Introduction of Sociology SOC-101

Chapter 1 – The Sociological Perspective

Sociological Perspective Sociology

The scientific study of society and human behavior Sociological Perspective

Understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader context

Stresses the social contexts in which people live Looks at how people are influenced by their society

and how social forces affect human behavior “The Sociological Imagination”

A term coined by C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond common sense for explanations of why people act the way they do

How do groups influence people? How are people influenced by their society?

Sociological Perspective Social Location

Sociologists study ones social location to understand human behavior

These are the parts of life that people occupy because of where they are located in their society

Examples of social locations are jobs, education, gender, race, etc.

Social Location can shape our ideas of who we are and what we should attain in life

External Influences Sociologists that it is the external influences, not

genetics, become part of our thinking and motivations

Sociological Perspective Three main parts to the sociological perspective: Seeing the general in the particular

Sociology helps use see general patterns in the behavior of particular individuals

Though each individual is unique, society acts differently on various categories of people (e.g., children compared to adults, women to men)

Seeing the strange in the familiar When we look at life sociologically, it requires giving

up familiar ideas that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do, in favor of the initially strange notion that we are creatures of society

Sociological Perspective Seeing individuality in social context

Social diversity prompts us to wonder why other people think and act differently than we do

Social Marginality – Those on the outside of society tend to sense the power of society more than those inside

Social crisis can also help us see that society is responsible for changes in our lives, not just the individuals

Benefits of the sociological perspective: Helps us critically assess the truth of commonly held

assumptions Helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our

lives Empowers us to be active members of our society Helps us live in a culturally diverse world

Origins of Sociology Traditions To Science

Humans have always been trying to understand society and question why things happen

Pre-Scientific Age People answers were usually found in myth and

superstition Scientific Revolution (16th–17th c.)

Rise of science and the use of the scientific method in areas such as chemistry and physics began to explain the previously unexplainable

Many mysteries were explained, shattering the foundations of many traditions

Origins of Sociology The Age of Enlightenment and Revolution (18th

c.) During this time period there were a number of

blows to tradition The philosophes of the Enlightenment promoted

ideas of inalienable rights and the nature of man The American and French Revolutions caused

people to rethink social life The Industrial Revolution (19th c.)

This was a period of huge social upheaval Many left rural lives to move to the cities where

they worked in horrendous conditions with low pay where even children had to work

Origins of Sociology Sociology emerged in the middle of the 1800’s

during a period of social upheaval The Industrial Revolution challenged

traditional ideas about social life The scientific method, which was used in the

physical sciences, led to the birth of Sociology

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Experienced the upheaval of the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon

He was the first to coin the term “sociology” in 1838 to describe his new way of looking at the world

“Armchair Philosopher” Drew his conclusions from informal observations on social

life rather than research

Positivism Application of scientific approach to the social world Believed that society operates according to certain

laws just as the physical world operates according to the laws of nature

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte came up with one of the first theories

of social evolution Theological Phase

Natural phenomena were explained as the results of supernatural or divine powers

Metaphysical Phase Natural phenomena are explained with great abstract

ideas that are seen as the principles of reality (e.g., laws of mankind, idea of inalienable rights)

Scientific (or Positive) Phase Explanations of natural phenomena become rational

and empirical, based on scientific approach

Believed heavily in social reform to help society

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Highly educated Worked as a civil engineer for a railway where he

witnessed the exploitation of workers first hand Early Writings

Social Statistics (1851) stressed the importance of looking at the long-term effects of social policy with respect to the nature of man Promoted the rights of women and children

Social Evolution He views civilization not as an artificial construct of

man, but as a natural and organic product of social evolution

Predated Darwin’s Origins of the Species

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Evolution of Society

He believed that societies evolved from lower, or “barbarian,” forms to higher, “civilized” forms

Believed that no one should intervene in the evolution of society

“Survival of the Fittest” The most capable and intelligent members of

society survive while the less capable die out (“social Darwinism”)

Like Comte, he was an “armchair philosopher”

Karl Marx (1818-

1883)

Karl Marx (1818-1883) “It is not the consciousness of men that

determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.” - Marx, in the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy

Historical Materialism Methodical approach to the study of economics,

history, and society developed by Marx It looks at the changes and developments of human

society by way of its means of production Marx believed that at a certain stage of their

development, the material productive forces of a society come in conflict with the existing relations of production

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Class Conflict

Marx believed that class conflict was the engine of human history, as a constant struggle between the have and have-nots

Bourgeoisie In the 19th century, these were capitalists who own the

means of production and wealth Proletariat

These were the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

The concept of class conflict is still found today, especially social conflict theorists

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

First professor of sociology Got sociology accepted as an academic discipline when he

was hired by the University of Bordeaux

Social forces affect people’s behavior Did research on suicide rates in several European

countries Discovered that each country has different suicide

rates but those remained the same year after year Durkheim’s findings showed:

Protestants, men, wealthy people, and the unmarried were more likely to commit suicide

Catholics, Jews, females, and married were less likely

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Suicide is not simply a matter of individual choice

Instead there are social factors that underlie suicide This is what keeps a group’s rate fairly consistent each

year Social Integration

The degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds

Durkheim concluded that people who have weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide Protestantism encourages greater freedom of thought and

action Males are more independent than females The unmarried lack the connections and responsibilities that

come with marriage

Max Weber (1864-1920) Max Weber (1864-1920)

German sociologist an political economics Religion As The Force of Social Change

Weber disagreed with Marx by saying that religion was the central force behind social change, not production

Catholicism encouraged people to hold on to traditional beliefs

Protestants encouraged its members to embrace spiritual change

Max Weber (1864-1920) Religion also influenced the birth of capitalism

Catholics believed that once they were baptized, they were “on the road to heaven”

Some Protestant groups believed in predestination and they would not know if they were “saved” until they died Some looked for signs of God’s favor, and one of these

“signs” was financial success They lived frugal lives, saved their money, and invested

the surplus in order to make more money Protestant Ethic

Ideal of a self-denying, highly moral life accompanied by hard work and frugality

Weber concluded that capitalism was more likely to flourish in Protestant countries than in Catholic ones

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Sociology in North America Sexism in Early Sociology

During the 1800s, sex roles were rigidly defined Women were expected to follow the four C’s: church,

cooking, children, and clothes Higher education reserved for men and the wealthy

There were some women who were able to push those boundaries

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Published Society in America before Durkheim and

Weber were born Known for translating Comte’s works from French to

English

Jane Addams (1860-1935) Jane Addams (1860-1935)

Was trained as a social worker Was one of the leading social reformers of her time

She co-founded Hull-House (1889) A center to help immigrants, the sick, the aged and

the poor Worked with sociologists and politicians to

discuss the urban problems of the day Using her knowledge of workers and immigrants, she

tried to bridge the gap between the powerful and the powerless

Campaigned for laws against child labor Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 for her work

at social reform

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

He was an African-American sociologist Had studied under Max Weber at the University of

Berlin First African-American to earn a doctorate at

Harvard His lifetime research was relations between

whites and African-Americans First started out doing sociological analysis but

then used his knowledge for social reform He spoke out against racial inequality Founded the NAACP

Transition From Reform to Theory Sociology in the U.S. was dominated by the

University of Chicago in the late 19th century There was tension between those who

believed sociology should be used for social reform and those who felt it should be used just for analysis

During the 1940s, sociology’s emphasis shifted from social reform to social theory There was constant debate among sociologists as

to whether they should focus on social reform or theory

Transition From Reform to Theory Talcott Parsons (1923-1973)

Sociology professor at Harvard University Developed abstract models of society that

influenced a generation of sociologists (“Action Theory”)

C. Wright Mills Urged Sociologists to get back to social reform Believed that our freedom was being threatened

by the power elite—the top leaders of business, politics, and the military

Developed the Sociological Imagination in 1959 Interaction between individual experiences and societal

relationships

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

Types of Sociology Basic Sociology

Sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups

Also known as “pure sociology” Applied Sociology

The use of sociology to solve problems Not the same as social reform since it is not an

attempt to rebuild society but instead focuses on one specific issue

Sociologists have helped shape public policy and law, including school desegregation and busing, pornography, and social welfare programs

Types of Sociology Public Sociology

Sociology being used for the public good Especially the sociological perspective guiding

politicians and policy makers about how society works

The lines between all three are not always clear

Social reform is risky While some people push for change, others want it

to stay the same Sociologists have lost their jobs pushing for reform

Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology Theory

General statement about how and why specific facts are related

Are used to conduct sociological research Three Major Theories in Sociology:

Symbolic Interactionism Functional Analysis Conflict Theory

These theories allow Sociologists to view a social problem from many different perspectives

Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionists believe that

individuals evaluate their own conduct by comparing themselves with others Focuses on the micro level of interaction

Pioneered by: Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) William I. Thomas (1863-1947) George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

Society is composed of symbols This are things to which we attach meaning (e.g.,

love, marriage, brother, mother) People use these symbols to develop their views

of the world and communicate with one another

Symbolic Interactionism Humans attaching meaning to virtually

everything “Reality” is simply how we define our

surroundings, our own identities, and our obligations towards others

Analyzes how our behaviors depend on the ways we define both ourselves and others

We interact with each other by interpreting or defining each other’s actions As opposed to reacting to each other’s actions We respond to the meaning we attach to the

actions

Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionists study:

How people interpret symbols How people interact one on one How people behave according to how they define

themselves and others Criticism is that it focuses on the micro-level

Small-scale patterns of social interaction in specific settings

Conveys how individuals actually experience society

It may overlook the widespread effects of culture, class, gender, and race

Functional Analysis The Functional Analysis perspective views

society as a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together Sees society as a complex system whose parts

work together to promote solidarity and stability Also known as functionalism and structural

functionalism Viewed society as a living organism that functions

smoothly when all of its parts work together in harmony

Pioneered by Comte and Spencer

Functional Analysis Functionalists believed that to understand

society, one must look at both structure and function Social Structure

How parts of a society fit together to make the whole It gives our lives shape in the forms of such things as

family, work, or school Social Function

What each part does and how it contributes to society Includes all social patterns—from a simple handshake to

complex religious rituals—that function to keep society going

Functional Analysis Robert Merton (1910-2003)

Dismissed the concept of society being an organism Believed that society was composed of parts that

worked together Function v. Dysfunction

Function – The beneficial consequences of peoples actions that keep society in equilibrium

Dysfunction – The consequences that harm society and undermine a system’s equilibrium

Manifest Functions These are consequences that are intended by people in

society A manifest function of college is provide people with

the skills needed to perform jobs

Functional Analysis Latent Functions

These are consequences that are unintended and go largely unrecognized

College can act as a “marriage broker,” bringing together two people with similar interests

Latent Dysfunctions Any undesirable consequences for the operation of

society; negative effects of social structure Very subjective because one person’s definition of

what is harmful may be different from another

Functional Analysis Functional Analysists study:

The structure of society How each part of society has certain functions that

must be fulfilled What happens to society when dysfunctions occur

Main criticism is that it views society as orderly, stable, and comprehensible. Ignores the inequalities of social class, race,

ethnicity, and gender which can generate considerable tension and conflict

Was popular in the mid-20th century but has been in decline

Robert Merton (1910-2003)

Conflict Theory Views society as an arena of inequality that

generates conflict and change Society is composed of groups that are competing

with one another Conflict theorists investigate how factors such as

race, ethnicity, gender, and age are linked to the unequal distribution of money, power, education, and social prestige

Pioneered by Karl Marx Through his observations of the effects of the

Industrial Revolution, he developed Conflict Theory The key to human history is class conflict

One small group controls the means of production and exploits those who are not in control

Conflict Theory Today’s conflict theorists examine how

conflict permeates every layer of society When people in a position of authority try to

enforce conformity, this creates resentment and resistance

Feminists see conflict between men and women and the desire to achieve equal rights

Criticisms Because it highlights inequality, this theory largely

ignores how shared values and interdependence can unify members of society

Some critics also feel that it pursues political goals and thus cannot claim scientific objectivity

Macro v. Micro Levels of Analysis Macro Level

When theorists examine large-scale patterns of society

Functionalists and conflict theorists focus on the macro level

Micro Level When theorists examine small-scale patterns of

society in specific settings Symbolic interactionists focus on the micro level

Putting the Perspectives Together Which theory should we use to study human

behavior? Which theory is the “correct” one? Each theory focuses on different features of

society and thus provides a distinct interpretation

It is necessary to use all three theories to analyze human behavior By combining the contribution of each, we get a

more comprehensive picture of social life