Introduction to Cognitive CategoriesIntroduction to Cognitive Categories

10 April, 200610 April, 2006Bharat MehraBharat Mehra

IS 520 (Organization and Representation of IS 520 (Organization and Representation of Information) Information)

School of Information SciencesSchool of Information SciencesUniversity of TennesseeUniversity of Tennessee

Final Projects: Presentation DatesFinal Projects: Presentation Dates

1.1. Present community-based information for a selected subject category “Health” Present community-based information for a selected subject category “Health”

2. Present community-based information for a selected subject category “Tourism”: Pam, 2. Present community-based information for a selected subject category “Tourism”: Pam, Suzanne (24 April)Suzanne (24 April)

3. Present community-based information for a new subject category “Diversity 3. Present community-based information for a new subject category “Diversity Resources”: Hannah, Deborah (26 April)Resources”: Hannah, Deborah (26 April)

4. Select one county in Tennessee and develop an IORP for presenting community-4. Select one county in Tennessee and develop an IORP for presenting community-based information for the county: Sara, Christa (26 April)based information for the county: Sara, Christa (26 April)

5. Study of the use of wikis in existing and emerging community-based web portals: 5. Study of the use of wikis in existing and emerging community-based web portals: Margaret, Emily (26 April)Margaret, Emily (26 April)

6. Study of the use of interactive databases for organizing, representing, and managing 6. Study of the use of interactive databases for organizing, representing, and managing community-based information in representative case examples: Bridger, Roger (24 April)community-based information in representative case examples: Bridger, Roger (24 April)

Final Projects: GeneralFinal Projects: General

• DUE DATE: Paper-based and digital copy by 1 May, DUE DATE: Paper-based and digital copy by 1 May, 5.00pm5.00pm

• Presentation: Power point slidesPresentation: Power point slides

• Have a handout for David Massey and me outlining the Have a handout for David Massey and me outlining the TOC or Presentation AgendaTOC or Presentation Agenda

Final Projects: Scenario Final Projects: Scenario

Assume that an Executive Director from Assume that an Executive Director from a non-profit organization hires your a non-profit organization hires your team on a contract basis to develop team on a contract basis to develop appropriate web resources and evaluate appropriate web resources and evaluate existing web services in order to existing web services in order to propose design solutions and specific propose design solutions and specific recommendations. How will you recommendations. How will you convince your client that you are doing convince your client that you are doing what you being paid for the project?what you being paid for the project?

Final Projects: Road Map/TOC/OutlineFinal Projects: Road Map/TOC/Outline

I.I. IntroductionIntroduction– What is your project? (expectations, required elements, etc.)What is your project? (expectations, required elements, etc.)– Issues/concerns specific to your project topic that play a role Issues/concerns specific to your project topic that play a role

in shaping your decisionsin shaping your decisions

II.II. Class topics and their relationship to your projectClass topics and their relationship to your project

3-5 key considerations about each topic that is significant in 3-5 key considerations about each topic that is significant in developing an IORP on the specific projectdeveloping an IORP on the specific project

III.III. Case-Studies and their Critique based on class topics or moreCase-Studies and their Critique based on class topics or more– List of web resources (DL or web portal) with short description and List of web resources (DL or web portal) with short description and

location location – 3 or more case studies as relevant3 or more case studies as relevant– Comparative analysisComparative analysis

Final Projects: Road Map/TOC/OutlineFinal Projects: Road Map/TOC/OutlineIV. Design Solutions/TemplatesIV. Design Solutions/Templates

– Design solutions reflecting key Design solutions reflecting key – Web design solutionsWeb design solutions– Analysis of designs Analysis of designs

V. RecommendationsV. Recommendations

VI. Future ConsiderationsVI. Future Considerations

VII. Documentation ReportVII. Documentation Report

Keep in mind: Keep in mind: – Creativity of project outcomes (recommendations/solutions proposed)Creativity of project outcomes (recommendations/solutions proposed)– Relevance and practicality of implementationRelevance and practicality of implementation– Thoroughness and examination of detailsThoroughness and examination of details– Application of class topics to the projectApplication of class topics to the project– Broad conceptualization Broad conceptualization

Semantic WebSemantic Web

Is not a separate Web but an extension of the Is not a separate Web but an extension of the current one, in which information is given current one, in which information is given well-defined meaning, better enabling well-defined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in computers and people to work in cooperation. --- cooperation. --- Tim Berners-Lee, etc. Tim Berners-Lee, etc. Scientific Scientific America, America, May 17, 2001May 17, 2001

How do we know what defines meaning?How do we know what defines meaning?

Seeking MeaningsSeeking MeaningsAsk people: human perceptions, language, Ask people: human perceptions, language,

symbolism symbolism

Understand what people feel: affective designUnderstand what people feel: affective design

Study what people do: physical, observable Study what people do: physical, observable human behaviorhuman behavior

Figure out what people know: cognition “act Figure out what people know: cognition “act of knowing”of knowing” knowledge knowledge

Kuhlthau (2004)Kuhlthau (2004)

CognitionCognitionPsychology: Thoughts and Psychology: Thoughts and mental processesmental processes

of an individualof an individual

Mental states that can be understood in terms Mental states that can be understood in terms of of information processinginformation processing

Act of knowing or Act of knowing or knowledgeknowledge, and may be , and may be interpreted in a social or cultural sense to interpreted in a social or cultural sense to describe the describe the emergentemergent development of development of knowledge and concepts within a group that knowledge and concepts within a group that culminate in both culminate in both thoughtthought and action and action

CognitionCognition

Mental processes such as Mental processes such as memorymemory, , attentionattention, , perceptionperception, , actionaction, , problem solvingproblem solving and and mental imagerymental imagery

cognitive psychologycognitive psychology of emotion of emotion

A person’s awareness of strategies and methods of cognition, A person’s awareness of strategies and methods of cognition, known as known as metacognitionmetacognition

Relatively recent fields of study such as Relatively recent fields of study such as cognitive sciencecognitive science and and neuropsychologyneuropsychology aim to use cognitive paradigms to aim to use cognitive paradigms to understand how the brain implements information processing understand how the brain implements information processing functions (see also functions (see also cognitive neurosciencecognitive neuroscience), or how pure ), or how pure information processing systems (e.g. computers) can information processing systems (e.g. computers) can simulate cognition (see also simulate cognition (see also artificial intelligenceartificial intelligence))

Unsolved Problems in Cognitive Science Unsolved Problems in Cognitive Science

• How much human intervention is needed to produce a How much human intervention is needed to produce a cognition? (Nature versus nurture)cognition? (Nature versus nurture)

• What is the relationship of personhood to cognition? What is the relationship of personhood to cognition?

• Why is it currently so much more difficult for a machine to Why is it currently so much more difficult for a machine to recognize a human than for a cat to recognize its human recognize a human than for a cat to recognize its human owner? owner?

• Why is the conceptual horizon wider for some than for others? Why is the conceptual horizon wider for some than for others?

• Might there be a relationship between the speed of cognition Might there be a relationship between the speed of cognition and number of eyeballs? and number of eyeballs?

Cognition as Ways of Knowing Cognition as Ways of Knowing

Cognition as compression: Cognition as compression: is an economic, not just a is an economic, not just a philosophical or a psychological process (skill in the process of philosophical or a psychological process (skill in the process of cognition confers a competitive advantage and is a form of cognition confers a competitive advantage and is a form of optimization): a force for self-organizing behavior optimization): a force for self-organizing behavior Individual Individual factorsfactors

Cognition as a social process: Cognition as a social process: constructed through social constructed through social interaction e.g., language acquisition in human children fails to interaction e.g., language acquisition in human children fails to emerge unless the children are exposed to language in a social emerge unless the children are exposed to language in a social contextcontext

Cognition in a cultural context: Cognition in a cultural context: What one knows and the What one knows and the meanings that get associated with words and symbols vary from meanings that get associated with words and symbols vary from culture to cultureculture to culture

Universal factors in cognition:Universal factors in cognition: archetypes and neuroscience archetypes and neuroscience

Today’s Readings: Cognition in LIS Today’s Readings: Cognition in LIS

Knowledge organization and representation Knowledge organization and representation

Conceptual analysis and subject identificationConceptual analysis and subject identification

System design for human effective useSystem design for human effective use

Classification and categorization and the use of Classification and categorization and the use of language in cognition to represent meaningslanguage in cognition to represent meanings

ConceptsConcepts

““A knowledge unit, comprising necessary A knowledge unit, comprising necessary and verifiable statements about a referent, and verifiable statements about a referent, being represented by a designation”being represented by a designation”

Concepts contain characteristics that are Concepts contain characteristics that are essentially derived from the statements essentially derived from the statements about the referent about the referent

Relationship between concepts is the Relationship between concepts is the possession of common characteristics possession of common characteristics

ConceptsConcepts

ReferentReferent

object, abstract entitiesobject, abstract entities

Expression Expression (linguistic or (linguistic or other) dining tableother) dining table

Attributes/characteristicsAttributes/characteristicsmade of wood, with a top made of wood, with a top

and legs …, used for, …and legs …, used for, …

ConceptConcept

RR

AA EE

Not all Concepts are SameNot all Concepts are SameSome concepts are more basic or primitive Some concepts are more basic or primitive

than othersthan others

Some concepts are more generic than Some concepts are more generic than othersothers

Some concepts are used to explain other Some concepts are used to explain other concepts or observable phenomena e.g., concepts or observable phenomena e.g., KE/PE and work/powerKE/PE and work/power

Concept is more than its labelConcept is more than its label

Conceptualization takes effortsConceptualization takes efforts

Vocabulary vs. TerminologyVocabulary vs. Terminology

VocabularyVocabularyall words used (understood) by a person all words used (understood) by a person or a group of peopleor a group of peoplenaturalnatural

TerminologyTerminologytechnical terms used in a particular technical terms used in a particular domain (e.g., discipline, field, profession)domain (e.g., discipline, field, profession)may use common wordsmay use common words

Concepts and CategoriesConcepts and Categories

Concepts and categories are building blocks Concepts and categories are building blocks of thinking and communicationof thinking and communication

Concepts contain more than the words or Concepts contain more than the words or things we hear and seethings we hear and see

Categories are groups of concepts connected Categories are groups of concepts connected by a criterion (criteria) that allow us to by a criterion (criteria) that allow us to organize knowledge and informationorganize knowledge and information

Concepts and CategoriesConcepts and Categories

Aristotle’s categories: substance, Aristotle’s categories: substance, quantity, quality, relation, operation, quantity, quality, relation, operation, process, state, space, time, positionprocess, state, space, time, position

Apple is a fruit Apple is a fruit substance substance

John is intelligent John is intelligent quality quality

This room is bigger than that room This room is bigger than that room relation relation

Functions of Concepts Functions of Concepts • Allow us to infer more than just hearing Allow us to infer more than just hearing

the word or seeing “labtop computer” the word or seeing “labtop computer” • Categories order the world into segments Categories order the world into segments

that group objects in useful ways that group objects in useful ways • Categorization is based on similarity or Categorization is based on similarity or

shared degree of representing common shared degree of representing common characteristic e.g., fish and bird; bird and characteristic e.g., fish and bird; bird and tabletable

Classical Theory of CategoriesClassical Theory of Categories

1.1. defining features (attributes) for each concept defining features (attributes) for each concept that determines if another can be classed with it that determines if another can be classed with it

2.2. individually necessary and jointly sufficient e.g., individually necessary and jointly sufficient e.g., an object with four sides where two sides each an object with four sides where two sides each are of equal length and form 90 degree angles are of equal length and form 90 degree angles between them is a rectangle between them is a rectangle

3.3. hierarchical: inheritancehierarchical: inheritance

subordinate and superordinatesubordinate and superordinate

dog and animal dog and animal

Implications of Classic CategoriesImplications of Classic Categories

1.1. A category is a set. (A category is a set. (Given an entity to be Given an entity to be classified, it either belongs or does not belong to classified, it either belongs or does not belong to the category: clear boundaries and common the category: clear boundaries and common properties)properties)

2.2. All members in a category are equal (the All members in a category are equal (the same), therefore no members in a category same), therefore no members in a category should be more typical than the othersshould be more typical than the others

3.3. It should not matter who does the It should not matter who does the classificationclassification

Class Discussion Class Discussion

Use classical theory of categorization, Use classical theory of categorization, let’s identify the let’s identify the defining attributes defining attributes forfor each of the categories: each of the categories:

gamegame

familyfamily

bachelorbachelor

Challenges to Classic Categories Challenges to Classic Categories – Wittgenstein’ work– Wittgenstein’ work

family resemblance vs. defining featuresfamily resemblance vs. defining features

Members of family resemble one another in various Members of family resemble one another in various waysways

GamesGames are similar to each other in variety of ways are similar to each other in variety of ways

category boundaries vs. membership: extendable category boundaries vs. membership: extendable boundaries boundaries

Central and noncentral membersCentral and noncentral members

Challenges to Classic Categories Challenges to Classic Categories – Austin’s work– Austin’s work

Why do we call different [kinds of things] by Why do we call different [kinds of things] by the same name?the same name?

Kinds of things are similar “partially Kinds of things are similar “partially identical” identical”

Sense of words form a category and each Sense of words form a category and each sense is a member of the categorysense is a member of the category

Since senses do not have properties in Since senses do not have properties in common, there is no classical category of common, there is no classical category of senses that word could be namingsenses that word could be naming

Challenges to Classic Categories Challenges to Classic Categories – Austin’s work– Austin’s work

Central and noncentral senses: senses Central and noncentral senses: senses related to each other in some related to each other in some specific ways that enable them to be specific ways that enable them to be viewed as a category viewed as a category

Healthy body healthy exercise healthy Healthy body healthy exercise healthy complexion: central or prototypical complexion: central or prototypical sensesense

Challenges to Classic Categories Challenges to Classic Categories – Austin’s work– Austin’s work

‘‘Contained as a part’ Metonymy—Contained as a part’ Metonymy—where the part stands for the whole where the part stands for the whole

Symbols and metaphorsSymbols and metaphors

Washington DC will make a decision about the Washington DC will make a decision about the

warwar

Fuzzy Set Theory (Lotfi Zadeh)Fuzzy Set Theory (Lotfi Zadeh)Some categories are well defined, others are not (Classical Some categories are well defined, others are not (Classical

categories, either an element belongs or it does not) categories, either an element belongs or it does not)

Fuzzy categories are those that have gradations of Fuzzy categories are those that have gradations of belonging. Continuum of property rather than discrete belonging. Continuum of property rather than discrete marksmarks

Probabilistic paradigm: Third space between True or False Probabilistic paradigm: Third space between True or False

What is the habitat of rabbits in 20km radius from here? What is the habitat of rabbits in 20km radius from here?

Is the boundary a mathematical curve? Is the boundary a mathematical curve?

Graded Structure ParadigmGraded Structure Paradigm

Most categories have concepts that are connected via Most categories have concepts that are connected via interrelated network of propertiesinterrelated network of properties

Objects within a category can be arranged from most to Objects within a category can be arranged from most to least typical and boundaries between categories are least typical and boundaries between categories are blurred blurred

Depends upon who does the defining; the impact of Depends upon who does the defining; the impact of environment, culture and knowledge environment, culture and knowledge

Properties inherent in the objects are not the sole Properties inherent in the objects are not the sole determinants of the processdeterminants of the process

Graded Structure ParadigmGraded Structure Paradigm

Challenges to Classic Challenges to Classic Categories -- Eleanor RoschCategories -- Eleanor Rosch

PrototypePrototype effect -- typical examples/ effect -- typical examples/

members of a categorymembers of a category

Basic level categoryBasic level category -- a special level -- a special level at at the hierarchy of classification the hierarchy of classification schemescheme

Features of Basic Level CategoriesFeatures of Basic Level Categories

easy to recognize/intuitiveeasy to recognize/intuitiveeasy to conceptualizeeasy to conceptualize

learning first occurlearning first occurmaximum information storedmaximum information storedideas clusterideas clustereasy to remembereasy to remember

Animal—dog—poodle Animal—dog—poodle

Basic Level CategoriesBasic Level Categories

Application of Basic CategoriesApplication of Basic Categories

Incorporated into info retrieval Incorporated into info retrieval vocabularies, indexes, subject vocabularies, indexes, subject headings, thesauriheadings, thesauri

Advantages?Advantages?

Disadvantages?Disadvantages?

Features of Basic Level CategoriesFeatures of Basic Level Categories

Highest cue validityHighest cue validitySome features of concepts are “cues” to a Some features of concepts are “cues” to a

categorycategory wings and birds: not perfect wings and birds: not perfect

Other examples?Other examples?

Category validity: sum of cue validities of Category validity: sum of cue validities of the category featuresthe category features

FurnitureFurniturechairchairsofasofa

Cognitive CategoriesCognitive Categories

Categorization is a cognitive activityCategorization is a cognitive activityThere is no inherent or “natural” featuresThere is no inherent or “natural” featuresSome members of a category are more Some members of a category are more

typical than otherstypical than othersCategory structure is asymmetricCategory structure is asymmetricCategories are unstableCategories are unstableCategories are context sensitive Categories are context sensitive

(cultural, etc.)(cultural, etc.)

Clustering Clustering Various ways of looking at a concept Various ways of looking at a concept

converge to form a categoryconverge to form a category

Overall “mother” concept is a cluster Overall “mother” concept is a cluster of all possible models of all possible models

Central model of the conceptCentral model of the concept

Clustering Clustering

Clustering: Bias and Stereotypes Clustering: Bias and Stereotypes

Concepts in Human MemoryConcepts in Human Memory

How are concepts organized in human How are concepts organized in human memory?memory?

Do we store our concepts in a Do we store our concepts in a hierarchical structure?hierarchical structure?

Implications of Cognitive CategoriesImplications of Cognitive Categories

How information retrieval tools should be How information retrieval tools should be developed to incorporate users’ cognitive developed to incorporate users’ cognitive behaviorbehavior

How controlled vocabulary should be structuredHow controlled vocabulary should be structuredHow different users may need different How different users may need different

approaches for classification schemes to approaches for classification schemes to organize information organize information

Different structures may be more appropriate Different structures may be more appropriate for knowledge in different fieldsfor knowledge in different fields

Recapitulation Recapitulation

Why study cognitive categories?Why study cognitive categories?What is a concept, category? What is a concept, category? What is the difference between What is the difference between

vocabulary and terminology? vocabulary and terminology? What are characteristics of a classical What are characteristics of a classical

theory of categories?theory of categories?What are some of the challenges to the What are some of the challenges to the

Classical theory?Classical theory?

Recapitulation Recapitulation

Explain:Explain:Family resemblancesFamily resemblancesCentral and non-central membersCentral and non-central membersMetonymyMetonymyFuzzy set theoryFuzzy set theoryGraded structure paradigmGraded structure paradigmPrototypesPrototypesBasic level categories and featuresBasic level categories and featuresClusteringClusteringBias and stereotypesBias and stereotypes

Critical Reflection 8 Critical Reflection 8

• Rank the following in the order of being Rank the following in the order of being most representative to least most representative to least representative [1 as the most representative [1 as the most representative and 26 as the least representative and 26 as the least representative]: representative]:

Share your thoughts about the selected Share your thoughts about the selected ordering and explain your ranking system ordering and explain your ranking system based on the discussion on cognitive based on the discussion on cognitive categories. categories.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

frequ

ency

Data from the previous three classes: 136 students listed 36 types of fruits (included here 26 types)

Critical Reflection 9Critical Reflection 9

Pair up in teams of two. Read out the word Pair up in teams of two. Read out the word written on the slip of paper and ask your written on the slip of paper and ask your team mate to utter (without thinking) the team mate to utter (without thinking) the first five words related the word that you first five words related the word that you read out. Document your team mate’s read out. Document your team mate’s response. Share your thoughts about your response. Share your thoughts about your and your team-mate’s responses in and your team-mate’s responses in relation to the discussion on cognitive relation to the discussion on cognitive categories. categories.