Introduction to Islamic Theology

8/12/2019 Introduction to Islamic Theology

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INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC THEOLOGY

A study of some major theological issuesGENERAL INTRODUCTIONIt seems sometimes strange or even inadequate to talk about a subject such as Islamic Theologyparticularly in a Chritian environement because there is a traditional presumption that theology isChristian. But if theology (Greek word which means "study of God) could be defined as the studyof God not only as he is in himself but also as he is in relation to all created beings; if theology is asystematic discourse on revealed truth; if theology comprises all human efforts to understand andexplain the nature of the relations between God and man, why should we not talk about Jewtheology or Islamic theology, for instance, since Jews and Muslims believe in a God who created

the universe and revealed his will to mankind; and that Jews and Muslims strive to understand andexplain the revelation they claim to have received from God? Islamic theology could, therefore,comprise all the systematic work of Muslims as they try to know and understand God and hiscreatures, as they build up a systematic discourse on Gods will to mankind. According to AhmadIbn Hanbal, Islamic theology could be defined as the explanation of statements of the articles ofbelief based directly upon the words of the Quran and the Hadith.1 However, this discourse can beinitiated or is also initiated and developed by orientalists or scholars who are interested in studyingIslamic conceptions of God, the universe and their relations. Nevertheless, since Christianity isdifferent from Islam, we should be surprised to get different conclusions or differentunderstandings, perhaps, of similar realities.

Generally speaking, prophets are not theologians because the religious conception that theyawken, do not take the form of deliberately planned system. Theology begins when latergenerations, especially after a community has been formed, that some people feel called tointerpret the prophetic revelations and explain what could be seen as gaps. Thus the literal senseof the prophetic statements is clarified and conclusions are made. Before this inclination can beacted on, prophetic revelation must take the form of a holy scripture, a canonically fixed andformally defined text accepted by the majority. In the case of Islamic theology, the Quran is theformal text that contains the basic statements of Muslim belief.2

However, we ought to know that Muslim creed is rich and vast. It contains issues like the place ofMuhammad, the conception of revelation and the nature of the Quran, the nature of God, the

attributes of God, prophethood and Angelsbut here we study God in Islam and some traditionalissues that occured in the early history of Islam and marked the development of Islamic theology.

1Kenneth Cragg and Marston Speight, Islam from within. Anthology of a

Religion(California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 80), p. 118.2Cf. Ignaz Goldzher (Translated by Andras and Ruth Hamori),Introduction to

Islamic Theology and law, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp.

67-68.


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FIRST PARTI. MONOTHEISM: ITS DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ISLAM

INTRODUCTIONThe formula "L ilh ill llh, Muhammad rasl Allh" (there is no god save Allh and Muhammadis His prophet) is the most concentrated profession of faith of the Islamic belief in one God. It iscalled the shahda. Obviously, many people have heard that Islam, the religion preached byMuhammad, is one of the great monotheistic religions in the world. And most of those who studythe religions of the world have certainly read the shahda but do not realize the depths of thatexpression of faith. Thus, based on these statements, I wish objectively to present in this essay

the Islamic conception of God's unity. In this case, it is also our duty to research on its meaningand implications. For the Muslims, God (Allh) is the one and only deity. Right from Muhammad'spreaching, Muslims worship only one Supreme Being who is the Creator of heaven and earth. Thisis what the Qur'n preaches, the theologians defend and explain in different ways, and thephilosophers attempt to purify with the use of Hellenistic thinking. In the Qur'n, the unity of God isnoted almost in each sra (chapter) in order to show its importance in Islam. The Qur'n givessufficient testimony to Muslim belief in one God.

From the rise of Muhammad till the fall of the Umayyad Empire, the conception of God's unity wastaken without any questioning. But when the theologians and philosophers were allowed tocomment on Islamic dogmas, the question of the unity of God and, of course, other matters were

discussed as vastly as possible with a new outlook. Inasmuch as several books of the Greekphilosophers, especially those written by Plato, Aristotle and their immediate disciples, weretranslated and commented by the Muslim philosophers, reason found a place alongside revelation.Belief in one God reached another level. Two great schools, Mu`tazilism and Ash`arism, opposedeach other because they wanted to know if the essence of God is identical with or distinct from itsattributes. In fact the issue simply was how to purify the noble belief in one God and not a matterof doubting this truth. In spite of some differences, which can be noted between the Islamic andChristian monotheism, Islamic belief in this matter is that strict monotheism does not permit anyform of polytheism or idolatry. It also rejects any mediation or intermediary between God and man.At least belief in one God is the common point of all the monotheistic religions from where theycould build or continue the dialogue, which was undertaken almost five decades ago. In fact,

writing this essay, my purpose was to find a common point that could gather together Muslims andChristians so that they may solve their problems and live in peace.

A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDHistory, being a study of the past experience of man and his environment, tells us that each eventis usually influenced either negatively or positively by some previous phenomena. The advent ofIslam which is an event sui generiswas surely influenced by various and important civilizations,thoughts, philosophies and religions. Furthermore, monotheism, which is the essential feature of


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the religion founded by Muhammad,3 was as well influenced by several previous monotheisticideas expressed either implicitly or explicitly. In short, the religious thought of pre-Islamic Arabiaand the rest of the Middle East can be compared with Islamic monotheism.

Pre-Islamic Arabian thoughtMuslims refer to Arabian culture before the birth of Muhammad asjhiliyyah. In fact,z

the term Jahiliyyah, usually rendered time of ignorance or barbarism, in reality means theperiod in which Arabia had no dispensation, no inspired prophet, no revealed book; forignorance and barbarism can hardly be applied to such a cultured and lettered society asthat developed by the south Arabians.4

Thus, it is advisable for us to examine the religious situation of that period for a betterunderstanding of Islamic monotheism. Before that, let us look at how the geographical and culturalsituation led Arabians to focalise their thinking to a spiritual life.

Geographical and Cultural situationThe land of Arabia determines in one way or the other the cultural and religious situation of thecountry. In other words the position of Arabia influences its culture, and culture goes with religion.Arabia is a peninsula, which is divided into two main parts: the north and the south. Both of themare covered by the Arabian Desert. Because of the desert, any organization based on fixeddwellings was impossible especially in the north where Bedouins lived. P.M. Holt observes: TheBedouins of the desert and the sedentarized nomads of the oases are two main representatives ofthe arid area dwellers in the north.5The south, different from the north because of its favourite climate, had an advanced civilizationbased on agriculture.6

In spite of this distinction, both northerners and southerners were submitted to desert law whichinfluenced them in all their thoughts, needs and deeds. That is why they were animist. The maintowns (Makka, 'if and Medina) followed the same law. The Arabians believed that inanimateobjects, such as trees, stones and springs, housed spirits which could influence the lives of men.7In anything they did or thought, Arabians bore in their mind not only the presence but also theinfluence of spirits. Taylor says that animism, so defined, was the core of all religions. Accordingto him, the term "spirits" applies to gods and divinities.8 Arabia was not exempted from this

3Robert Caspar, "The permanent signification of Islam's monotheism," in Concilium.Religion in the eighties(Edimburgh: T. and T. Clark Ltd, 1985), pp. 67-78.

4Philip Hitti,History of the Arabs, from the earliest times to the present(London:Macmillan, 9th ed. 1968), p. 87.

5P.M. Holt (ed.), The Cambridge history of Islam, vol. 1, The central Islamic lands,(Cambridge: University Press, 1970), p. 5.

6Carl Brockelman,History of the islamic peoples, (New York: Capricorn books), 1960),p. 582.

7Philip Hitti K, op. cit., p. 15.

8Philip Hitti, "Arabia" in The Encyclopedia Americana, (New York: Americana

Corporation, vol 1, 1927).


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common idea. Again, Arabians lived broadly a hard and poor life because of the desert. We canimagine that a change which might help them to live a better life was expected. W. MontgomeryWatt points this out in a particular way:Thus there is a belief, put into Muhammad's mouth in different forms, that four things are decided for ahuman being while he is still an embryo in the womb. According to one version, Anas ibn-Mlik reported ofthe prophet that he said, "God has entrusted an angel with the womb... when God will to complete theforming of it."9

This statement leads us to believe that the geographical situation of Arabia led Arabians to trust inspiritual life. "If God wills" is an old sentence. It makes us think of monotheism beforeMuhammad. H.A.A. Gibb relates:The old legend that Islam was born of the desert is taking a long time to die. Since Renan popularized theview that monotheism is the natural religion of the desert, it seemed a plausible argument that Muhammad's insistence on the unity and unapproachable greatness of God was simply a reflection of the vast

changeless wastes of Arabia.10

In fact, the life of the city is different from desert life. Desert life makes man acknowledge hislimitations and order his relationship with the infinite. Desert life raises more a religiousconsciousness.

The religious situation of pre-Islamic thoughtIslam as a culture and a civilization; is first and foremost a religion. Thus taking into account whatis said above, we realize that the religion, which stands on the Qurn, came to build on previousArabian religion. As far as we are concerned hic et nunc, this opinion stimulates us to study theArabian religion before Muhammad.

Arabians were always religious men but their religion before Muhammad was in a primitive stage.It was polytheism. Along with their belief in spirits, Arabians worshipped several deities and builtsanctuaries and temples in many places where they kept their idols. The city of Makka, whereIslamic faith was first revealed, was the most important religious centre. Hitti said:The name Makkah, the Macoruba of Ptolemy, comes from Sabaen Makumba, meaning that it owes itsfoundation to some religious associations and therefore must have been a religious centre long beforeMuhammad was born.11

So tribal deities who were very important were represented by some idols at Makka in order tosustain the tribal life. For instance, NorthernersOften carried their idols with them when they travelled, presuming that the idols had permitted its

worshippers to travel. All these statues, whether in the Ka'bah, around it or scattered around the tribes orthe provinces, were regarded as intermediaries between their worshippers and the supreme God. Theyregarded the worship of them as a means of rapprochement with God even though in reality, that sameworship had caused them to forget the true worship of God.12

9Montgomery Watt, What is Islam(London: Longman, 1968), p. 23.

10H.A.R. Gibb,Islam. A Historical Survey, (London: University Press, 1975), p. 1.

11Philip Hitti, op. cit,p. 103.

12Muhammad Husayn, The life of Muhammad, (Lagos: Academy Press, 1982), p. 20.


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Now it is obvious that Arabians before the rise of Islam bore in mind the idea of the supreme God,one and great. Arabians were polytheists because each tribe had its own gods or divinities. Evenin this level, the tribal god became greater than other gods of other tribes. Arabia was movingtowards henotheism?13

However these gods or godesses linked Arabians to the supreme one. In fact, among the godsworshiped all over the Arabian land, Mant, `Uzza and al-Lt were predominant. These three weredaughters of Allh, the supreme God. We will not be surprised that Allh was the principal God ofArabia though not the only deity of Makkah. It is clearly seen that his name is an ancient one.It occurs in two south Arabic inscriptions, one a Minaean found at al-`Ula and other a Sabeaan, but aboundsin the form H L H in the Lihyamite inscription of the fifth century BC14

In this period, though monotheism was not as clear as it is in Islam, Arabians worshipped one god

through many deities. On the eve of Islam, some native Arabians tried to abandon their deities inorder to worship only one God. That is Hannifiya.

The HannifiyaAs soon as Arabians entered into relationship with other religions, namely Judaism andChristianity, some of them adopted the Hannifiya, which was a kind of monotheistic faith butdifferent from either Judaism or Christianity.Hanfappears repeatedly in the Qur'n as the name of those who possess the real and true religion; it isused particularly of Abraham as the representative of the pure worship of God. As a rule it contrasts himwith the idolaters... but in one or two passages it at the same time describes him as one who was neither aJew nor a Christian.15

Muhammad himself acknowledged the Hannifiya as a true religion: "And further (thus): set thy facetowards religions with true piety, and never in any wise be of the Unbelievers" (Qur'n 10:105).Monotheism was the principal feature of the Hannifiya. A anf is one who had abandoned idolatryand polytheism to worship only one God. Before the coming of Islam, Muhammad was not alone infeeling the need of monotheism.16 Though towards the end of the fifth and the beginning of thesixth centuries, paganism was more influential, the coming and the spread of the two greatmonotheistic religions, Judaism and Christianity in Arabia, had reinforced monotheism.

Thus, looking at Arabia before Islam, we discover that the unity of God was known a long timebefore Muhammad. Islam therefore is considered as a continuation, revival and purification of

primitive monotheism.

13Robert Caspar , Trait de thologie musulmane.Histoire de pense religieuse

musulmane, (Rome: P.I.S.A.I, 1987), p. 7.

14Philip Hitti, op. cit, p. 100.

15.A.R. Gibb, Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam(New York: Cornell University Press, 1961).

16James, E.O., Comparative religion, (London: Metheun, 1961), p. 203.


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JudaismJudaism is a religion of the Jews whose founder is Abraham. Like Islam, Judaism is more than areligion because, for the Jews, it is a way of life; it contains commandments, rites traditions andbeliefs. Contrary to other religions of Semitic world, Judaism is monotheism with a revealed book.Since the time of the Patriarchs, but developed after exile, Judaism is contained in the book calledTorah.The Torah was given only as a means of purifying men - so runs a famous rabbinic dictum. It is noimpossible set of demands, meant for angels or a very few men of superior piety. Its wisdom andordinances are the way of holiness for all men, even the most ordinary among them.17

Through the Torah, Jews honoured God, one and Creator of the universe. He is mighty andpowerful; no single creature can represent him. He is also unseen but he is always with hispeople. "You will have no gods other than me. You must not make yourselves any image or anylikeness of anything in heaven above or on earth" (Dt 5, 7-8).

Judaism is also guided by a tradition. Tradition carries along with its values and patterns ofbehaviour so that the young ones will be enlightened. In time of crisis, tradition was called tochallenge and to give the truth. Torah and tradition are the source of Judaism. Priests are guardsof Torah and tradition; they were also ministers of the cult that rendered God praise andforgiveness. To honour God faithfully, the Jews have some festivals namely, the Sabbath, thePassover, the Shabuoth, Sukkoth and Yom Kippur. In short, Judaism is the life of Jews. It helpsJews to live faithfully with God and their fellowmen, to keep God's commands and to be preparedagainst various systems.

In fact the belief of the countries surrounding Judaism was quite different. Jews were the only

monotheistic people in the Semitic world, so that Judaism suffered from within and without.Because of its monotheistic concept of God and its consequences, Judaism was always in conflictand war with its surroundings. By the way, there was also great influence from the outside, whichbrought some deviation in the religious practice of the Jews. Jews borrowed from all the countriessurrounding it. In spite of this deviation, Jewish nationalism made the survival of monotheismpossible and so it continues till the present day.

Really, with the fore-going information and analysis, some may say that Arabian traditional pre-Islamic thought, as well as the traditions and philosophy of the ancient world, together withJudaism, gave birth to Islamic monotheism. If they did not give birth to it, at least all these ancientideas did influence Islam widely and strongly. Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, adopted some,

corrected a little and rejected what was totally against his revelation and its implications. The newMuslim community superseded the old Arabian tribal society, which drew inspiration from the wholeSemitic world.

17Arthur Hertzberg,Judaism, (New York: George Braziller, 1962), p. 256.


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B. MONOTHEISM IN THE QUR'AN

IntroductionWe saw in the first chapter that the Islamic conception of God (Allh) has a very rich and largebackground. We also agreed that the pre-Islamic thought has much in common with the thought ofnearby ancient civilizations. We even can say that Islamic monotheism was inpired by thosethoughts, but we have not yet brought out its meaning and development properly within Islam. Sowe should look at the first source of Islam, the Qur'n from which we find the earliest proclamationand the first development of Islamic monotheism. Arthur Jeffery wrote:

The Qur'n is the scripture of Islam. It is called the noble Qur'n, the glorious Qur'n, the mighty Qur'n, butnever the holy Qu'rn save by modern, western-educated Muslims who are imitating the title holy Bible. Itcontains the substance of Muhammad's deliverances during the twenty odd years of his public ministry. It isclear that he had been preparing a book for his community which would be for them what the Old Testamentwas for the Jews and the New Testament for the Christians, but he died before his book was ready, andwhat we have in Qur'n is what his followers were able to gather together after his death and issue as thecorpus of his revelations.18

The Qur'n is the first source of Islam and Muslims claim that It is first a revealed message. Infact, it is a written book with 114 sras in which, claim the Muslims, Allh himself reveals to manwho He is so that man will live according to His will. In this way the Qur'n purports to be the wordof God, which directs Muslims in their various ways. That is why the importance of the Qur'n is

compared to what is given to the Old Testament for Jews and to the New Testament for Christians.The Qur'n talks about Allh in different ways gathered together in three themes: First Allh is Godof creation, judgment and retribution; secondly, He is God omnipotent and merciful. Thirdly, He isunique and One in Himself.19 Furthermore, as the Qur'n is presented as the unchageable theword of God, it gives a permanent significance to Islamic monotheism that may be interpreted laterin one way or the other by different Islamic schools or groups. The Qur'n gives the essence of thebelief in one God in Islam. According to Kenneth Cragg:The Qur'n, for Muslims, is the ultimate literature. Having it means a human literacy reading a divinewriting. There is first the literacy of Muhammad in the vocation of prophetic word and action in the name ofGod: then the scripture in the active possession of the prophet's hearers, reading and rehearing his wordsas the directive of their being and the bond of their community. Everything in the world, wrote a French

poet, exists to come to climax in a book. In a very different idiom, that is what Muslim finding their Qur'n,the one great book which is the utmost in language and meaning, the crux of truth in literary forum - notbook about something more intimate than itself but itself the sum and centre.20

18Arthur Jeffery,Islam, Muhammad and his religion, (New York: The Liberal Arts Press,1958), p. 47.

19Cf. The Encyclopedia of Islam,(London: Luzac and Co., vol. 1, 1960).

20Kenneth Cragg, The Mind of the Qur'n. Chapters in reflection(London: George Allen,1973), p. 13.


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The Qurnic preachingAt the beginning of the seventh century of the Christian era, precisely from 610 to 632, Muhammadclaimed to receive the revelation from Allh and started to proclaim the word of Allh as he claimedto be told.A Muslim tradition tells us that sra XCVI was the first to come down to the prophet Muhammad; so themission entrusted to him was from the first the preaching of the word of Allh. Allh, as is said toMuhammad in this first sra, is thy Lord, creator of man, the very generous, who teaches man that which heknew not.21

Though Allh was known before the rise of Islam, with Muhammad, the conception of Allhchanged. We know that Allh was one of the Meccan deities, even the supreme deity but thepreaching of the Qur'n conceived Him as universal, one and transcendent. In fact, Muhammaddid not try at all to prove the existence of God.

The existence of God is strongly affirmed in all the sras. Muhammad talked about God who isand was revealed to him. The first sra (of the present text) which is called the "the opening" al-Ftiabecause of its importance in alt and in many other forms of prayer, gives the most precioussubstance of Islamic doctrine.22 The formula "In the name of Allh, most Gracious, most Merciful"Bi-smi-llhi r-Ramni r-Ram, which is placed before all the sras except sra 9, shows that theGod that Muhammad proclaimed not only exists but also is the most Gracious and the mostMerciful. Muhammad believed in the living God; that is why he praises him "Praise to Allh, theCherisher and Sustainer of the worlds" (sra 1:2), and worships him: "Thee do we worship andthine aid we seek" (sra 1:5). Moreover, Muhammad calls God the "Master of the day ofjudgement" (sra 1:4). Nowadays Montgomery W. Watt tells us that al-Ftiawas considered bysome Muslims as an individual prayer of Muhammad.23 On realizing this, we see more or less how

Mohammad was convinced that his call was real and true and came from the living God. sra 3:2says: "Allh! There is no God but He, the Living, the Self-Subsisting, Eternal". He is unseen; Heexists: "This is the book; in it is guidance, sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allh; who believein the unseen, are steadfast in prayer, and spend out of what we have provided for them" (sra2:2-3). He is present among us; He gives signs to those who obey Him. It is what is said in sra2:251-252: "By Allh's will they routed them: And David slew Goliath; and Allh gave him powerand wisdom and taught him whatever (else) He willed. And did not Allh check one set of peopleby means of another, the earth would indeed be full of mischief: but Allh is full of bounty to all theworlds". By analysing all these verses mentioned above, we realize that Muhammad, instead ofproving the existence of God, presented the attributes, the will and the nature of God in whom hebelieved. His preaching on which all Islamic doctrines are built was to tell his contemporaries that

Allh is the creator of the universe, that he is one. In other words, the Qur'nic preaching shedlight on the vague knowledge that the pre-islamic Arabs had. Louis Gardet asserts:But the vague notion of supreme (not sole) divinity, which Allh seems to have connoted in Meccan religion,has to become both universal and transcendental; it has to be turned by the Kur'anic preaching, into theaffirmation of the living God, the Exalted one.24

21The Encyclopedia of Islam, (London: Luzac and Co., vol. 1, 1960).

22Montgomery Watt, Companion to the Qur'n(London: George Allen, 1967), pp. 13-14.

23Ibid., p. 14.

24Cf. The Encyclopedia of Islam, (London: Luzac and Co, vol. 1, 1960).


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In Rgis Blachre's periodization of the Qur'n, we find that, among the themes developed in thethree Meccan periods, the preaching of God's oneness is emphasized implicitly or explicitlyeverywhere (cf. sras 112, 52, 73, 70). The oneness of God is also stressed in the Medinanperiod.25 For instance, in referring to Judaism and Christianity, the Qur'n denounces their sinagainst the belief in one, unique and transcendental God. The Qur'nic preaching hinges on theoneness of God; so it is very imperative for us to point out its meaning.

The meaning of Islamic monotheismIt is evident that Islam is a monotheistic religion. Some scholars may even say that Muslimspractice a strict monotheism. Indeed Islam is one of the three great monotheistic religions besideJudaism and Christianity. A Rahman I. Doi says:Islam teaches and preaches monotheismthe belief in one God. This belief is known as the unity ofGod-head. The belief is the foundation stone of Islam. It governs the religious faith, designs the social

pattern and gives life to the oral codes.26

We can imagine that monotheism is the central feature of Islam. The statement quoted aboveshows how it governs the internal and external expression of Islam. Robert Caspar expresses thisas follows:Belief in the one transcendent God is undoubtedly the specific feature of Islam in two senses. First, it

distinguishes it from the other great monotheistic religions: If Israel is rooted in hope andChristianity vowed to charity, Islam is centred on faith... Secondly, belief in the one transcendent God is theaxis around which all Islam's doctrine and practice is organized.27

By emphasizing the importance of the Qur'n and how it expresses monotheism, Robert Casparadds:The whole Koran is nothing other than an urgent and reiterated repetition of that faith, of its history inhumanity and its consequences in personal and social life. It could be called the one, sufficient dogma.28

One dogma, one God: the Qur'n repeats this in many places. Thus, in the following sub-sections,we shall point out two main factors that clarify the meaning of Islamic belief in one God.

The unity of God (tawd)"L ilha ill llh, there is no god save Allh" is the digest of Islamic unity. This is the first article ofthe Islamic creed, which describes the God in whom Muhammad believed. It is called theshahda. As Muhammad was to challenge the the beliefs of his contemporaries, he was to definethe God in whom he believed by differentiating his conception of God from that of his

contemporaries, thus giving the real meaning of his call. Kenneth Graff reports:

25Cf. Rgis Blachre,Le Coran(Paris: P.U.F, 1966), pp. 32-62.

26Rahman Doi, The cardinal principles of Islam, (Lagos: Islamic Publication Bureau,1972), p. 38.

27Robert Caspar, "The permanent significance of Islam's monotheism," in Concilium,

(Edinburgh: T and T. Clark Ltd., 1985), pp. 67-68.

28Ibid., p. 68.


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As for the question which might be asked, that is which you have asked, as to "He is God", it is narrated thatthe Quraish said; "O Muhammad, describe your Lord to us, the one to whom you call us." It was then thatthese words were given in revelation. "One" here is in opposition (to God) or may be taken as a second

predicate. It indicates the manifold attributes of God's majesty and points to all the elements of (his)perfection. For the truly one is transcendent in essence above all seriality and multiplicity. For He has noneed of these as physical, partial and participant entities certainly do.29

The revelation that Muhammad claimed to receive was not given at once. It came progressivelyaccording to the problems he faced. Because the Quraysh asked Muhammad to "describe yourLord to us", revelation came down to enable Muhammad to explain and defend what he had said.The request of the Quraysh shows us that at the beginning Muhammad called people to believe inone God. Abd-al-Rahman Azzam said:If we were to analyse the life of Muhammad in Mecca and contemplate the content of his message, wewould discover that Muhammad devoted his heart and efforts and offered his life and the lives of hisfollowers to the crystallization of the first fundamental belief in the unity of God. He fought his enemies andmade peace with them; he shunned and then forgave them; and he appealed to people of other religions(Christians and Jews) to join with him in one common belief: worship of the one God, a worship which wouldadmit no partners.30

We now know that Muhammad taught his followers belief in one God. Thus it is certain thatMuhammad had a monotheistic conception of God, though some scholars say that at thebeginning, the expression "Allh akbar" meant henotheism not monotheism. But what kind ofmonotheism did Muhammad preach? Was it a simple idea? H.A.R. Gibb and J.H. Framersanswer this question as follows:But unity is far from being a simple idea; it may be internal or external; it may mean that there is no othergod except Allh, who has no partner, it may mean that Allh is a oneness in himself; it may mean that he is

the only being with real or absolute existence, all other being having merely a contingent existence; it mayeven be developed into a pantheistic assertion that Allh is all.31

The above statement does not clarify the issue but rather gives the opportunity to raise morequestions to develop the unity of God in Islam as it is really conceived.

C. ISLAMIC MONOTHEISM CONTRASTED WITH POLYTHEISM AND IDOLATRY

The conception of God in the Qur'n modified the shahda as soon as the belief in one Godbecame more intimate to Muhammad and to his followers.32 The shhada, "There is no god but

God", became a confession and later on an adoration as is expressed in srah 21:87: "Andremember Dh-Nn, when he departed in wrath: He imagined that we had no power over him! But

29Kenneth Cragg, op. cit., p. 63.

30Abd-al-Rahmn Azzam, The eternal message of Muhammad, (New York: AmericaLibrary, 1965), p. 53.

31H.A.R. Gibb and J.H. Kramers, Shorter encyclopedia of Islam, (New York: Corneil

University Press, 1961).



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he cried through the depths of darkness. There is no god but thou: Glory to thee: I was indeedwrong". Wilfred Contnell Smith commented:To say that there is one God, and He alone is to be worshipped, means at its most immediate, as it meant in

pagan Arabia when it has first proclaimed, a rejection of polytheism and idolatry.33

According to many scholars of Islam, such as Watt, Anawati, Blachre, Gardet, Jomier and nowWilfred Smith, Islamic monotheism contrasts with both polytheism and idolatry.34 For instance,sra 27:63-64 says: "Or, who guides you through the depths of darkness on land and sea, and whosends the winds as heralds of glad tidings, going before his mercy? [Can there be Another] godbesides Allh? High is Allh above what they associate with him! Or, who originates creation,then repeats it, and who gives you sustenance from heaven and earth? [Can there be another]god besides Allh? Say, bring forth your argument, if ye are telling the truth!". To appreciate thenislamic monotheism, we have to separate from it every idea of another god. Worship is due only toAllh, not to any idols or god. Even angels are servants of God; they should not be worshipped.

"He doth send down these angels with inspiration of this command, to such of his servants as Hepleaseth, (saying): warn (man) that there is no god but I: so do your duty unto me" (sra 16:2). Inadition, Montgomery Watt says:This is the most extreme criticism of paganism in the Qur'n, denying all reality to the pagan deities;elsewhere it is allowed that some of them may be angels, though this still does not make it permissible toworship them.35

With regard to idols, Montgomery Watt comments on sra 53:15-22, at the same time clarifying ouropinion:The idols mentioned were known as daughters of God, though this does not imply a family system, as inGreek mythology? But only that these were (in the eyes of those who used the phrase) divine beings of asort, subordinate to God.36

Allh is the only God. With this confession, Muhammad came to liberate his contemporaries fromtheir ignorance. Muhammad refers to thejhiliyya, the time during which Arabs did not know thetrue God who must be worshipped and not others. Muhammad also came to unify Arabs byworship of the Creator of the universe so that his glory will shine on them and they may havesalvation. This is what Kenneth Cragg is talking about in these lines:In that sense, the shahdah itself, there is no god but God, is not simply a proposition that negates but adisqualification that unifies. It does not proclaim itself as an idea but as a veto and liberation.37

In fact, it is no wonder that Muhammad, who claimed to have receive the revelation of the unity ofAllh, reacted strongly against the pagan idolatry and polytheism of his time and before. Moreover,

33Wilfred Cantwell Smith, On understanding Islam. Selected studies(Paris: MontonPublishers, 1981), p. 33.

34Cf. sras 2:225; 27:60-64; 6:101; 90:14.

35Montogomery Watt, Companion to the Qur'n(London: George

Allen, 1967), p. 245.

36Loc. cit.



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shirk (associating other divinities with God) is the greatest sin which cannot be forgiven. It isobvious that to worship idols or any god than Allh is to contradict Muhammad's message. It isalso to deny the real nature of God inasmuch as polytheism has no place in the shahda.

Again, Muhammad's opposition to polytheism and idolatory was the main reason for his fightagainst his countrymen. He fought them because they believed and worshipped many gods ordeities. Polytheism is more than a sin, it is the greatest sin, the unforgivable sin. The God ofMuhammad is one. There is nothing like him on earth and in heaven. "Verify, I am Allh; there isno god but I: so serve thou one [only] I and establish regular prayer for celebrating my praise" (sra20:14). The formula "There is no deity but God" also means that there is nothing from eternity in itsessence and attributes but God and nothing is necessary everlasting but God. It is only God whois Self-subsistance and has power over everything possible.38 But some scholars report thatMuhammad was still compromising with some deities. This is said in the passage called "Satanicverses".

The Satanic versesThe Satanic verses, which are related by at-abar and later on reported by Watt and RobertCaspar, are no longer in the present Qur'n. Looking for ways to win his people, Muhammad cameto pronounce the satanic verses. Joseph Kenny, quoting at-Tabar, says:The Messenger of God was looking for way to win a truce and rapprochement with his people.. When hesaw that his people had turned away from him and nothing to do with what he brought them from God, hewas pained and desired a message from God that would reconcile himself with his people. Because of hislove and desire for them he would be glad if the bone of their contention could be softened a little. Hethought much about it and desire it very much. Then God revealed, "By the star when it goes down, yourcompanion has not gone astray nor erred; nor does he speak what he feels like saying" (Q 53:1-3), until the

words, "Have you seen al-Lt, al-Ùzz and Mant?" (Q 53:19-20). At this point Satan put on his lips whathe was thinking in himself and his people wanted to hear from him: "Those are the high flying ghurnqs[Numidian cranes] whose intersession can be counted on".39

Originally, the Satanic verses existed after verses 19 and 20 of sra 53. Rgis Blachre keeps it inhis translation: "Avez-vous considr al-Lt et al-Ùzza et Mant, cette troisime autre? Ce sontles sublimes desses et leur intercession est certes souhaite".40 In them, Muhammad seemed toaccept the mediation of al-Lt, al-Ùzza and Mant. This meant that Muhammad, after affirmingthe unity of God, continued to compromise with polytheism. However, it is accepted in Islam that insome cases God allows Satan to confus a prophet. Sra 22:52 puts it in this way: "Never did hesend an Apostle or a prophet before thee, but, when he formed a desire, Satan threw some [vanity]into his desire: but Allh will cancel anything [vain] that Satan throws in, and Allh will confirm [andestablish] his signs: For Allh is full of knowledge and wisdom".

38Joseph Kenny,Muslim theology as presented by M. b. Yusuf As-Sanusi especially in hisAl-àqida Al-Wust(Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1970), p. 109.

39Joseph Kenny,Muhammad and the rise of Islam. A critical

presentation of the background and major Muslim sources(1992),

p. 25.

40Rgis Blachre,Le Coran (Paris: G.P. Maisonneuve, 1966).


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The intention and zeal of Muhammad were to proclaim the pure unity of God. In sra 109, hedefinitely broke with polytheism: "Say: o ye that reject faith! I worship not that which ye worship; norwill ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that ye have been wont to worship, norwill ye worship that which I worship. To you be your way, And to me mine."

Islamic monotheism contrasted with Christian ideas of divine Fatherhood and SonshipOriginally tawhd (the unity of God) was asserted against the Arabs, but later on Muhammadextended it to Christians who worship Jesus as Son of God. Sra 6:101 says: "To him is due theprimal origin of the heavens and the earth: How can He have a son when he hath no consort? Hecreated all things, and he hath full knowledge of all things". So Islamic monotheism does notpermit any equal or partner with Allh. The gods of ancient Arabia certainly had wives andchildren. Even in pre-Islamic Arabian thought, Allh, the supreme God among others, had his ownchildren. We remember that all over the Arabian land, Mant, al-`Ozza and al-Lt were conceived

as daughters of Allh and were worshipped. Hence, Islamic monotheism does not accept anyfatherhood or sonship because Allh has no consort or partner. "He is Lord of the East and theWest: there is no god but He: take Him therefore for (thy) Disposer of affairs" (sra 73:9). In thesame vein, Muhammad Zafrulla Khan wrote:The Qur'n not only excludes all idea of any equal or partner with Allh, it specifically excludes all idea of hishaving a son except in the purely metaphorical sense in which all mankind are his children, and in which thepeacemakers are spoken of in the Bible, as the children of God (Matt 5:9). God is ever-living, All-knowing,All-hearing, the Creator of all, whose authority extends over everything. To attribute a son, in any but thepurely metaphorical sense, to God, would amount to a denial of his unity and in effect to a denial of hisGodhead.41

Thus Muslims reject the Christian teaching that Jesus is Son of God, or even a person in God'sunity.

Jacques Jomier mentions:For the Muslim, monotheism does not signify only the unity of God, because there can be several persons inthe unity. Monotheism in Islam is the absolute oneness of God which formally does away with the notion ofpersons participating in the divinity... All forms or philosophies of an incarnate God are excluded by themonotheism of Islam, as are blind obedience to dictators, to clergy or to one's own whims and desires.42

Thus the oneness of God came to mean both an external and internal unity of God. It is externalfor it does not accept the existence of another god; it is internal because it does not admit anyperson within God. Islamic monotheism rejects the theology of the Trinity because, say Muslims, it

sins against the oneness of God. The God of Muhammad is one and not three in one.

Thus, in his combat not only with the Mekkans, but also with Christians, Muhammad gave in sra112 the last formula of monotheism which will never change. He said: "Say: He is Allh, the oneand only; Allh, the Eternal, the Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none

41Muhammad Zafrulla Khan,Islam. Its meaning for modernman(New York: Harper, vol. 7, 1962), p. 93.

42Jacques Jomier,How to understand Islam(London: SCMPress Ltd, 1989), p. 40.


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like unto Him". With these four verses, short but very powerful, significant and determining,Muhammad affirmed a very strict monotheism. Moreover, Islamic monotheism implies also thetranscendence of God.

D. THE TRANSCENDANCE OF GODBefore going into the consequences of Islamic monotheism, we would like to explain a little aboutthe transcendence of God in the Qur'n. Indeed, the Islamic monotheism also includes thetranscedence of God. God is one and transcendent. Being the creator of all things, God is notonly different from all creatures but above all. "And there is none like unto him " (sra 112,4).Robert Caspar is explicit on that :This one God is transcendent, in the exact sense of the term. He is the totally other and nothing islike Him. The idea of creation introduces a radical division between the creator and creatures, incontrast to religions based on emanation or mystical experience.43

While we talk about transcendence, we do not mean distance, for God is close to man and theQur'n says that God always invites man to come close to him. But what the transcendence ofGod rejects is the concept of any intermediary or mediation other than the Qur'n. Robert Casparproclaims:While the Koran seems to accept some cases of intercession (the angels, the prophet), both ancient andmodern Islam make a boast of this rejection: no meditation, still less if there is question of incarnate God, nochurch, no sacraments; an extremely sober liturgy in bare mosques, where the believer is alone before God,even at the Friday common prayer.44

If God sometimes allows angels (e.g. the angel Gabriel) and prophets (Moses, Jesus and

Muhammad) to bring his word to man, He cannot permit at all the reality of the incarnate soncoming down from Heaven as the mediator between God and man. We give here someconsequences of belief in one and transcendent God.

E. CONSEQUENCES OF ISLAMIC MONOTHEISMThe belief in one transcendent God has, of course, many implications, since faith in one Godmoves and guides all the life (social, physical, spiritual) of a Muslim. Some of these implicationswill be considered here.

First, Islamic monotheism leads Muslims to conceive God as all-powerful, Almighty who will neverfail because he is not contingent. He knows everything and his knowledge will never cease.Furthermore Muslims attribute the organization of the world to the oneness of God. It is becauseHe is one that he orders and organises the universe; otherwise the world would have been in

43Ibid., p. 69.

44Ibid., p. 69.


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chaos.45 Second, Islamic monotheism brings together the temporal and the spiritual life. Weremember that Islam is at once religion, politics, culture and civilization. Robert Caspar testifies:In relation to social life, the Moslem city, the role sovereignty of God leads to a rejection of a separation

between temporal and spiritual (dn and duny), and so to state religion (dn al-dawla).46

Third, Muslims strongly believe in the Qur'nic message, for it came from God who is righteous.Therefore his righteousness makes his message true. As we know the Qur'n claims to be arevealed book and that Muhammad is nothing more than a prophet. This idea goes with what Abd-al-Rahman Azzam said:The wisdom of this is clear: From belief in the one God stems all that is righteous; it makes forrighteousness in the message. It is the bond that limits all the component parts of the message andstrengthens them, for its position is comparable to the relationship of the soul to the body, which falls slack,deteriorates and vanishes once the soul departs from it.47

If God is not one, how can he be righteous? The oneness of God makes his message one andrighteous. It goes without saying that for Muslims the Qur'n, which is the message come downfrom God who is one, must be righteous. Moreover, Islamic monotheism determines the attitude ofeach Muslim. Muslims understand that inasmuch as God is one and transcendent, it is He whogives existence to anyone he wants.

Thus man should adore him and serve him by keeping his law, because it is in this way that he canbe saved. The Qur'n says: "And the servants of Allh Most Gracious are those who walk on theearth in Humility, and when the ignorant address them, they say, peace (sra 25:63). The Qur'ncontinues by saying: "Their messengers said to them: We are only human like yourselves, butAllh bestows favour upon whomsoever he willeth of his servants" (sra 14:13). So if everybody

who follows Allh is his servant (`abd), inequality does not have any place in the Islamic Umma;equality and brotherhood will be the attitude of all Muslims. In the same way, it implies that nobodyrecieved special gift from God which may make him greater than others. Because of His oneness,Allh, and no other one, is ruler of the universe. Belief in the unity of God promotes not only thesense of brotherhood but also equality.Furthermore Professor Joseph Kenny who studied the principles and the consequences of theIslamic monotheism in the philosophical point of view, wrote:Comme une variation de la shahda, n'importe quel attribut de Dieu ou nom de Dieu peut tre remplac par"ilha". Par exemple, "personne n'est fort (qadr) sauf Dieu". La thologie ash'arite avait utilis de telsnoncs pour soutenir son enseignement cardinal selon lequel il n'y a aucun pouvoir dans la nature; oupour tre exact, la nature, comme principe d'action, n'existe pas. Seul Dieu agit directement tout instant l'occasion de la conjonction de ce qui apparat tre une cause et un effet.48


46Robert Caspar, op. cit., p. 71.

47`Abd-al-Rahmn Azzam, op. cit., p. 56.

48Joseph Kenny,La philosophie du monde Arabe. Auteurs etthmes principaux(Kinshasa: F.C.K., 1994), p. 32.


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Allh is one, almighty and powerful, therefore no creature has power over others, because it iseven He who determines all human acts. He is the principle of life. Indeed the Qur'n attributessome responsibilities to man but accepts that it is Allh who determines and guides. "Then seestthou such a one as takes as his god his own vain desire? Allh has, knowing [him as such], ledhim astray, and sealed his hearing and his heart [and understanding], and a cover on his sight:who, then, will guide him after Allh [has withdrawn guidance]? Will ye not then receiveadmonition?" (sra 45:23). Also, in the al-fatih, it is said that it is Allh who shows the straightway to man.

The second consequence Professor Kenny noticed is the absence of any philosophical ethics, for ifAllh guides nature, it means the nature cannot decide on its behalf. Can the nature say that thisis good or bad? Professor Joseph Kenny says:Le prochain pas dans le processus logique serait de nier la validit d'une thique philosophique. Si lemonde naturel n'a aucune conduite rgulire qui lui est propre, nous ne pouvons pas considrer la nature

humaine et dire que quelque chose est bon ou mauvais pour elle, parce que tout cela dpend de la libredcision de Dieu.49

Beings are not good or bad in themselves; an action is only good or bad because God declares itto be so. Nobody, nothing can challenge him.

The meaning of the unity of God, which has been explained, contains several implications. I hopethat those, which are exposed, are more or less sufficient to understand what Islamic monotheismis and what it implies in the Qur'n.

F. CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AS ISLAM SEES ITJudaism, Christianity and Islam are known as monotheistic religions because of their commonbelief in one, unique and supreme God, creator of heaven and earth. After studying Islamicdoctrine, we notice that only a small number of the Muslims accept Christian monotheism.50Muslims say that Christianity had a true monotheism in the past but with the dogmas of the Trinityand the Incarnation, it has deviated from what was preached by Jesus himself. Jacques Jomierwrites:Christianity as Islam sees it is essentially the form of the unique religion, eternal and immutable, which Godwilled to be valid for the children of Israel at a particular moment in history. It was preached by Jesus, butlittle by little his disciples moved away from his message and God sent Muhammad to remedy thesituation.51

In addition, Muslims reject any existent comparable to God. Muhammad `Abduh puts it in this way:The necessary Being is one in His essence, His attributes, His existence and His acts. His essential unitywe have established in the foregoing denial of compositeness in Him, whether in reality or conceptually.That He is unique in His attributes means that no existent is equal to Him therein.52

49Ibid., p. 35.

50Jacques Jomier, op. cit.,pp. 105-108.

51Ibid.,p. 103.

52Muhammad `Abdul, The theology of Unity(London: George Allen, 1966), p. 51.


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So based on this statement and on what we have already said in the second and third chapters,there is no room for the Trinity and the incarnation of Jesus, in Islamic monotheism. These are

simply kinds of polytheism and idolatry. Because of that, according to some Muslimfundamentalists, conversion to Christianity is nonsense; it is a regression. Christianity is seen inthe light of the Qur'n. What the Qur'n says about Christianity is true and sufficient. JacquesJomier says:The first principle is that the only true source which allows a knowledge of Christianity is the Qur'n. RecentMuslim lives of Jesus, Written in Arabic, present what they call the Jesus of history. In fact, their account isbased exclusively on Qur'nic sources; what is taken from elsewhere is there only a supplement or forillustration.53

G. ISLAMIC MONOTHEISM AS CHRISTIANITY SEES ITThe majority of Christians, especially those who are well informed, accept Islam as a monotheistic

religion. Knowing that Christianity is not only a great religion, but is expressed in different views,we choose to stand on what the Catholic Church says. The Vatican II Council's view is in largeagreement with a wide spectrum of other Christian views, although it does not find acceptanceamong some fundamentalists and those who are called today "born again".

When Massignon was asked in an interview if he believed in Islam, he replied that he believed inthe God of Abraham, a real, immanent person, and not in the abstract deity of the philosophers andof Devil. For that noble reason, Massignon is a friend to the Muslims.54 Louis Massignon receiveda Christian faith in his childhood but lost it a while. In his encounter with Muslims, he experiencedcertain realities which helped him later on to find his faith. From his personal experience hediscovered that Islamic monotheism is true and that it is a relevent point to establish dialogue

between Muslims and Christians. In other words, Louis Massignon want to say that Allh is trueGod, the God of the Bible. In the same vein, Kenneth Cragg wrote:In as much as both Christian and Muslim faiths believe in one supreme sovereign Creator-God, they areobviously referring, when they speak of God under whatever terms, to the same Being. To supposeotherwise will be confusing. It is important to keep in mind that though apprehensions differ, their theme isthe same. The differences, undoubtedly real, between the Muslim and the Christian understanding of God,are far-reaching and must be pantiently studied. But it would be fatal to all our mutual tasks to doubt thatone and the same God over all was the reality in both. Those who say that Allh is not the God and Fatherof our Lord Jesus Christ are right if they mean that God is not so described by Muslims. They are wrong ifthey mean that Allh is other than the God of the Christian Faith.55

But, in order to show that Massignon statement is not shared by all Christians, G.J.O. Moshaypresents a number of questions:A number of thoughtful people have often asked: Is Allh God? Is the God and the Father of our Lord JesusChrist? Many opinions abound. Some have said Allh is simply God -the same God of the Bible as He isknown in the Arabic language. Some say he cannot possibly be; they say they do not know who he is, but

53Jacques Jomier,How to understand Islam(London: SCM Press Ltd, 1989), p. 109.

54Giulio Basselti-Sani,Louis Massignon (1883-1962), Christian ecumenist, Prophet of

inter-religious reconciliation(Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1974), p. 262.

55Kenneth Cragg, The call of the minaret(New York: Orbis Books, 1985), p. 30.


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that they are sure he is not the same God of the Bible. Some say he is indeed a mighty god, but not theAlmighty God. Yet some are of the opinion that there are two Allhs. They say that Allh of the Arab andHausa Christians is different from the Allh of the Muslims in these same areas. According to them, while

the Allh of the Arab Christians is God, the Allh of the Muslims is not. But if he is not, who he is?56

Moshay's main contention is that Allh is not the God of the Bible. In fact, he goes so far as to saythat Allh is demon as he wrote:I thank God for this serious observation and comment. It has served to reinforce my convictions on the spiritbehind Islam. But there is still a question whether indeed it is one god that is worshipped in Islam... There isno monotheism in heathenism. Probably the right word should be monolatry. One cannot serve satan andnot have relationship with demons. In fact, most operations and interactions in the occult and Christlessreligions are more with these demonic spirits than satan himself. 57We, however, take the position of Massignon and Cragg that Allh (the Arabic name of God) is theGod of Israel, the God of Jesus. If we look at the themes that are stressed in the Qur'n in order toidentify God, we will realize that God is presented as the sole divinity in relation to man, one in hisnature and the only One who is worthy to be worshiped; He is eternal. In its document Vatican IIcouncil, The authority of the Catholic Church, aware of the Islamic belief in one God, presents itspoint of view.

Vatican II Council first refers to Jews and Muslims when he says that those who have not yetreceived the Gospel are related to the people of God in various ways. Vatican II Counciladded thatMuslims adore the one, merciful God.58 We shall lengthwise examine Vatican II Council in thefollowing documents.

From its point of view about dialogue between Christians and Muslims, the Catholic Churchpresents two documents in which we notice an acknowledgement of the monotheism in Islam. Thefirst is the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church(Lumen GentiumNo. 16) says:But the plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the creation, in the first place amongst whomare the moslems: these profess to hold the faith of Abraham, and together with us they adore the one,merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day". It goes without saying that the Catholic Church places Islamas the first monotheistic religion outside the biblical revelation because it affirms broadly that Muslims andChristians worship the same living God as unique and mankind's judge on the last day.59

The second text, longer than the first, stresses the same idea but more strongly. In its Declarationon the Relation of the Church to non-Christian Religions(Nostra AetateNo.3), the Catholic Churchsays:The Church has also a high regard for the Muslims. They worship God, who is one, living andsubsistent, merciful and almighty, the creator of heaven and earth, who has spoken to man. They

strive to submit themselves without reserve to the hidden decrees of God, just as Abrahamsubmitted himself to God's plan, to whose faith Muslims eagerly link their own".

56G. Moshay, Who is this Allh?(Ibadan: Fireliners International, 1987), p. 9.

57Ibid., p. 130.

58Vatican II Council, Lumen Gentium, 16.

59Robert Caspar, Trait de thologie muslmane. Histoire de la pense Religieusemusulmane(Rome: P.I.S.A.I, 1987), t. 1, p. 84.


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In this document, the Catholic Church affirms once more that belief in one God and his worship arethe foundation of Islam. Even Christians believe in one God in three persons; Christians andMuslims worship the same God in different ways.

In my point of view, should I doubt Islamic monotheism? No. Muslims adore the supreme God intheir context, language and practice. There is only one supreme God called YHWH in Hebrew,Allh in Arabic, God in English, Dieu in French, Olwa in Yoruba, Nzambi in Kikongo. Afterstudying a little of the Qur'n, the period of Muhammad's lifetime and a few centuries after hisdeath, I can say that the God worshipped by Muslims is one, unique and Creator of the universe,despite their life of honouring Him. Even if some types of Christians are still doubting Islamicmonotheism, I do not complain so much because the time will come when they will believe thatAllh in whom Muslims believe, is one, All-Mighty, Most Gracious, Most Merciful, Master of the dayof Judgement.

H. NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC MONOTHEISMIslamic monotheism has some negative aspects that take some people into doubt. Here, I intendto present one I have found very important according to my topic. Despite its meaning andabsoluteness, Islamic monotheism has a very serious deficiency; for instance, many Muslimsbelieve that this unique God calls them to fight or discriminate against unbelievers in order to makethem believers. E. Tyan said that jihd in Islam is a duty which is imposed upon the communityconsidered as a whole and which only becomes obligatory for each individual according to thepurpose envisaged by the law.60The Qur'n has many calls for a holy war (2:186;8:15;22:40;9:13-14). Sra 9:13-14 has this recommendation:Will ye not fight a people who broke their oaths and aimed at the expulsion of the Messenger, and they

attacked you first? Do you fear them? But Allh has more right that you should fear Him, if you arebelievers. Fight them; Allh will chastise them at your hands and bring them to disgrace, and assist youagainst them and relieve the hearts of a believing people.

Besides, in some sects in Islamic world, jihd is considered as the sixth pillar after shahda, alt,zakt, awmand ajj. Taking into account these cases, jihd becomes an end and not a means. Butthese practices do not basically change Islamic monotheism. We keep saying that Islam is amonotheistic religion and Muslims believe in God who is one and unique. Meanwhile, we shouldknow that there is a big difference between faith and the practice of that faith. The negative aspectof Islamic monotheism lies in the practice of their belief and sometimes in its development. As amatter of fact, the Islamic view of God's unity will be different from that of Christianity because their

practices and development are different.

60Cf. The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 2 (London: E.J. Brill, 1965).


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SECOND PARTII. SOME MAJOR THEOLOGICAL ISSUES

A word may be needed about Islamic theology, concentrating on its formative period (750-950).The five points below are the main issues, in the order of their historical emergence, whichdominated Islamic theological debate in the period under consideration. These debates eitherarose from or had serious implications for the political situation of the time. The first issue, therelationship between faith and practice, arose directly from the chaos in the Islamic world followingthe assassination of Uthmn. Muslims are supposed to be at peace with one another (Q 3:103;

9:71) and to fight only unbelievers (Q 9:123 etc.) The three-way civil war between Muwiya, Aland the Khrijites could be justified only by supposing that the enemy was an apostate, since byhis behavior he had forfeited the right to call himself a Muslim. The Khrijites formulated thisposition and applied it to all beside themselves who claimed to be Muslims.

During the Umayyad period a party was developing based on loyalty to the family of Al. It tooksome time, until the Abbsid period, for this party to take shape and adopt the name Shite. Alsoduring the Umayyad period Qurnic studies made much progress, laying the base for itsparamount authority in what was later to become Sunnism.

The Umayyads utilized religious ideas to enhance their own authority, giving rise to the second

debate. The pre-Islamic idea of destiny (qadar), remoulded in the Qurn, was used to support theirauthority as decreed by God, forcing their opponents to argue for the role of free human choice.As the Umayyads consolidated their authority, a mainstream unity developed in the Muslimcommunity, leaving on the sidelines the Shite exaltation of Al (especially in Kfa) and theKhrijite condemnation of everyone who did not measure up to their own behavior expectations.Ab-Hanfa was the principal formulator of the teaching, which came to be known as Murjiism.This is that Muslims should leave the judgement of the case between Uthmn and Al to God. Inthe meantime anyone who outwardly professes Islam should be accepted as a Muslim, and rulersin power should be presumed to be legitimate. This was the Sunnite resolution of the first debate.

As for the third debate, the Abbsid period saw the growth and reformulation of Shism, although

always as an opposition movement or at times as a junior collaborator in government. RadicalShism made no compromise on the primacy of Al and his rightful heirs, although there was nounanimity which these were. The caliph al-Mamn patronized a compromising group of ZayditeShites who recognized the superiority of Al and his line, but were prepared to accept a lessdeserving ruler who could be elected. Shism eventually divided into two main branches, theIsmls, or Seveners, who recognize a line of seven imms before the line went into hiding, andthe Immites, or Twelvers, who recognize twelve imms before the line went into hiding.

The Abbsid period also saw a large-scale introduction of Greek philosophy and science into theMuslim world, occasioning the fourth debate: What is the relationship between revelation and


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reason? Discussions between Muslims and Christians and between different Muslim schools ofthought led to the application of philosophical concepts to talk about God, giving rise to the fifthissue: What is the relationship between Gods substance and his attributes and between oneattribute and another? Both questions were taken up by the Mutazilites and their break-awaycousins, the Asharites.

1. ISLAM: FAITH AND PRACTICE

Khrijism

When the Khrijites protested `Als agreeing to negotiate with Mu`wiya, they shouted Nojudgement but Gods! This meant that grave sinners (Mu`wiya for rebelling, and `Al forcompromising with him) are apostates from the Islamic community; so it is the duty of Muslims tofight them. This Khrijites action raised a theological question: What is the definition of faith? Does

it include practice, or obedience to Islamic law, or is practice something additional to faith? TheKhrijites were influenced in their position by the assumption that faith is not simply a matter ofpersonal belief but is first of all membership in a believing community. Anyone who is unfaithful tothat community cannot be a believer and cannot enter Paradise. The Khrijites laid great stress onthe Quran. This led them to two conclusions: 1) Membership in the community depends uponfollowing the laws of the Quran, and anyone who violates these laws forfeits his membership. 2)An imam, or caliph, is not necessary from a theoretical standpoint. If one is chosen out of practicalnecessity he can be from any tribe or nation, even an Ethiopian slave. This second conclusiontouches issue of authority, and will be dealt with in chapter 3. Like any of the movements underconsideration in Islamic theology, Khrijism is a wide label applied to many individuals and sub-sects whose views differed greatly from one another. At least three groups went by the name of

Khrijites. Only the first consistently follows the logic of Khrijism; the others are compromises ordiluted versions. So, while we mention the three groups, only the first is important.

1.1 Azraqites

The first group is the Azraqites, names after Nfi' ibn-al-Azraq, its leader, who was active in Basraat the time of Yazds death and the rebellion of Ibn-az-Zubayr in Mecca. This group pointed toQurn 9:81 ff. that those able people who sit still and do not go out ( kharaj) to fight for the sakeof God are unbelievers. They interpreted this to mean that anyone who did not join the Khrijiteswas an unbeliever. Furthermore they pointed to Qurn 2:117 which teaches that such apostatesare destined to hell fire for eternity, and concluded, according to the injunction of Qurn 9:29 to

fight unbelievers, that they should attack non-members of their group, except Christians and Jews,whom the Qurn has declared protected.

Azraqite teaching reflected Arab nomadic custom whereby members of other tribes were allpotential enemies and, unless there was an alliance, could be attacked whenever the chancecame. The Azraqites not only maintained themselves by raiding, but reinforced their groupsolidarity by a test (mihna) of those who would join their group. The candidate was given a prisonergo kill, preferably one of his own tribe. This act would make the new member a target for therevenge of the victims family, and he would have to depend more solidly upon the Azraqites forprotection. Thus religion became the sole bond uniting the members, and family ties and theauthority of elders or chiefs meant nothing.


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In 683 Ibn-al-Azraq went to Mecca to support Ibn-az-Zubayr, but the latter was interested inbecoming caliph over a stable state and was not comfortable with Ibn-al-Azraqs anarchical

outlook. Ibn-al-Azraq returned to Iraq and was pursued by Ibn-az-Zubayrs army and killed in 685,but the Azraqites continued as a terrorist band, robbing and killing whenever they saw theopportunity, until they were wiped out by the Umayyad governor al-Hajjj in 698.

1.2 The Najdites

The Najdites, a less important group of Khrijites, are called after their leader Najda ibn-'mir whowas also a supporter of Ibn-az-Zubayrs rebellion in 683. Najda did not stay with Ibn-az-Zubayr,but gained control of al-Yamma in central Arabia and eventually most of eastern and southernArabia, a more extensive area than the territory controlled by Ibn-az-Zubayr. Najda was deposedby his followers and died in 693, yet his party continued to rule until they were defeated by al-Hajjjin 693.

Because the Najdites held political power, they were forced to modify the strict Khrijite teachingthat any Muslim who commits a serious sin is an apostate and should be killed. Najda, therefore,distinguished between fundamentals and non-fundamentals in religion. People who sin byignorance could be excused, as the leaders of one expedition who appropriated to themselvessome captured women without following the rules for the distribution of booty, but in fundamentalmatters of faith and respect for the life and property of other Muslims there no excuse wasaccepted.

Another distinction was made between occasional sin and persistence in sin; thus God wouldpunish those who sometimes commit theft or adultery or lesser sins, but only those who persist insuch acts would be excluded from the community and destined to eternal punishment in hell.

Najda also held that Muslims who did not join his group by going out to fight had the status ofhypocrites (munfiqn), not unbelievers, as the Azraqites said. Furthermore, Najda seems to havepermitted his followers the practice of taqiyya(cf. Q 16:106), that is, they may conceal their beliefsif their lives are in danger because of their beliefs, for instance from non-Khrijite Muslims or fromAzraqites.

1.3 Other Basra Khrijites

Besides the Azraqites and Najdites there were other Khrijites in Basra who held even moremitigated views. Forced to make a pragmatic adaptation to non-Khrijite rule, their theoristsdefended abstention from revolution, orsitting still, saying that this did not make someone anunbeliever; likewise sins such as theft or adultery were not regarded as making someone anunbeliever. The test of accepting non-Khrijites as Muslims came when there was a question ofgiving them Khrijite women in marriage or selling them slave girls. There is the story of oneIbrhm who was annoyed with his slave girl and threatened to sell her to a bedouin. Some peoplechallenged the legality of his action, but the majority supported him. One group which defendedsuch dealings with non-Khrijites was the Wqifites, whose name means to stop or suspendjudgement regarding the ultimate fate of non-Khrijites or of sinners. The Wqifites did advocatepunishing sinners, but not excluding them from the community.

As Khrijism gradually disappeared from the heartlands of the caliphate, moderate Khrijitescontinued to govern some outlying states, as 'Umn, while a revolutionary form of Khrijism tookroot for a time among the Persians and among the Berbers of the Maghrib. Khrijism gave them


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have been primarily directed against proto-Sh`ites, since a preponderant number of the Murjiiteslisted by Ibn-Sa'd (d. 845) and Ibn-Qutayba (d. 889) are from Kfa. By opposing the divisivetendencies of the Khrijites and Sh`ites and upholding the unity of the Islamic community, theMurjiites are forerunners of the Sunnites.

Irj 2: Faith does not include works

The second application of irjwas with regard to faith and practice; practice was postponed, orplaced after, faith. This application of irjwas demanded by the first. If judgement is to be deferredwhether a grave sinner is a believer or not, he is really accepted as a believer, although lacking inthe practice of faith. That is because the Arabs communal way of thinking made them look upon abeliever primarily as a member of a believing community rather than simply one who has faith. Ifa grave sinner is accepted as a member of the Muslim community, then he must have faith, andfaith (mn) must be defined accordingly.

In the Qurn and the Hadth a distinction is sometimes drawn between mn and islm (andsometimes ihsn, doing good). mn is the profession of faith from the heart and mouth, whileislmis serving God, especially through salt and zakt. Islamic theological literature gives variousways of distinguishing the two, mainly by saying that mnis of a higher or lesser value than islm.Murjiite theologians, as will be seen, gave mna meaning equivalent to accepting the officialreligion.

Ab-Hanfa, if we accept W. Montgomery Watts historical investigation, was the chief theologian ofMurjiism and was not a heretic, but initiated the ideas that were to prevail in later Sunnism. Theproblem he faced was to find an intermediate position between rigorism and laxism. The Khrijiteand Mu'tazilite rigorist position caused moral anxiety, because by sin a person would be deprivedof mn and membership in the community.

Anxiety was furthered by the Hanbalite practice of applying the phrase in sh Allh (If God wills)even to ones own belief by saying, I am a believer, if God wills. They said this because theyconsidered obedience to the laws of the Qurn part of faith, and they were not so self-confident toassert that they had fulfilled all the requirements of the law.

To correct the rigorist trend some people turned to a laxist position; for example Muqtil ibn-Sulaymn (d. 767) said, Where there is mn, sin does no harm. This statement of Muqtil(member of the Zaydite sect) is what later Sunnite writers wrongly considered central in Murjiism,and is the reason why they considered Murjiism a heresy.

Ab-Hanfas solution was to define mnas confession (iqrr) with the tongue and counting true(tasdq) with the heart. mn is thus an intellectual acceptance of the basic tenets of Islam, and

does not include fulfilling the Law. It is moreover the distinguishing factor between belonging to theMuslim community or not; someone either has mn or he does not. Therefore, Ab-Hanfaconcluded, it is equal among all Muslims and does not increase or decrease in degree. Faith staysthe same, and only practice can increase or decrease.

The Hanbalites, including al-Ash'ar, opposed this definition of mn, and asserted that faithincludes practice and does increase or decrease. They cited in favour of their view Qurn versessuch as 8:2: Believers are only those whose hearts shake when God is mentioned; and when hissigns are recited to them, it increases their faith. The Hanafite view, however, prevailed in laterSunnite orthodoxy.


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The Hanafite position fostered the belief that every Muslim is assured of ultimately enteringParadise, provided he does not sin against faith by shirk(worshiping other beings in association

with God), according to Qurn 4:48 : God does not forgive the associating [of any being] with him,but he forgives what is less than that to whom he wishes. Even al-Hasan al-Bas held that anyonewho affirms the shahdaat his death will enter Paradise. The Hanafites evolved the teaching that asinner who has not denied the faith will suffer Hell fire temporarily. According to at-Tahw, If Godwills, in his justice he punishes them in Hell to the measure of their offense, then in his mercy, atthe intercession of intercessors from among the people obeying him, he removes them from Helland raises them to his Paradise. There are many Qurnic references to Gods forgiveness (e.g.2:284; 3:129; 4:48,116; 5:18,40) and to intercession (e.g. 10:3; 19:87; 20:109; 34:23; 43:86). TheQurn does not explicitly mention Muhammad as an intercessor, yet the idea became stronglyrooted in Islam. The Wasiyyaof Ab-Hanfa seems to contain the earliest mention of it.

Irj 3: Àl is last in meritFinally, two other applications of the word irj can be mentioned to complete the discussion ofMurjiism. One of them was al-Ash'ars transformation of the first application of the word to thecase of 'Uthmn and Àl. For al-Ash'ar there was to be no deferment of judgement, but Àlhimself was to be deferred to the fourth place, so that the chronological order of the first fourcaliphs was also that of merit. This view (initiated, as we will see, by the 'Uthmnites of the firstÀbbsid century) became the standard Sunnite view.

Irj 4: Paradise is assured

The other application of irjwas a later transformation of the second application to the question of

faith and practice. Since the word irjcan also mean to give hope, ash-Shahrastn gave theinterpretation that anyone who preserves his faith, even without practice, is assured of enteringParadise.

1.3 The Mu'tazilite intermediate position of a sinner

Mu'tazilism as a movement will be discussed in chapter 3. Yet the fourth of their five principles, thatof the intermediate position of a sinner, belongs to this chapter.

Politically, the Mu'tazilites tried to reduce tension between the constitutionalist and absolutistfactions in the empire, represented by the proto-Sunnites and the proto-Shìtes respectively. Theydid this by their compromise of recognizing the elections of all the first four caliphs, although theBasra and Baghdad schools differed concerning the superiority of Àl. Ab-l-Hudhayl and most ofhis Basra followers held that the imm must be chosen by election and should always be the bestman (afdal). He also maintained that the first four caliphs were each the best men at the time oftheir election, yet he refused to pronounce whether 'Uthmn was right or wrong during his last sixyears, and whether Àl was right or wrong at the Battle of the Camel. Only al-Asamm varied fromthe general Basra view by holding that Àl was never imm. Bishr and the Baghdad school heldthat an inferior or less qualified man (mafdl) may become imm if there is some ground ( 'illa) forchoosing him. although Bishr recognized the election of all the first four caliphs, he had a definitepreference for Àl, and judged that he was in the right in his disputes; this is because the Baghdadschool favoured the tendency of the proto-Shìtes and the Àbbsids towards absolutism.


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The meaning of the intermediate position (al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn) is that a sinner isneither a believer nor an unbeliever. In this life criminals should be punished, but nevertheless

accepted as Muslims. This position is anti-Khrijite and differs from Murjiism only by the fact thatthe Mu'tazilites taught that the sinner will be eternally in Hell in the next life if he dies unrepentant,whereas the Murjiites held that for all Muslims eventual entrance to Paradise is assured.

Later developments

The influential al-Ash'ar, who broke away from Mu'tazilism, maintained the Khrijite position thatfaith includes practice and therefore admits of degrees. He thought that the intercession ofMuhammad may gain the release of some Muslims from Hell, but that God may decide to punishsome Muslim sinners eternally in Hell. Nevertheless he did not go the whole way of the Khrijitesregarding the treatment of sinners in this life.

Although Ash'ar is the father of Sunn theology, most Sunn theologians did not follow him onthese points. The view of al-Mturd (d. 944) overruled al-Ash'ar, so that pure Murjiism is thecommon teaching: Faith does not include practice, and no Muslim will stay eternally in Hell.

2. DIVINE AND CREATED POWER: THE QUESTION OF QADAR

Qadarism

The word qadarfirst of all means Gods determination of all events, including what people chooseto do. We would expect a Qadarite to be someone who maintains that God determines everything,but in fact the term historically came to mean the opposite, namely, one who asserts that qadar

belongs to man, and man himself determines his own acts, and not his Creator. Qadar in thissense refers to mans power freely to choose.

Later Sunnism considered Qadarism a heresy, but in Umayyad times the issue was not so clear,and the debate went on right within the general proto-Sunnite movement, although some moderateKhrijites also took part. The debate is similar to that within Christianity concerning free will andgrace. Does man require Gods help to do or think anything good in his sight, or to do anything atall, even evil things? If so, how can man be responsible for what he does?

Pre-Islamic Arabian thought

The pre-Islamic background to the discussion of qadar is important. In a land where rainfall andweather are completely erratic and people sometimes have plenty and other times nothing at all, itis natural for them to have a fatalistic outlook. Pre-Islamic poetry made an impersonal force out ofTime (dahr, zamn) or Days. This force determined everything, especially mans ajal(term of life)and rizq (sustenance). On the other hand the Arabs honoured human achievement, especiallyvictory in battle, and took it as a sign of inherited excellence enabling a man to do wonderful things.

The Qurn

The Qurn retains the notions of ajaland rizq, but teaches that these are determined by God, notan impersonal Time (cf. 45:23-25; 57:22); moreover Gods decrees are not simply inevitable


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results of his omnipotence but also the execution of his designs of love and mercy for mankind. Inits teaching concerning judgement on the Last Day, the Qurn implies human responsibility. Thisteaching, however, must be reconciled with the teaching that God can forgive or punish sins as hewishes (cf. 2:284; 3:129; 4:43,116; 5:18,40) or forgive because of persons he has given permissionto intercede. Moreover God is said to guide (ahd) people or lead them astray(adalla) just ashe pleases (cf. 6:125; 16:93), and in the same way help them to succeed (nasara) or abandonthem (khadala). Other passages make Gods guidance or leading astray dependent on peoplesprevious good or evil actions (e.g. 2:26; 3:86).

The Umayyad period

In the Umayyad period the debate had political overtones. The Umayyad authorities favouredpredestinarian views in order to support their claim to divinely given authority. Their argument,

especially as put forth by the poets Jarr and al-Farazdaq, was that the Umayyads inherited thecaliphate from 'Uthmn as his blood-heirs. God decreed (qad) their authority and made them hisrepresentatives on earth. The Umayyads claimed to be the caliphs of God (khalfat Allh) and hisshadow on earth, in this way changing the word caliph from meaning successor (of Muhammad)to mean deputy as Adam was Gods deputy in Qurn 2:30, and David in 38:26; the Qurnspeaks of this generation as both Gods deputy on earth and successor of previous generations,6:165; 7:79,73; 10:14,73, 35:39). Everything the Umayyads did was therefore decreed by God andshould be accepted as such by their subjects. In this context Qadarites were considered opponentsof the regime, although in assessing their number we should be aware that the Umayyads tendedto brand any of their opponents as Qadarites, and later Sunnites tried to minimize the number ofUmayyad opponents who subscribed to Qadarism.

The alleged founder of Qadarism is Ma'bad al-Juhan, who took part in the rising of Ibn-al-Ash'athin 701 and was executed around 704; about all we know about him is that he had the reputation ofbeing the first to discuss the question of qadar. Another important man is Ghayln ad-Dimashq,who was a critic of the regimes of 'Umar ibn-'Abdal'azz (717-20) and of Hishm (724-3); he had toflee to Armenia, but was captured and executed. His followers, however, helped the reformistYazd III to occupy the throne for a few months in 744. Ghayln is reported to have combated thepopular opinion that evildoing is by Gods determination (qad wa-l-qadar). There were many moreproto-Sunnites of Qadarite sympathies, but later Sunnite reports give us few names and onlydescribe certain tendencies.

One Qadarite tendency was to say that good actions are from God, but evil actions are from man.Al-Ash'ar tells a story making fun of a Qadarite named Maymn: Maymn had some money owed

to him by Shu'ayb and demanded its repayment. Shu'ayb said to him, I shall give it to you if Godwills. Maymn said, God haswilled that you should give it to me now. Shu'ayb said, If God hadwilled it, I could not have done otherwise than give it to you. Maymn said, God has willed whathe commanded; what he did not command he did not will, and what he did not will he did notcommand... The dispute was then carried to Ibn-'Ajarrad, who was then in prison (from 723 to738), and he said in support of Maymn, We do not fix evil upon God.

Another tendency was to say that both good and evil actions are from man, yet through an ability(istat'a) or power (qudra) given to man by God.


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Still another tendency which said that man is the originator of both his good and evil actions gavethe explanation that God does not know beforehand what any man will do, because if he knew

beforehand he would be responsible. Al-Hasan al-Basr, because of his standing, was claimed byboth Mu'tazilites (who agreed with Qadarism) and Sunnites as their forefather. His political actioncontributed support to Qadarism in that he criticized authorities, yet his repudiations of theuprisings of Ma'bath and Ibn-al-Ash'ath give the opposite impression. In his Rislahe explains thatthe circumstantial events of mens lives designated by ajaland rizqare determined by God, yet godcannot be blamed for misfortunes, since they are for the punishment of evildoers or the testing ofgood people. Man, however is responsible for choosing good or evil, because God has given himthe power (qudra) to choose. Al-Hasan explained that Gods determination (qadaris the same ashis command (amr), and that he influences human choice only by commanding good or forbiddingevil. Predestinarian Qurn verses such as 16:93, God leads astray whom he wishes and guideswhom he wishes, al-Hasan explains in concordance with other Qurn verses to mean, God

sends astray the evildoers; in other words, Gods action always follows mans free choice of goodor evil. Regarding Qurn 6:35, Had God wished, he could have guided them, al-Hasan admitsthat God could compel men to believe, but he does not in fact do so. Al-Hasan al-Basrs position isthus fundamentally a form of Qadarism. The debate between the Qadarite identification of Godswill with his command and the Determinist identification of his will with what actually happens isbased on an apparent conflict between Gods goodness and his power. If God causes evil tohappen, then he is not good. If evil happens independently of God, then God is not all-powerful.

Predestinarian views became less identified with support for Umayyad rule as it became weaker;so that the traditional Arab predestinarian outlook was able to reassert itself and pious men couldoppose Qadarism without appearing pro-Umayyad. The Hadth movement in the early 8th century

was strongly predestinarian. Determination of the circumstantial aspects of mans life (ajal andrizq) is expressed, for example, by the Hadth: What reaches you could not possibly have missedyou, and what misses you could not possibly have reached you. Determination of human choice isexpressed in the following Hadth: [The Prophet said:] By God, one of you will work the work of thepeople of the Fire until there is between him and it less than an arms length, and the book [ofdestiny] will overtake him and he will work the work of the people of the Garden and enter it; andanother man will work the work of the people of the Garden until between him and it there is lessthan an arms length, and then the book will overtake him and he will work the work of the peopleof the Fire and enter it. Still other Hadths assert that if anyone dies

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Introduction to Islamic Theology