Introduction

PAGE 1

MOSEP Bahasa Inggeris

Fakulti Pendidikan

UKM 2005

1.0 Introduction The National Education Philosophy (NEP) in 1988, states that education in Malaysia is an on-going effort to further develop the potential individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens of high moral standards, knowledgeable and competent, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large. The underlying principles and goals of the NEP are strongly related to the Special Education Philosophy. So that The National Education Act of 1996, specified that special education must caters to the educational needs of handicapped children. These children fall into three categories : visual impairment; hearing impairment; and children with learning difficulties. Under the inclusive education policy, children deemed able to follow the regular curriculum are integrated into several classes together with mainstream pupils. In addition, these children - and especially those with learning difficulties enrolled in special classes in regular school ( Ministry of Education of Malaysia, 1998 ). PL 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, specified that all students with handicaps have the right to a free appropriate public education to meet their particular needs. Simply placing students in classes or programs for students with handicaps is not enough : schools must ensure that the instruction delivered is appropriate to the needs of each learner. To match instruction to the learners needs, schools have adopted a variety of assessment-intervention approaches.

The module of teaching strategies has been constructed based on special education curriculum. It is specially developed for students with learning disabilities so that teacher could apply the appropriate teaching strategies to accommodate students learning needs. The English Language teaching strategy module for students with learning disabilities are conducted to help special educators to plan and implement the suitable instruction based on the curriculum. This module includes frameworks for teacher to plan their instructions program, teaching and learning models, learning theory, Individualized Education Program, and daily lesson plans. Also included are lists of learning activities for the student. The teaching strategy module relies heavily on determined strength ness and weaknesses of achievement for each student based on the Individualized Education Program. This strategy module involved six skill areas to be implemented :

1.1 Listening, imitating, and understanding.

1.2 Speaking and respond clearly in situation.

1.3 Reading and understanding simple messages.

1.4 Writing simple information using simple language.

1.5 Use language acquired to function in society.

1.6 Communicating with others.

According to Federal Laws, special education is instruction specially designed to meet the unique needs of students. Heward (1996), in his definition describes the types of instruction involved and its purposes :-

special education is individually planned, systematically implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional children achieve the greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments

2.0 Purposes of the MOSEPThe curriculum may or may be not be modified for students who are exceptional. An Instructional modifications may take on many forms. For some students with disabilities, the goals are academic, whereas for others the goals are primarily social and/or vocational. Educators regularly debate, with little clear conclusion, the extent to which students who are exceptional should be enrolled in academically oriented curricula and whether they should be taught in the same ways as regular education students.Appropriate intervention is the bottom line in the delivery of services to students with disabilities. Students are assessed for purposes of planning appropriate instructions, they are placed in settings where they will be taught appropriately, and the extent to which they are receiving appropriate instructional interventions is evaluated. The purposes of implementing this instruction modules are :

1. To identify students strength nesses and weaknesses in particular areas of the curriculum,

2. To build hypothesis about problems that may cause students failure.

3. Development of Individualized Education Program (including goals, objectives, and education procedures).

4. To set the main objectives to be achieved.

5. Implementation of teaching instructions according to the objectives.

6. Evaluation of specific learning process.

2.1 How MOSEP works

The special education teachers must coordinate their program to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities. They require more help in some areas than typical students do. Some adaptations of instructional procedures or the classroom environment may be necessary. The educators should plan and deliver the programs, also making several important instructional decisions.

The educational planned devised by special education teacher with collaboration of multidisciplinary team is called the Individualized Education Program (IEP). It is a written plan agreed by a team that includes the students parents and often the student. An IEP is prepared for each student who receives special education services. The IEP is available to all team members and must be reviewed at least once a year, and more often if necessary. Included for each student are present levels educational performance, annual goals, and short-term objectives. The role of the English Language MOSEP could be easily understood by referring to the table below :

Identifying students strength ness and weakness

Building hypothesis about problems occurred

Development of Individualized Education Program

Set the main objectives

Implementation of teaching instructions

Evaluation of specific learning process

3.0 ObjectivesThis teaching system focuses on a critical fact - - A teachers mission is not to dispense knowledge; rather it is to facilitate learning. If a student is not learning, the teacher is not succeeding. Teaching processes must be continuously improved to ensure that each student learns at the highest possible level. In a world where many nations are vying for economic dominance, the aggressive nurturing of a continuous improvement culture through our schools and in our society is necessary for the survival of our nation and our standard of living.3.1 Guideline for InstructionIn the following section, there are some of the ways of instructions that teacher could apply in the classroom of special needs students. These will support specific techniques of teaching and learning. Because of this support, educators are able to accomplish behavioral and cognitive goals in ways they never could before. One of the model is direct instruction. Direct instruction, also known as explicit teaching is a systematic method for presenting material in small steps, pausing to check for student understanding and eliciting active and successful participation from all students. It has also been classified as a transmission model. There are six teaching functions as an important sequence in the method of explicit teaching they are: daily review, presenting new material, guided practice, correction and feedback, independent practice and weekly and monthly reviews. This method has been shown to be particularly effective in the teaching of reading decoding,, explicit reading procedures, foreign language vocabulary. They are less relevant for teaching in areas that are less well-structured( http://www.cosc.brocku.ca/facultyradue/disabilities/guidelines.html ) .

Another teaching model is cooperative/collaborative learning. This is a model of teaching with a set of common attributes and features. It is cognitive in nature, it also has several variations. The following are its essential features: students work in team to master academic material, teams are made up of high, average, and low achievers, and are racially and sexually mixed, reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually oriented.

Cognitive apprenticeship is another model that could help educators in implementing their teaching instructions. It is a method of teaching aimed primarily at teaching the process that experts use to handle complex tasks. This method includes; modeling, coaching, observing students while they carry out a task, and exploration.Another one model for teaching instruction is discovery learning. It uses cognitive psychology as a base. Discovery learning is an approach to instruction through which student interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions, or performing experiments. The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Teachers have found that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences.

Good instruction can occur in large groups, small groups, and one to one; the criterion is students success. Instruction takes place in a series of steps involving both teacher and students and progressing from the active involvement of the students (learning). There are five steps; curricula choice (selection of the learning task), presentation to the student of the material necessary for task performance, practice of the learning task, mastery of the learning task, and application of previous learning. the teacher directs instruction by selecting the desired student behavior, arranging instructional antecedents, and providing consequences such as feedback regarding performance accuracy. Even though the teacher is the instructional manager, student factors that influence learning must also be considered ( R.B.Lewis & D.H.Doorlag, 2003).3.2 Basic of Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct (conceptual knowledge such as attitudes or values). It is a process that depends on experience and leads to long term changes in behavior potential. Behavioral potential describes the possible behavior of an individual (not actual behavior) in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough ; if individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes shallower and shallower, and eventually is lost in that individual.

School learning involves the acquisition of both information and skills. Learning increases when more time is devoted to academic pursuits and when students are actually engaged in learning during that time. Learning also increases when students more through the curriculum at a brisk face, provided that students maintain a high rate of successful performance. Education is the conscious attempt to promote learning in others. The primary function of teaching is to create a safe, viable, productive learning environment. Management of the total learning environment to promote enhance and motivate learning is a paradigm shift from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning.

Short term changes in behavior potential, such as fatigue, do not constitute learning. Some long term changes in behavior potential result from aging and development, rather than learning. Harnessing learning as process is becoming very important to large scale innovation management. An individuals personal purpose is key to that person applying learning to new behavior in their work or theory life. As they are exposed to new information, their willingness to apply their newfound knowledge is key to creating sustained value. Organizational change results from behavior potential being realized.

3.3 Basic Learning Process

The most basic learning process is imitation, ones personal repetition of an observed process. Thus an imitation will take ones time (attention to the details), space (a location for learning), skills (or practice), and other resources (for example, a protected area). Through copying, most infants learn how to hunt, feed, and perform most basic tasks necessary for survival.

These are several basic learning process :

Attention Habituation

Classical Conditioning

Instrumental Conditioning

Vicarious Learning

CommunicationLearning how to learn is a skill, which can be taught to others by using a variety of methods. Here are few learning methods to help students learn.

1. Learning by worked examples.

2. Learning which alternative methods exist.

3. Learning which shortcuts exist to solve specific problems.

4. Learning by teaching

5. Teaching others.

( http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index/learning&action.htm. )

4.0 Teaching and Learning TheoryIn education and psychology, learning theories help us understand the process of learning. There basically two main perspectives in learning theories :

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a real-world context. According to Jerome Bruner and other constructivists, the teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems, usually in collaboration with others. Cognitive theorists such as Jean Piaget and David Ausubel, and others, were concerned with the changes in a students understanding that result from learning and with the fundamental importance of the environment. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Generative Learning, Cognitive Apprenticeship, Problem-Based(Inquiry) Learning, Discovery Learning, situated learning. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a students free exploration within a given framework of structure

Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate, teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student. The theory behind a constructivist approach is that the childs learning is done in a hands-on approach. The children learn by doing, and not by being told what will happen. They are left to make their own inferences, discoveries, and conclusions. It also emphasized that learning is not an all or nothing process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge therefore their student have gained to make sure that the students perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended. Teachers will find that since the students build upon already existing knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the new information, they may make errors. Teachers need to catch and try to correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to occur because of our innate retrieval limitations.The teachers role is not only to observe and assess but to also engage with the student while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and posing question to the children for promotion of reasoning. Teachers also intervene when there are conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the childrens resolutions and self regulation, with an emphasis on the conflict being the childrens and that they must figure things out of themselves.

Behaviorism in an educational theory grounded on a seminal works of B.F.Skinner and Ivan Pavlov, both scientists well known for their studies in animal behavior. Behaviorists believe that organisms need reinforcements to keep them interested and that the use of stimuli can be very effective in controlling behavior. For the behaviorist, environment directly shapes behavior, and complex learning requires a series of small, progressive steps. The behaviorist theory of education is probably by far the most commonly practiced, because the behaviors of the learners can be easily viewed and therefore measured, which is itself a basic premise of the scientific method.4.1 Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

In all psychology, few theorists are as important as Jean Piaget (1896-!980) who forged the single most comprehensive and compelling theory of intellectual development. Each part of his theory contributes to a single, integrated stage. The most general stages, or periods, are listed below.The General Periods of Development.

Period I : Sensory-motor intelligence (birth to 2 years). Babies organize their physical action schemes, such as sucking, grasping, and hitting, for dealing with the immediate world.

Period II : Preoperational Thought (2 to 7 years). Children learn to think to use symbols and internal images, but their thinking is unsystematic and illogical. It is very different from that of adults.

Period III : Concrete Operations (7 to 11 years). Children develop the capacity to think systematically, but only when they can refer to concrete objects and activities.

Period IV : Formal Operations ( 11 to adulthood). Young people develop the capacity to think systematically on a purely abstract and a hypothetical plane.

These stages of thinking represent increasingly comprehensive ways of thinking. Children are constantly exploring, manipulating, and trying to make sense out of the environment, and in this process. They actively construct new and more elaborate structures for dealing with it. Children must interact with the environment, who build new cognitive structures. Development then, is not governed by internal maturation or external teachings. It is an active construction process, in which children through their own activities, build increasingly differentiated and comprehensive cognitive structures( C. William, 1992).4.2 Implication for Education

Piaget did not write extensively on education, but he did have some recommendations. For Piaget, true learning is not something handed down by teacher, but something that comes from the child. It is a process of spontaneous invention and discovery. Accordingly, the teacher should not try to impose knowledge on the child, but he or she should find materials that will interest and challenge the child and then permit the child to solve problems on his or her own. Piaget also stressed the importance of gearing instruction to the child particular level. The educator must appreciate the extent to which childrens interests and modes of learning are different at different times.

It is not always easy to find the educational experiences that are most natural for a given child. A knowledge of cognitive stages can help, bur children are sometimes at different stages in different areas. What is needed is sensitivity and flexibility on the teachers part a willingness to look closely at the childs action, to learn from the child, and to be guided by the childs spontaneous interests. For active learning always presupposes interest. Piaget also believe learning should be a process of active discovery and should be geared to the childs stage. Piaget saw the greater educational value in social interactions. Children begin to think logically to coordinate two dimensions simultaneously partly by learning to consider two or more perspective in their dealing with others.

Thus, interactions should be encouraged, and the most beneficial ones are those in which children feel a basic equality, and the most often do with peers. In group discussions with other children, in contrast, they have a better opportunity to deal with different viewpoints as stimulating challenges to their own thinking.

4.3 How Constructivism Impacts Learning4.3.1 Curriculum constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students prior knowledge. Also, it emphasize hands-on problem solving.4.3.2 Instruction under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.

4.3.3 Assessment Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress ( http://www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfm ). 5.0 Instruction Model A special kind of teaching required to help to help students with learning disabilities. It called Clinical Teaching. The goal of clinical teaching is to tailor learning experiences to the unique needs of a particular student. Using all the information gathered in the assessment, including an analysis of the students specific learning characteristics, teacher designs special teaching program.

Clinical teaching can be seen as an alternating test-teach-test process, with the teacher alternating tester and teacher. The clinical teaching process can be viewed as a cycle, with each stage of the process as a point along a circle, as diagrammed in figure below. The phases of the clinical teaching process are (1) assessment, (2) planning, (3) implementation, and (4) evaluation, leading to (5) a modification of the assessment and then to new planning, new forms of implementation, and a continuing cycle of clinical teaching. Clinical teaching is unique in several ways.

5.1 It requires flexibility and continual decision-making. Too often curriculum procedures are determined not by the teacher but by the materials being used. The search for the perfect package or materials to teach academic skills can be viewed as an attempt to minimize the teachers need to make decisions. In most elementary and secondary classes, textbooks dominate instruction, has many built-in instructional decision, with step-by-step and day-by-day directions, a teachers manual, and workbooks.5.2 Clinical teaching is planned for a unique student rather than for an entire class. Curriculum lessons in the general education class are designed for the average student. But the best method for teaching a class may not be the best method for teaching an individual student with unique behaviors and needs.

5.3 Clinical teaching can be accomplished in a variety of placements. The student may be taught within a group or an inclusion setting and by either the general education classroom or the special education teacher. Clinical teaching reflects an attitude on the part of the teacher. What is important is the teachers ability to interpret feedback information and to be ready to make decisions. Teachers should be sensitive to the individual students learning style, interests, shortcoming, strengths, levels of development and feelings, and adjustment to the world.

Many critical decisions must be made about what and how to teach. In many respects teaching remains an art. One can never tell where a teachers influence stops (L. Janet, 2003 ).6.0 Teaching StrategyWhat Is Strategy?

Strategy is perspective, position, plan, and pattern. Strategy is the bridge between policy or high-order goals on the one hand and tactics or concrete actions on the other. Strategy and tactics together straddle the gap between ends and means. In short, strategy is a term that refers to a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experiences, goals, expertise, memories, perceptions, and expectations that provides general guidance for specific actions in pursuit of particular ends. Strategy is at once the course we chart, the journey we imagine and, at the same time, it is the course we steer, the trip we actually make. Even when we are embarking on a voyage of discovery, with no particular destination in mind, the voyage has a purpose, an outcome, an end to be kept in view.

Strategy, then, has no existence apart from the ends sought. It is a general framework that provides guidance for actions to be taken and, at the same time, is shaped by the actions taken. This means that the necessary precondition for formulating strategy is a clear and widespread understanding of the ends to be obtained. Without these ends in view, action is purely tactical and can quickly degenerate into nothing more than a flailing about.

When there are no "ends in view" for the organization writ large, strategies still exist and they are still operational, even highly effective, but for an individual or unit, not for the organization as a whole. The risks of not having a set of company-wide ends clearly in view include missed opportunities, fragmented and wasted effort, working at cross purposes, and internecine warfare.

In order to maximize student learning opportunities, teachers must plan effective lessons that not only consider the concepts that students must know, but also the specific instructional strategies that will help teachers get the job done.Which teaching strategy is best?

We have to answer this question in terms of Best for what? What information do we have about learners, or what assumptions are we willing to make? Helping students with learning disabilities become more efficient and effective learners by teaching them how to learn. By utilizing variety of techniques and equipping students with a repertoire of strategies for learning, teacher can provide students with the tools for a lifetime of successful learning ( http://home.att.net/~nickols/strategy-definition.htm ).7.0 Teaching and Learning ApproachesEducation Approaches Educational psychologists tell us that we retain 80% of what we do as opposed to 10-20% of what we hear and read. The process of learning should emphasize active experiential learning and real-world problems. The learning experience for students should include.

Working on actual, real-world problems

Working in groups

The scale of response required for sustainable development points toward solutions, embracing individual, as well as group, motivation and accountability. This level of adaptation necessitates people to think and act differently. People therefore need to be made more aware of the issues and given the skills with which to deal with such change. It seems likely therefore that education could be transformative in encouraging different perspectives across the whole lifecycle of products and systems (supply and demand), and that this goal requires a shift away from current educational practice. 7.1 Current educational practices:

predominantly focus on the ability and need for students to gain skills and knowledge.

content is discipline focused and about a 'top-down' transmission of facts and messages.

focus on rigid, pre-defined learning outcomes that allow little room for maneuver for both teaching staff and students alike.

According to Ali Khan (1995), the pedagogic approach for sustainability necessitates a shift away from a teaching to a learning paradigm that, emphasizes independence of mind and the ability to make sense of, rather than reproduce, information.

Sterling (2001) addresses the different approaches and values of transmissive (transfer of information to learner) and transformative (learner constructing and owning meaning) methodologies that go beyond teaching method to also reflect philosophy and purpose of education. This is illustrated in the Table below.

Transmissiveinstructiveinstrumentaltrainingteachingcommunication of messageinformation focuscentral controlproduct orientedproblem solvinglinearfacts and skills Transformativeconstructiveintrinsiceducationlearningconstruction of meaningappropriate knowledgelocal ownershipprocess orientedproblem reframingiterative and responsiveconcepts and capacity building

The differences between transmissive and transformative education (Sterling 2001) Introducing educational practice that embodies these new values presents an opportunity to encourage a more linked and holistic way of viewing the problems of, and solutions to, unsustainable development.

Interestingly, best practice design education shares some key characteristics with a transformative education approach i.e.

creative, solutions-focused learning;

self-directed team work;

learning by doing (commonly live projects);

iterative refinement and reflection;

drawing from a range of disciplines: e.g. mechanics; electronics; manufacturing; marketing; sociology; ergonomics; and history, to inform the outputs that emerge as a result of design-based activity.

To date sustainability has been viewed as an additional subject to be addressed in the design process to inform a range of outcomes. This illustrate that while design has taken 'on board' some requirements of sustainability (e.g. resource efficiency and waste minimization) the outcomes of this process conform to traditional expectations of what the scope of designing is.

To reach conceptually different solutions towards sustainability one has to begin to see design thinking in a context of sustainability. This then immediately places design and its outcomes in a broad trans-disciplinary setting (Fletcher and Dewberry, 2002).

The onus here is to make new links and to see a range of issues from new perspectives. Ecological design intelligence [Design for Sustainability] is not just about things like technologies; it also has to do with the shape and dimension of our ideas and philosophies relative to the earth. At its heart ecological design intelligence is motivated by an ethical view of the world and our obligations to it. Educators must become students of the ecologically proficient mind and of the things that must be done to foster such minds. In time this will mean nothing less than the redesign of education itself.( http://www.lboro.ac.uk/research/susdesign/LTSN/approaches-main.htm ). 7.2 Accelerated Learning

Accelerated learning is a comprehensive approach that aims to create school success for all students by closing the achievement gap between at-risk and mainstream student. The process of accelerated program involves several guiding principles and values :Unity of purpose Parents, teachers, students and administrators must agree on a common set of goals for the school. Empowerment/Responsibility Members of the school community can make important educational decisions, take responsibility for implementing them, and take responsibility for the outcomes.

Building on strengths Identifies and uses all the available learning resources in the school community, instead of exaggerating weaknesses and ignoring strengths. (http://www.funderstanding.com/acceleratedlearning.cfm)

7.3 Whole Brain TeachingWhole brain teaching is an instructional approach derived from neurolinguistic descriptions of the functions of the brains left and right hemispheres. The functions of one hemisphere are immediately available to the other, producing a more balanced use of language. Whole-brain teaching emphasize active learning in which the learner makes connections that tap both hemispheres. In whole brain teaching, imaging is seen as the basis for comprehension. For this reason, learners are encouraged to visualize, draw, and use drama as they develop new ideas, in order to retain them (http://www.funderstanding.com/wholebrainteaching.cfm) 7.4 Mastery Learning

Mastery learning is an instructional strategy based on the principle that all students can learn a set of reasonable objectives with appropriate instruction and sufficient time to learn. As a matter of curriculum development, mastery learning does not focus on content, bur on the process of mastering it. Curriculum materials can be designed by in-house instructional designers, or via a team approach various professionals in a given setting.

How to instruct for mastery :

7.4.1 Clearly state the objectives representing the purposes of the course.

7.4.2 The curriculum is divided into relatively small learning units, each with their own objectives and assessment.

7.4.3 Learning materials and instructional strategies are identified; teaching, modeling, practice, formative evaluation, re-teaching, reinforcement, and summative evaluation are included.

7.4.4 Each unit is preceded by brief diagnostic tests, or formative assessments.

7.4.5 The results of formative tests are used to provide supplementary instruction, or corrective activities to help the learner overcome problems. (http://allen.warren.net/ml.htm)8.0 Teaching and Learning MethodsMethod is defined by ways of presenting instructional materials or conducting instructional activities.8.1 Expository or demonstration?

Expository methods are based upon the measurement, or at least the assumption, that the learners know little to nothing about the subject, that most of the class knows little, and that the task is a non-motor task8.1.1 Expository Teaching

Shows the best of an expert teacher--content prowess

Provides careful guidance when needed

Can use media in compelling ways

Can teach--or address large numbers of students

Ignores individual differences

Over structured in pace on many pieces of learning

All instructional decisions affect everyone

Past the 9th member the first non-verbal participant surfaces (MacKeatchie study)

8.1.2 Some expository styles

Key concept: Teacher tries to expose knowledge

Formal lecture

Informal lecture

Discussion

Some media presentations Demonstration methods fit better on tasks that will have students DOING something--playing an instrument, doing and exercise, typing something, handling an experiment.8.2 Demonstration Teaching

Demonstrations can be compelling--interesting

Can be used to contain a delicate or potentially dangerous display

Useful when there can be only one or a few displays

Adds realism to lecture

Can be motivational

Sometimes adds credibility

Everybody watches--but few if any get to actually do

In a large group it can be difficult for everyone to see or hear

Still no individualization--were still working with the assumption that the class is homogeneously ignorant.

Demonstration Styles Can include technology if the technology is being demonstrated

Can include tutorials and dramatizations

Teacher-centered instruction8.3 Inquiry or Individualized? Inquiry begins with the assumption that students have some factual-level understanding of the content. Inquiry methods have them extend learning into analysis, synthesis, or evaluation

Individualized begins with the assumption that students are NOT homogeneous with regard to the content. It also begins with an assumption that the students are responsible enough to monitor their own learning8.3.1 Individualized Instruction

Education at its best according to many

Individuals are not held back or pushed ahead

Easy format for diagnostic-prescriptive situations--tool subjects, basics

Can accommodate a diverse group of students

Emphasis on real learning, less on grades

Difficult to manage with large numbers of students

Teacher needs to know a WIDE range of curricula

Takes LOTS of materials

Loses some of the motivational appeal of the expert demonstration

Loses some social cohesiveness

8.3.2 Individualized styles

Especially in special education where classes are very heterogeneous

Token economies

Learning packets

Contracts

Programmed instruction

8.4 Inquiry or Discovery Teaching

Stimuli are compelling and not easily forgotten

Explores topic in depth

Lots of hands-on

Active learning

Students have some freedom to learn at their own paces

Lessons can go far beyond the textbook

If students do not have some factual knowledge a LOT of time can be wasted trying to do these

Large time investment

Can explore only a few topics in a year

Can be hazardous with some materials

Accountability is more difficult to achieve

8.4.1 Some discovery styles

Math teacher who poses the problem and lets students solve the pathway to it.

Building trades teacher who sets up a building problem and has students solve it.

( http://education.atu.edu/people.swomack/4modes/tsld018.htm )8.5 Thematic Instruction

Thematic instruction is the organization of a curriculum around macro themes. Thematic instruction integrates basic disciplines like reading, math, and science with the exploration of a broad subject. Thematic instruction is based on the idea that people acquire knowledge best when learning in the context of a coherent whole, and when they can connect what theyre learning to the real world. Thematic instruction usually occurs within an entire grade level of students. Teachers of all different subjects taught in that particular grade work together as a team to design curriculum, instruction methods, and assessment around a preselected themes. Typical steps include :Choosing a theme themes often involved a large, integrated system or a broad concept. Instructors often strive to connect the theme to the students everyday life. In some cases, student participate in choosing the theme or themes.

Designing the integrated curriculum the teachers involved must organized the learning objectives of their core curriculum (both process skills and content knowledge) around the theme.

Designing the instruction this usually involves making changes to the class schedule, combining hours normally devoted to specific topics, organizing field trips, teaching in teams, and so on.

Encouraging presentation and celebration because thematic instruction is often project-oriented, it frequently involves students giving collective presentations to the rest of the school or community. Plus, students commonly create extensive visual displays. (http://www.funderstanding.com/thematisinstruction.cfm)8.6 Common Teaching Methods

Other teaching methods that could be implemented in the classroom are :

8.6.1 Lecture presents factual material in direct, logical manner, contains experience which inspires, stimulates thinking to open discussion, and useful for large groups.

8.6.2 Lecture with discussion involves audience at least after the lecture, and audience can question, clarify, and challenge.

8.6.3 Brainstorming listening exercise that allows creative thinking for mew ideas, encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded, draws on groups knowledge and experience, and one idea can spark off other ideas.

8.6.4 Videotapes entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues, keep groups attention, looks professional, and stimulates discussion.

8.6.5 Class discussion allows participation of everyone, people often more comfortable in small groups, and can reach group consensus.8.6.6 Role playing introduces problem situation dramatically, provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view, allows for exploration of solutions, and provides opportunity to practice skills.

8.6.7 Report-back sessions gives student a chance to reflect on experience, and each group takes responsibility for its operation.

8.6.8 Worksheets/surveys allows people to think for themselves without being influences by others, and individual thoughts can be shared in large group.

(http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/comteach.htm)9.0 Teaching and Learning TechniquesEstablish a classroom that promotes learning with a framework of attitudes and valuesAttitudes That Limit Learning For All Kinds of LearnersAttitudes That Promote Learning For All Kinds of Learners

Innate intelligence is probably the best predictor of student learning and achievement in schools.Hard work and effective teaching are the primary predictors of student achievement.

Intelligence is unevenly distributed on a bell curve. A few can expect to achieve at a high level, most will be average, and some will fail.All students can become capable, achieve at a high level, and improve in an area of weakness.

"Normal" means being able to learn the same things that other kids of the same age learn, in the same way, at the same time, at the same rate.There are many different ways to learn. The world is a better place because we are not all the same. There are advantages to thinking in different ways.

There is usually one correct answer and one best way of finding it.There are many ways to succeed. There can be successful elements in wrong answers and unsuccessful work.

Students will have an opportunity to show what they know on the test.Students will have many opportunities and ways to show what they have learned.

Faster is better. Doing things faster means you are smarter.It is not how quickly but how well you learn that counts. Speed can improve with practice.

9.1 Send a clear message Establish eye contact. Look at students so they can see your mouth, facial expressions, and gestures as you talk.

Pronounce words clearly and with sufficient volume. Speak at an unrushed pace, and use natural pauses to divide the material into phrases, sentences, and logical chunks.

Reduce background noises and eliminate distractions.

Avoid double negatives and unnecessarily complicated language. Be clear and direct, but not simplistic. Don't "talk down" or "water down."

Stop at checkpoints for questions. Be willing to repeat, summarize, or find another way of stating information.

Support what you are saying with a picture, diagram, demonstration, or other multi sensory materials.

Make sure visuals and handouts are simple, clear, and uncluttered. Use simple, boldfaced type. Leave margins and space for making notes.

Allow sufficient time for students to copy from the blackboard or from overheads. Give copies of overheads to students.

Encourage particular students to sit in the front row, or away from the door to the noisy hallway.

Understand that 1.) remembering, following, and giving directions and assignments; and 2.) asking and answering questions precisely are particular problem areas for students with learning differences.

Assure that questions, assignments, and directions are as clear as possible. Avoid giving last minute assignments as students are leaving class.

Give sufficient time for students to process information, questions, and directions. Be willing to repeat, paraphrase, and explain in more detail and provide a written reference if it is helpful. Have students reverbalize what they understand.

Assure that all students can hear and understand each contributor to class discussions. Take time to repeat, summarize, or explain.

9.2 Teach for understanding

Teach information that has genuine importance, and let students know why. Make connections between life and school, and convey the importance and usefulness of what you're teaching.

Organize what you are saying. Teach in three steps: Start with an introduction that develops the purpose of the lesson. Then teach the lesson. Conclude with a summary of what was accomplished.

Help students see the rules, structure and patterns in the course material they are learning. Emphasize the "why" and the "how."

Avoid rote memorization of information. Embed facts and details in a web of understanding.

Say things simply first and then elaborate. Avoid tangents and insignificant details.

Use "linguistic markers" to highlight patterns and establish connections ("As a result" "In conclusion" "There are three main reasons").

Introduce and explain new vocabulary before you use it. Emphasize definitions and key terms.

Use multi sensory teaching and active learning techniques and materials to clarify and reinforce concepts.

Use analogies, real life examples, practical applications, and personal experiences to promote understanding. Make connections to student's strengths, areas of interest, and expertise.

Explain and practice difficult material in meaningful "chunks" or "micro-units."

Provide frequent opportunities to paraphrase, summarize, draw interconnections, and review.

Be willing to repeat, paraphrase, or summarize what you've said, especially information which must be understood precisely.

Check comprehension of information, directions, and assignments by asking students to repeat or summarize information.

Reinforce understanding by applying skills and knowledge to new and related contexts.

9.3 Use multi sensory teaching techniques and active learning strategies Present and practice information in ways that encourage active involvement, use more than one modality, and tap other kinds of intelligences.

Assure that presentations, discussions, handouts, activities, visuals, and multi sensory methods and materials are clear, focused, and well organized, and that students clearly understand their purpose and goal. Otherwise, they distract and confuse.

Be aware of the power of visuals to clarify and organize information, promote comprehension, and tap the intelligence of students whose verbal skills may be weaker.

Recognize the extraordinary power of saying and doing to improve and deepen understanding and promote long term memory and retrieval.

Teach students to recognize and use multiple pathways for learning, and to discover which ones are most effective for themselves.

LEARNING BY SEEING - Use clear, simple, and well designed visual references and aids such as maps, charts, and diagrams. Make use of the blackboard, overheads, and computer generated imagery. Use graphic organizers and visual learning strategies. Highlight and organize information using color.

LEARNING BY SAYING ("verbalizing") - Encourage students to verbalize by explaining, summarizing, expressing personal reactions, asking and answering questions, and participating in discussions. Teach students how to set up and work in a study group, and to study out loud for tests. Have students teach or explain information to another student. Work in pairs and small groups. LEARNING BY DOING - Provide opportunities to participate in labs, do projects and field studies, role-play, and perform demonstrations and simulations.

Build physical models of concepts. Capitalize on students' interests and areas of expertise. Incorporate physical activity into class work.

LEARNING BY LISTENING - This area, sometimes a weak channel for students with learning differences, can be enhanced by teaching active listening and note taking skills.

Build physical models of concepts. Capitalize on students' interests and areas of expertise. Incorporate physical activity into class work. 9.4 Provide clear, explicit structure Make organization of time, space, and materials as explicit as possible. Post weekly, monthly, and long term jobs and responsibilities; classroom calendars; homework assignments; and other important information in regular locations on bulletin boards, blackboards, or posters. Use visual organizers, references and reminders.

Regularly, post a daily agenda, or hand out a weekly schedule that provides concrete, consistent guidelines for course content and expectations.

Clarify the purpose of each lesson, and connect each daily class to the short and long term goals of the course.

Give directions and assignments both orally and in written form whenever possible.

Give older students a complete syllabus that includes: a detailed course outline; a calendar with due dates and guidelines for assignments, papers, and tests; a list of required course materials and texts; specific information, such as the professor's e-mail, office location and office hours

Provide detailed guidelines for longer units, assignments and projects that include requirements, timetables, deadlines, and consequences.

Refer to agendas and organizational aids as guideposts. Amend them clearly as you work. Follow through. Be consistent.

Establish clear routines and habits which support regular activities and transitions between activities. 9.5 Provide frequent assignments, and meaningful feedback and evaluation Give frequent, regular, explicit classroom and homework assignments which provide the opportunity to review and synthesize information and deepen understanding.

Understand the value of correct practice in the learning process. Anticipate and prevent incorrect practice of information which must be learned precisely, such as mathematical procedures.

Give special attention to identifying information and skills which must be practiced to the point of automaticity or fluency, and give frequent, regular assignments to practice these skills. Recognize individual differences in how much practice each student needs to develop automaticity.

Early in the semester, and in advance of assignments, teach students how you will evaluate their work and assess them for the semester.

Make the assessment for each assignment as explicit, fair, and meaningful as possible by:

providing clear criteria for assessing success when the assignment is first given returning assignments and tests promptly giving qualitative feedback giving evaluations and grades based on learning and mastery avoiding grading on a curve or on the performance of the rest of the class

Assess students frequently; give weekly quizzes, assignments, reflection papers, and summaries.

Give timely, specific, qualitative feedback to students about the strengths and weaknesses of their work.

Whenever possible, use explicit, multiple means of assessment. For example, give separate grades for ideas, structure, and mechanics in a written assignment.

Create timelines for completion of longer-term assignments by micro-uniting tasks and establishing frequent checkpoints.

Give assignments that emphasize summary and review.

Teach students to evaluate their own work through assignments that explicitly teach reflection and self-evaluation.

Organize assignments and tests for the semester (or year) into a file or portfolio. Help students understand and assess their progress over time. 9.6 Expose and teach the skills, information, and expectations hidden or embedded in the curriculum Don't make assumptions about what students know. Be explicit with students about any "hidden expectations" you may have for classroom behavior, attendance, or performance.

Teach study skills which support success, such as active listening and reading skills, asking questions, note taking, summarizing, how to use the textbook, or time management.

Explain how and when to use specific memory strategies and study skills to master the course content.

Respect different ways of learning and different pathways to success. Point out alternatives that work. Help students identify learning channels and strategies that work well for them.

Present models for notebook organization and time management. Require that students maintain "Master Notebooks" and carry a day minder with them.

Cue students to organize: put dates on handouts, record assignments and due dates.

Model the skills, techniques and strategies you use successfully as a teacher and learner.

Recognize language as an essential tool for teaching and learning, and teach students to use language effectively.

Early in the semester, make students, parents, and support personnel aware of skill deficits or other specific difficulties which need direct instruction

9.7 Offer alternatives Offer multiple kinds of assignments and tests, which offer students a range of ways to learn and to express their understanding.

Give the gift of time. De-emphasize the role of time and speed of performance in assignments and tests.

Reduce reliance on quantitative measures of performance (letter or number grades) by using descriptive, qualitative, process oriented assessment methods.

Support students who have appropriately documented a disability with student services by providing modifications, such as: Alternative test environment,methods of evaluation, and time on tests.

9.8 Involve and respect students as central partners in learning Involve students in designing and creating a respectful, productive positive classroom atmosphere.

Encourage students (in groups and as individuals) to share their thoughts, successes, difficulties, and reactions to their studies.

Give students opportunities to explain, clarify, question, expand upon, and interconnect their ideas and thoughts, rather than respond with yes/no, single word, or short answers.

Encourage students to make the connection between what they are learning and their own lives. Incorporate their opinions, reactions, and evaluations, and experiences into assignments, discussions, and other activities.

Involve students as a member of the team (teacher, student, and parents) when evaluating progress, making choices, and setting goals.

Give direct, honest feedback to students about their work in a way that respects their comprehension skills.

Teach students to recognize and respect their own areas of strength in thinking and learning.

Encourage and teach planning, self-evaluation, reflection, and goal setting.

Keep a portfolio or notebook which organizes assignments and tests over time, and guide students to reflect on, analyze, and evaluate their own work.9.9 Intervene early and effectively with the individual student who is having difficulty learning Anticipate the material that will be difficult for students to learn by understanding the demands it places on the learner.

Develop techniques to monitor students' understanding as the material is being presented.

Teach diagnostically, using student errors and difficulties as a tool for planning. Link assessment to instruction.

If students don't do their work, don't assume that they don't want to do it. Take active steps to explore whether they understand the information and assignments and whether they have the skills to perform the required work.

Incorporate the following principles when providing specific help to a particular student who is having difficulty learning.

9.10 Principles of intervention1. Make no assumptions about what the student knows. A student may hide his difficulties to avoid embarrassment or be unaware that underlying problems are causing the observed difficulties with schoolwork. Careful observation supported by formal and informal diagnostic work is helpful in finding the best starting point for instruction (Point Zero).

2. Find "Point Zero" and begin instruction there. "Point Zero" is the breakdown point, or weak link, in the chain of skills required for performance.Complex skills, such as reading, require mastery of many sub skills. Difficulty in any of a number of areas (for example, decoding accuracy or speed, vocabulary knowledge, or memory skills) can cause reading comprehension problems. For any particular student who exhibits reading comprehension problems, there is a "best intervention" which addresses the particular "breakdown points" in performance.

3. Provide explicit teaching in the rules, structure, and patterns of the subject matter that is difficult. Students usually benefit from a teaching approach that emphasizes understanding, rather than memorizing, the subject matter. Make connections to a student's areas of expertise and interest.

4. Break difficult material into smaller, more manageable "chunks" or "micro-units." Help students learn and practice the material in small, meaningful parts to achieve fluency with the material as a whole. Avoid micro-uniting material that is easy for the student to learn.

5. Provide many opportunities to succeed. Define daily goals by dividing the material into "micro-units" and assure that the student experiences genuine daily successes. Students who are "behind" in learning are often denied the satisfaction that comes from accomplishing goals, since they are "just catching up." They demonstrate more determination when they experience tangible successes that they can attribute to their own efforts.

6. Provide multi sensory reinforcement and practice. Encourage active learning. Involve many of the senses by having students see, say, hear and do as they learn. Insure that materials and exercises are well organized and focused, so that they do not distract or confuse.

7. Regard mistakes positively. Use student mistakes as clues to help understand how a particular student thinks, where his understanding breaks down, and what he needs to do to get beyond the mistake.

8. Give the gift of time. Emphasize "mastering" rather than "covering" the material. Present and practice material neither too rapidly nor too slowly. Pace the instruction to match the student's rate of learning, allowing plenty of time for the student to practice material to the point of automatization or fluency.

9. Practice essential sub skills and skills to the point of automatization. Athletes accept the well-established necessity of practicing skills they understand to the point where they can be performed fluidly and automatically. Yet in school, such practice is sometimes dismissed as "mindless drill." Provide students with "meaningful practice" that helps make fundamental skills as automatic as possible.

10. Demonstrate the "spiral of learning" by showing how skills can be applied in different ways in different settings. Many students who practice skills or difficult material in isolation never learn how to apply that information in context or understand its usefulness as a whole. Provide opportunities for students to practice skills and material in a variety of ways and show them how to adapt them according to the context. ( www.hellofriend.org/teaching/good_classroom.html )9.11 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning consists of instructional techniques that require positive independence between learners in order for learning to occur. Cooperative activities also tend to promote the development of higher-order levels of thinking, essential communication skills, improved motivation, positive self-esteem, social awareness, and tolerance for individual differences. In cooperative learning, students may work in groups on any of the assignments they would ordinarily do alone. They may meet to collaborate on solving a problem, to discuss an issue without direct leading by the teacher, to brainstorm for new ideas or summarize what they have learned about ideas previously presented, to formulate concepts out of information and facts they have been given.

Goals for the group might range from practice in group communication processes to preparation for a presentation to the whole class group. Clear instructions, goals, and time lines for group activities are essential to successful cooperative learning. It is also important that each member have a specific function within the group; recorder, reporter, monitor, observer, facilitator, etc. Roles should be changed frequently, so that members have opportunity to practice new roles, and should be designed to fit the groups particular task. ( http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/msh/llc/ls/cl.htm )10.0 Learning Activities

Teaching and learning activities is an generic term that refers to any learning activity learners might engage in.Sample Multiple IntelligenceLearning ActivitiesVisualKinesthetic

Learning & using mind mappingParticipating in movement exercises

Using a computer graphic programDancing

Preparing visual stories or aidsBuilding & fixing

Preparing video tape or computer presentationsActing

Drawing or making modelsTaking field trips

InterpersonalIntrapersonal

Working in teamsListing you goals

Teaching or helping othersLeading a team

Hosting an evenAnalyzing your "styles" and/or intelligences

Persuading or "selling" to othersMeditating

DebatingWriting poetry

Auditory-LinguisticLogical-Analytical

Giving a speechInterpreting patterns

Writing a story or reportDebating

Preparing jokesSolving puzzles

Playing word gamesCalculating or computing

ReadingWriting a computer program

MusicalNaturalistic

SingingObserving & recording

ComposingCollecting

Playing an instrumentClassifying or identifying

Keeping time to a beatExperimenting

Using music (like Baroque) for learningForecasting

Teachers can use these activities to help students use or develop different talents. Good state assessment systems would allow students to demonstrate learning in different ways ( http://www.minuteman.org/technique/mila.html ).10.1 How Multiple Intelligences Impact Learning10.1.1 Curriculum traditional schooling heavily favors the verbal-linguistic

and logical-mathematical intelligences. Gardner suggests a more

balanced curriculum that incorporates the arts, self awareness,

communication, and physical education.

10.1.2 Instruction Gardner advocates instructional methods that appeal to all the intelligences, including role playing, musical performance, cooperative learning, reflection, visualization, story telling, and so on.

10.1.3 Assessment This theory calls for assessment methods that take into account the diversity of intelligences, as well as self-assessment tools that help students understand their intelligences.

( http://www.funderstanding.com/multipleintelligences.cfm )

En.Mokhtar/Eydayu/Norliza/Farizal Hasna/Shirley/Judith