INTRODUCTION TO NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOENGINEERING

WILEY SERIES IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AND

MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTEGRATED SYSTEMS

KAI CHANG, SERIES EDITOR

Advances in Optical Imaging for Clinical MedicineNicusor Iftimia, William R. Brugge, and Daniel X. Hammer (Editors)

Antigen Retrieval Immunohistochemistry Based Research and DiagnosticsShan-Rong Shi and Clive R. Taylor

Introduction to Nanomedicine and NanobioengineeringParas N. Prasad

PARAS N. PRASAD

INTRODUCTION TO NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOENGINEERING

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Prasad, Paras N. Introduction to nanomedicine and nanobioengineering / Paras N. Prasad. p. ; cm. Transforming healthcare with nanotechnology Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-118-09343-6 I. Title. II. Title: Transforming healthcare with nanotechnology. [DNLM: 1. Nanomedicine–methods. QT 36.5] 610.28'4–dc23 2012002564

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

v

PREFACE xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Nanomedicine:AGlobalVision / 11.2. TheNanotechnologyRevolution:RealizationofAsimov’s

Fiction / 31.3. Nanomedicine:ANewErainPersonalizedMedicine / 71.4. Nanomedicine:APromiseorReality? / 91.5. ANewFrontier:MultidisciplinaryChallengesand

Opportunities / 101.6. ScopeoftheBook:MultidisciplinaryEducation,Training,and

Research / 12References / 13

2 THEHUMANBODY 15

2.1. IntroductoryConcepts / 162.2. CellularStructure / 182.3. VariousTypesofCells / 232.4. BiochemicalMakeupofCells / 252.5. OtherImportantCellularComponents / 292.6. CellularProcesses / 30

vi CONTENTS

2.7. OrganizationofCellsintoTissues / 372.8. TypesofTissuesandTheirFunctions / 392.9. VariousOrgansandOrganSystemsintheBody / 402.10. TumorsandCancers / 45HighlightsoftheChapter / 46Exercises / 48References / 49

3 NANOCARRIERS 51

3.1. Nanocarriers:DeliveringPayloadstoNeededSites / 523.2. TheVariousNanoformulationsforNanomedicine / 533.3. VirusesasNanocarriers / 553.4. PolymericNanocarriers / 563.5. Lipid-BasedNanocarriers / 583.6. Dendrimers / 593.7. CarbonNanostructures / 613.8. InorganicNanoparticles / 633.9. PEBBLE / 653.10. Nanoclinics / 663.11. Nanoplexes / 683.12. New-GenerationNanocarriers / 69HighlightsoftheChapter / 70Exercises / 72References / 73

4 NANOCHEMISTRYOFNANOCARRIERS 77

4.1. NanochemistryandNanomedicine / 784.2. Top-DownApproaches / 78

4.2.1. MechanicalMilling / 794.2.2. Dip-PenNanolithography / 794.2.3. PRINTProcess / 814.2.4. LaserAblation / 81

4.3. Bottom-UpApproaches / 834.3.1. Dendrimers / 834.3.2. MicroemulsionChemistry / 864.3.3. Hot-ColloidalSynthesis / 874.3.4. Seed-MediatedSynthesisofAnisotropicMetallic

Nanostructures / 904.3.5. ReprecipitationMethod / 90

CONTENTS vii

4.4. CombinationofBottom-UpandTop-DownApproaches / 924.5. NanoparticleSurfaceModification / 934.6. FunctionalizationandBioconjugation / 95HighlightsoftheChapter / 97Exercises / 99References / 100

5 MULTIFUNCTIONALITIESFORDIAGNOSTICSANDTHERAPY 103

5.1. TheVariousFunctionalities / 1045.2. OpticalFunctionalities / 1055.3. OpticalNanoprobes / 1105.4. MagneticFunctionality / 1165.5. ThermalFunctionality / 1205.6. RadioactiveFunctionality / 1215.7. BiologicalFunctionality / 1245.8. Multifunctionality / 125HighlightsoftheChapter / 128Exercises / 130References / 131

6 CROSSINGTHEBIOLOGICALBARRIERS 135

6.1. VariousDeliveryPathways / 1356.2. VariousBiologicalBarriers / 1376.3. StealthNanoparticles / 1406.4. TheVariousIn VitroBarrierModels / 141HighlightsoftheChapter / 144Exercises / 145References / 146

7 BIOTARGETING 149

7.1. Biotargeting:WhyWeNeedIt / 1497.2. TargetedBiologicalSites / 1507.3. IntracellularUptake / 1517.4. TargetingStrategies / 1537.5. TargetingGroups / 155HighlightsoftheChapter / 159Exercises / 160References / 161

viii CONTENTS

8 MULTIMODALBIOMEDICALIMAGING 163

8.1. BiomedicalImagingTechniques / 1648.2. OpticalBioimaging / 170

8.2.1. FluorescenceMicroscopy / 1708.2.2. QuantitativeFRETMicroscopy / 1728.2.3. TechnicalChallengesforIn VitroImaging / 1758.2.4. In VivoOpticalImaging / 1778.2.5. OpticalCoherenceTomography / 1778.2.6. Super-ResolutionFluorescenceMicroscopy / 181

8.3. MagneticResonanceImaging / 1858.4. X-RayCTImaging / 1888.5. RadioImaging / 1908.6. UltrasoundImaging / 1908.7. PhotoacousticImaging / 1918.8. MultimodalImaging / 192HighlightsoftheChapter / 193Exercises / 200References / 201

9 BIOSENSING 207

9.1. PrinciplesofBiosensing / 2089.2. OpticalBiosensors / 211

9.2.1. FluorescencsSensors / 2119.2.2. PlasmonicSensors / 2189.2.3. PhotonicCrystalSensors / 227

9.3. MagneticBiosensors / 2289.4. ElectricalBiosensing / 2349.5. ElectrochemicalBiosensing / 2369.6. ElectrochemiluminescenceBiosensing / 2389.7. In VivoBioelectronicSensors / 239HighlightsoftheChapter / 241Exercises / 245References / 247

10 HIGH-THROUGHPUTMULTIPLEXEDDIAGNOSTICS 253

10.1. ComprehensiveDiagnosticStrategy / 25410.2. FlowCytometry / 25510.3. Enzyme-LinkedImmunosorbentAssay(ELISA) / 264

CONTENTS ix

10.4. MicroarraysTechnology / 26910.5. SuspensionBeadAssay / 277HighlightsoftheChapter / 281Exercises / 285References / 286

11 NANOPHARMACOTHERAPY 291

11.1. Nanopharmacotherapy:AnOverview / 29211.2. ModesofNanoformulationforNanopharmacotherapy / 29411.3. Pharmacokinetics / 29611.4. Biodistribution / 29711.5. Pharmacodynamics / 29811.6. ControlledReleasebyExternalActivation / 299HighlightsoftheChapter / 300Exercises / 302References / 303

12 THEHUMANCIRCULATORYSYSTEMANDTHERANOSTICS 305

12.1. BloodFluidicsandCardiovascularSystem / 30612.2. Circulatory-System-BasedDiseaseProfiling / 30912.3. MethodstoMonitorBloodFlow / 31212.4. TherapeuticApproachesUtilizingManipulation

ofBloodFlow / 31812.5. LymphNodeMapping / 32012.6. LymphaticDrugDelivery / 322HighlightsoftheChapter / 322Exercises / 326References / 327

13 NANOTECHNOLOGYFORCANCER 331

13.1. BenefitsofCancerNanotechnology / 33213.2. Chemotherapy / 33513.3. CancerGeneTherapy / 33913.4. PhotodynamicTherapy / 34013.5. MagneticTherapy / 34913.6. PhotothermalTherapy / 35313.7. NeutronCaptureTherapy / 357

x CONTENTS

13.8. CirculatingTumorCells / 35913.9. NCIAllianceforCancerNanotechnology / 360HighlightsoftheChapter / 360Exercises / 362References / 364

14 GENETHERAPY 371

14.1. ThePrinciples,Steps,andImpactofGeneTherapy / 37214.2. MethodsofGeneDelivery / 37414.3. GeneAugmentationTherapy / 38114.4. GeneSilencingTherapy / 38114.5. IndirectGeneTherapyModulatingInnate

ImmuneResponse / 38414.6. TransmucosalGeneDelivery / 385HighlightsoftheChapter / 386Exercises / 388References / 390

15 NANOTECHNOLOGYFORINFECTIOUSDISEASES 393

15.1. PathogenInfectionsandNanoparticle-BasedApproaches / 39415.2. HIV / 401

15.2.1. Diagnosis / 40215.2.2. VaccinesandAntimicrobialDrugs / 40415.2.3. Therapy / 405

15.3. Influenza / 40815.3.1. Diagnosis / 40815.3.2. Vaccines / 40915.3.3. Therapy / 409

15.4. Tuberculosis / 41015.4.1. Diagnosis / 41015.4.2. TBVaccine / 41215.4.3. Therapy / 412

15.5. Malaria / 41615.5.1. Vaccines / 41815.5.2. Therapy / 420

HighlightsoftheChapter / 422Exercises / 424References / 426

CONTENTS xi

16 REJUVENATIONTHERAPY 433

16.1. RejuvenationTherapy:FantasyorReality? / 43316.2. FreeRadicalScavenging / 43616.3. ChelationTherapy / 43916.4. HormoneTherapy / 441HighlightsoftheChapter / 442Exercises / 443References / 444

17 STEMCELLBIOTECHNOLOGY 447

17.1. StemCellBiotechnology:Overview / 44817.2. CellReprogramming / 44917.3. GeneTransfection / 45217.4. SomaticCellTransdifferentiation / 45317.5. StemCellSorting / 45417.6. StemCellTracking / 454HighlightsoftheChapter / 456Exercises / 456References / 457

18 TISSUEENGINEERING 461

18.1. TissueEngineering:Overview / 46218.2. TissueRegeneration / 46418.3. NanotechnologyinTissueEngineering / 46718.4. NanofibersforTissueEngineering / 47218.5. NanoparticleDeliveryofBiomolecules / 47318.6. MagneticallyAssistedTissueEngineering / 47418.7. Tissue/OrganPrinting / 47518.8. TissueBonding / 477HighlightsoftheChapter / 479Exercises / 482References / 484

19 NANODERMATOLOGYANDNANOCOSMETICS 487

19.1. DeliveryThroughSkin / 48719.2. SkinCareandNanotechnology / 48819.3. VariousNanoparticlesforDermatologyandCosmetics / 49119.4. Nanodermatology / 492

xii CONTENTS

19.5. Nanocosmetics / 49419.6. NanotoxicologyoftheSkin / 497HighlightsoftheChapter / 497Exercises / 498References / 499

20 NANODENTISTRY 503

20.1. NanotechnologyforDentalCare / 50420.2. NanoparticlesforPreventiveDentistry / 50720.3. NanomaterialsforRestorativeDentistry / 50920.4. RegenerativeDentistry / 51620.5. Nanoparticle-EnhancedDentalImagingandOral

Diagnostics / 51920.6. NanoroboticsforDentistry / 522HighlightsoftheChapter / 522Exercises / 524References / 525

21 NANOTOXICITY 529

21.1. ToxicityofNanoparticles / 52921.2. Cytotoxicity / 53321.3. In VitroCytotoxicityAssays / 53521.4. In VivoToxicity / 53921.5. In VivoToxicityEvaluation / 54221.6. NanotoxicityStudiesonSelectedNanoparticles / 542HighlightsoftheChapter / 547Exercises / 550References / 551

INDEX 555

PREFACE

Nanomedicine and nanobioengineering, defined respectively by the fusion of nanotechnology with medicine and bioengineering, are emerging new fron-tiers, providing challenges for fundamental research and opportunities for new biotechnologies. These fields promise to make a major impact on healthcare worldwide. They are multidisciplinary fields, creating opportunities in physics, chemistry, applied sciences, engineering, and biology, as well as in biomedical technology and drug development.

A good number of books and reviews discuss selective aspects of nanomedi-cine and nanobioengineering. However, there is a need for a comprehensive monograph that provides a unified synthesis of these two fields and their joint impact on global healthcare. This book fills this need, by providing an inte-grated description of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering for new-genera-tion diagnostics and therapy. The comprehensive, multidisciplinary program at our Institute in this integrated field of nanomedicine received early, generous funding from the John R. Oishei Foundation in Buffalo, New York; and the resulting work provided the inspiration and much of the impetus to undertake this writing.

The objective of this book is to provide a basic knowledge of a broad range of topics in an integrated manner so that individuals in all disciplines can rapidly acquire the minimal necessary background for research and development in this field. The author intends this monograph to serve both as a textbook for education and training and as a reference book that aids research and development in areas integrating nanotechnology with medicine and bioengineering. Another aim of the book is to stimulate the interest of researchers, industries, and businesses, as well as to foster collaboration

xiii

xiv    PREFACE

through multidisciplinary programs in these emerging frontiers of bioscience and biotechnology to yield a new dimension for healthcare.

This book encompasses the fundamentals of nanomaterials design, bioen-gineering, nanodiagnostics, and nanotherapy. Each chapter begins with an introduction describing what a reader will find in that chapter. Each chapter ends with highlights that are basically the “take-home message” and may serve as a review of the materials presented. In addition, exercises are provided to assist in teaching. Throughout the book, examples are given from our research work wherever possible, merely because of convenience; this should be con-sidered supplemental to the excellent work being conducted at various institu-tions worldwide.

In writing this book, which covers a very broad range of topics, I received help from a large number of individuals at the Institute of Lasers, Photonics, and Biophotonics at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York, as well as from elsewhere. This help has consisted of furnishing technical information, creating illustrations, providing critiques, and preparing the man-uscript. A separate Acknowledgments section recognizes these individuals.

Here I would like to acknowledge the individuals whose broad-based support has been of paramount value in completing the book. I express my sincere appreciation to my colleague Professor Paul Knight, M.D., for his endless help and encouragement. I thank Dr. Indrajit Roy, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, and Dr. Artem Pliss for their valuable support and technical help throughout the book. I owe thanks to my administrative assis-tant, Ms. Margie Weber, for her encouragement and for assuming responsibil-ity of many of the noncritical administrative issues at the Institute, in order to free up my time for writing this monograph. I thank Ms. Barbara Raff, whose clerical help in manuscript preparation was invaluable.

Finally, I am indebted to my daughters, my princesses, Natasha and Melanie, for showing their love, understanding, and encouragement.

Paras N. PrasadBuffalo, New York

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Technical ContentsProfessor Stephen Arnold, Dr. Ana Karla Braz, Professor Edward Furlani, Professor Indrajit Roy, Professor Paul Knight, Dr. Rajiv Kumar, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, Dr. Supriya Mahajan, Professor Gene Morse, Dr. Tymish Ohulchanskyy, Dr. Artem Pliss, Dr. Haridas Pudavar, Dr. Yudhis-thira Sahoo, Professor Mark Swihart.

Technical Illustrations and ReferencesDr. Adela Bonoui, Dr. Ana Karla Braz, Dr. Folarin Erogbogbo, Professor Edward Furlani, Professor Indrajit Roy, Dr. Rajiv Kumar, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, Dr. Supriya Mahajan, Dr. Tymish Ohulchanskyy, Dr. Artem Pliss.

Chapter CritiquesProfessor Stelios Andreadis, Professor Robert Baier, Ms. Cathy Carfagna, Professor Heather Clark, Professor Howard Gendelman, Dr. Piotr Grodzin-ski, Professor Jiang Feng, Dr. George Hinkal, Dr. Aliaksandr Kachynski, Ms. Dana Knight, Professor Raoul Kopelman, Dr. Ewa Anna Kucz, Dr. Howard Lippes, Professor Mona Marei, Dr. Anil Patri, Ms. Melanie Prasad, Professor Marek Samoc, Dr. Stanley Schwartz, Dr. Hulda Swai, Professor Kenneth Tramposch, Dr. Paul Wallace, Ms. Hendriette Van der Walt.

Manuscript PreparationDr. Andrey Kuzmin, Ms. Barbara Raff, Ms. Margie Weber.

xv

1

Introduction to Nanomedicine and Nanobioengineering, First Edition. Paras N. Prasad.© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. NANOMEDICINE: A GLOBAL VISION

This monograph describes emerging interdisciplinary frontiers created by the fusion of nanotechnology, engineering, and medicine that provide a global vision to produce breakthrough approaches for meeting our current and future healthcare challenges. Traditionally, nanomedicine is defined as the application of nanotechnology to medicine; nanobioengineering is often used to describe nanotechnology applied to bioengineering, which includes imaging, sensing, diagnostics, blood fluids, and tissue engineering. This book brings a much-needed integration of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering to produce a broadened nanomedicine platform that utilizes nanotechnology to generate exciting new approaches for diagnostics, bioengineering, and targeted therapy. Such an integration could lead to multifunctional nanomedicines that can, as a single formulation, be used to diagnose, treat, and evaluate treatment effec-tiveness in real time. Collectively, these agents are termed nanotheranostics.

We live in a complex world where our health is determined by an interplay of our genetic inheritance, the environment we live in, and the lifestyle we choose. As the barriers between social, ethnic, religious, regional, and national divides come down and the world becomes a melting pot for the human race, healthcare issues (whether genetic, environmental, or lifestyle originated) do not remain localized. Today these issues are not the problems of a specific

2 INTRODUCTION

society or a specific nation, but a global concern and global priority. As tech-nological advances facilitate rapid travel through geographic variation, differ-ent time zones, and diverse climates, infections are no longer confined to their old boundaries and instead travel all over the globe, spreading like wildfire. Thus, as new healthcare challenges emerge in the future, we must face them together as a single global community and find effective solutions for them collectively.

The healthcare challenges that we now face and can anticipate for the future are many, and they pose an almost insurmountable task for us. Figure 1.1 lists some major challenges that our global community faces. Despite tre-mendous progress in winning some cancer battles, cancer remains a major healthcare challenge. Take, for example, pancreatic cancer, the survival rate for which beyond five years after detection using the current diagnostics is only 4%. Consequently, there is a need for early diagnosis, preferably at a precancerous stage when many options to treat may be available, as well as for a more effective treatment. Some treatments for cancer can be very harsh, where the patient’s quality of life is seriously compromised. A more effective treatment or an alternative gentler therapy would be of significant value to such patients. New strains of infectious diseases, as well as existing ones, are another major challenge we face. New infections such as the bird flu or swine flu may originate in one small region, but it does not take long for them to

Figure 1.1. Current and future healthcare challenges.

Depression

Aging

GeneticDisorders

Cancer Chronic PainAddictions

InfectiousDiseases

Obesity

Current and FutureHealthcareChallenges

The NaNOTeChNOlOgy RevOlUTION: RealIzaTION Of asImOv’s fICTION 3

spread around the world and become a pandemic. Infections such as tubercu-losis and malaria, often referred to as poverty-related diseases (PRDs), are on the rise and spreading worldwide. Diseases that are manifestations of genetic disorder are again on the rise worldwide, as a result of a complex interplay of our genes, the environment, and our dietary intake. Depression and chronic pain are other healthcare problems what are highly detrimental to the quality of life that we wish to have.

Then there are healthcare issues that we create by the lifestyle we choose. The examples given in Figure 1.1 are obesity and addiction. Obesity rates are rapidly rising, and of particular concern is child obesity. Obesity creates not only physical handicap, but also a cascade of other disease manifestations, such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. While obesity may start in many cases from a lifestyle of eating unhealthy and fattening food, it soon becomes a biochemical addiction in which overactive bad genes in the brain create a constant need to eat. Similarly, addictions to medication, drugs, and alcohol are biochemical in nature, generating specific biochemical signatures in the brain—again, produced by the lifestyle we choose. Such addictions have now become major health issues worldwide.

Aging is not a disease, but it does affect quality of life and increases an individual’s vulnerability to various diseases and infections. The world’s popu-lation is aging. Accordingly, more people are suffering from neurological dis-orders such as Alzheimer’s disease, impairment of body functions, chronic pain in joints, loss of hearing, and a reduction in eyesight. While we cannot perma-nently reverse aging (for which we must wait for rejuvenation therapy, dis-cussed in Chapter 16, to develop), we can certainly use new medical advances in utilizing stem cells (discussed in Chapter 17) to replenish nonfunctioning cells, and tissue engineering (presented in Chapter 18) to replace nonfunction-ing organs. We can also explore the promise of gene therapy (covered in Chapter 14) and stem cell therapy to treat neurological diseases, as well as to effectively boost the immunity to fight infections (discussed in Chapter 15). This book will address how an integrated nanomedicine platform provides new, revolutionary approaches to tackle these major healthcare issues.

1.2. THE NANOTECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION: REALIZATION OF ASIMOV’S FICTION

Nanotechnology is an emerging discipline of science and technology that has captured the imaginations of the world. Many countries have recognized nano-technology as a national priority and allocated major resources to develop this area. It has a high societal impact, because it provides promising new solutions to numerous technical needs that the world faces (subject of global priorities), some of which are listed in Figure 1.2. In commonly adopted definitions, nano-technology deals with materials, structures, and devices that are of dimensions in the range of 1–100 nanometers (1 nanometer is one billionth of a meter;

4 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2. Examples of global priorities on which nanotechnology has made an impact.

nanometer abbreviated as nm) and thus are so ultrasmall that they cannot even be seen under a normal optical microscope. In reality, nanotechnology is not so new. Although it is hard to place an exact period when it was introduced, there are plenty of examples of their use in the production of tinted glass widely used in cathedrals and churches from the medieval period onwards. A beautiful example is shown in Figure 1.3, which is from the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. It was not until 1860 that Michael Faraday actually recognized that these bright colors in the glass were imparted by metallic gold or silver nanoparticle inclusions formed during glass processing. However, many con-sider Feynman as the father of modern nanotechnology when he stated in his famous lecture of 1970, “There is plenty of room at the bottom. . . .” This referred to the fact that many, many objects (particles or structures) of nano-meter dimensions can be packed even in a small volume.

A major impact area for nanotechnology is healthcare. A nanoscale object (such as a nanoparticle) can provide new approaches to diagnostics and therapy, which constitutes the field of nanomedicine. Such developments dem-onstrate a realization of the fiction novel Fantastic Voyage by Isaac Asimov in 1966, which was later dramatized in a film by Richard Fleischer. These works presented a visionary fiction in which a submarine carrying a crew and a medical team was reduced to microscopic size and injected into the blood-stream of a diplomat. As depicted in Figure 1.4, the submarine navigated to a blood clot, which was then zapped with a laser beam to remove it and thus save the diplomat. In 2002, we used the term “nanoclinics” to describe the modern approach of using nanoparticles as carriers for targeting and circulat-ing agents that can be directed to a desired biological site in a body. These nanoparticles can be armed with various diagnostic probes to provide on-site diagnosis and then treat and/or repair a disease manifestation. (For a more

The NaNOTeChNOlOgy RevOlUTION: RealIzaTION Of asImOv’s fICTION 5

detailed discussion, please see Chapter 3.) This approach is an excellent example of how the imagination of yesterday can become a reality today, and it can be further refined to produce high societal impact in the future. As shown in Figure 1.4, our nanoclinic concept licensed by the company Nanobi-otix has just entered a clinical trial for X-ray nanotherapy.

Figure 1.3. Metallic nanoparticles doped stained glass windows in Notre Dame Cathe-dral in Paris.

Figure 1.4. The imaginary nanosubmarine in the 1966 science fiction movie Fantastic Voyage, shown with the concept of a nanoclinic developed by us in 2002. This technol-ogy is currently being used in a clinical trial at Nanobiotix for X-ray nanotherapy.

6 INTRODUCTION

The possible impacts of nanotechnology on healthcare and society are tre-mendous. Some of the features offered by nanotechnology for healthcare are illustrated in Figure 1.5. First, materials, when reduced to nanometer size, exhibit physical properties that can be different from their bulk form. Further-more, this property may become size-dependent on nanoscale. An example discussed in detail in Chapter 5 is the light absorption and emission by nanopar-ticles of inorganic semiconductors, such as CdSe or Si. Once their size becomes smaller than a certain length, the wavelength of light they absorb and the resulting emission color (the emission wavelength) become size-dependent. These semiconductor nanomaterials are quantum dots and quantum rods, which are presented in Chapter 5. This size dependence can be utilized for multiplexed optical bioimaging using quantum dots or quantum rods of various sizes. Another example is metallic nanoparticles, which on nanoscale are not reflective. As shown in Figure 1.3, the metallic nanoparticles exhibit bright colors derived from new optical absorptions called surface plasmon resonance bands (also discussed in Chapter 5) that do not exist in the bulk metal form. The other feature is building multifunctionality onto a nanostructure/nanoparticle platform. For example, a nanoparticle can be loaded with a number of imaging agents for multimodal medical imaging such as optical bioimaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomog-raphy (PET) which are covered in Chapter 8. Even in optical imaging, one can use different dyes or quantum dots combinations, and thus multiple color stain-ing (labeling) for multiplexed optical imaging can be realized to enhance detec-tion specificity. The nanostructured materials are promising scaffolds for tissue regeneration, an evolving field also known as tissue engineering (Chapter 18). For therapy, one can introduce a combination of therapeutic modalities such

Figure 1.5. Features provided by nanotechnology that impact healthcare.

NaNOmeDICINe: a New eRa IN PeRsONalIzeD meDICINe 7

as light-induced therapy, magnetic therapy, thermal therapy, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy into a simple nanoparticle. Nanotechnology also holds promise for stem cell biotechnology, which is discussed in Chapter 17 (“Stem Cell Biotechnology”).

Targeted delivery is another important feature whereby one can introduce biorecognition (by antibody or other biospecific units) on a nanoparticle to identify a specific biomarker (signature) of a disease and thus target the disease site. One can build multiple targeting ability on the nanoparticle to enhance its specificity and thus increase its targeting ability.

Controlled release of a drug or therapeutic payload carried by a nanostruc-ture or nanoparticle is another important feature offered by the nanotechno-logy approach. A nanoparticle offers tremendous structural flexibility for inclusion of various payloads and their controlled release. First, the volume of the nanoparticle can itself serve as a diagnostic or therapeutic agent (pure nanoformulation). Second, a diagnostic or therapeutic agent can be attached on the surface or included in the interior of a nanoparticle. The release can be controlled in a number of ways. First, one can introduce external control by using a magnetic, optical, or radio-frequency (rf) field to break a nanoparticle or cleave a labile chemical linkage in order to release the payload. Second, one can manipulate the pores on the nanoparticle, either by enzymatic activi-ties or by local heating using light or magnetic field, to control the release kinetics. Finally, one can take advantage of the enzymatic activities in the targeted cells to break down the nanoparticle to make the payload active.

While nanotechnology can offer many benefits to healthcare, there is also a growing concern about potential health hazards that may be caused by nanoparticles. The short- and the long-term toxicity of nanoparticles in the body must be thoroughly investigated. With the growing euphoria about the vast potential of nanotechnology in so many industrial sectors, there is also a concern that airborne nanoparticles in a workplace can lead to organ damage and health problems. Thus, nanotoxicity (discussed in Chapter 21) is an inte-gral factor in developing nanomedicine. Therefore, for each nanomedicine application we must weigh the benefits versus the risks.

1.3. NANOMEDICINE: A NEW ERA IN PERSONALIZED MEDICINE

Nanomedicine, inclusive of nanobioengineering in its broad scope, is a nano-biotechnology utilizing a specifically engineered nanoplatform to carry various payloads for new, minimally invasive diagnosis, targeted delivery of therapeu-tics, enhanced efficacy of an existing therapy/treatment, and real-time monitor-ing of a treatment.

The scope and applications of nanomedicine, together with nanobioengi-neering, are highlighted in Figure 1.6. First, in vitro diagnosis in a laboratory to profile a disease can utilize various body fluids/excretions such as blood,

8 INTRODUCTION

urine, saliva, sputum, and feces. Some studies even focus on using the exhaled breath for analysis of diseases. These body fluids can interact with specially designed nanoparticles to create biological responses for identifying diseases, even at the molecular and cellular levels. This can lead ultimately to a molecu-lar understanding of disease mechanism and sensitivity of detection at single cell levels, which can be key to early detection and personalized molecular medicine. The in vitro diagnosis, using a multipronged detection and quantifi-cation enabled by a nanoparticle platform, will be able to elucidate drug intake, its biodistribution, its cellular pathway, and subsequent intracellular interactions. This information can be tremendously effective in drug develop-ment and screening of various possible therapies for a given disease. Since the testing is in vitro, nanotoxicity is not of concern in such a scenario. For this reason, I envision that a full implementation of nanoparticle-based in vitro diagnosis is the first realized application of nanomedicine.

In vivo diagnosis with a nanomedicine approach offers the benefit of com-bining the various diagnostic modalities in a single nanoplatform (e.g., nanopar-ticles). For example, one can combine optical imaging and spectrometry with MRI and PET imaging to do a more thorough disease profiling based on molecular, structural, and morphological changes as a result of disease mani-festations. Also, packaging them in the small nanovolume of a biocompatible nanoparticle with the ability to localize (due to the presence of targeting

Figure 1.6. The broad scope of applications for nanomedicine.

NaNOmeDICINe: a PROmIse OR RealITy? 9

group) at the disease site enhances the sensitivity of detection and minimizes the potential for systemic toxicity of the imaging agent. The simultaneous presence of various diagnostic agents in the same nanoformulation also allows a medical facility to use them at the same time, without requiring separate preparation for each modality.

Of course, a major function of nanomedicine is to provide a nanoformula-tion that opens new modality of therapy or increases the effectiveness of an existing therapy, as well as to create the prospect of using more than one therapeutic approach in tandem. Examples of new approaches include (a) magnetic therapy using magnetic nanoparticles and (b) photothermal therapy using metallic nanoparticles. An example of improving the efficacy of an exist-ing therapy can be demonstrated by (a) enhancing the biodistribution and circulation of a hydrophobic drug by using a nanoparticle carrier with hydro-philic surface and (b) targeting the carrier to localize a large concentration of the drug at the diseased site. Additional merits offered by nanotherapeutics include controlled and sustained release of a drug. One can control the release by manipulation of pores in the nanoparticle or external stimulation using light, magnetic field, heat, or radio-frequency field.

Finally, the biggest payoff of nanomedicine lies in the realization of ther-anostics, the combined function of therapy and diagnostics. In other words, the functions of targeting, effective biodistribution, multiple diagnostics, and mul-timodal therapy can be combined in a single nanoformulation. This allows one to follow the process of therapy to see (and monitor) a therapeutic process at work and to assess its effectiveness in real time. Real-time monitoring of therapeutic action will be of tremendous value to a patient, because one does not have to wait post treatment to determine the outcome.

1.4. NANOMEDICINE: A PROMISE OR REALITY?

In any emerging field showing great promise (and often generating consider-able hype), expectations generally run ahead of the real progress. Naturally, the question may arise whether the field of nanomedicine is only a promise for the future (which may or may not materialize) or if there is evidence that nanomedicine is already impacting healthcare. This section provides a very brief account of what has been already achieved in nanomedicine.

Within the realm of in vitro diagnostics, in which tests are conducted in the laboratory on biological fluids outside of the body, nanotechnology is well poised to make a significant, immediate impact. There are already examples of nanoparticle-based colorimetric detection modalities, such as those used for home pregnancy kits, in which color changes are introduced by aggregation of metallic nanoparticles caused by the biomarker signature (expressions) of pregnancy. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors discussed in Chapter 9 are widely used in biological laboratories and biomedical research worldwide.

10 INTRODUCTION

In vivo diagnostics, nanocarrier drug delivery, tissue regeneration, and organ replacement require introduction of a foreign nanostructure in the body. The procedure for regulatory clearance [such as by the Food and Drug Admin-istration (FDA) in the United States] is quite complex, as illustrated by Figure 1.7, and requires several steps of clinical trials.

However, several nanoformulations of drugs—such as for cancer therapy —are already FDA approved and are being used. In addition, many nanofor-mulations are undergoing different stages of clinical trial. Chapter 13 provides examples of nanoformulations of chemotherapy drugs for cancer treatment. Two examples are Doxil® (a nanoparticle formulation of the drug Doxorubi-cin, FDA approved in 1995) and Abraxane® (a nanoparticle formulation of the drug Paelitaxel, FDA approved in 2005). These are discussed in Chapter 13, along with other nanoformulations that have been approved or are in clini-cal trials for cancer therapy.

1.5. A NEW FRONTIER: MULTIDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Nanomedicine, in its broad scope (of which nanobioengineering is a major component), is a new frontier that faces multidisciplinary challenges—from a proper formulation of nanoplatform, to bedside implementation of nanother-anostics. It thus requires a close collaboration between biologists, chemists, physicists, engineers, pharmacologists, and clinicians. Some key multidisci-plinary challenges (which in turn provide opportunities for a given discipline)

Figure 1.7. The different steps of drug development and clearance by the FDA. Data from http://www.phrma.org/.

a New fRONTIeR: mUlTIDIsCIPlINaRy ChalleNges aND OPPORTUNITIes 11

are summarized in Figure 1.8. For chemists, the challenges and opportunities include producing effective nanoformulations that are chemically and envi-ronmentally stable, as well as biocompatible, and that provide appropriate linkage and caging sites to attach and/or encapsulate the following: (a) various diagnostic probes, (b) therapeutic agents, and (c) groups enhancing circulation and producing targeting. Because a nanoparticle has a large surface-to-volume ratio, control of the surface composition and structure (surface chemistry) plays an important role in chemical design and synthesis. Identification of biomarkers and the selection of targeting group is another important aspect of creating a nanosize magic bullet that makes a precise hit of the target (in our case, a diseased site or a tumor). Ensuring effective kinetics of biodistribu-tion, circulation, and selective localization of the nanoparticles at the targeted site is another important challenge that requires a multidisciplinary input from biophysicists, pharmacologists, and medicinal chemists. Multiple diagnoses, using a combination of various probes and methods and utilizing a number of physical and chemical principles, require input from physicists and engineers. A growing discipline worldwide is biomedical engineering, which cross-fertilizes biomedical sciences with engineering. This is a very welcome new discipline, which can play a major role in nanomedicine through the inclusion of nanobioengineering.

In vitro and in vivo diagnostics provide a comprehensive approach for early disease diagnosis, as well as for monitoring its progression and drug-induced depression. Active engagement of practicing physicians in clinical trials and subsequent translation to bedside of a patient is of vital importance. We have to engage clinicians from an early stage of nanomedicine, because their feed-back is crucial in advancing the frontier of nanomedicine toward real patient care. Finally, a multidisciplinary effort is necessary to evaluate and validate the

Figure 1.8. Multidisciplinary challenges and opportunities offered by integrating nano-medicine and nanobioengineering.

12 INTRODUCTION

safety of nanomedicine. Toxicity concerns include chemical toxicity, immuno-toxicity, organ injury, and interference in physiological functions. Hence, the continued development of nanomedicine requires thorough study at the cel-lular, tissue, animal, and human levels.

1.6. SCOPE OF THE BOOK: MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND RESEARCH

Like any new frontier, advances in nanomedicine will require engagement of various disciplines as described in Section 1.5. One major challenge is that these disciplines do not even use the same set of vocabularies and acronyms. An effective cross-fertilization among these disciplines will require giving them common vocabulary terms, and the introduction of multidisciplinary concepts that can provide collaborators with the ability to understand and communicate with each other on real issues. Although a good number of books and reviews cover selective aspects of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering [e.g.: Jain, 2008; Tibbols, 2011], there is a need for a comprehensive monograph that introduces the integration of unified introductory concepts and provides a broad multidisciplinary exposure of the field to new researchers. This book is intended to fill this void and act as an introduction, providing basic concepts for the benefit of readers from the disciplines of chemistry, physics, biology, biomedical sciences, biomedical engineering, medical school, pharmacy school, and dental school, as well as from the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. To serve this purpose, Chapters 2–7 are designed to present basic materials, elucidate concepts, and provide an overview of the current status in meeting specific challenges of the areas covered in these chapters.

For a researcher either entering the field or interested in expanding his/her research scope, for a drug developer in a pharmaceutical industry, for a bio-medical engineer interested in developing appropriate engineering tools, for a dentist applying nanotechnology for dental care, for a cosmetic industry person developing nanocosmetics, or for a clinician interested in nanomedi-cine therapeutic approaches, the subsequent chapters introduce specific appli-cations and needs.

Each chapter begins with a brief outline of what the reader can expect from it, and then it ends with a highlight of the chapter. These highlights succinctly summarize the key points from the chapter, which is a very convenient listing of the take-home message from that chapter. For assisting in the teaching of this subject, each chapter also provides exercises. The chapters are written largely in a self-contained manner, so that it is not necessary to read the chap-ters in the sequential order as presented here—the reader can skip a chapter to move on to another one, depending on interest and need.

It is my hope that this monograph—with its comprehensive, yet introduc-tory, coverage of the basics, applications, and needs of nanomedicine—will serve as a resource for educating and training a new generation of multidisci-