Inuit

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Inuit

Traditional qamutik (sled), Cape Dorset, Nunavut

Total population

118,426[1][2][3]

Regions with significant populations

Greenland 51,365[2]

Canada 50,480[1]

United States 16,581[3]

Languages

Inuit languages, Danish, English, French, andvarious others

Religion

Christianity, Inuit religion

Related ethnic groups

Aleut and Yupik peoples[4]

InuitFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Inuit (pronounced /nut/ or /njut/; Inuktitut:, "the people"[5]) are a group of culturally similarindigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions ofGreenland, Canada, and Alaska.[6] Inuit is a plural noun;the singular is Inuk.[5] The Inuit languages are classifiedin the Eskimo-Aleut family.[7]

In the United States and Canada the term "Eskimo" wascommonly used to describe the Inuit, and Alaska's Yupikand Iupiat. "Inuit" is not accepted as a term for theYupik, and "Eskimo"[8] is the only term that includesYupik, Iupiat and Inuit. However, Aboriginal peoples inCanada and Greenland view "Eskimo" as pejorative, and"Inuit" has become more common.[9][10] In Canada,sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 namedthe "Inuit" as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadianswho are not included under either the First Nations or theMtis.[11]

The Inuit live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic andsubarctic in the territory of Nunavut; "Nunavik" in thenorthern third of Quebec; "Nunatsiavut" and"NunatuKavut" in Labrador; and in various parts of theNorthwest Territories, particularly around the ArcticOcean. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the "InuitNunangat".[12][13] In the United States, Inupiat live on theNorth Slope in Alaska and on Little Diomede Island. TheGreenlandic Inuit are the descendants of migrations fromCanada and are citizens of Denmark, although not of theEuropean Union.

Contents1 Prehistory2 Postcontact history

2.1 Canada2.1.1 Early contact with Europeans2.1.2 Early 20th century2.1.3 Second World War to the 1960s

2.1.4 Cultural renewal



2.1.4 Cultural renewal2.1.5 Inuit cabinet members at the federal level

3 Nomenclature4 Cultural history

4.1 Languages4.2 Diet4.3 Transport, navigation, and dogs4.4 Industry, art, and clothing4.5 Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community4.6 Raiding4.7 Suicide, murder, and death4.8 Traditional law

5 Traditional beliefs6 Demographics

6.1 Canada6.2 Greenland6.3 United States6.4 Russia

7 Governance7.1 Regional autonomy in Canada7.2 Greenland autonomous country7.3 Alaska

8 Modern culture9 References10 Further reading11 External links

Prehistory

Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture,[14] who emerged from westernAlaska, after crossing from Siberia, around 1000 CE and spread eastwards across the Arctic.[15] Theydisplaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture (in Inuktitut, called the Tuniit).[16]

Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit.[17] Lessfrequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as "dwarfs".[18] Researchers believe that the Dorset culture lackeddogs, larger weapons and other technologies that gave the expanding Inuit society an advantage.[19] By1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and they moved into east Greenland over the followingcentury.[20]

Faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian andSiouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded.[21] They were thought to have become completely extinctas a people by about 1400 or 1500.

But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at NativePoint, the Sadlermiut were likely the last remnants of the Dorset culture.[22] The Sadlermiut populationsurvived up until winter 190203, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with



Europeans led to their extinction as a people.[23] More recently,mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuitybetween the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut.[24][25] It also has providedevidence that a population displacement did not occur within the AleutianIslands between the Dorset and Thule transition.[26] In contrast to otherTuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from bothgeographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thuletechnologies.

In Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the"Arctic tree line", the effective southern border of Inuit society. The mostsouthern "officially recognized" Inuit community in the world isRigolet[27] in Nunatsiavut. South of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of thesouthern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditionaltranshumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. TheNunatukavummuit were usually spread out among islands and bays andtherefore did not establish stationary communities. In other areas south ofthe tree line, Native American cultures were well established. The cultureand technology of Inuit society that served so well in the Arctic were notsuited to subarctic regions, so they did not displace their southernneighbors.

Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary disputeswere common and gave rise to aggressive actions. Warfare was notuncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population density.Inuit such as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited theMackenzie River delta area often engaged in warfare. The more sparselysettled Inuit in the Central Arctic, however, did so less often.

Their first European contact was with the Vikings who settled inGreenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast. The Norse sagasrecorded meeting skrlingar, probably an undifferentiated label for allthe native Americans whom the Norse encountered, whether Tuniit, Inuit,or Beothuk.[28]

After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period known as theLittle Ice Age. During this period, Alaskan natives were able to continuetheir whaling activities, but Inuit were forced to abandon their huntingand whaling sites in the high Arctic as bowhead whales disappeared fromCanada and Greenland.[29] These Inuit then had to subsist on a much

poorer diet in addition to losing access to essential raw materials for their tools and architecture previouslyderived from whaling.[29]

The changing climate forced Inuit to work their way south, forcing them into marginal niches along theedges of the tree line. These were areas which Native Americans had not occupied or where they were weakenough for coexistence with Inuit. Researchers have difficulty defining when Inuit stopped territorial



expansion. There is evidence that they were still moving into new territory in southern Labrador when theyfirst began to interact with Europeans in the 17th century.

Postcontact history

Canada

Early contact with Europeans

The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemenexcept for mutual trade.[30] Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans.[31]After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for atleast a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque whalers and fishermen were already working the Labradorcoast and had established whaling stations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at RedBay.[32][33] The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they raided the stations inwinter for tools and items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs. Martin Frobisher's1576 search for the Northwest Passage was the first well-documented post-Columbian contact betweenEuropeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in Frobisher Bay, Baffin Island, not far from thesettlement now called The City of Iqaluit which was long known as Frobisher Bay. Frobisher encounteredInuit on Resolution Island where five sailors left the ship, under orders from Frobisher, and became part ofInuit mythology. The homesick sailors, tired of their adventure, attempted to leave in a small vessel andvanished. Frobisher brought an unwilling Inuk to England, possibly the first Inuk ever to visit Europe.[34]The Inuit oral tradition, in contrast, recounts the natives helping Frobisher's crewmen, whom they believedhad been abandoned.

The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms andtundra. While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers,fishers and whalers, more recent research suggests that the early relations with whaling stations along theLabrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual interest in trade.[35] In the final years of the18th century, the Moravian Church began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British whowere tired of the raids on their whaling stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide the Inuitwith the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts, materials whose real cost toEuropeans was almost nothing, but whose value to the Inuit was enormous and from then on contacts inLabrador were far more peaceful.

The European arrival tremendously damaged the Inuit way of life, causing mass death through new diseasesintroduced by whalers and explorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect ofEuropeans' material wealth. Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes had largely remained inisolation during the 19th century. The Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as Great WhaleRiver (1820), today the site of the twin villages of Whapmagoostui and Kuujjuarapik, where whale productsof the commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The British Naval Expedition of 18213 ledby Admiral William Edward Parry, which twice over-wintered in Foxe Basin, provided the first informed,sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of the Inuit. Parrystayed in what is now Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink illustrations ofInuit everyday life, and those of George Francis Lyon, both published in 1824 were widely read.[36] Captain



Hudson's Bay Company Shipsbartering with Inuit off the UpperSavage Islands, Hudson Strait, 1819

George Comer's Inuit wife Shoofly, known for her sewing skills andelegant attire,[37] was influential in convincing him to acquire moresewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit.

Early 20th century

During the early 20th century a few traders and missionariescirculated among the more accessible bands, and after 1904 theywere accompanied by a handful of Royal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP). Unlike most Aboriginal peoples in Canada, however, thelands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European settlers to the southerners, the homeland of the Inuit was a hostilehinterland. Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats andservice providers to the north, but very few ever chose to visit there. Canada, with its more hospitable landslargely settled, began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur andmineral-rich hinterlands. By the late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted bytraders, missionaries or government agents. In 1939, the Supreme Court of Canada found, in a decisionknown as Re Eskimos, that the Inuit should be considered Indians and were thus under the jurisdiction of thefederal government.

Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit,such as Kikkik, who often could not understand what they had done wrong, and by missionaries whopreached a moral code very different from the one they were used to. Many of the Inuit were systematicallyconverted to Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries, through rituals like the Siqqitiq.

Second World War to the 1960s

World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically important for the first time and, thanks tothe development of modern aircraft, accessible year-round. The construction of air bases and the DistantEarly Warning Line in the 1940s and 1950s brought more intensive contacts with European society,particularly in the form of public education, which traditionalists complained instilled foreign valuesdisdainful of the traditional structure of Inuit society.[38]

In the 1950s the High Arctic relocation was undertaken by the Government of Canada for several reasons.These were to include protecting Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic, alleviating hunger (as the area currentlyoccupied had been over-hunted), and attempting to solve the "Eskimo problem", meaning the assimilationand end of the Inuit culture. One of the more notable relocations was undertaken in 1953, when 17 familieswere moved from Port Harrison (now Inukjuak, Quebec) to Resolute and Grise Fiord. They were droppedoff in early September when winter had already arrived. The land they were sent to was very different fromthat in the Inukjuak area; it was barren, with only a couple of months when the temperature rose abovefreezing and several months of polar night. The families were told by the RCMP they would be able toreturn within two years if conditions were not right. However, two years later more families were relocatedto the High Arctic and it was to be thirty years before they were able to visit Inukjuak.[39][40][41]

By 1953, Canada's prime minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted, "Apparently we have administeredthe vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind."[42] The government began toestablish about forty permanent administrative centres to provide education, health and economic



development services.[42] Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north, began tocongregate in these hamlets.[43]

Regular visits from doctors, and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate and decreased the deathrate, causing an enormous natural increase. In the 1950s, the Canadian government began to actively settleInuit into permanent villages and cities, occasionally against their will (such as in Nuntak and Hebron).These forced resettlements were acknowledged by the Canadian government in 2005.[44] By the mid-1960s,encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finallyforced by hunger and required by police, most Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements.The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had become a much smaller part of lifein the North. The Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment were, in the span ofperhaps two generations, transformed into a small, impoverished minority, lacking skills or resources to sellto the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival.

Although anthropologists like Diamond Jenness (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facingextinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging.

Cultural renewal

In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded the establishment of secular, government-operated highschools in the Northwest Territories (including what is now Nunavut) and Inuit areas in Quebec andLabrador along with the residential school system. The Inuit population was not large enough to support afull high school in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from acrossthe territories were boarded there. These schools, in Aklavik, Iqaluit, Yellowknife, Inuvik and Kuujjuaq,brought together young Inuit from across the Arctic in one place for the first time, and exposed them to therhetoric of civil and human rights that prevailed in Canada in the 1960s. This was a real wake-up call for theInuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s whocame forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their territories.

The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late 1960s and early 1970s, shortly after the firstgraduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s, starting withthe Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (Inuit Brotherhood and today known as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami), an outgrowthof the Indian and Eskimo Association of the '60s, in 1971, and more region specific organizations shortlyafterwards, including the Committee for the Original People's Entitlement (representing the Inuvialuit),[45]the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (Makivik Corporation) and the Labrador Inuit Association (LIA)representing Northern Labrador Inuit. Since the mid-1980s the Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavutbegan organizing politically after being geographically cut out of the LIA, however, for political expediencythe organization was erroneously called the Labrador Mtis Nation. These various activist movements beganto change the direction of Inuit society in 1975 with the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. Thiscomprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantialadministrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik, set the precedent for the settlements to follow. Thenorthern Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, although they had to wait until 2005 to have asigned land settlement establishing Nunatsiavut. Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut are currently inthe process of establishing landclaims and title rights that would allow them to negotiate with theNewfoundland Government.



Canada's 1982 Constitution Act recognized the Inuit as Aboriginal peoples in Canada, but not FirstNations.[11] In the same year, the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut (TFN) was incorporated, in order totake over negotiations for land claims on behalf of the Inuit living in the eastern Northwest Territories, thatwould later become Nunavut, from the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, which became a joint association of the Inuitof Quebec, Labrador and the Northwest Territories.

Inuit cabinet members at the federal level

On October 30, 2008, Leona Aglukkaq was appointed as Minister of Health, "[becoming] the first Inuk tohold a senior cabinet position, although she is not the first Inuk to be in cabinet altogether."[46] Jack Anawakand Nancy Karetak-Lindell were both parliamentary secretaries respectively from 1993 to 1996 and in 2003.

NomenclatureIn the United States, the term "Eskimo" is still commonly used, because it includes; Inuit, Aleut, Iupiat,and Yupik peoples - whilst distinguishing them from American Indians. The Yupik do not speak an Inuitlanguage or consider themselves to be Inuit.[8] However, the term is probably aMontagnais[47][48][49]exonym as well as being widely used in[47][50][51][52] folk etymology as meaning"eater of raw meat" in the Cree language.[10][53] It is now considered pejorative or even a racial sluramongst the Canadian and English-speaking Greenlandic Inuit.[10][53]

In Canada and Greenland, "Inuit" is preferred. Inuit is the Eastern Canadian Inuit (Inuktitut) and WestGreenlandic (Kalaallisut) word for "the people."[5] Since Inuktitut and Kalaallisut are the prestige dialects inCanada and Greenland, respectively, their version has become dominant, although every Inuit dialect usescognates from the Proto-Eskimo *iu for example, "people" is inughuit in North Greenlandic and iivit inEast Greenlandic.

Cultural history

Languages

Inuit speak Inuinnaqtun, Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, and Greenlandic Inuktitut, which belong to the Inuit-Inupiaq branch of the Eskimo-Aleut language family.[4] Greenlandic Inuktitut is divided into: Kalallisut(Western), Inuktun (Northern), and Tunumiit (Eastern).[54]

Inuktitut is spoken in Canada. Kalaallisut is the official language of Greenland.[55] As Inuktitut was thelanguage of the Eastern Canadian Inuit and Kalaallisut is the language of the Western Greenlandic Inuit,they are related more closely than most other dialects.[56]

Inuit in Alaska and Canada also typically speak English. In Greenland, Inuit also speak Danish and learnEnglish in school. Canadian Inuit may also speak Qubcois French.

Diet



Distribution of Inuit dialects

Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c.1929 (photo by Edward S. Curtis)

The Inuit have traditionally been fishers and hunters. They still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale), walrus,caribou, seal, polar bears, muskoxen, birds, and fish and at times other less commonly eaten animals such asthe Arctic Fox. The typical Inuit diet is high in protein and very high in fat in their traditional diets, Inuitconsumed an average of 75% of their daily energy intake from fat.[57] While it is not possible to cultivateplants for food in the Arctic, the Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. Grasses,tubers, roots, stems, berries, and seaweed (kuanniq or edible seaweed) were collected and preserveddepending on the season and the location.[58][59][60][61][62] There is a vast array of different huntingtechnologies that the Inuit used to gather their food.

In the 1920s anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson lived with and studied a group of Inuit.[63] The studyfocused on the fact that the Inuit's low-carbohydrate diet had no adverse effects on their health, nor indeed,Stefansson's own health. Stefansson (1946) also observed that the Inuit were able to get the necessaryvitamins they needed from their traditional winter diet,which did not contain any plant matter. In particular, hefound that adequate vitamin C could be obtained fromitems in their traditional diet of raw meat such as RingedSeal liver and whale skin (muktuk). While there wasconsiderable skepticism when he reported thesefindings, they have been borne out in recent studies andanalyses.[64][65] However, the Inuit have lifespans 12 to15 years shorter than the average Canadian's, which isthought to be a result of limited access to medicalservices.[66] The life expectancy gap is notclosing.[66][67][68]

Transport, navigation, and dogs

The natives hunted sea animals from single-passenger,covered seal-skin boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics:)[69] which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily berighted by a seated person, even if completely overturned. Becauseof this property the design was copied by Europeans and Americanswho still produce them under the Inuit name kayak.

Inuit also made umiaq ("woman's boat"), larger open boats made ofwood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting people,goods and dogs. They were 612m (2039ft) long and had a flatbottom so that the boats could come close to shore. In the winter,Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by patiently watching an aglu(breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals touse them. This technique is also used by the polar bear, who huntsby seeking holes in the ice and waiting nearby.

In winter, both on land and on sea ice, the Inuit used dog sleds (qamutik) for transportation. The husky dogbreed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs and wolves for transportation. A team of dogs in either atandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made of wood, animal bones, or the baleen from a



Urbanization in Greenland

Inupiat baleen basket, with an ivoryhandle, made by Kinguktuk (18711941) of Barrow, Alaska. Displayedat the Museum of Man, San Diego,California.

whale's mouth and even frozen fish,[70] over the snow and ice. The Inuit used stars to navigate at sea andlandmarks to navigate on land; they possessed a comprehensive native system of toponymy. Where naturallandmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an inukshuk.

Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of the Inuit.During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes draggingup to 20kg (44lb) of baggage and in the winter they pulled the sled.Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals' holes andpestering polar bears. They also protected the Inuit villages bybarking at bears and strangers. The Inuit generally favored, and triedto breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs, especially oneswith bright eyes and a healthy coat. Common husky dog breeds usedby the Inuit were the Canadian Eskimo Dog, the official animal ofNunavut,[71] (Qimmiq; Inuktitut for dog), the Greenland Dog, theSiberian Husky and the Alaskan Malamute. The Inuit would performrituals over the newborn pup to give it favorable qualities; the legswere pulled to make them grow strong and the nose was poked witha pin to enhance the sense of smell.

Industry, art, and clothing

Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides, driftwood,and bones, although some tools were also made out of workedstones, particularly the readily worked soapstone. Walrus ivory wasa particularly essential material, used to make knives. Art played abig part in Inuit society and continues to do so today. Smallsculptures of animals and human figures, usually depicting everydayactivities such as hunting and whaling, were carved from ivory andbone. In modern times prints and figurative works carved inrelatively soft stone such as soapstone, serpentinite, or argillite havealso become popular.

Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn togetherusing needles made from animal bones and threads made from otheranimal products, such as sinew. The anorak (parka) is made in a similar fashion by Arctic peoples fromEurope through Asia and the Americas, including the Inuit. The hood of an amauti, (women's parka, pluralamautiit) was traditionally made extra large with a separate compartment below the hood to allow themother to carry a baby against her back and protect it from the harsh wind. Styles vary from region toregion, from the shape of the hood to the length of the tails. Boots (mukluk or kamik[72]), could be made ofcaribou or seal skin, and designed for men and women.

During the winter, certain Inuit lived in a temporary shelter made from snow called an iglu, and during thefew months of the year when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents, known as tupiq,[73]

made of animal skins supported by a frame of bones or wood.[74][75] Some, such as the Siglit, useddriftwood,[76] while others built sod houses.[77]



Inuit woman's parka, Canada.

Traditional clothing; left: seal, right:caribou.

Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community

The division of labor in traditional Inuit society had a strong gender component, but it was not absolute. Themen were traditionally hunters and fishermen and the women took care of the children, cleaned the home,sewed, processed food, and cooked. However, there are numerous examples of women who hunted, out ofnecessity or as a personal choice. At the same time men, who could be away from camp for several days at atime, would be expected to know how to sew and cook.[78]

The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly monogamous: many Inuit relationships wereimplicitly or explicitly sexual. Open marriages, polygamy, divorce, and remarriage were known. Amongsome Inuit groups, if there were children, divorce required the approval of the community and particularlythe agreement of the elders. Marriages were often arranged, sometimes in infancy, and occasionally forcedon the couple by the community.[79]

Marriage was common for women at puberty and for men when theybecame productive hunters. Family structure was flexible: ahousehold might consist of a man and his wife (or wives) andchildren; it might include his parents or his wife's parents as well asadopted children; it might be a larger formation of several siblingswith their parents, wives and children; or even more than one familysharing dwellings and resources. Every household had its head, anelder or a particularly respected man.[80]

There was also a larger notion of community as, generally, severalfamilies shared a place where they wintered. Goods were sharedwithin a household, and also, to a significant extent, within a wholecommunity.

The Inuit were huntergatherers,[81] and have been referred to asnomadic.[82] One of the customs following the birth of an infant wasfor an Angakkuq (shaman) to place a tiny ivory carving of a whaleinto the baby's mouth, in hopes this would make the child good athunting. Loud singing and drumming were also customary after abirth.[83]

Raiding

Virtually all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by otherindigenous peoples, including fellow Inuit, and of taking vengeanceon them in return, such as the Bloody Falls Massacre. Westernobservers often regarded these tales as generally not entirelyaccurate historical accounts, but more as self-serving myths.However, evidence shows that Inuit cultures had quite accuratemethods of teaching historical accounts to each new generation.[84]In northern Canada, historically there were ethnic feuds between the



Igloo.

Inupiat woman, Alaska, circa 1907

An Inupiat family from Noatak,Alaska, 1929.

Dene and the Inuit, as witnessed by Samuel Hearne in 1771.[85] In1996, Dene and Inuit representatives participated in a healingceremony to reconcile the centuries-old grievances.[86]

The historic accounts of violence against outsiders does make clearthat there was a history of hostile contact within the Inuit culturesand with other cultures.[87] It also makes it clear that Inuit nationsexisted through history, as well as confederations of such nations.The known confederations were usually formed to defend against amore prosperous, and thus stronger, nation. Alternately, people wholived in less productive geographical areas tended to be less warlike,as they had to spend more time producing food.

Justice within Inuit culture was moderated by the form ofgovernance that gave significant power to the elders. As in mostcultures around the world, justice could be harsh and often includedcapital punishment for serious crimes against the community or theindividual. During raids against other peoples, the Inuit, like theirnon-Inuit neighbors, tended to be merciless.[88]

Suicide, murder, and death

A pervasive European myth about Inuit is that they killed elderly(senicide) and unproductive people",[89] but this is not generallytrue.[90][91][92] In a culture with an oral history, elders are thekeepers of communal knowledge, effectively the communitylibrary.[93] Because they are of extreme value as the repository ofknowledge, there are cultural taboos against sacrificing elders.[94][95]

In Antoon A. Leenaar's book Suicide in Canada he states that"Rasmussen found that the death of elders by suicide was acommonplace among the Iglulik Inuit."[96] He heard of many oldmen and women who had hanged themselves.[96] By ensuring theydied a violent death, Inuit elders purified their souls for journey tothe afterworld.[96]

According to Franz Boas, suicide was "...not of rare occurrence..."and was generally accomplished through hanging.[97] Writing of theLabrador Inuit, Hawkes (1916) was considerably more explicit on the subject of suicide and the burden ofthe elderly:

Aged people who have outlived their usefulness and whose life is a burden both to themselvesand their relatives are put to death by stabbing or strangulation. This is customarily done at therequest of the individual concerned, but not always so. Aged people who are a hindrance on the



trail are abandoned.

Antoon A. Leenaars,Suicide in Canada[98]

People seeking assistance in their suicide made three consecutive requests to relatives for help.[99] Familymembers would attempt to dissuade the individual at each suggestion, but with the third request by a person,assistance became obligatory.[99] In some cases, a suicide was a publicly acknowledged and attendedevent.[99] Once the suicide had been agreed to, the victim would dress him or herself as the dead are clothed,with clothing turned inside-out.[99] The death occurred at a specific place, where the material possessions ofdeceased people were brought to be destroyed.[99]

When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to survive. In the extreme case of famine, theInuit fully understood that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter was necessarily theone to feed on whatever food was left. However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threatof starvation was infanticide.[100][101] A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperatemight find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resortedto infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci,[102] Milton Freeman[103] and DavidRiches[104] among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik.[105][106] Other recent research has noted that"While there is little disagreement that there were examples of infanticide in Inuit communities, it ispresently not known the depth and breadth of these incidents. The research is neither complete norconclusive to allow for a determination of whether infanticide was a rare or a widely practiced event."[107]

Anthropologists believed that Inuit cultures routinely killed children born with physical defects because ofthe demands of the extreme climate. These views were changed by late 20th century discoveries of burials atan archaeological site. Between 1982 and 1994, a storm with high winds caused ocean waves to erode partof the bluffs near Barrow, Alaska, and a body was discovered to have been washed out of the mud.Unfortunately the storm claimed the body, which was not recovered. But examination of the eroded bankindicated that an ancient house, perhaps with other remains, was likely to be claimed by the next storm. Thesite, known as the "Ukkuqsi archaeological site", was excavated. Several frozen bodies (now known as the"frozen family") were recovered, autopsies were performed, and they were re-interred as the first burials inthe then-new Imaiqsaun Cemetery south of Barrow.[108] Years later another body was washed out of thebluff. It was a female child, approximately 9 years old, who had clearly been born with a congenital birthdefect.[109] This child had never been able to walk, but must have been cared for by family throughout herlife.[110] She was the best preserved body ever recovered in Alaska, and radiocarbon dating of grave goodsand of a strand of her hair all place her back to about 1200 CE.[110]

During the 19th century, the Western Arctic suffered a population decline of close to 90%, resulting fromexposure to new diseases, including tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and smallpox. Autopsies nearGreenland reveal that, more commonly pneumonia, kidney diseases, trichinosis, malnutrition, anddegenerative disorders may have contributed to mass deaths among different Inuit tribes. The Inuit believedthat the causes of the disease were of a spiritual origin.[111]

Traditional law



Some Inuit believed that the spirits oftheir ancestors could be seen in theAurora Borealis

Inuit traditional laws are anthropologically different from Western law concepts. Customary law wasthought non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal system. Hoebel, in 1954,concluded that only 'rudimentary law' existed amongst the Inuit. Indeed, prior to about 1970, it is impossibleto find even one reference to a Western observer who was aware that any form of governance existed amongany Inuit,[112] however, there was a set way of doing things that had to be followed:

maligait refers to what has to be followedpiqujait refers to what has to be donetirigusuusiit refers to what has to be avoided

If an individual's actions went against the tirigusuusiit, maligait or piqujait, the angakkuq (shaman) mighthave to intervene, lest the consequences be dire to the individual or the community.[113]

We are told today that Inuit never had laws or "maligait". Why? They say because they are notwritten on paper. When I think of paper, I think you can tear it up, and the laws are gone. Thelaws of the Inuit are not on paper.

Mariano Aupilaarjuk, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut,Perspectives on Traditional Law[114]

Traditional beliefsThe environment in which the Inuit lived inspired a mythology filledwith adventure tales of whale and walrus hunts. Long winter monthsof waiting for caribou herds or sitting near breathing holes huntingseals gave birth to stories of mysterious and sudden appearance ofghosts and fantastic creatures. Some Inuit looked into the auroraborealis, or northern lights, to find images of their family and friendsdancing in the next life.[115] However, some Inuit believed that thelights were more sinister and if you whistled at them, they wouldcome down and cut off your head. This tale is still told to childrentoday.[116] For others they were invisible giants, the souls ofanimals, a guide to hunting and as a spirit for the angakkuq to helpwith healing.[116][117] They relied upon the angakkuq (shaman) forspiritual interpretation. The nearest thing to a central deity was the Old Woman (Sedna), who lived beneaththe sea. The waters, a central food source, were believed to contain great gods.

The Inuit practiced a form of shamanism based on animist principles. They believed that all things had aform of spirit, including humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be influenced by a pantheon ofsupernatural entities that could be appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in acertain way. The angakkuq of a community of Inuit was not the leader, but rather a sort of healer andpsychotherapist, who tended wounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to assist people intheir lives. His or her role was to see, interpret and exhort the subtle and unseen. Angakkuit were not trained;they were held to be born with the ability and recognized by the community as they approached adulthood.

Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals integrated into the daily life of the people. These ritualswere simple but held to be necessary. According to a customary Inuit saying,



The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls.

By believing that all things, including animals, have souls like those of humans, any hunt that failed to showappropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avengethemselves.

The harshness and unpredictability of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived with concern for theuncontrollable, where a streak of bad luck could destroy an entire community. To offend a spirit was to riskits interference with an already marginal existence. The Inuit understood that they had to work in harmonywith supernatural powers to provide the necessities of day-to-day life. Before the 1940s, Inuit had minimalcontact with Europeans, who passed through on their way to hunt whales or trade furs but seldom had anyinterest in settling down on the frozen land of the Arctic. So the Inuit had the place to themselves. Theymoved between summer and winter camps to always be living where there were animals to hunt.

But that changed. As World War II ended and the Cold War began, the Arctic became a place wherecountries that did not get along were close to each other. The Arctic had always been seen as inaccessible,but the invention of aircraft made it easier for non-Arctic dwellers to get there. As new airbases and radarstations were built in the Arctic to monitor rival nations, permanent settlements were developed aroundthem, including schools and health care centres. In many places, Inuit children were required to attendschools that emphasized non-native traditions. With better health care, the Inuit population grew too large tosustain itself solely by hunting. Many Inuit from smaller camps moved into permanent settlements becausethere was access to jobs and food. In many areas Inuit were required to live in towns by the 1960s.

DemographicsIn total there are about 118,426 Inuit living in three countries, Canada, Greenland and the UnitedStates.[1][2][3]

Canada

Although the 50,480[1] Inuit listed in the 2006 Canada Census can be found throughout Canada themajority, 44,470, live in four regions.[118][119][120][121]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,715 Inuit living in Newfoundland and Labrador[118] and about2,160 live in Nunatsiavut.[122] There are also about 6,000 NunatuKavut people (Labrador Metis or Inuit-metis) living in southern Labrador in what is called NunatuKavut.[123]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,165 Inuit living in the Northwest Territories.[119] The majority,about 3,115, live in the six communities of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.[124]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 24,640 Inuit living in Nunavut.[120] In Nunavut the Inuitpopulation forms a majority in all communities and is the only jurisdiction of Canada where Aboriginalpeoples form a majority.



Map showing the members of the Inuit CircumpolarConference.

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 10,950 Inuit living in Quebec.[121] The majority, about 9,565, livein Nunavik.[125]

Greenland

According to the 2013 edition of The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency, theInuit population of Greenland is 89% (51,365) out of a total of 57,714 people.[2] Like Nunavut thepopulation lives throughout the region.

United States

According to the 2000 United States Census there were a total of 16,581 Inuit/Inupiat living throughout thecountry.[3] The majority, about 14,718, live in the state of Alaska.[126]

Russia

According to the 2010 Russian Census there were a total of 1,738 Inuit/Eskimo living throughout thecountry, mostly in the East of the Far Eastern Federal District.

GovernanceThe Inuit Circumpolar Council is a United Nations-recognized non-governmental organization (NGO),which defines its constituency as Canada's Inuit andInuvialuit, Greenland's Kalaallit Inuit, Alaska's Inupiatand Yup'ik, and Russia's Siberian Yupik,[127] despite thelast two neither speaking an Inuit dialect[8] orconsidering themselves "Inuit". Nonetheless, it hascome together with other circumpolar cultural andpolitical groups to promote the Inuit and other northernpeople in their fight against ecological problems such asclimate change which disproportionately affects theInuit population. The Inuit Circumpolar Council is oneof the six group of Arctic indigenous peoples that have aseat as a so-called "Permanent Participant" on the ArcticCouncil,[128] an international high level forum in whichthe eight Arctic Countries (USA, Canada, Russia,Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland andRussia) discuss Arctic policy. On 12 May 2011,Greenland's Prime Minister Kuupik Kleist hosted the

ministerial meeting of the Arctic Council, an event for which the American Secretary of State HillaryClinton came to Nuuk, as did many other high-ranking officials such as Russian Foreign Minister SergeiLavrov, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt and Norwegian Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Stre. At thatevent they signed the Nuuk Declaration.[129]



Map of all Inuit regions

Regional autonomy in Canada

The Inuvialuit are western Canadian Inuit who remained in theNorthwest Territories when Nunavut split off. They live primarily inthe Mackenzie River delta, on Banks Island, and parts of VictoriaIsland in the Northwest Territories. They are officially representedby the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation and, in 1984, received acomprehensive land claims settlement, the first in Northern Canada,with the signing of the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.[130]

The TFN worked for ten years and, in September 1992, came to afinal agreement with the Government of Canada. This agreementcalled for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an easternterritory whose Aboriginal population would be predominatelyInuit,[131] the future Nunavut, and a rump Northwest Territories in the west. It was the largest land claimsagreement in Canadian history. In November 1992, the Nunavut Final Agreement was approved by nearly85% of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut. As the final step in this long process, the Nunavut LandClaims Agreement was signed on May 25, 1993, in Iqaluit by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and by PaulQuassa, the president of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, which replaced the TFN with the ratification ofthe Nunavut Final Agreement. The Canadian Parliament passed the supporting legislation in June of thesame year, enabling the 1999 establishment of Nunavut as a territorial entity.

With the establishment of Nunatsiavut in 2005, almost all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada, with theexception NunatuKavut in central and South Labrador, are now covered by some sort of land claimsagreement providing for regional autonomy.

Greenland autonomous country

In 1953, Denmark put an end to the colonial status of Greenland and granted home rule in 1979 and in 2008a self-government referendum was passed with 75% approval. Although still a part of the Kingdom ofDenmark, Greenland, known as Kalaallit Nunaat, maintains much autonomy today. Of a population of55,000, 80% of Greenlanders identify as Inuit. Their economy is based on fishing and shrimping.[132]

The Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. There they encountered the Norsemen, who hadestablished colonies there since the late 10th century, as well as a later wave of the Dorset people. Becausemost of Greenland is covered in ice, the Greenland Inuit (or Kalaallit) only live in coastal settlements,particularly the northern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast and the central coasts of westernGreenland.[133]

Alaska

Currently Alaska is governed as a State within United States with very limited autonomy for Alaska Nativepeoples. European Colonization of Alaska started in the 18th century by Russia. By the 1860s, the Russiangovernment was considering ridding itself of its Russian America colony. Alaska was officiallyincorporated to United States on January 3, 1959.



Municipalities of Greenland

Alaska Native Regional Corporations

The Inuit of Alaska are the Inupiat (from Inuit- people and piaq/piat real, i.e. 'real people') who live in theNorthwest Arctic Borough, the North Slope Borough and the Bering Straits region. Barrow, thenorthernmost city in the United States, is in the Inupiat region. Their language is Iupiaq (which is thesingular form of Inupiat).

Modern cultureInuit art, carving, print making, textiles and Inuit throat singing, are very popular, not only in Canada butglobally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Canada has adopted some of the Inuit culture as nationalsymbols, using Inuit cultural icons like the inukshuk in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol at the2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Respected art galleries display Inuit art, the largest collection ofwhich is at the Winnipeg Art Gallery.

Some Inuit languages such as Inuktitut, appears to have a more secure future in Quebec and Nunavut. Thereare a surprising number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as Ottawa, Montreal andWinnipeg, who have experienced living on the land in the traditional life style. People such as LegislativeAssembly of Nunavut member, Levinia Brown and former Commissioner of Nunavut and the NWT, HelenMaksagak were born and lived the early part of their life "on the land". Inuit culture is alive and vibranttoday in spite of the negative impacts of recent history.

An importantbiennial event,the ArcticWinter Games,is held incommunitiesacross thenorthern regionsof the world,featuringtraditional Inuitand northernsports as part ofthe events. Acultural event is also held. The games were first held in 1970, andwhile rotated usually among Alaska, Yukon and the NorthwestTerritories, they have also been held in Schefferville, Quebec in1976, in Slave Lake, Alberta, and a joint Iqaluit, Nunavut-Nuuk,Greenland staging in 2002. In other sporting events, Jordin Tootoobecame the first Inuk to play in the National Hockey League in the200304 season, playing for the Nashville Predators.

Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past century, many traditions continue. InuitQaujimajatuqangit, or traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, mythology, music and dancing remainimportant parts of the culture. Family and community are very important. The Inuktitut language is stillspoken in many areas of the Arctic and is common on radio and in television programming.



Inuit women at Nain, Newfoundlandand Labrador

Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armedwith a harpoon.

Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier of Nunavut, Eva Aariak, Nancy Karetak-Lindell, former MPfor the riding of Nunavut, and Kuupik Kleist, Prime Minister of Greenland. Leona Aglukkaq, current MP,was the first Inuk to be sworn into the Canadian Federal Cabinet as Health Minister in 2008. In May 2011after being re-elected for her second term, Ms. Aglukkaq was given the additional portfolio of Minister ofthe Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency. In July 2013 she was sworn in as the Minister ofthe Environment.[134]

Visual and performing artsare strong. In 2002 the firstfeature film in Inuktitut,Atanarjuat, was releasedworldwide to great criticaland popular acclaim. It wasdirected by Zacharias Kunuk,and written, filmed,produced, directed, and actedalmost entirely by the Inuit ofIgloolik. In 2009 the film, LeVoyage D'Inuk, a Greenlandic language feature film directed by

Mike Magidson and co-written by Magidson and French film producer Jean-Michel Huctin.[135] One of themost famous Inuit artists is Pitseolak Ashoona. Susan Aglukark is a popular singer. Mitiarjuk AttasieNappaaluk works at preserving Inuktitut and has written the first novel published in that language.[136] In2006, Cape Dorset was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 23% of the labor force employed in thearts.[137] Inuit art such as soapstone carvings is one of Nunavut's most important industries.

Recently, there has been an identity struggle among the younger generations of Inuit, between theirtraditional heritage and the modern society which their cultures have been forced to assimilate into in orderto maintain a livelihood. With current dependence on modern society for necessities, (includinggovernmental jobs, food, aid, medicine, etc.), the Inuit have had much interaction with and exposure to thesocietal norms outside their previous cultural boundaries. The stressors regarding the identity crisis amongteenagers have led to disturbingly high numbers of suicide.[138]

A series of authors has focused upon the increasing myopia in the youngest generations of Inuit. Myopiawas almost unknown prior to the Inuit adoption of western culture. Principal theories are the change to awestern style diet with more refined foods, and extended education.[139][140][141]

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65. Kang-Jey Ho, Belma Mikkelson, Lena A. Lewis, Sheldon A. Feldman, and C. Bruce Taylor (1972). "AlaskanArctic Eskimo: responses to a customary high fat diet" (http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/25/8/737) (PDF). Am JClin Nutr. 25 (8): 737745. Retrieved 2014-03-07.

66. Inuit lifespan stagnates while Canada's rises (http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/23/us-inuit-idUSN2362426520080123)

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inhabited areas of Canada, 1989 to 2003". Health reports / Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for HealthInformation = Rapports sur la sante / Statistique Canada, Centre canadien d'information sur la sante 19 (1): 719. PMID18457208 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18457208).

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71. "Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. "The Canadian Inuit Dog" (http://www.assembly.nu.ca/about-legislative-assembly/official-animal-nunavut). Assembly.nu.ca. 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2011-02-25.

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74. Larsen, Olga Popovi; Tyas, Andy (2003-01-01). "3". Conceptual Structural Design: Bridging the Gap BetweenArchitects and Engineers (http://books.google.ca/books?id=8H2q0KUZeOsC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=tupiq+seal&source=bl&ots=NW3KObfB_s&sig=2Q54cWG-M6tG6azLMLYG0sojv9Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YAdKUYjQEKroiwK814DwAw&ved=0CHgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=tupiq%20seal&f=false). ICE Publishing. p.19. ISBN978-0727732354. Retrieved 2013-03-20.



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June 1992. Retrieved 2011-01-24.77. "Reconstructing traditional Inuit house forms using three-dimensional interactive computer modelling"

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82. "The Inuit" (http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection/R2-251-2003E-3.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-24.83. Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History,

p.158. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-80164-7.84. Ernest S. Burch, Jr., PhD. "From Skeptic to Believer"

(http://www.alaskool.org/projects/traditionalife/oralhistory/skeptic_to_believer.htm).85. From: Samuel Hearne, A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769,

1770, 1771, 1772 (London, Eng: Strahan and Cadell, 1795)(http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/eng%20274e/hearne.htm) at the University of Western Ontario

86. "CBC's David McLauchlin dies at 56"(http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2003/05/26/mclauchlin_obit030526.html). CBC News. May 26, 2003.

87. Fienup-Reordan, Ann (1990). Eskimo Essays. Rutgers University Press.88. "War by Rachel Attituq Qitsualik" (http://www.nunatsiaq.com/archives/nunavut000131/nunani.html).

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91. Leighton,Alexander H.; Hughes, Charles C. (Winter 1955). "Notes on Eskimo Patterns of Suicide". SouthwesternJournal of Anthropology 11 (4): 32738. JSTOR3628908 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3628908).

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importance that Eskimos attached to the aged, it is surprising that so many Westerners believe that theysystematically eliminated elderly people as soon as they became incapable of performing the duties related tohunting or sewing."

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id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA195,M1). University of Toronto Press. p.195. ISBN0-8020-7791-9.

99. Leenaars, Antoon A.; Michael J. Kral; Ronald J. Dyck (1998). Suicide in Canada (http://books.google.com/?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA198,M1). University of Toronto Press. p.198. ISBN0-8020-7791-9.



100. Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of Change (http://books.google.com/books?id=8M8aihnBACwC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=inuit+infanticide&source=web&ots=Gr1djRu8yL&sig=quPfEmRFgaVP4T86FdT0_5WO1N0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result) By Janet Mancini Billson

101. Bower, Bruce (1994-11-26). "Female infanticide: northern exposure Intuit may have killed one out of everyfive female babies between 1880 and 1940"(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_n22_v146/ai_15952600/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1).Findarticles.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

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among the Netsilik Eskimo". American Anthropologist 73 (5): 10118. doi:10.1525/aa.1971.73.5.02a00020(https://dx.doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1971.73.5.02a00020). JSTOR672815 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/672815).

104. Riches, David. (October 1974). "The Netsilik Eskimo: A Special Case of Selective Female Infanticide".Ethnology 13 (4): 35161. doi:10.2307/3773051 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3773051). JSTOR3773051(https://www.jstor.org/stable/3773051).

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107. Hund, Andrew (2010). Inuit. The Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN978-0-7734-1402-0.108. Hess, Bill (2003). Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, A Sacred Tradition. Sasquatch Books. ISBN1-

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museum.qc.ca/en/collection/artifacts/M2634?Lang=1&accessnumber=M2634). Mccord-museum.qc.ca.Retrieved 2011-01-24.

116. "The Canadian Association of Aboriginal Entrepreneurship" (http://www.aurora-inn.mb.ca/borealis.html).Aurora-inn.mb.ca. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

117. First Nations, Inuit, and Mtis peoples: exploring their past, present, and future (http://books.google.com/?id=HhxHziaHRh8C&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=aurora+borealis+Inuit#v=onepage&q=aurora%20borealis%20Inuit&f=false). Books.google.ca. 2006. ISBN978-1-55239-167-9. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

118. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Newfoundland and Labrador)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=10&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=10). Statistics Canada.January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

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120. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunavut)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=62&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Nunavut&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=62). Statistics Canada. January 15, 2008. RetrievedOctober 20, 2013.



121. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Quebec)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=24&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Quebec&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=24). Statistics Canada. January 15, 2008. RetrievedOctober 20, 2013.

122. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunatsiavut)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=BAND&Code1=10640001&Geo2=PR&Code2=10&Data=Count&SearchText=Nunatsiavut&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=10640001). Statistics Canada. January15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

123. NunatuKavut About Us (http://www.nunatukavut.ca/home/about.htm)124. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Inuvialuit)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-

pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=BAND&Code1=61640004&Geo2=PR&Code2=61&Data=Count&SearchText=Inuvialuit&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=61640004). Statistics Canada. January 15,2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

125. "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunavik)" (http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-594/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=BAND&Code1=24640002&Geo2=PR&Code2=24&Data=Count&SearchText=Nunavik&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=24640002). Statistics Canada. January 15,2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

126. "Table 16: American Indian and Alaska Native Alone and Alone or in Combination Population by Tribe forAlaska: 2000" (http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t18/tables/tab016.xls) (XLS). UnitedStates Census Bureau. 2000. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

127. Inuit Circumpolar Council. (2006). "HotCarl." (http://inuitcircumpolar.com/index.php?auto_slide=&ID=374&Lang=En&Parent_ID=&current_slide_num=) Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada).Retrieved on 2007-04-06.

128. See: Arctic Council (http://www.arctic-council.org/)129. Nuuk Declaration (http://arctic-council.org/filearchive/nuuk_declaration_2011_signed_copy-1..pdf)130. "Inuvialuit Final Agreement" (http://www.irc.inuvialuit.com/about/finalagreement.html). Irc.inuvialuit.com.

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Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=62&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Nunavut&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=All). 2.statcan.ca. 2003-01-21. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

132. Hessel, p. 20133. Hessel, pg. 11134. "Biography of the Honourable Leona Aglukkaq" (http://www.leonaaglukkaq.ca/about/about-leona/).135. iletaitunefoislecinema.com (http://www.iletaitunefoislecinema.com/entretien/2594/entretien-avec-jeanmichel-

huctin-coauteur-du-voyage-dinuk) (French) Google translation: (http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://www.iletaitunefoislecinema.com/entretien/2594/entretien-avec-jeanmichel-huctin-coauteur-du-voyage-dinuk&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=7&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%2522Le%2BVoyage%2BD%2527Inuk%2522%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG) by Samir Ardjoum, "Interview with Jean-Michel Huctin, co-author of TourInuk". Retrieved 01-20-2009.

136. "Northern resident helps bridge the gap between cultures"(http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Northern+resident+helps+bridge+the+gap+between+cultures%3A+Mitiarjuk...-a030540281). Thefreelibrary.com. 1999-04-01. Retrieved 2011-02-25.

137. CBC Arts (2006-02-13). "Cape Dorset named most 'artistic' municipality"(http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/02/13/report-artistic-capedorset.html). Cbc.ca. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

138. Penney, Christopher; Senecal S; Guimond E; Bobet E; Uppal S. (27 June 2008). "Suicide in Inuit Nunaat:Ananalysis of suicide rates and the effect of Community-level factors"(http://old.nrf.is/Open%20Meetings/Anchorage/Position%20Papers/Penney_Sen%C3%A9cal_Guimond_Bobet_and_Uppal_5thNRF_position_paper_session2.pdf) (PDF). Position paper for the 5th NRF open assembly. INAC.Retrieved 2009-11-05.



Further readingAlia, Valerie (2009). Names and Nunavut: Culture and Identity in Arctic Canada (http://books.google.ca/books?id=rVoNxuS4n1gC&lpg=PA118&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Berghahn Books. ISBN978-1-84545-165-3.Billson, Janet Mancini; Kyra Mancini (2007). Inuit women: their powerful spirit in a century of change(http://books.google.ca/books?id=8M8aihnBACwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN978-0-7425-3596-1.Briggs, Jean L. (1971). Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family (http://books.google.ca/books?id=A9QuJjQbh7MC&lpg=PP1&dq=Never%20in%20Anger%3A%20Portrait%20of%20an%20Eskimo%20Family&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-60828-3.Forman, Werner; Burch, Ernest S. (1988). The Eskimos (http://books.google.ca/books?id=BUDUvjJpnzUC&lpg=PA7&dq=The%20Eskimos&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Norman: University ofOklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-2126-2.CBC. History of the Thule Migration(http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/natureofthings/2009/inuitodyssey/history.html), The Nature of Things,Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Informational webpage related to the TV documentary, Inuit Odyssey,shown below in the External links section.Crandall, Richard C (2000). Inuit Art: A History (http://books.google.ca/books?id=M4p8ZrkbSCkC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). McFarland. ISBN0-7864-0711-5.De Poncins, Gontran. Kabloona. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press, 1996 (originally 1941). ISBN 1-55597-249-7Eber, Dorothy (1997). Images of Justice: A Legal History of the Northwest Territories and Yellowknife(http://books.google.ca/books?id=g7Qcr7vzQbQC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN0-7735-1675-1.Eber, Dorothy (2008). Encounters on the Passage: Inuit meet the explorers (http://books.google.ca/books?id=zG50985kCSUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-1-4426-8798-1.Hauser, Michael; Erik Holtved; Bent Jensen (2010). Traditional Inuit songs from the Thule area, Volume 2(http://books.google.ca/books?id=NjgysV2UGygC&lpg=PA1&dq=Inuit&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=true).Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN978-87-635-2589-3.Hessell, Ingo (2006). Arctic Spirit: The Albrecht Collection of Inuit Art at the Heard Museum. Vancouver:Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN1-55365-189-8.Hund, Andrew (2012). Inuit. SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN978-1412992619.Kulchyski, Peter Keith; Frank J. Tester (2007). Kiumajut (talking back): game management and Inuit rights,190070 (http://books.google.ca/books?id=RGB7w2x0sa0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). UBC Press. ISBN978-0-7748-1241-2.King, J. C. H; Birgit Pauksztat; Robert Storrie (2005). Arctic clothing of North AmericaAlaska, Canada,Greenland (http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZD2_7LRxGwsC&lpg=PA132&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). McGill-Queen's UniversityPress. ISBN0-7735-3008-8.

139. "Short-sightedness may be tied to refined diet" (http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2120).Newscientist.com. 5 April 2002. Retrieved 2011-01-24.

140. Morgan RW, Speakman JS, Grimshaw SE (March 1975). "Inuit myopia: an environmentally induced"epidemic"?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956268). Can Med Assoc J 112 (5): 5757.PMC1956268 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956268). PMID1116086(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1116086).

141. Bernard Gilmartin; Mark Rosenfield (1998). Myopia and nearwork (http://books.google.com/?id=mNT577S8uywC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=myopia+inuit). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.21.ISBN0-7506-3784-6.



Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Inuit.

McGrath, Melanie (2007). The long exile: a tale of Inuit betrayal and survival in the high Arctic. New York:Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN1-4000-4047-7.Paver, Michelle (2008). Chronicles of Ancient Darkness Omnibus Edition (Volume 1, 2, and 3). London: Orion.ISBN1-84255-705-X.Ruesch, Hans (1986). Top of the World. New York: Pocket. ISBN950-637-164-4. (Hebrew version(http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/proppentrecker/ernenek-00.html&date=2009-10-26+01:03:35))Sowa, F. 2014. Inuit. in: Hund, A. Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the EarthsPolar Regions. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp.390-395.Stern, Pamela R; Lisa Stevenson (2006). Critical Inuit studies: an anthology of contemporary Arctic ethnography(http://books.google.ca/books?id=71lBFUBkrMwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).University of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-4303-0.Steckley, John (2008). White Lies about the Inuit (http://books.google.ca/books?id=i-osjdNH3g8C&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Broadview Press. ISBN978-1-55111-875-8.Stern, Pamela R (2004). Historical dictionary of the Inuit (http://books.google.ca/books?id=Xa_Pq8X_MIsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Scarecrow Press. ISBN0-8108-5058-3.Walk, Ansgar. (1999). Kenojuak: the life story of an Inuit artist. Manotick, Ontario: Penumbra Press. ISBN0-921254-95-4.

External linksNational Inuit Organization in Canada (http://www.itk.ca)Inuit

(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Ethnicity/The_Americas/Indigenous/Inuit) at DMOZInuktitut Living Dictionary(http://www.livingdictionary.com/index.jsp;jsessionid=6451902113FC1DE7E2CF0B986F7B923E)Inuit Odyssey (http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/natureofthings/2009/inuitodyssey/), produced by TheNature of Things and first broadcast 29 June 2009 on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporationnetwork. This is a documentary on the Inuits' ancestors, the Thule people and their eastward migrationacross the Arctic to Greenland. The webpage contains a link to view the documentary online here(http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/The+Nature+of+Things/ID/1233750269/) (length: 44:03; may notbe viewable online outside of Canada). Note: Nature of Things episodes are also viewable on iTunes.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inuit&oldid=662338720"

Categories: Aboriginal peoples in Atlantic Canada Aboriginal peoples in Canadian territoriesAboriginal peoples in Quebec Indigenous peoples of North AmericaHistory of indigenous peoples of North America Hunter-gatherers of the ArcticHunter-gatherers of Canada Hunter-gatherers of the United States Eskimos InuitAboriginal peoples in the Arctic

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