperspective and cross-sectoral approach as the basis for decisions, taking account of thelinkages between and within the various political, economic, social and environmental

issues involved in the development process;c. Establishing domestically determined ways and means to ensure the coherence of

sectoral, economic, social and environmental policies, plans and policy instruments,including fiscal measures and the budget; these mechanisms should apply at variouslevels and bring together those interested in the development process;

d. Monitoring and evaluating the development process systematically, conducting regularreviews of the state of human resources development, economic and social conditionsand trends, the state of the environment and natural resources; this could becomplemented by annual environment and development reviews, with a view to assessingsustainable development achievements by the various sectors and departments ofgovernment;

e. Ensuring transparency of, and accountability for, the environmental implications ofeconomic and sectoral policies;

f. Ensuring access by the public to relevant information, facilitating the reception of publicviews and allowing for effective participation.

(b) Improving planning and management systems

8.5. To support a more integrated approach to decision-making, the data systems and analyticalmethods used to support such decision-making processes may need to be improved.Governments, in collaboration, where appropriate, with national and international organizations,should review the status of the planning and management system and, where necessary, modifyand strengthen procedures so as to facilitate the integrated consideration of social, economic and

environmental issues. Countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with theirnational plans, policies and programmes for the following activities:

a. Improving the use of data and information at all stages of planning and management,making systematic and simultaneous use of social, economic, developmental, ecologicaland environmental data; analysis should stress interactions and synergisms; a broad rangeof analytical methods should be encouraged so as to provide various points of view;

b. Adopting comprehensive analytical procedures for prior and simultaneous assessment ofthe impacts of decisions, including the impacts within and among the economic, socialand environmental spheres; these procedures should extend beyond the project level topolicies and programmes; analysis should also include assessment of costs, benefits andrisks;

c. Adopting flexible and integrative planning approaches that allow the consideration ofmultiple goals and enable adjustment of changing needs; integrative area approaches atthe ecosystem or watershed level can assist in this approach;

d. Adopting integrated management systems, particularly for the management of naturalresources; traditional or indigenous methods should be studied and considered whereverthey have proved effective; women's traditional roles should not be marginalized as aresult of the introduction of new management systems;


21/47

e. Adopting integrated approaches to sustainable development at the regional level,including transboundary areas, subject to the requirements of particular circumstancesand needs;

f. Using policy instruments (legal/regulatory and economic) as a tool for planning andmanagement, seeking incorporation of efficiency criteria in decisions; instruments should

be regularly reviewed and adapted to ensure that they continue to be effective;g. Delegating planning and management responsibilities to the lowest level of public

authority consistent with effective action; in particular the advantages of effective andequitable opportunities for participation by women should be discussed;

h. Establishing procedures for involving local communities in contingency planning forenvironmental and industrial accidents, and maintaining an open exchange of informationon local hazards.

(c) Data and information

8.6. Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of progress towardsachieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that measure changes across

economic, social and environmental dimensions.(d) Adopting a national strategy for sustainable development

8.7. Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international organizations, shouldadopt a national strategy for sustainable development based on, inter alia, the implementation ofdecisions taken at the Conference, particularly in respect of Agenda 21. This strategy shouldbuild upon and harmonize the various sectoral economic, social and environmental policies andplans that are operating in the country. The experience gained through existing planningexercises such as national reports for the Conference, national conservation strategies andenvironment action plans should be fully used and incorporated into a country-driven sustainabledevelopment strategy. Its goals should be to ensure socially responsible economic developmentwhile protecting the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future generations. It

should be developed through the widest possible participation. It should be based on a thoroughassessment of the current situation and initiatives.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.8. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) ofimplementing the activities of this programme to be about $50 million from the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitudeestimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Researching environment and development interactions

8.9. Governments, in collaboration with the national and international scientific community andin cooperation with international organizations, as appropriate, should intensify efforts to clarifythe interactions between and within social, economic and environmental considerations.Research should be undertaken with the explicit objective of assisting policy decisions andproviding recommendations on improving management practices.

(c) Enhancing education and training


22/47

8.10. Countries, in cooperation, where appropriate, with national, regional or internationalorganizations, should ensure that essential human resources exist, or be developed, to undertakethe integration of environment and development at various stages of the decision-making andimplementation process. To do this, they should improve education and technical training,particularly for women and girls, by including interdisciplinary approaches, as appropriate, intechnical, vocational, university and other curricula. They should also undertake systematictraining of government personnel, planners and managers on a regular basis, giving priority tothe requisite integrative approaches and planning and management techniques that are suited tocountry-specific conditions.

(d) Promoting public awareness

8.11. Countries, in cooperation with national institutions and groups, the media and theinternational community, should promote awareness in the public at large, as well as inspecialized circles, of the importance of considering environment and development in anintegrated manner, and should establish mechanisms for facilitating a direct exchange ofinformation and views with the public. Priority should be given to highlighting theresponsibilities and potential contributions of different social groups.

(e) Strengthen national institutional capacity

8.12. Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international organizations, shouldstrengthen national institutional capability and capacity to integrate social, economic,developmental and environmental issues at all levels of development decision-making andimplementation. Attention should be given to moving away from narrow sectoral approaches,progressing towards full cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation.

B. Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework

Basis for action

8.13. Laws and regulations suited to country-specific conditions are among the most importantinstruments for transforming environment and development policies into action, not only through

"command and control" methods, but also as a normative framework for economic planning andmarket instruments. Yet, although the volume of legal texts in this field is steadily increasing,much of the law-making in many countries seems to be ad hoc and piecemeal, or has not beenendowed with the necessary institutional machinery and authority for enforcement and timelyadjustment.

8.14. While there is continuous need for law improvement in all countries, many developingcountries have been affected by shortcomings of laws and regulations. To effectively integrateenvironment and development in the policies and practices of each country, it is essential todevelop and implement integrated, enforceable and effective laws and regulations that are basedupon sound social, ecological, economic and scientific principles. It is equally critical to developworkable programmes to review and enforce compliance with the laws, regulations and

standards that are adopted. Technical support may be needed for many countries to accomplishthese goals. Technical cooperation requirements in this field include legal information, advisoryservices and specialized training and institutional capacity-building.

8.15. The enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations (at the regional, national,state/provincial or local/municipal level) are also essential for the implementation of mostinternational agreements in the field of environment and development, as illustrated by thefrequent treaty obligation to report on legislative measures. The survey of existing agreementsundertaken in the context of conference preparations has indicated problems of compliance in


23/47

this respect, and the need for improved national implementation and, where appropriate, relatedtechnical assistance. In developing their national priorities, countries should take account of theirinternational obligations.

Objectives

8.16. The overall objective is to promote, in the light of country-specific conditions, the

integration of environment and development policies through appropriate legal and regulatorypolicies, instruments and enforcement mechanisms at the national, state, provincial and locallevel. Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with their needsand national and, where appropriate, regional plans, policies and programmes, the followingobjectives are proposed:

a. To disseminate information on effective legal and regulatory innovations in the field ofenvironment and development, including appropriate instruments and complianceincentives, with a view to encouraging their wider use and adoption at the national, state,provincial and local level;

b. To support countries that request it in their national efforts to modernize and strengthenthe policy and legal framework of governance for sustainable development, having dueregard for local social values and infrastructures;

c. To encourage the development and implementation of national, state, provincial and localprogrammes that assess and promote compliance and respond appropriately to non-compliance.

Activities

(a) Making laws and regulations more effective

8.17. Governments, with the support, where appropriate, of competent internationalorganizations, should regularly assess the laws and regulations enacted and the relatedinstitutional/administrative machinery established at the national/state and local/municipal levelin the field of environment and sustainable development, with a view to rendering them effectivein practice. Programmes for this purpose could include the promotion of public awareness,preparation and distribution of guidance material, and specialized training, including workshops,seminars, education programmes and conferences, for public officials who design, implement,monitor and enforce laws and regulations.

(b) Establishing judicial and administrative procedures

8.18. Governments and legislators, with the support, where appropriate, of competentinternational organizations, should establish judicial and administrative procedures for legalredress and remedy of actions affecting environment and development that may be unlawful orinfringe on rights under the law, and should provide access to individuals, groups andorganizations with a recognized legal interest.

(c) Providing legal reference and support services

8.19. Competent intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations could cooperate toprovide Governments and legislators, upon request, with an integrated programme ofenvironment and development law (sustainable development law) services, carefully adapted tothe specific requirements of the recipient legal and administrative systems. Such systems couldusefully include assistance in the preparation of comprehensive inventories and reviews ofnational legal systems. Past experience has demonstrated the usefulness of combining specializedlegal information services with legal expert advice. Within the United Nations system, closer


24/47

cooperation among all agencies concerned would avoid duplication of databases and facilitatedivision of labour. These agencies could examine the possibility and merit of performing reviewsof selected national legal systems.

(d) Establishing a cooperative training network for sustainable development law

8.20. Competent international and academic institutions could, within agreed frameworks,

cooperate to provide, especially for trainees from developing countries, postgraduateprogrammes and in-service training facilities in environment and development law. Such trainingshould address both the effective application and the progressive improvement of applicablelaws, the related skills of negotiating, drafting and mediation, and the training of trainers.Intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations already active in this field couldcooperate with related university programmes to harmonize curriculum planning and to offer anoptimal range of options to interested Governments and potential sponsors.

(e) Developing effective national programmes for reviewing and enforcing compliance withnational, state, provincial and local laws on environment and development

8.21. Each country should develop integrated strategies to maximize compliance with its lawsand regulations relating to sustainable development, with assistance from internationalorganizations and other countries as appropriate. The strategies could include:

a. Enforceable, effective laws, regulations and standards that are based on sound economic,social and environmental principles and appropriate risk assessment, incorporatingsanctions designed to punish violations, obtain redress and deter future violations;

b. Mechanisms for promoting compliance;

c. Institutional capacity for collecting compliance data, regularly reviewing compliance,detecting violations, establishing enforcement priorities, undertaking effectiveenforcement, and conducting periodic evaluations of the effectiveness of compliance andenforcement programmes;

d. Mechanisms for appropriate involvement of individuals and groups in the developmentand enforcement of laws and regulations on environment and development.

e. National monitoring of legal follow-up to international instruments

8.22. Contracting parties to international agreements, in consultation with the appropriatesecretariats of relevant international conventions as appropriate, should improve practicesand procedures for collecting information on legal and regulatory measures taken.Contracting parties to international agreements could undertake sample surveys ofdomestic follow-up action subject to agreement by the sovereign States concerned.

Means of implementation


8.23. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 million from theinternational community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means


25/47

8.24. The programme relies essentially on a continuation of ongoing work for legal datacollection, translation and assessment. Closer cooperation between existing databasesmay be expected to lead to better division of labour (e.g., in geographical coverage ofnational legislative gazettes and other reference sources) and to improved standardizationand compatibility of data, as appropriate.

(c) Human resource development8.25. Participation in training is expected to benefit practitioners from developingcountries and to enhance training opportunities for women. Demand for this type ofpostgraduate and in-service training is known to be high. The seminars, workshops andconferences on review and enforcement that have been held to date have been verysuccessful and well attended. The purpose of these efforts is to develop resources (bothhuman and institutional) to design and implement effective programmes to continuouslyreview and enforce national and local laws, regulations and standards on sustainabledevelopment.

(d) Strengthening legal and institutional capacity

8.26. A major part of the programme should be oriented towards improving the legal-institutional capacities of countries to cope with national problems of governance andeffective law-making and law-applying in the field of environment and sustainabledevelopment. Regional centres of excellence could be designated and supported to buildup specialized databases and training facilities for linguistic/cultural groups of legalsystems.

C. Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other incentives

Basis for action

8.27. Environmental law and regulation are important but cannot alone be expected todeal with the problems of environment and development. Prices, markets andgovernmental fiscal and economic policies also play a complementary role in shaping

attitudes and behaviour towards the environment.

8.28. During the past several years, many Governments, primarily in industrializedcountries but also in Central and Eastern Europe and in developing countries, have beenmaking increasing use of economic approaches, including those that are market-oriented.Examples include the polluter-pays principle and the more recent natural-resource-user-pays concept.

8.29. Within a supportive international and national economic context and given thenecessary legal and regulatory framework, economic and market-oriented approaches canin many cases enhance capacity to deal with the issues of environment and development.This would be achieved by providing cost-effective solutions, applying integratedpollution prevention control, promoting technological innovation and influencingenvironmental behaviour, as well as providing financial resources to meet sustainabledevelopment objectives.

8.30. What is needed is an appropriate effort to explore and make more effective andwidespread use of economic and market-oriented approaches within a broad frameworkof development policies, law and regulation suited to country-specific conditions as partof a general transition to economic and environmental policies that are supportive andmutually reinforcing.


26/47

Objectives

8.31. Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with theirneeds and national plans, policies and programmes, the challenge is to achieve significantprogress in the years ahead in meeting three fundamental objectives:

a. To incorporate environmental costs in the decisions of producers and consumers,

to reverse the tendency to treat the environment as a "free good" and to pass thesecosts on to other parts of society, other countries, or to future generations;

b. To move more fully towards integration of social and environmental costs intoeconomic activities, so that prices will appropriately reflect the relative scarcityand total value of resources and contribute towards the prevention ofenvironmental degradation;

c. To include, wherever appropriate, the use of market principles in the framing ofeconomic instruments and policies to pursue sustainable development.

Activities

(a) Improving or reorienting governmental policies

8.32. In the near term, Governments should consider gradually building on experiencewith economic instruments and market mechanisms by undertaking to reorient theirpolicies, keeping in mind national plans, priorities and objectives, in order to:

d. Establish effective combinations of economic, regulatory and voluntary (self-regulatory) approaches;

e. Remove or reduce those subsidies that do not conform with sustainabledevelopment objectives;

f. Reform or recast existing structures of economic and fiscal incentives to meetenvironment and development objectives;

g. Establish a policy framework that encourages the creation of new markets inpollution control and environmentally sounder resource management;

h. Move towards pricing consistent with sustainable development objectives.

8.33. In particular, Governments should explore, in cooperation with business andindustry, as appropriate, how effective use can be made of economic instruments andmarket mechanisms in the following areas:

i. Issues related to energy, transportation, agriculture and forestry, water, wastes,health, tourism and tertiary services;

j. Global and transboundary issues;

k. The development and introduction of environmentally sound technology and its

adaptation, diffusion and transfer to developing countries in conformity withchapter 34.

(b) Taking account of the particular circumstances of developing countries and countrieswith economies in transition

8.34. A special effort should be made to develop applications of the use of economicinstruments and market mechanisms geared to the particular needs of developingcountries and countries with economies in transition, with the assistance of regional and


27/47

international economic and environmental organizations and, as appropriate, non-governmental research institutes, by:

l. Providing technical support to those countries on issues relating to the applicationof economic instruments and market mechanisms;

m. Encouraging regional seminars and, possibly, the development of regional centres

of expertise.

(c) Creating an inventory of effective uses of economic instruments and marketmechanisms

8.35. Given the recognition that the use of economic instruments and market mechanismsis relatively recent, exchange of information about different countries' experiences withsuch approaches should be actively encouraged. In this regard, Governments shouldencourage the use of existing means of information exchange to look at effective uses ofeconomic instruments.

(d) Increasing understanding of the role of economic instruments and market mechanisms

8.36. Governments should encourage research and analysis on effective uses of economic

instruments and incentives with the assistance and support of regional and internationaleconomic and environmental organizations, as well as non-governmental researchinstitutes, with a focus on such key issues as:

n. The role of environmental taxation suited to national conditions;

o. The implications of economic instruments and incentives for competitiveness andinternational trade, and potential needs for appropriate future internationalcooperation and coordination;

p. The possible social and distributive implications of using various instruments.

(e) Establishing a process for focusing on pricing

8.37. The theoretical advantages of using pricing policies, where appropriate, need to bebetter understood, and accompanied by greater understanding of what it means to takesignificant steps in this direction. Processes should therefore be initiated, in cooperationwith business, industry, large enterprises, transnational corporations, as well as othersocial groups, as appropriate, at both the national and international levels, to examine:

q. The practical implications of moving towards greater reliance on pricing thatinternalize environmental costs appropriate to help achieve sustainabledevelopment objectives;

r. The implications for resource pricing in the case of resource-exporting countries,including the implications of such pricing policies for developing countries;

s. The methodologies used in valuing environmental costs.

(f) Enhancing understanding of sustainable development economics

8.38. Increased interest in economic instruments, including market mechanisms, alsorequires a concerted effort to improve understanding of sustainable developmenteconomics by:

t. Encouraging institutions of higher learning to review their curricula andstrengthen studies in sustainable development economics;


28/47

u. Encouraging regional and international economic organizations and non-governmental research institutes with expertise in this area to provide trainingsessions and seminars for government officials;

v. Encouraging business and industry, including large industrial enterprises andtransnational corporations with expertise in environmental matters, to organize

training programmes for the private sector and other groups.Means of implementation

8.39. This programme involves adjustments or reorientation of policies on the part ofGovernments. It also involves international and regional economic and environmentalorganizations and agencies with expertise in this area, including transnationalcorporations.


8.40. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $5 million from theinternational community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-

of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

D. Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic accounting

Basis for action

8.41. A first step towards the integration of sustainability into economic management isthe establishment of better measurement of the crucial role of the environment as a sourceof natural capital and as a sink for by-products generated during the production of man-made capital and other human activities. As sustainable development encompasses social,economic and environmental dimensions, it is also important that national accountingprocedures are not restricted to measuring the production of goods and services that areconventionally remunerated. A common framework needs to be developed whereby thecontributions made by all sectors and activities of society, that are not included in theconventional national accounts, are included, to the extent consistent with sound theoryand practicability, in satellite accounts. A programme to develop national systems ofintegrated environmental and economic accounting in all countries is proposed.

Objectives

8.42. The main objective is to expand existing systems of national economic accounts inorder to integrate environment and social dimensions in the accounting framework,including at least satellite systems of accounts for natural resources in all member States.The resulting systems of integrated environmental and economic accounting (IEEA) to be

established in all member States at the earliest date should be seen as a complement to,rather than a substitute for, traditional national accounting practices for the foreseeablefuture. IEEAs would be designed to play an integral part in the national developmentdecision-making process. National accounting agencies should work in closecollaboration with national environmental statistics as well as the geographic and naturalresource departments. The definition of economically active could be expanded toinclude people performing productive but unpaid tasks in all countries. This would enabletheir contribution to be adequately measured and taken into account in decision-making.


29/47

Activities

(a) Strengthening international cooperation

8.43. The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat should:

w. Make available to all member States the methodologies contained in the SNA

Handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting;x. In collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations, further

develop, test, refine and then standardize the provisional concepts and methodssuch as those proposed by the SNA Handbook, keeping member States informedof the status of the work throughout this process;

y. Coordinate, in close cooperation with other international organizations, thetraining of national accountants, environmental statisticians and national technicalstaff in small groups for the establishment, adaptation and development ofnational IEEAs.

8.44. The Department of Economic and Social Development of the United NationsSecretariat, in close collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations,

should:

z. Support, in all member States, the utilization of sustainable developmentindicators in national economic and social planning and decision-makingpractices, with a view to ensuring that IEEAs are usefully integrated in economicdevelopment planning at the national level;

aa. Promote improved environmental and economic and social data collection.

(b) Strengthening national accounting systems

8.45. At the national level, the programme could be adopted mainly by the agenciesdealing with national accounts, in close cooperation with environmental statistics andnatural resource departments, with a view to assisting national economic analysts and

decision makers in charge of national economic planning. National institutions shouldplay a crucial role not only as the depositary of the system but also in its adaptation,establishment and continuous use. Unpaid productive work such as domestic work andchild care should be included, where appropriate, in satellite national accounts andeconomic statistics. Time-use surveys could be a first step in the process of developingthese satellite accounts.

(c) Establishing an assessment process

8.46. At the international level, the Statistical Commission should assemble and reviewexperience and advise member States on technical and methodological issues related tothe further development and implementation of IEEAs in member States.

8.47. Governments should seek to identify and consider measures to correct pricedistortions arising from environmental programmes affecting land, water, energy andother natural resources.

8.48. Governments should encourage corporations:

bb. To provide relevant environmental information through transparent reporting toshareholders, creditors, employees, governmental authorities, co