Introduction of the basic emotional impact of environments

The Basic Emotional Impact of Environments

Albert Mehrabian, James A. RussellUniversity of California, Los Angels

Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974, 38, 283 - 301

2013年3月14日木曜日

Authors

• Dr. Albert Mehrabian(1939-)

• Best known for the role of non-verbal communication

• “7%-38%-55% rule” Total Liking = 7% Verbal Liking + 38% Vocal Liking + 55% Facial Liking


Authors

• Dr. James A. Russell (UCLA)

• Research on human emotion

• Facial Expression


Reason for the choice

• Their model for emotion evaluation, the PAD model, widely used for an evaluation of places services, events

• I’ll use this model in the next evaluation test for motion graphics

• To check the development process of PAD model for confirmation its reliability


Outline of this Paper

• Hypothesis : Human various emotional reactions have basic dimensions, Pleasure - Arousal - Dominance

• Supporting Evidences:Review of the relevant literature from studies of synesthesia, physiological reactions, and semantic differential

• Development of Self-Report Measure:Conducting thrice studies (total subjects are 511)With factor analysis


Background : Environment Psychology

environments

How to assess a environment psychologically?

stimulus

perceptualresponse

assessmentwith all perceptual

response

Cost Lots!!



environments


stimulus

perceptualresponse

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basic dimensionin emotion

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verbal expression

×



environments


stimulus

perceptualresponse

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basic dimensionin emotion

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verbal expression

×

possibility to assess

emotional quality

viaverbal

expression


Supporting Evidences from Synesthesia

• Hazzard(1930)Describing test of 14 different odors : A large percentage of the adjectives used in other modalityex) light, bright, lively, heavy, rough...

• Karwoski & Odbett (1938), Karwoski, Odbett & Osgood(1942)Music & adjective:Exiting music - bright forms or sharp and angler figuresSlow music - rounder formsAll Ss agreed in associating color-name and mood adjective with the music

Is there a common core among modalities?



• Holt-Hansen(1968)Beer taste & tone pitch : 16 Ss were asked to identify the “pitch of fit” while drinking two different kinds of beer.Beer1 - 510 ~ 520cps(Hz)Beer2 - 640 ~ 670cps

• Ziet(1931)Tones of various frequencies and afterimage200cps - darker, warmer, softer and duller colors, and vague contours550cps - shaper contours, brighter, colder, clearer, harder colors1100cps - squish forms




• Lundholm(1921)feeling tones of lines:SAD - large, downward-directed curvesMERRY - small, upward-directed curvesGENTLE - large, horizontal-directed curves

• Osgood(1960)Tested “feeling tones of lines” within non english language group including Navojo, Japanese, Mexican-spanishApproximately 90% of the relationships probed to be in the same direction.




• Osgood’s discussionSynesthesia may be either innate to the species or developed by learning under similar condition.

example of innate: the common association of the red end of the spectrum with warmth and activity and blue end with coldness and passivity

example of learning:the common association of visually large with auditorily loud

Expressed in language but are independent of the structure of any particular language



Supporting Evidences from Physiology

• Pleasant - Pain centers in the mid-brain

Pleasant response : stimulation of area of the hypothalamus and certain mid-brain nuclei

Pain response : stimulation of lower parts of the midline system

The experience of pleasure - pain and this mechanism is common to all the sensory modalities

physiological mechanism of basic dimensions



• Arousal Mechanism

Lindsley(1951): the concept of arousal as a basic response which is independent of the sense modality stimulated

Malmo(1959):arousal of the entire organism as activation of the ascending reticular activating system

It can be measured by fast EEG activity with concomitant decrease in alpha waves, respiratory activity, oxygen consumption, pulse rate,muscle tension, thermal properties of the skin




• Arousal Mechanism

Berlyne’s definition of arousal(1960):It is a measure of how wide awake the organism is, of how ready it is to react.The lower pole - sleep or comaThe upper pole - frantic excitement

Thayer(1967, 1970):High correlation between physiological arousal and verbal self reports arousal state



Supporting Evidences from Semantic differential

• Osgood, Suci, et. al (1957)

Characterize human reaction to stimuli regardless to modality with the semantic differential;

The activity factor ( arousal )The evaluation factor ( pleasure)The potency factor ( dominance)



• Tucker (1955)artists and non-artists judged various kinds of paintings and rated them on SD scale.

Activity ( dynamic - static, active - passive, vibrant - still)Evaluation (smooth - rough, profound - superficial, meaningful - no nsence )Potency ( hard - soft, strong - weak)

• Solomon(1954)SD on sonar signal:

Activity (busy - resting, violent - gentle)Evaluation ( pleasant - unpleasant, good - bad, pleasing - annoying)Potency ( large - small, heavy - light)



• Bush (1973)The three factors in SD with 264 adjectives:Pleasantness - UnpleasantnessLevel of activationLevel of aggression

• Osgood (1966), other investigatorssame three factor in nonverbal cues:facial, vocal expressions, postures, movements


Assuming evidences

suggests existence of a limited set of basic emotional to all stimulus situation independent of the sensory modality involved.

Hypothesis - PAD modelBasic dimension 1 : PleasureBasic dimension 2 : ArousalBasic dimension 3 : Dominance

Synesthesia

Physiologicalreactions

SemanticDifferential


Assuming evidences

suggests existence of a limited set of basic emotional to all stimulus situation independent of the sensory modality involved.

Hypothesis - PAD modelBasic dimension 1 : PleasureBasic dimension 2 : ArousalBasic dimension 3 : Dominance

Synesthesia

Physiologicalreactions

SemanticDifferential

Freedom of choice, unrestricted or free to act in a variety of ways.

Physical stimuli which are rated more intense, more ordered and powerful

are associated with submissive feeling


Development of Self report Measures

• the final version of the measures

Conducting thrice studies

EMOTIONAL IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTS 2 97

satisfactory replication of the findings from the second study. Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance accounted for 27, 23, and 14% of the total variance, respectively. The Pleasure factor correlated -0.07 with the Arousal, and 0.03 with the Domi- nance factor; Arousal correlated 0.18 with Dominance.

Table 4 presents the final version of the measures for the three emotional response factors, and is based on the results from all three studies. To compute factor scores for an S who rates his emotions in a situation using the scales of Table 4, a simple and satisfactory approach is to average his responses to all six items of each scale.

TABLE 4 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL MEASURES OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO E N V I R O ~ E N T S : ~ ~

Instructions to Ss Take about two minutes to really get into the mood of the situation; then rate your feelings in the situation with the adjective pairs below. Some of the pairs might seem unusual, but you'll probably feel more one way than the other. So, for each pair, put a check mark (Example: -----:--J--:-----) closer to the adjective which you believe to describe your feelings better. The more ao~rooriate chat adiective seems. the closer vou out vour check mark to it.

Pleasure . . . . . . . . Happy ----- , ----- . ----. , ----- , ----- , ----- , ----- ----. ----- . . . . . . . . . . Pleased ----- , ----. . . . . . . , , Satisfied --.-- . ----- . --.-. . --.-- , - - _ _ _ , _ _. - - ,_____ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . Contented ----- . ----- . ----. . ----- ._____ ._____ ,-_-__ . _ _ _ _ _ . _ -___ . . . . . . , , Hopeful --..- . ----- . --.-. . ----- ._____._____._____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . , Relaxed ----- . --.-_ . --_-_ Arousal

Stimulated --.-- : --.-- : --.-- : --.--: -----: .-.--. . .----. . . .---- . . . . . . . . Excited .---- ----- ----- ,----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frenzied .--.- ----- ---.- ----- ----- ---.- -.-.- ----- .---- . . . . . . . . Jittery . . . . ---.- ----- ---.- ----- ---.- . . . . :_____ 1-.-._ .-.-._ ._.___ . . Wide awake ---.-:-----:---.-:---.-:-----:-----:-.-.-:---.-: -.---

. . . . Aroused ---.- -.--- -.--- -.--- -----. -----: -----. -----. ----- . . . . . . . Dominance

Controlling --.--I --.--: --.-.: --..-: --.-.: --.-.: .---.: --.--: .-.-. . . . . . . . . Influential ----. ---.. . ----- . ----- . _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ . . . . , . , , In control .-.-- . ----- . ----. . ----- . ----- -_.-. _-_-_ . . . . . . Important ---.-,-----,-----,-----,-----: -----. .-_-___.__-_ . . _.-___ . . . . . . . . Dominant .--.- ----- ----- ----- ----- .---- . . . . . .-_.__,.______.___ Autonomous .----: ---.-: ---.-: -----: ---.-: ---.-: ---.-: ----. : -----

Unhappy Annoyed Unsatisfied Melancholic Despairing Bored

Relaxed Calm Sluggish Dull Sleepy Unaroused

Controlled Influenced Cared for Awed Submissive Guided

*A numerical scale of $4 to -4 is used for each dimension (e.g., +4 is assigned for extremely happy, and -4 for extremely unhappy). Ss' responses are averaged across the six items of each of the three factors. In the actual administration of these measures, three items within each factor are inverted and all the items are presented in a random order.

DISCUSSION Our review of the relevant literature showed that various combinations of

pleasure, arousal, and dominance may adequately represent the diverse human emotional-connotative reactions to environments. The data presented here was therefore not intended to replicate that evidence. Thus, no effort was made in our initial seleccion of emotional descriptors to include a list of adjective-pairs

Each dimension has 6 bipolar adjective measures



• Study 1.


Measure : using 28 adjective pairsSubjects : 134 undergraduate Students

Stimulus : 8 situations selected from 40 verbally described situations

ex) You are water skiing behead a speed boat on a mountain lake. As you go by you watch the sun glinting on the water....



• Study 1.


4 factors were extracted, but fourth factor consisted only of a single item.

Oblique rotation yield the loadings for the first three factors

Correlation: Factor 1 & 2 -0.02 Factor 1 & 3 0.19 Factor 2 & 3 0.05

294 A. MEHRABIAN a J. A. RUSSELL

You are walking around your vegetable garden in which rows of carrots, tomatoes, cabbage, and onions grow. A flock of birds f ly over your head in a neat formation.

You are teaching in a children's day care center. All the boys are running, hitting each other and screaming; a little girl sits a few feet away from them, banging on a drum.

You are at the funeral of a distant relative. It takes place at the funeral home and everyone is dressed in dark colors. The minister's voice drones on in the service. The casket up in front is the only decoration in the otherwise plain room.

You are in your office alone. There are piles of books and paper lying around that you have been working on all day. Other than your equipment (telephone, typewriter, etc.) the room is almost barren.

It is evening and you are sitting at a window looking out over the lights of the city. It is a misty, cold night and everything looks small and far away.

In this first study, 134 University of California undergraduates served as Ss. Each of them was presented wi th a random selection of 8 situations and was asked to describe how h e would feel i n each one by using the 28 adjective pairs i n Table 1. These i tems were randomly ordered; half of them were reversed i n direction; and the entire set was presented ro Ss in a format similar to that shown in Table 4. T h e accompanying instructions to Ss are also given in Table 4.

TABLE 1 ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX OF THE PRELIMINARY SET OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE SCALES*

Emotional Response

Happy-unhappy Pleased-annoyed Satisfied-unsatisfied Contented-melancholic Hopeful-despairing Relaxed-bored Comfortable-uncomfortable Excited-irritated Secure-insecure Stimulated-relaxed Excited-calm Frenzied-sluggish Jittery-dull Wide awake-sleep *roused-unarousec! Alert-peaceful Excited-soothed Vigilant-uninterested Irritated-depressed Controlling-controlled Powerful-overpowered In control-cared for Important-awed Dominant-submissive Autonomous-guided Influential-reverent Domineeri ne- hel~less

Factor 1 : Factor 2 : Factor 3 : Pleasure Arousal Dominance

~ar in~-caut i%us A .29 .12 .39 0/0 Variance 2 7 2 1 12

*The correlations used to compute this factor analysis were based on 1072 observations.



• Study 2.


Measure : using 23 adjective pairs ( 18 from Study1, and 5 additional )Subjects : new 163 undergraduate Students




• Study 2.


3 factors were extracted.

Oblique rotation yield the loadings for the three factors

Correlation: Factor 1 & 2 0.05 Factor 1 & 3 0.26 Factor 2 & 3 0.13

EMOTIONAL IMF'ACT OF ENVIRONMENTS 295

The resulting 28 X 28 matrix of correlations was factor analyzed and a principal component solution was obtained. There were four factors with eigenvalues exceeding unity although the fourth factor consisted only of a single item. Oblique rotation of these factors yielded the loadings for the first three factors that are shown in Table 1, where items have been rearranged to facilitate the distinctions among the three sets of emotional responses. Factor 1 (Pleasure) accounted for 27%, Factor 2 (Arousal) for 21%, and Factor 3 (Dominance) for 12% of the total variance. Factor 1 correlated -0.02 with Factor 2, and 0.19 with Factor 3; Factor 2 correlated 0.05 with Factor 3.

To improve the emotional descriptors, a second study was performed. Ad- ditional situations were written, providing a total list of 65 varied descriptions of environments. Based on the results of the first study, 18 adjective pairs were selected from Table 1 that best measured the respective emotional dimensions. Five additional adjective pairs, designed to measure dominance, were written. This final set of 23 items is presented in Table 2.

A new sample of 163 University of California undergraduates each rated approximately 20 situations that were randomly selected from the set of 65 situations. They used the adjective pairs of Table 2 in a rearranged random order

TABLE 2 ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX OF THE SECOND SET OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE SCALES*

Emotional Response Factor 1 : Factor 2 : Factor 3 : Pleasure Arousal Dominance

Stimulated-relaxed Excited-calm Frenzied-sluggish Jittery-dull Wide awake-sleepy Aroused-unaroused

Important-awed Autonomous-guided In control-cared for Powerful-overpowered Bold-cautious Protecting-protected Free-restrained Unim~ressed-imaressed . ~~ % ~ k i a n c e 32 17 12

*The correlations used to compute this factor analysis were based on 3261 observations.



• Study 3.


Measure : using best six items for each dimensionSubjects : 214 undergraduate Students




• Study 3.


3 factors were extracted.

Oblique rotation yield the loadings for the three factors

Correlation: Factor 1 & 2 -0.07 Factor 1 & 3 0.03 Factor 2 & 3 0.18

296 A. MEHRABIAN a J . A. RUSSELL

where half the items within each emotional category were inverted to control response bias. Ss were given the same instrilctions as in Study 1.

The resulting 23 X 23 matrix of correlations was factor analyzed and a principal component solution was obtained. There were three factors with eigenvalues exceeding unity. Oblique rotation of these factors yielded the loadings shown in Table 2. Again, the items in Table 2 have been arranged to facilitate the distinctions among the three sets of emotional responses. It is seen that the first factor measured pleasure, the second, arousal and the third, dominance. Fac- tor 1 (Pleasure) accounted for 32%, Factor 2 (Arousal) for 17%, and Factor 3 (Dominance) for 12% of the total variance. Factor 1 correlated .05 with Factor 2, and .26 with Factor 3; Factor 2 correlated .13 with Factor 3. Study 3

This st~tdy served to cross-validate OLU final scales developed from the second study. The best six icems for each dimension, listed in Table 2, were selected for the final scales. These 18 icems were randomly ordered and three items within each of the three scales were inverted to control response bias. Ss were 214 Uni- versity of California undergraduares, each of whom rated a different subset of 6 sit~iacions selected from the list of 65 situations.

The resulting 18 X 18 matrix of correlations was factor analyzed and a principal component solution was obtained. Once again, there were three factors with eigenvalues exceeding unity. Oblique rotation of these factors yielded the loadings that are shown in Table 3. The factorial composition in all respects was a

TABLE 3 ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX OF rn FINAL SET OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE SCALES*

Emotional Response Factor 1: Factor 2 : Factor 3: Pleasure Arousal Dominance

Contented-melancholic Hopeful-despairing Relaxed-bored Stimulated-relaxed Excited-calm Frenzied-sluggish Jittery-dull Wide awake-sleepy Aroused-unaroused Controlling-controlled Dominant-submissive Influential-influenced Important-awed Autonomous-guided I n control-cared for . - 96 Variance 2 7 23 14

*Thc correlations used to compute this factor analysis were based on 1284 observations.



• Discussion


The inter correlation among three emotional response dimension ranged from -0.07 ~ 0.26. These low correlations provided support for the hypothesis

The final scales can be used to assign exact coefficient to any emotional state.

Three emotional factors can also be used to categorize environments.


Documents

Introduction of the basic emotional impact of environments