Introduction to SociologySOC-101

Unit 10 – Sex, Gender, and Age

Issues of Sex and Gender Gender stratification refers to the unequal (or

differing) access to power, prestige, and property possessed by men and by women

Sex and gender reflect different bases for stratification

Sex Biological characteristics distinguishing males and

females Primary sex organs (organs related to reproduction) Secondary sex organs (physical distinctions not related

to reproduction)

Issues of Sex and Gender Gender

A social characteristic, and its impact varies from one society to another

It refers to the behaviors and attitudes the group considers proper for its males and females.

The sociological significance of gender is that it serves as a sorting device by which society controls its members and thus is a structural feature of society

Issues of Sex and Gender There is disagreement as to what produces

gender differences in behavior. Some researchers argue that biological factors

(two X chromosomes in females, one X and one Y in males) result in differences in the behavior of males (more aggressive and domineering) and females (more comforting and nurturing)

The dominant sociological position is that gender differences result from sex being used to mark people for special treatment Males and females then take on the relative positions

that society assigns to them

Issues of Sex and Gender Alice Rossi suggested that women are better

prepared biologically than men for “mothering” Nature provides biological predispositions that are

overlaid with culture preferences Medical accidents and studies such as the one

involving Vietnam veterans suggest that the relationship between biology and social learning is a complex one Example: one child in 1963 was forced to have a sex

change operation after a botch circumcision burned off his penis Child was raised as a girl and behaved like a girl

Example: study of Vietnam Veterans showed that men who had higher testosterone were more aggressive and tend to have more problems than men with lower levels

Gender Inequality

Gender Inequality Around the world, gender is the primary division

between people Every society sets up barriers to deny women equal

access They are therefore referred to as a minority even

though they outnumber men Although the origin of patriarchy (male

dominance) is unknown, one theory points to the social consequences of human reproduction As a result of pregnancy and breast-feeding, women

were limited for much of their lives and they assumed the tasks associated with the home and child care

Gender Inequality Men took over those tasks requiring greater speed

and longer absences such as hunting animals This enabled men to make contact with other tribes and

to wage war Male prestige resulted from their accumulation of

possessions through trade and war with other groups Little prestige was given to women’s routine tasks, in

part because they were not perceived as risking their lives for the group

Eventually men took over society, using their weapons, possessions, and knowledge to guarantee that they held more social power than did women

Gender Inequality There is no way to test this theory because

the answers lie buried in history There may be many different causes other than

the biology of human reproduction Marvin Harris argued that in prehistoric times,

each group was threatened with annihilation by other groups They had to recruit members to fight enemies in

dangerous, hand-to-hand combat Bigger and stronger men were coaxed into this

bravery by promises of rewards—sexual access to females

Gender Inequality Frederick Engels suggested that male

dominance developed in society with the emergence of private property However, he did not explain the connection

Today, male dominance is a continuation of millennia-old patterns

Gender Inequality in the U.S.

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women’s rights resulted from a prolonged and

bitter struggle. U.S. women could not vote, own property, or

serve on a jury until the 20th century Males did not willingly surrender these privileges,

but used social institutions to maintain their position

Feminism The view that biology is not destiny and that

gender stratification is wrong and should be resisted

This met with strong opposition

Gender Inequality in the U.S. The first wave of the women’s movement had

a radical and conservative branches Radicals wanted to reform all social institutions Conservative branch concentrated on winning the

vote for women and thus dominated Both branches of the movement more or less

disappeared after suffrage was achieved The second wave began in the 1960s

Its goals ranged from changing women’s work roles to changing policies on violence against women

While women enjoy more rights today, gender inequality still exists

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Researchers have found sex discrimination in

the area of medicine and health care Physicians sometimes dismiss the complaints of

female patients as not serious This neglect could be a matter of life and death One example is in the area of diagnosing and treating

heart disease Physicians regard women’s reproductive organs as

“potentially disease producing” and largely unnecessary after childbearing years They frequently recommend their removal Surgeons make a lot of money from the unnecessary

removal of these organs

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Despite evidence of the educational gains made by

women some traditionally male-female distinctions persist In college, males and females are channeled into different

fields 90% of library science associate degrees are awarded to

females 95% percent of associate degrees in construction trades are

awarded to males The proportion of females decreases in postgraduate

work, though this too is slowly changing There is also gender stratification in both the rank and

pay within higher educational institutions. Women at all levels are paid less than their male counterparts

Changes are taking place The proportion of professional degrees earned by women has

increased in recent years

Changes in College Enrollment by Sex

Gender Inequality in the U.S. There have been significant changes in the

workforce as the number of working women has increased However, discrimination against women is still very

visible In 1900, one in five workers was female; today it is

almost one in two Women who work full-time average only 72 percent

of what men are paid despite their level of educational achievement This is true even when they have more qualifications than

their male counterparts Half of this pay gap results from women entering the work

force in lower-paying jobs

Gender Inequality in the U.S. The “glass ceiling” describes an invisible

barrier that women face in the work force Men, who dominate the executive suites,

stereotype potential leaders as people who look like themselves

In addition, women lack mentors as male executives are reluctant to get close to female subordinates because they fear gossip and sexual harassment charges, or they believe that women are weak

In recent years women who are highly motivated, fiercely competitive, and play by “men’s rules,” have begun to crack the glass ceiling

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Until the 1970s, women did not draw a

connection between unwanted sexual advances on the job and their subordinate positions at work But as women began to discuss the problem, they

named it and came to see unwanted sexual advances by men in powerful positions as a structural problem

The change resulted from reinterpreting women’s experiences and giving them a name

Gender Inequality in the U.S. As more women move into positions of

authority over men, the problem of sexual harassment is no longer exclusively a female problem

Ongoing court cases have resulted in changes as to what is and is not included within the legal definition of sexual harassment The Court has ruled that sexual harassment laws

also apply to homosexuals who are harassed by heterosexuals on the job

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women are more likely to be victims of

violence than men Every year in the United States, 0.59 of every

10,000 females is raped The typical rapist is under the age of 30 Of increased concern today is the widespread

incidence of date rape Studies show that only 5 percept of date rape cases at

universities are reported

Males are more likely to commit murder than females, and males commit 89 percent of the murders involving women victims

Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women are also disproportionate victims of family

violence and of genital circumcision Feminists use symbolic interactionism to

understand violence against women They stress that U.S. culture promotes violence by

males as it teaches men to associate power, dominance, strength, virility, and superiority with masculinity

Men use violence in an attempt to maintain a higher status

To solve violence we must first break the link between violence and masculinity Could be done through educational programs in schools,

churches, homes, and the media

Changing Face of Politics

The Changing Face of Politics Despite the gains U.S. women have made in

recent elections, they continue to be underrepresented in political office, especially in higher office

Trends from the 1990s indicated that women participated in political life in greater numbers than in the past Indicators that things will change include:

More women going into careers in law and business Traveling and establishing wider networks of support Fact that child care is increasingly seen as the mutual

responsibility of both parents

The Changing Face of Politics As women play a more full role in society, the

structural obstacles to women’s participation will give way Relationships between men and women will

change and some of the distinctions between the sexes will disappear

The goal is greater appreciation of sexual differences coupled with increased equality of opportunity

Aging

Aging in Global Perspective Every society must deal with the process of

people aging The Tiwi (Australia) have a custom of

“covering up” aged women who have become too feeble to look after themselves They dig a hole, place the elderly woman in it,

cover her body with dirt, and leave her to die In their culture, when the woman is later found

dead, it is from natural causes—she has died because she is too old and frail to dig herself out of the hole and survive

Aging in Global Perspective In Abkhasia (Caucasus region), the people

commonly live to be 100, or even older Possible reasons for their longevity include:

Diet and eating customs (overeating is considered dangerous)

Lifelong physical activity (they don’t begin to slow down until age 80)

Social integration (the elderly are active, valued, contributing members of the society, never isolated from family and community)

This reveals an important sociological principle Aging is socially constructed Attitudes towards aging are rooted in society and

therefore differ from one social group to the next

Aging in Global Perspective In industrialized nations, life expectancy

increases because of a more plentiful food supply, a safer water supply, and the control of certain diseases As the elderly population increases, so does the

cost of meeting their particular needs This has become a major social issue in the Most

Industrialized Nations as the young members face a growing tax burden to pay for benefits to the elderly

In the Least Industrialized Nations, there are no social security taxes and families are expected to take care of their own elderly

Aging in Global Perspective The graying of America refers to the

proportion of older persons in the U.S. population Almost 13 percent of the population has achieved

age 65 The maximum length of life, the life span, has not

increased

Theoretical Perspectives on Aging

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Robert Butler coined the term “ageism” to

refer to prejudice, discrimination, and hostility directed at people because of their age

In U.S. society today, the general image of old age is negative, but researchers have found that at one time, old age had some positive meanings Few made it to old age, so those who did were

respected In the days before Social Security provided for

retirement, the elderly worked and were seen as wise and knowledgeable about work skills

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Industrialization eroded traditional bases of

respect With improved sanitation and health care, living to

an old age was no longer unique The mystique that the elderly possess superior

knowledge was stripped away by mass education The aging baby boom generation, because of

their numbers and their better financial standing, will very likely contribute to more positive symbols of aging

The Functionalist Perspective Functionalists examine age from the standpoint of

how those persons who are retiring and those who will replace them in the work force make mutual adjustments

Elaine Cumming and William Henry developed disengagement theory to explain how society prevents disruption to that society when the elderly retire The elderly are rewarded (pensions) for giving up

positions rather than waiting until they become incompetent or die This allows for a smooth transition of positions

This is criticized because it assumes that the elderly disengage and then sink into oblivion

The Functionalist Perspective Activity theory

Examines people’s reactions to this exchange of one set of roles for another

Older people who maintain a high level of activity tend to be more satisfied with life than those who do not

Level of activity is connected to key factors such as social class, health, and individual orientation

The Conflict Perspective Conflict theorists examine social life as a struggle

between groups for scarce resources Social Security legislation is an example of that

struggle In the 1920s–30s, two-thirds of all citizens in the

United States over 65 had no savings and could not support themselves Francis Townsend enrolled one-third of all Americans

over 65 in clubs that sought a national sales tax to finance a monthly pension for all Americans over age 65

To avoid the plan without appearing to be opposed to old-age pensions, an alternative, Social Security, was enacted by Congress

The Conflict Perspective Conflict theorists state that Social Security

was not a result of generosity, but rather of competition among interest groups

Since equilibrium is only a temporary balancing of social forces, some form of continuing conflict between the young and the old appears inevitable

The huge costs of Social Security have become a national concern One out of every four tax dollars goes to support

the Social Security and Medicare programs

The Conflict Perspective Some argue that the needs of the elderly and

of children are on a collision course Data indicate that as the number of elderly poor

decreases, the number of children in poverty increases

It has been argued that the comparison is misleading because the money that went to the elderly did not come from money intended for the children

Framing the issue in this way is an attempt to divide the working class, and to force a choice between the needs of children and those of the elderly

The “Greying” of America