Introduction

During the night of March 7, 1963, threeCanadian army buildings in Montreal werebombed with Molotov cocktails (homemade fire¬bombs). The mysterious letters "FLQ" werepainted on the walls. The next day, a documentfrom an organization claiming responsibility forthe bombings was delivered to the news media:

The Front de liberation du Quebec is a revolution¬

ary movement of volunteers ready to die for the

political and economic independence of Quebec.

The suicide-commandos of the FLQ have as

their principal mission the complete destruction,by systematic sabotage of:

all colonial [federal] symbols and institutions, inparticular the RCMP and the armed forces; ...

all commercial establishments and enterprises

which practise discrimination against Quebeckers,

which do not use French as the first language,

which advertises in the colonial language [English];all plants and factories which discriminate

against French-speaking workers.

... INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH

The age of terrorism had arrived in Canada.How did this new crisis emerge? What had

happened between English- and French-Canadians to make the relationship so strained?How could the crisis be resolved?

In this chapter, you will learn about the impactof Quebec nationalism in the latter part of thetwentieth century. You will also see how growingmulticulturalism and the struggle of Aboriginalpeoples for their rights changed the nation.

'j

The Roots of QuebecNationalism

The Duplessis Era

From 1936 to 1939, and again from 1944 to 1959,Quebec was controlled by Premier MauriceDuplessis and his party, the Union Nationale.Duplessis was a strong Quebec nationalist whowas devoted to the idea of Quebec as a distinctive

# 1960 Quiet Revolution begins in Quebec.

# 1965 Canada's maple leaf flag flies for first time.

# 1967 Canadian immigration policy becomesofficially "colour-blind."

# 1968 National Indian Brotherhood formed.

# 1970 FLQ crisis in Quebec leads Prime MinisterTrudeau to invoke War Measures Act.

9 1971 Federal government introducesmulticulturalism policy.

9 1980 Quebec holds a referendum onsovereignty-association.

9 1982 Constitution patriated without Quebec'sagreement.

9 1990s Asian countries become major sources ofimmigration.

9 1990 Meech Lake Accord dies.

9 1992 Charlottetown Accord rejected inreferendum.

9 1993 B.C. Treaty Commission established.

9 1995 Second referendum on Quebec sovereigntyis held.

9 1999 Nunavut created.

9 2000 Nisga'a Treaty given royal assent,

society, a "nation" rather than just another

Canadian province. To emphasize his province'sdifference from English-speaking Canada, he in¬troduced a new flag for Quebec bearing theFrench symbol, the fleur-de-lis. He fiercely op¬posed the growing powers of the federal govern¬ment in the post-war years.

Under Duplessis, the Roman CatholicChurch was the main defender of Quebec cul¬ture. Priests urged people in Quebec to turn theirbacks on the materialism of English-speakingNorth America, The Church praised the oldQuebec traditions of farm, faith, and family. Itran Quebec's hospitals and schools, where mostchildren received only a basic education. Religionplayed a role in every part of the curriculum, andthe schools taught children to accept authority.The elite few who attended high school and uni¬versity received a fine education, but the empha¬sis was on traditional subjects such as classical

Chapter 8 The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 191

Figure 8-1 Duplessisassociated labour unions withcommunism, and he did nothesitate to call in the provincialpolice to crush strikes. Thisphotograph was taken in 1949during a strike by Quebecasbestos miners.

Using evidence What do youthink is happening in thisphotograph? Who do you thinkthese men are? Give reasons

for your view.

languages and philosophy. As a result, Quebecproduced many priests, lawyers, and politiciansbut few scientists, engineers, or business people.

While Duplessis tried to keep out the influ¬ence of foreign culture, he encouraged foreign in¬vestment in Quebec. Businesses and industriesfrom Ontario and the United States were attractedby what Quebec had to offer. The province guar¬anteed cheap labour, since union activity was ei¬ther discouraged or banned. It also promised lowtaxes. Quebec would benefit from the new in¬vestment, but so would Duplessis. In return forfavourable business conditions, companies wereexpected to contribute generously to the UnionNationale. Bribery and corruption became thetrademarks of the Duplessis regime. In return forgovernment jobs or licences, businesses were ex¬

pected to give "kickbacks" or gifts to the Union

Nationale.

The Quiet RevolutionIn 1960, after Duplessis died, Jean Lesage andthe Liberals came to power with an election slo¬gan that announced it was "Time for a change."Once in power, Lesage's first step was to stamp

out corruption. Government jobs and contracts

were now awarded according to merit. Wages andpensions were raised, and restrictions on trade

unionism were removed.

The government also began a peaceful butdramatic movement to modernize the province's

economy, politics, education, and culture. It took

control of social services and the education system.Students were now required to take more scienceand technology courses to prepare them for thenew Quebec. Above all, Quebeckers were en¬couraged to think of themselves as citizens of thetwentieth century. As new attitudes began to takehold, the influence of the Roman Catholic Churchdeclined. This wave of change became known asthe Quiet Revolution, and it transformed the face

of Quebec.In the 1962 election, the Liberals went one

step further. They campaigned, and won, with themotto Maitres chez nous, "Masters in our own

house." The aim now would be to strengthenQuebec's control of its own economy. Among othersteps, the government nationalized (bought out)several hydro companies and turned them into alarge, provincially owned power monopoly, Hydro-Quebec.

192 Unit I Canada in the Twentieth Century

Figure 8-2 A Canadian

Army engineer liesinjured in Montreal afteran FLQ bomb, which hehad removed from a

mail box, exploded inhis hands. On May 17,1963, a total ofseventeen bombs were

placed in mail boxes inthe Montreal suburb ofWestmount.

The Birth of Separatism

As Francophone Quebeckers became proud oftheir achievements, they became angrier at whatthey perceived as injustices at the hands ofEnglish-speaking Canadians. Why was Ottawa,the national capital, so overwhelmingly English-speaking'? Why did federal politicians fromQuebec seldom hold key Cabinet posts? Why didFrench-Canadians not have the right to their ownschools and hospitals in the rest of Canada, eventhough English-Canadians enjoyed those rightsin Quebec? And why was Quebec's Francophonemajority expected to speak English in stores or atwork?

For some, the only solution lay in a Quebeccontrolled entirely by Quebeckers—in separationfrom Canada. Some young radicals with extremeviews joined terrorist groups such as the FLQ(Front de liberation du Quebec) and fought inthe name of le Quebec libre—a "free" Quebec.As you read in the introduction to this chapter,these groups used firebombs and explosives to at¬tack symbols of English-Canadian power inQuebec. For example, in the early 1960s, RoyalMail boxes and downtown office towers belongingto Canadian National Railways were attacked.

While most Quebec nationalists disapproved ofsuch tactics, there were signs of general discontentin the province. In 1967, the influential Quebeccabinet minister Rene Levesque left the LiberalParty and, a year later, formed the Parti Quebecois(PQ). Levesque believed that Quebec and Canadawould do better to divorce peacefully than to con¬tinue a marriage of two cultures that, to many

Quebeckers, was no longer workable.

Ottawa's Response

Lester Pearson became prime minister in themidst of the Quiet Revolution. He was convincedthat Canada would face a grave crisis unless theFrench were made to feel more at home inCanada. He appointed the Royal Commission onBilingualism and Biculturalism (the "Bi and BiCommission") to investigate some solutions. Thecommission recommended that Canada shouldbecome officially bilingual.

In 1964, Pearson acted on a long-standingcomplaint in Quebec that Canada's symbols weretoo British. He suggested that Canada should havea new flag to replace those in use—the BritishUnion Jack and the Red Ensign, which had the

Chapter 8 The Canadian Identity; One, Two, or Many Nations? 193

Figure 8-3 Diefenbaker and the Conservatives

wanted to keep the old Red Ensign (top), with itstraditional links to Britain, while the Liberals favoured

a design using the three maple leaves of the

Canadian coat of arms (bottom).

Expressing ideas Compare these two flags with theflag that was finally chosen. Consider the use ofsymbols and colour. Which of the three flags do you

think is best, and why?

Union Jack in the upper comer. Pearson chosethe maple leaf as a symbol for the new flag be¬cause it seemed to represent all Canadians.Unfortunately, rather than bringing Canadianscloser together, the new flag increased the ten¬sions between French and English Canada.

Many Canadians opposed any new flag be¬cause they felt that Pearson was pandering toQuebec. An emotional debate split the country.Finally, after hundreds of suggestions from acrossCanada, the red-and-white maple leaf design waschosen. On February 15, 1965, Canada's new flagwas raised on Parliament Hill for the first time.Ironically, English-Canadians have come to re¬gard the flag with pride and affection, while peo¬ple from Quebec, disillusioned by the bitterdebate, continued to fly primarily the fleur-de-lis.

ACTIVITIES

1. The Duplessis era is sometimes referred to as "The

Great Darkness." Would you agree or disagree with

this assessment? Explain.

2. During the Duplessis years, why did many QuebecFrancophones feel victimized by Anglophones aswell as by their own government?

3. a) Make a chart contrasting Maurice Duplessis's and

Jean Lesage's approaches to governing Quebec.

b) Did the changes brought by Lesage really amountto a revolution? Support your answer with evi¬

dence from your chart.

4. a) Describe the aims of the FLQ. Check the extractin the introduction as well as the text above,

b) Flad you lived in Quebec in the 1960s, how doyou think you would have reacted to the FLQ?Write a letter to the editor explaining your view.

5. a) Why did Prime Minister Pearson believe a new

flag was necessary?

b) Flow important do you think a flag is in assertingidentity? Should it be a criminal act to show dis¬respect to a flag? Discuss your views with the

class.

Trudeau and Quebec

When Pierre Trudeau succeeded Pearson as primeminister in 1968, he was determined that the fed¬eral government should do more to persuade peo¬ple from Quebec that their future lay withCanada. In 1969, he acted on the advice of the"Bi and Bi Commission." His government passedthe Official Languages Act, making Canada anofficially bilingual country. Now, all federal gov¬ernment agencies across the country were required

to provide services in both languages. English-speaking civil servants had to take French-language training courses, and more French-

Canadians were appointed to senior federal gov¬ernment positions. Trudeau also called on allCanadians, especially young people, to increasetheir understanding of the other national culture.

Trudeau's moves met with mixed reviews.

Many Canadians embraced the idea of bilingual-

194 Unit I Canada in the Twentieth Century