Investigating Work-based Learning Influences, Outcomes and ... · Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020) 1 Investigating Work-based Learning Influences, Outcomes and

Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)

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InvestigatingWork-basedLearningInfluences,

OutcomesandSustainability:AConceptualModel

FRANCESLOUISEFINN1

DepartmentofNursingandHealthCare,WaterfordInstituteofTechnology,Ireland.

DuetopolicychangesacrossEurope,work-basedlearningpedagogiesareontheincreaseinHigher Education programmes. This paper discusses the development of a theoreticalframeworkandconceptualmodelusedtounderpinaninvestigationofwork-basedlearninginpostgraduatenurseeducation.Anoriginalconceptualmodelforanalyzingtheinfluencesand outcomes ofwork-based learning and studying these concerns froma social learningtheoryperspectiveispresented.Themodelisbasedontheassumptionthatindividualslearnwithinandacrosscommunitiesofpractice,yetalsorecognizesthedualityofindividualandsocialcontributionsrequiredforsuccessfulwork-basedlearning.The research aimed to explore how different cultural tools and processes, in addition tosocialandpersonalcontributions, influencedandsustainedoutcomesduringandfollowingwork-basedlearning.Aqualitativecasestudywasemployedtoinvestigatetheexperiencesand perceptions of WBL students and those in support roles, using interviews anddocumentaryanalysis. Fourmaincategoriesofdataemerged fromthe thematicanalysis:navigating workplace cultures and contexts; learning within and across practices;practitioner trajectories and transformations; and practice transformations.The findingssupport the conceptual model proposed in this paper as a means of investigating,understanding and promoting discourse concerning the interrelated influences andoutcomesofWBLindifferingcontexts.

Keywords: Work-based learning, higher education, nursing, conceptual model, culturalhistoricalactivitytheory,communities/landscapesofpracticetheory.

Introduction

Work-based learning (WBL) in Higher Education is a complex system of learning for self,

workplaceanduniversitylevelcreditthatinvolvestripartiterelationshipsbetweenlearners,

employers and academic settings. Due to policy changes across Europe,WBL pedagogies

and practices are on the increase in Higher Education programmes (Nottingham, 2016).

1Email:[email protected]


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Seeneitherasadistinct ‘mode’ordisciplinary ‘field’ofpractice,WBL inHigherEducation

differs from themore traditional university based programmes that focusmainly on the

students’ attainment of academic credit (Costley & Armsby, 2007). An emphasis on the

learners’ workplace and practice is evident in the many pedagogical models and

interpretationsofWBLinHigherEducation(Manleyetal.,2009). Primarilysituatedinthe

workplace,learnersundertakingWBLprogrammesapplytheelementsoftheirprofessional

role and activities to academic study within University level programmes (Nottingham,

2016).Thetripartiterelationshipbetweenthe learner (employee), theiremployerandthe

university for negotiating and supporting learning, in consideration of both learner and

organizational developmental needs, is a significant feature of WBL (Basit et al., 2015;

Manleyetal.,2009).Consequently,theemployerandtheworkplaceplayanimportantrole

in learning, inadditiontotheuniversityandlearner(Critten&Moteleb,2007;Basitetal.,

2015),thuscontrastingwiththepreviousemphasisonlearnersandtheirrelationshipwith

the university alone. WBL is ‘multi-modal and complex’ as it is influenced by multiple

socioculturalcontexts,boundariesandpeople(Billet&Choy,2013:273).Thereforeamulti-

facetedapproachtofurtheringunderstandingoffactorsthatinfluenceWBLexperiencesand

outcomes,forlearnersandtheiremployers,isrequired.

In health care contexts WBL has been argued as a means of continued professional

developmentthattransformspractitionersandpractice(Manleyetal.,2009).Theresearch

presentedinthispaperaimedtoexploretrajectoriesofchange(inparticipantsandpractice)

during and following WBL whilst asking ‘how’ the different cultural tools and processes

situated within the WBL programme, in addition to social and personal contributions,

influenced and sustained outcomes. Positioned within an interpretivist paradigm, a

qualitative case study design was employed to investigate one WBL postgraduate nurse

educationprogramme,inIreland.Thispaperdiscussesthedevelopmentandapplicationof

the theoretical framework and conceptualmodel underpinning the research. A review of

keyideasandconceptsfromsocioculturaltheory,culturalhistoricalactivitytheory(CHAT),

communities/landscapes of practice theory is presented and their importance for

understandingandpositioning researchonWBLdiscussed. Specific conceptsandareasof

analysisusedtoexploreWBL influencesandoutcomesare integratedwithinaconceptual


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model. The researchmethodsand findings aredescribed, followedbyadiscussionof the

findingsrelatedtotheconceptualmodelanditsimplicationsforpractice.

TheoreticalPerspectives

Thepurposeofthispaperistoenableresearchersandacademicstofurtherunderstandand

investigate the complexities ofWBL in Higher Education though a sociocultural lens. The

sociocultural theorist considers the broader social context and systems inwhich learning

takesplaceandhowlearnersdevelopbasedonparticipationinculturallysituatedactivities

(Scott & Palincsar, 2013). It is from this position that the theoretical framework and

conceptualmodelunderpinningthisresearchwasdeveloped.

SocioculturalTheory

Vygotsky, in hiswork in the 1920’s claimed that learning and human developmentmore

broadly, occurred within a social world and therefore must be examined on a

multidimensionallevelthattakesaccountoftheindividualandthesocialcontext(Vygotsky,

1978). He argued that development of mind and cognition occurred on two planes;

externallyfirstandtheninternallyandwasalwaysmediatedthroughtheuseoftoolssuch

aslanguageorsigns(Vygotsky,1978).Thissocioculturalperspectiveonmindandcognition

asserts that individual development and higher mental functioning originate from social

interactionwithothers(ScottandPalincsar,2013).

Mediation isoneof themost important concepts in sociocultural theory (Wertsch,2007).

Mediation is considered an umbrella term that encompasses the differentways inwhich

material tools, psychological tools and other people mediate human mental processes

(Guerrero Nieto, 2007). Of these mediational tools, Vygotsky claimed speech and social

interaction tobe themost importantmediatorofpsychologicalprocesses (Kozulin,1998).

This links to his assertion that individual mental functioning develops first externally

between people on the interpsychological plane, then second internally on the

intrapsychologicalplane(Vygotsky,1978).Consequently,mediationisseenintermsofthe

criticalroleindividualsplayinmediatingthelearningofothersasthe‘humanmediator’,and

the roleof toolsand signsas ‘symbolicmediators’ (Kozulin,2003:18).Given themultiple

‘human’ and ‘symbolic’mediators at play, the typesof tools, structures andmediational


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means employed inWBL,mediation is a key concept and important area of analysis for

researchers.

Vygotskyalsoemphasized the importanceof theenvironmenton learning,arguing that it

wasnotthematerialqualitiesofasituation,buthowitwasexperiencedorinterpretedby

anindividualthatwasinterrelatedtotheirdevelopment(Vygotsky,1994).Similarlycontext

canbeviewedintermsoftheimmediatecontextasthetaskandcontentoflearningwithin

a specific physical and relational environment and the larger contexts of social, historical

andculturalsettingsinwhichtheinteractiontakesplace(Latucca,2002).Typically,culture

refers to the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society.

Individualsarerepresentedwithinmanyculturessuchofthosesurroundingwork,education

and family contexts. This plural notion of culture, indicating that an individual is not

represented within one but many, is relevant in considering the differing contexts and

culturessurroundingthosewhoparticipateinprogrammesofWBL.Theinterplaybetween

workplace ‘affordances’ (learning opportunities afforded to individuals) and ‘constraints’

(Wertsch, 1998: 45) and how learning is influenced by these are important areas for

analysis.

Central tounderstandinghumandevelopment fromasocioculturalperspective is the idea

thatcultureisembeddedinandrepresentedthroughtoolsanddiscourses;‘culturaltools’as

mediational means. Tool and artifact are often used synonymously however Cole (1996)

seestool (bothphysicalandpsychological)asasubcategoryofartifactwhichrepresentsa

wider range of cultural and historical embodiments. This wider interpretation of culture

through the concept of ‘artifact’ as suggested by Cole (1996) is useful in exploring how

behaviours,interactions,andhistoriesofgroupsinfluenceindividuallearningthroughtools

anddiscourseasmediationalmeans.Ananalysiswhichtakes intoaccounttheinterplayof

socioculturalfactorsandtheindividual(Palincsar,1998),isimportantinunderstandingWBL.

These key ideas originating fromVygotsky’s sociocultural theory are seen in the evolving

generationsofCHAT.

CulturalHistoricalActivityTheory


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CHAT evolved through three generations (Engeström, 2001) and can be viewed as an

ongoingtraditionofbothsocioculturalpsychologyandactivitytheory(Edwards,2005).The

concept of mediation and mediational means in addition to activity (and later activity

systems), are central to CHAT as the key foci of analysis. Vygotsky’s idea of cultural

mediationinvolvesathreewayrelationshipofsubject,objectandmediatingartifactwhich

shows how cultural tools mediate actions (Engeström, 2001). The concept of ‘object’ is

understoodasthepurposeofactivityandconsequentlyrenderstheactivitymeaningful.The

subject (person) achieves their purpose (object) by employing cultural tools or artefacts.

However,Leont’ev(1981)arguedthattheobjectofactivityisnotalwaysunderstoodbythe

different actors in an activity system. Shared understandings of the object are important

and ifnotpresenttensionsandconflictsmayarisewhich inturncan leadtodifficulties in

negotiating activities andmeaning (Timmis, 2013). In investigating the influencesofWBL,

where projects or learning activities are negotiated within tripartite relationships, this

‘sharedunderstanding’isworthyofanalyticattention.

Towards a second generationof CHAT, Engeström (1987) turns the analytic focus toward

‘complex interrelations between the individual subject and his or her community’

(Engeström, 2001: 134). Engeström recognises that ‘object-orientated actions are always

explicitly, or implicitly, characterisedby ambiguity, surprise, interpretation, sensemaking,

and potential for change’ (2001: 134). Where tensions and contradictions between

elements of the activity system exist, interpretation and meaning making is not always

aligned by all actors. This idea relates to a key concept of ‘multi-voicedness’ of systems,

recognisingthemultipleviews, traditionsand interestsofacommunity (Engeström,2001:

136-137). Furthermore, activity systems change and transform over time and concepts

‘historicity’andthepossibilityof‘expansivetransformation’arecentralprinciplesofCHAT;

meaningthattheycanonlybeunderstoodagainst‘theirownhistory’andundergocyclesof

change(Engeström2001:137).

InathirdgenerationofCHAT,thefocusofanalysismovestonetworksofinteractingactivity

systemswiththepossibilityof jointlysharedobjects,transitionsandreorganizationwithin

andbetweenactivity systems (Engeström, 2009).Greaterattention ispaid to theways in

which people have to work andmove across boundaries between activity systems; such


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boundarycrossingrequiringnegotiationofactivityandjointlysharedmeaningoftheobject

(Engeström, 2001). Furthermore, individual subjectivity, agency and relationality become

key considerations (Engeström, 2001). The relational inter-dependence between personal

agency,subjectivityandsocialfactorsareimportantinWBL(Billet,2011).Forpractitioners

who are required to work across organisational boundaries, strong forms of agency are

essentialastheyneedtorecogniseandaccesstheresourcesthatothersbringtotheobject

(Edwards,2005).Thisrelationalagency,‘acapacitytooffersupportandtoaskforsupport

fromothers’ (Edwards,2005:168) isausefulconcept inhighlightingan importantareaof

analysis. Relational agency shifts the focus from the system to the impact of those who

engageinjointactionbetweenandacrosssystems(Edwards,2005).

Key ideas and concepts that have evolved through three generations of CHAT, such as

community, boundary crossing, agency, culture, history, multi-voicedness and

transformation, are beneficial in furthering understandings of the myriad of factors

influencingWBLexperiencesandoutcomes. These importantareas foranalytic attention

arelinkedtosimilartheoriesofcommunities/landscapesofpractice.

CommunitiesandLandscapesofPractice

Inhisworkoncommunitiesofpractice,Wenger (1998) claims thatwe learnandbecome

whowe are as a result of our engagement in social practice. The community of practice

concept isunderpinnedby fourmaincomponentsof social learning:meaning (learningas

experience); community (learning as belonging); identity (learning as becoming); and

practice(learningasdoing)(Wenger,1998).Theintegrationoftheseconceptsprovidesthe

conceptual framework of a ‘community of practice’ within which to analyse ‘social

participationasaprocessoflearningandknowing’(Wenger,1998:4).

Participation in culturally valued collaborative practices, that produces something useful,

motivatesindividualstolearn(Lave&Wenger,1991).Wenger(1998)employstheconcepts

ofparticipationand reification in theorisingmeaningful learning.Participation isanactive

processoftakingpartinsomething,ofconnectionwithothersandaction.Reificationrefers

toengagementasproductive,inthatexperienceismadeintoathing;aconcreteobjectsuch

as a document or tool (Wenger, 1998). Situated in context, meaningful learning is


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essentiallyasocialactivityofengagementwhereskillsaredevelopedinpracticeandperson

identitiesareproducedandtransformed(Lave&Wenger,2005).Wenger(1998) identifies

threemodesofbelonging:alignment,aprocessofcoordinationofownactivitiessotheyare

alignedwith the community; engagementwith others in the socialworld and developing

trajectory;andimaginationwherebytheindividualvisualizestheirownpositionwithinthe

community and imagines their future. In exploring learner trajectories and the initial and

longer term (sustainable) outcomes of WBL, concepts of alignment, engagement and

imagination provide important ways of looking at the processes and tools that mediate

learning.ByanalyzinginwhatwaysWBLpromotesparticipationandreificationandenables

trajectories of learning towards personal and professional identity development through

alignment,engagementandimaginationwithinandacrosscommunitiesinpractice,arange

ofinfluencesandoutcomescanbeinvestigated.

Thenotionofmultiplecommunitiesasalandscapeofpracticeisusefulintheinvestigation

ofWBL,asinherentinthisconceptistheideathatboundarycrossingbetweencommunities

has the potential for rich insightful learning and innovation (Engeström, 2001; Wenger-

Trayner & Wenger–Trayner, 2015a). Whilst active experience and engagement within a

communityofpracticeis importantwithregardthenotionofpractitionersdevelopingand

maintaining competence (Wenger, 1998), learning in a landscape of practice enables

practitionerstobeknowledgeableaboutamultiplicityofrelatedpractices(Wenger-Trayner

&Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). It is the connectionwith amultiplicity of practices across the

landscapethathelpsdevelopknowledgeability;thatistherelationshipspeoplebuildacross

the landscape to be knowledgeable about other practices and relevance to their own

(Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). This suggests that in addition to developing

competencewithinasinglecommunityofpractice,knowledgeabilitywouldbeanimportant

outcomeofWBLifprofessionalsaretodevelopandsustainrelationshipsacrossboundaries

ofpractice.

Boundary objects and brokering are two types of connections that link communities of

practice (Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).Boundaryobjectscanbeconsidered

the products of reification such as documents and other artefacts around which

communities are interconnected. For example, the tools and processes within a WBL


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framework such as learning contracts can be seen as the boundary object that connects

academic andpractice communities.Whereas brokering refers to activities of persons on

the periphery of various communities, that provide connections between them and

consequentlyintroducepracticesacrossthem(Wenger,1998).

Whilst Wenger (1998) argues that learning and identity is associated with individual

trajectories across landscapes of practices. Wenger-Trayner andWenger-Trayner (2015a:

15)furtherstressthatthe‘landscapeispolitical’andthepowerdynamicshavearoletoplay

with competing voices and claims to knowledge. Wenger-Trayner and Wenger-Trayner

(2015a: 17-18) claim that ‘crossing boundaries, boundary encounters and boundary

partnerships are necessary for the integration of a landscape of practice’. However,

boundariescanalsobeareasofconfusion,conflictandmisunderstandingsascommunities

hold different perspectives, values and interests. Engeström’s (2001) concepts of ‘multi-

voicedness’and‘contradictions’(asprinciplesofCHAT)cometotheforeinWenger-Trayner

and Wenger-Trayners’ (2015a) interpretation of boundary crossing as both a source of

challengeandinnovation.Yet,Wenger-TraynerandWenger-Trayner(2015b:108)claimthat

‘meaningfulengagementacrossboundariesistransformative’ofbothpracticeandidentity.

Thelandscapeofpracticesconceptandtheroleof‘brokers'and‘boundaryobjects’canhelp

in furthering understandings of what occurs at the peripheries and across boundaries of

interconnectedcommunitiesofpractice.Furthermore,theycanhelpinanalysingthetools

andpartnershipsnecessaryforboundaryencountersandsuccessfulWBL.

DevelopmentofaConceptualModelofWBL

Thetheoriesdiscussedinthispaperemphasisesocialandculturalcontributionstoindividual

cognition, contrasting with psychological explanations that focus on the person (Billet,

2011).Bothactivitytheoryandcommunitiesofpracticecanprovideusefulframeworksfor

analyzinglearningatwork(Fulleretal.,2005).Althoughtheydivergeinareasandconverge

inothersitisthekeyconceptsthatspansomeofthesehistoricaltheoreticaldevelopments

thatareuseful inframingastudyofWBLthat investigatesboth influencesandoutcomes.

CurrentthinkingonWBLrecognisestherelational interdependenceofsocialcontributions

andindividualagencyrequiredforlearningatwork(Billet,2011).WhilstEngeström(2001)

recognisestheimportanceofagencywithinCHAT,Wenger’s(1998)communitiesofpractice


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theoryappearstopay littleattentiontohow individualcharacteristicsandtraits influence

learning which leaves a gap in this analytic framework. The inclusion of the concepts

subjectivity,selfandagencyinaconceptualframeworkmeanstheeffortsoftheindividual,

their subjectivities and degree of interest are identified as factors that influence learning

throughandforwork(Bandura,2001;Billet,2011).Agencyconcernstheintentionto‘make

things happen by ones actions’ and ‘embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-

regulatory capabilities and distributed structures through which personal influence is

exercised’ (Bandura, 2001: 2).Whereas relational agency is concernedwith the ability to

offer support and/or accept support from others (Edwards, 2005). With the addition of

theseconceptstothetheoretical framework,bothsocialandpersonal influencesarepaid

analyticalattention.

Figure 1 depicts the conceptual model arising from the theoretical framework and key

conceptsdiscussedwithinthispaper.

Figure1:AConceptualModelforInvestigatingWBLinHigherEducation

Themodelisbasedontheassumptionthatindividualslearnwithinandacrosscommunities

ofpractice(Wenger,1998;Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).Eachcommunityof


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practice that the learner may engage with through WBL is represented by overlapping

circles in the center of the model, thus signifying the landscape of practice. Such

communitiesofpracticecouldincludeforexamplethelearner’sclinicalpracticecommunity;

related practice areas/communities with the organisation such as management; and the

academic community (peers, lecturers). Participation and reification are recognised as

central to leaning within and at the boundaries of communities of practice whereby

individuals engage in meaningful activity with the aim of producing something useful

(Wenger,1998).

The duality of individual and social contributions required for successful WBL are

representedontheleftofthemodel,thusindicatingtheseinterrelatedconceptsasfactors

influencingWBLexperiences andoutcomes.Agency, self and subjectivity (Bandura, 2001;

Billet, 2011) concern the role of the individual in learning; their personal traits and

intentionsasinfluencesonengagementandoutcomesofWBL.Theinfluenceofworkplace

culturesonWBLisconsideredwithintheconceptsofworkplaceaffordancesandconstraints

(Billet, 2011;Wertsch, 1998). In addition,multi-voicedness recognises themultiple views,

traditionsandinterests(fromlearnerorsupportperspectives)andthepotentialfortensions

and contradictions influencing activity (Engeström, 2001), central to participation and

reificationincommunitiesofpractice(Wenger,1998).Withtheinclusionoftheseconcepts,

theinterplayofindividualandsocioculturalfactorsthatinfluenceWBLareaccountedforin

themodel.

On the right side of the model attention is drawn to how learning is mediated and

scaffoldedthroughculturaltoolsanddiscourse.Thesesociocultural influencesonWBLare

understoodusingthekeyconceptsofmediatingartifactswhichincludepeopleandcultural

tools as mediational means (Kozulin, 2003). Boundary objects, boundary encounters and

brokersrepresentthedifferentmediationaltoolsanddiscourseexperiencedbywork-based

learners at the boundaries of communities (Engeström, 2001; Wenger, 1998; Wenger-

Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).

The cyclicalnatureof themodel reflects trajectoriesof changeand sustainableoutcomes

achievedthroughWBL.Thetransformationofpractitionersandtheirpracticeisunderstood


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throughtheremakingofcultural tools fortheircommunity (Billet,2011)andtheensuring

development of competence and knowledgeability (Wenger-Trayner & Wenger-Trayner,

2015a). This engagement, and ensuing learning trajectory and identity development of

individuals,isbelievedtobeinfluencedbyhowlearnersimaginetheirfutureandalignself

withcommunitygoals(Wenger,1998).Consequently,theroleofimagination,engagement

andalignmentarerecognisedasinfluencesonlearningtrajectory.

TheResearchApproachandMethods

Developing a theoretical framework is an essential task of designing and conducting

research. The ontological and epistemological positioning of the researcher, the

methodological approach and the theoretical lens thoughwhich to situate questions and

interpret findings are key considerations. The conceptualmodel (Figure 1)was used as a

theoreticallenstounderpinthisqualitativecasestudyofWBLinfluencesandoutcomes.The

investigationwassituatedwithinonepostgraduatenurseeducationprogrammeinIreland,

ofwhichIwasthecourseleader.

Thecase

The ‘case’ in this study consists of the interrelated parts of the WBL programme: the

Postgraduate Diploma inNursing curriculum; the students on the programme; and those

involved in supporting learning (academics supervisors, clinical supervisors and nurse

managers). The programme curriculum framework is aligned with Boud’s (2001) WBL

curriculumelements,outlinedinTable1.Theprogrammeethossupportsaduallybeneficial

approach to learning that aligns practitioner developmentwith practice development for

service improvements through negotiated learning activities. Students undertaking the

programmeareallqualifiednurses,workingfullorparttimeinclinicalsettings,whowishto

further develop their knowledge, skills and competence within their area of practice.

Students are supported through a tripartite system of supervision that includes a clinical

supervisor (from their practice setting) and an academic supervisor (a lecturer from the

programme).Tripartitemeetingsareheldinthepracticeareathreetimespersemesterwith

theaimofnegotiatingandsupportingstudentlearning.


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Table1:PostgraduateDiplomainnursingWBLcurriculumframework

WBLCurriculum(Boud2001)

PostgraduateDiplomainNursingCurriculumFramework

Establishwork-basedlearningintheschoolandclinicalpracticeAddressthediverserangeofknowledgeandskillsofstudentsattheoutsetLocatetheoutcomesofwork-basedlearninginanacademicframeworkPromotingthedevelopment&negotiationoflearningactivitiesEncouragecriticalreflectionthroughouttheprogrammeSupporttheon-goinglearningofstudentsinsituDocumentlearninginaformthatcanbeassessed

ProgrammeDevelopmentandPhilosophy:• PartnershipapproachthroughoutbetweenHigher

EducationInstituteandHealthServiceOrganisation• Reflectsatransformativework-basedmodelthatbuilds

onthepotentialforlearningwithinthework/practiceenvironmentthroughstructuredacademicandclinicalsupervisionandnegotiatedpractitionerdevelopmentalignedwithpracticedevelopmentopportunities

• Processandguidelinesforrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL)developedforaccesstothepostgraduateprogramme

• 6modules,totalling60creditsatNQAI(2003)level9(EQFlevel7)

Teaching/learning/Approaches:• Combinedwork-basedlearningasamodeofstudywith

collegebasedlecturesandseminars• Work-basedlearningactivitiesnegotiatedwithinlearning

agreements• Additionalexternal(negotiated)clinicalplacementsin

centersofexcellencetoenablecompetencydevelopmentwithinspecialistpractice.

• Reflecting,enquiringandcreatingunderpinacademicallyrigorouslearningforprofessionalpractice

• Individualenquiryandcriticalreflectionsupportedwithinsupervisorydiscourseandseminars

SupportMechanisms/Roles:• ClinicalManagementsupportandcommitmentrequired

onapplication• Academicsupervision(AS)andClinicalSupervision(CS)

andsupportprovidedthroughtripartitemeetings(betweenAS,CSandstudent)throughoutprogramme

AssessmentMethods:• Theoreticalandcompetencyassessment;formativeat

tripartitemeetings;summativeatendofeachsemester• Academicassignments• PortfolioofEvidence• ReflectiveLearningLog


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Theparticipants

InordertoexploretheinfluencesandoutcomesofWBLfrommultipleperspectives,itwas

necessary to investigate the views of different stakeholders. Participants in this study

includedpast studentswhohadcompleted theprogramme;practitioners in support roles

(clinical and academic supervisors); and nurse managers and Directors of Nursing from

clinicalpracticesettings.Paststudentswhohadcompletedtheprogrammeby2012(N=55)

wereinvitedtoparticipatevialetter2.Thetemporalaspectofthesamplewasimportantin

investigatingthesustainedoutcomesofWBL(interviewswereconductedin2013).Clinical

supervisors,nursemanagersandDirectorsofNursing involvedwith theprogrammewere

recruited via purposeful sampling. Thosewho had experience of supporting two ormore

studentsoverthecourseoftheprogrammewereinvitedtoparticipatebyletter3.Academic

supervisorswereapproachedinformallyfirstbytheresearcherthenrecruitedviaemail.

Thepurposivesamplingstrategyyieldedaheterogeneouscompositionofparticipants(N=

21). They includedpast students of the programme (N = 11) and those acting in support

roles (clinical supervisors, academic supervisors and nurse managers) (N = 10). Some

participants occupied dual roles at the time of interview; for example some clinical

supervisors or nurse managers had previously undertaken the programme. All the

participantsinthestudywerequalifiednurses.Practitionerparticipantsworkedinavariety

of clinical settings; mental health; general; community; maternal and rehabilitation. An

overviewof thedemographicandpractice relatedvariablesof the sampleareoutlined in

Table2.

2Approvaltocontactstudentsforevaluationandresearchpurposesobtainedonprogrammecommencement3Letterssenttoworkaddressesknowntoresearcheraspartofprofessionalworkingpartnerships.


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Table2:Participantdetails

Code M/F YearsofExperience

AreaofPractice Position ProgrammeRole

P1 F >20 Maternal/ChildHealth

StaffMidwife PastStudent

P2 M >20 Regional DirectorofNursing CommissionerP3 F 12 Education LecturerinMental

HealthNursingAcademicSupervisor

P4 F 6 Education LecturerinNursing AcademicSupervisorP5 F 15 HighDependency StaffNurse PastStudentP6 F >20 MentalHealth ClinicalNurse

ManagerPastStudent

P7 M 15 HighDependency ClinicalNurseManager

PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor

P8 F >20 CommunityHealth

ClinicalNurseSpecialist

PastStudent

P9 F 12 Habilitation/Rehabilitation

ClinicalNurseSpecialist


P10 F 10 InstituteofTechnology

LecturerinGeneralNursing

AcademicSupervisor

P11 F 4 IntellectualDisability

StaffNurse PastStudent

P12 M 12 Education LecturerinMentalHealthNursing

AcademicSupervisor

P13 F >20 Maternal/ChildHealth

AdvancedNursePractitioner

ClinicalSupervisor

P14 F 4 MentalHealth StaffNurse PastStudentP15 M >20 Community

MentalHealthClinicalNurseSpecialist

ClinicalSupervisor

P16 F 8 CommunityMentalHealth

StaffNurse PastStudent

P17 F >20 GeneralNursingAcuteCare

ClinicalNurseManager

NurseManager

P18 F >20 HighDependency StaffNurse PastStudentP19 M >20 MentalHealth DirectorofNursing DirectorofNursingP20 F >20 Community

MentalHealthClinicalNurseSpecialist


P21 F >20 GeneralNursingAcuteCare

NurseManager ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager


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Datacollectionandanalysis

Semi-structured interviewswere conductedwith all participants (N = 21) at their chosen

location,betweenMarchandAugust2013.Theylastedbetween30–40minutesandwere

digitally recorded following permission. Questions explored topics relating to participant

role and area of practice; experiences of undertaking (or supporting) WBL; factors they

perceived to facilitate or hinderWBL; andoutcomesofWBL. Documentary data sources

includedthereflectivelearninglogsandportfoliosofevidenceofthepaststudents(n=11).

Students completed these assignments during their WBL and submitted on programme

completion.Combined,thesedocumentsprovidedstudentreflectionsontheirlearningover

the duration of the programme, evidence of competency development, practice

development project reports and records of tripartite meetings. In interviewing past

students post programme completion, it was conceivable that perceptions could change

duetorecallabilityorthepassageoftime.Thereforedocumentaryanalysisinadditionto

interviewshelpedbuildapictureofWBLinfluencesandoutcomesovertimeforeachpast

student.

Phaseddata analysis activitieswerebasedon an analytic hierarchy (Spenceret al., 2003)

(see Table 3), to ensure a systematic yet iterative approach, which involved three main

stages: (1) thematic analysis (2) process tracing (3) a theoretically informed analysis.

Microsoft word (2010) was used to support data management, coding and synthesis.

Interviewanddocumentarydata(studentportfoliosandlearninglogs)underwentthematic

analysis.Interviewsweretranscribedinfull,recurringthemesidentifiedandthengrouped.

Memos and notes were used to identify then code initial themes in the analysis of

documents.Acomparisonofdocumentaryandinterviewdatathroughthedevelopmentof

thematicchartsleadtothefinalcategoriesofthemes.


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Table3:AnalytichierarchyadaptedfromSpenceretal.(2003:212)

StageofDataAnalysis ActivitiesUndertaken

DataFamiliarisation

CONTINUOUSREFLEXIVITY

Readingofallinterviewtranscripts

Readingofallportfoliosandlearninglogs

Readingofinterviewtranscriptswhilstlisteningtoaudio

ofinterview

DataManagement:Interview

transcriptsand

learninglogs

Initialidentificationofrecurringthemesandkey

conceptsbasedonresearchquestionsandtheoretical

framework

Buildingofathematicframeworkandgroupingof

smallerthemesintomainthemes

Applicationofcodingsystemtorawdata.

Clusteringofdataintothemesandsubthemes

Portfolios

Identificationoflearningoutcomesattained,

competencydevelopment,practiceimprovement

examples(basedonresearchquestion2)

Developmentofcategoriesofdatafromportfolios

DescriptiveAccounts

Datasynthesisandcreationofthematicchartsrelativeto

participantcharacteristicsandcontext

Reviewandcategorisationofdataintothemesand

subthemes

ComprehensivenarrativesofIndividualcases(past

students)developed

Similaritiesidentified

ExplanatoryAccounts

Explanationsfrombothimplicitandexplicitaccounts

weredeveloped.

Linksbetweeninfluencesandoutcomesidentified

thoughcausalprocesstracing

Applicationoftheoreticalframework

Relatedtootherstudies

The analytic strategy of process tracing offers a temporal aspect to data analysis and

enables links tobeascertainedbetweencausesandoutcomes (Collier, 2011).Blatter and

Haverlands’ (2014) methods were applied to individual case analysis of past student

participants. Careful examination of documents and interview transcripts enabled the

developmentofacomprehensivestory line foreachpaststudent.Applying ‘smokinggun’

and ‘confessions’asobservationalmethods (seeTable4.) strengtheneddescriptiveclaims

andinferencesbetweentheinfluencesandoutcomesofWBLforeachparticipant.


17

Table4:Keyaspectsofcausal-processtracing(Blatter&Haverland,2014:7-9)

Causal-ProcessTracing

Emphases Configurationalthinking

Basedonassumptionsthat:socialoutcomesaretheresultofacombinationofcausalfactors;therearedivergentpathwaystosimilaroutcomes(equifinality);andtheeffectsofthesame‘causalfactor’canbedifferentindifferentcontextsandcombinations(causalheterogeneity).

Causalmechanisms

Configurativeentitythatcombinesdifferenttypesofsocialmechanisms

Temporality Timeandtemporalityplayamajorroleincausalprocesstracing.Configurationalthinkingwithtemporalitycomplementsqualitativecomparativeanalysis

Typesofobservations

Comprehensivestoryline

Narrativestyleofpresentingrelevantcausalconditions,majorsequencesofprocessandcriticalmomentsthatshapetheprocess

Smokinggunobservations

Connectedtootherobservations,showsthetemporalandspecialproximityofcausesandeffects(nottotesthypothesis)Referstothetemporalclosenessbetweenobservationspointingtoaspecificcauseandothersthatprovideevidenceaboutconsequencesofthecause

Confessions Carefulexaminationofthecontextsinwhichactorsprovideinformationabouttheirperceptions,motivationsandanticipations.Anawarenessoftypicalbiaseswithrespecttomotivations,ininterpretingstatementsofactorsinspecificcontexts.

The final stage of data analysis involved application of the theoretical framework and

conceptualmodeltosynthesiseddata.Alldataanalysisphaseswerediscussedthroughthe

peerdebriefingprocess.

Ethicalconsiderations

Ethical approval was granted by the University and Regional Health Service Ethics

Committeespriortodatacollection.Permissiontoundertakethestudyandgainaccessto

clinicalstaffwasgrantedbytheDirectorsofNursingwhereparticipantsworked.Potential


18

participants were informed fully of the nature and process of the study during the

recruitmentprocess(usinginformationsheets)andinvitedtocontacttheresearcherifthey

had questions.Written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection activities

(interviews and document review) and participants reminded of their right to withdraw

from the study at any time. Confidentiality and anonymity of participants (and their

employingorganisations/practicesettings)wereprotectedthroughout.

Ascourse leaderof theprogramme Ihadaprofessional relationshipwith theparticipants

and therefore considered carefully the potential impact of being an insider researcher

throughout this study. Taking steps to limit bias, I engaged in peer debriefing with an

experiencedcolleagueandusedareflectivediary.Thisprocessofcriticalreflexivityenabled

me to examine decisions made, question any assumptions and ensure conclusions were

drawn from research data rather than previous knowledge and experience of the WBL

programme.

Findings

Fourmaincategoriesofdataemergedfromthethematicanalysis:

• Navigatingworkplaceculturesandcontexts

• Learningwithinandacrosspractices

• Practitionertrajectoriesandtransformations

• Practicetransformations

Navigatingworkplaceculturesandcontexts

This category of data encompassed the role of social and personal agency, colleagues’

attitudesandworkplacesupportsaskey influencesonexperiencesandoutcomesofWBL.

Both personal and social expectations of WBL, knowing what to expect, indicated a

perceivedneedforstrongpersonalagencyforthoseundertakingtheprogramme‘youneed

to be open to it and know what you are getting in to’ (P20, Past Student – Interview).

Previous experiences and expectations of postgraduate educationwere seen to influence

bothstudentandclinicalsupervisors’engagementas‘understandingofwhatitisallabout’

was seen as an issue by student and supervisor participants, suggesting socially derived


19

individual subjectivities influenced agency (Billet, 2011). The paradigm shift towardsWBL

challengedpractitionerswhosepreviousexperiencewasgroundedininstrumental,content

driven education as one manager argued the need for ‘people who will actually teach

specificsofeachcourse’(P17,NurseManager).

Participantsrevealedtheimportanceofpositiveattitudesandsupportatwork.Themajority

oflearnersweresupportedbymanagersandcolleaguesandwereaffordedopportunitiesto

engage inWBL. DirectorsofNursing recognized their responsibility in creatinga learning

cultureandpositivelearningenvironmentswithintheirorganisationsforWBLtothrive.

Iworkedwiththemultidisciplinaryteam,theywereverysupportiveandmynursemanagersweresupportive…alwaysenquiringhowIwasgettingon. Iwasgiventhefreedomtoattendcollege,tolookatanddeveloppractice(P20,PastStudent).

Youmust fosteranenvironmentwhere the student canopenlyquestion their ownpractice,the practice of the unit …and that they can then be supported to identifyweaknesses (P2,DirectorofNursing).

However less supportive cultures, negative attitudes frommanagers and colleagueswere

experienced by some past learners, as one described her need to ‘fight for everything’.

Anotherdescribed thepoorattitudesof staff inherworkplace towardsher further study.

Yet strong personal agency appeared to override workplace constraints for most past

studentsinthisstudy.

ThekeyroleofthenursemanagerinempoweringstafftoengageinWBLprojects,especially

forstudents indirectcarepositions,wasobservedbymany.Some learnersexpressedthe

need for dedicated time to engagewithwork-based learning activities; the difficulties of

securing time were evident. Workplace affordances were often connected to learner

positionwithintheorganisation.Forsomepaststudentsinstaffnurserolesthisinfluenced

their ability to secure time and access to learning opportunities. Whereas learners who

wereinadvancedpositions(suchasnursemanagersorclinicalnursespecialists)duringthe

programmewereabletonegotiatetimeforprojectworkwithintheircurrentrole,afinding

thatwasalsorecognisedbythoseinmanagementpositions.

Ithinkthereprobablyshouldbeafewhours,notevenaday,fromaworkperspectivethatyoucouldjusthavededicatedtoyourbitofresearchinwork(P5,PastStudent).


20

The students who are at themanagerial level… they’ve got the position power to do it. Itdepends on the relationship between the student and manager at local level (P17, NurseManager).

Learningwithinandacrosspractices

WBLwasexperiencedbyparticipantsacrosscommunitiesofpracticespanningclinical(local

practicesettingsandexternalclinicalplacements);managerial(managementgroupswithin

own organisation or allied professional organisations) and educational settings (class

seminarsandenquirygroups).WBLacross this landscapeofpractice involvedpartnership

working,boundaryencountersandthereciprocityoftheoryandpractice,whichenabledthe

scaffoldingoflearning.Partnershipworkingthroughtripartitemeetingsbetweenacademic

andclinical communitiesofpractice (situatedwithin thecurriculum framework),provided

the opportunity for learners, academics and clinical supervisors to negotiate meaning

surrounding WBL processes and activities. These meetings were seen as productive and

supportiveforthemajorityofparticipants.

Ihadaclinicalsupervisorandanacademicsupervisoranditwasgreattohavebothofthem(at themeeting) as theywere coming fromdifferent perspectives…bashingout an issue. Itwasgreat.(P5,PastStudent).

Negotiatinglearningthroughthesetripartitepartnershipswassignificantinaligninglearner

developmentneedswithpracticeorservicerequirements,thuspromotingthedevelopment

ofcommunitytoolsandresources.

When the students are looking for an area of enquirywe usually come upwith somethingthere is a problemwith rather thangoing off anddoing something that is very abstract. Itcovers both college work and our service problem, which would benefit the patient (P15,ClinicalSupervisor).

However, boundaries between different communities of practice (academic and clinical)

wereareasofconflictandmisunderstandingonoccasions,duetothedifferentperspectives

andinterestsofeach.Oneacademicsupervisorreportedstudentsbeingunderpressureat

times to achieve a multitude of service improvements highlighting their key role in

negotiating student projects that were in the first instance related to student learning

needs.


21

It’salsoaboutworkingwiththestudentsandmakingsurethatthereisn'taconflictbetweenthestudentandtheclinicalpersonaswell……saying‘whileIappreciatethisiswhatyoumightwantasaclinicalsupervisorthisiswhatthestudentalsohastoachieve’(P10,AcademicSupervisor).

The role analysis and competency development plans were experienced as significant

boundary objects through which the learners negotiated and planned their learning

activities. Throughthecompletionofthese, learnerswereabletoreflectontheircurrent

role and imagine their future role. These activities in addition to partnership working

(tripartitemeetings) supported the scaffolding ofWBL and outlined learner intentionality

withregardthekindsofwork-basedlearningactivitiestheywouldengagein.

Theroleanalysiswasaverygoodwaytostartanycoursesoyoucanseewhatisgoingtobeusefulforyourselfandwhatisgoingtobeapplicable(P7,PastStudent).Myfirststrategyindevelopingthiscompetencywastosearchtheliteraturetoascertainbestpractice in relation to evaluation of antenatal education. I didn’t knowwhere to start.Wediscussedthisindetaildecidingsearchtermsandpeerreviewedjournals.Thismeetingreallyhelpedme to focus on how to commence developing this competency (P1, Past Student –LearningLogEntry).

Findings indicated a reciprocal relationship between theory and practice. Through WBL

activities, theory was used to inform practice and practice enabled an understanding of

theory.Participantsdescribed‘eurekamoments’highlightingtheroleengagementinsocial

practice has in illuminating understandings of theory and the value this has for future

practice.

It’sonethingreadingaboutitbutwhenyoucomebackhereitmakesmoresense…..you’regoing 'oh right that's how it is supposed to be done, that’s what that meant' (P14, PastStudent)

Practitionertrajectoriesandtransformations

Practitioner trajectoriesand transformations includeddevelopingcompetence;developing

relationships; becoming reflexive and being confident. The development of personal and

professional identity has been linked to the social context of learning and meaningful

participation in practice (Wenger 1998). Past students in this study were engaged on a

trajectoryof learning thatwas alignedwith their imagined futureor negotiated futureof

roleprogression.Atprogrammecommencement,severalnurseswere‘acting’intheirroles

asclinicalnursespecialistsorclinicalnursemanagersandwerealreadyonsuchtrajectories


22

intermsofachievingaqualificationtosupporttheircareerpathway.Otherswerehopingto

advancetheircareersandpromotionopportunitiesbygainingpostgraduatequalifications.

SeveralpractitionersuponcompletionoftheWBLprogrammehadsecurednewpositions.

Although the transition into new posts and/or roles since undertaking the programme

appearedtotransformlearneridentities,paststudentsidentifiedwithbeingatransformed

practitionerasaconsequenceoftheirWBLexperiences.

I am a different person to what I was. Sometimes I am amazed as to how much I havechangedand I still think that the course is the rootof that… itmademestart thinking inadifferentway,inamoreopenway(P6,PastStudent).

Learner trajectories through WBL resulted in competence development, developing

relationships and becoming reflexive, confident practitioners. Key areas of practitioner

competence development included audit and research; patient/service user advocacy,

facilitatingeducationandclinicallyfocusedskillsrelatedtotheirspecialistclinicalpractice.

The competency development process was underpinned by the student’s competency

developmentplanandrelatedtoprofessionalroleandrelevancetopractice.Theimpactof

student competency development on practicewas observed by a number of participants

acrossavarietyofareas;suchastheprovisionofserviceusereducationanddevelopment

ofadvocacyinitiatives.

Clinically their level of competency has increased and the benefit is that there is kind of aknock on effect.Wewould see that, for the service users inmental health. One student inparticulartookondifferentaspectsofaneducationalmode,bothfortheserviceuserandthefamily(P3,AcademicSupervisor).

Engagement with WBL promoted relationships between practitioners within and across

practice and academic settings, many of which were sustained and proved beneficial

beyond programme completion. The value placed on developing and sustaining mutual

relationshipswithpractitionersoutsidetheirimmediatecommunitywasevidentrelativeto

thebenefitsof sharingknowledgeacross communitiesanddeveloping services fromboth

practitionerandacademicperspectives.

Thestudentshadanopportunitytoestablishrelationshipswiththosewhowereworkinginacentreofexcellencethatafterthisprogrammeended,theywouldstillhavethesekeypeoplethattheycouldconsultatanytime(P4,AcademicSupervisor).


23

TwoyearsagoIwasinvolvedinaprojectthatwasoutinrenaldialysis.Iwasinandoutoftheunitsomuchthatwesetupinformallinkswiththeconsultantandtheclinicalmanager.Ifeltthatwentreally,reallywell…..Iwasoveragainthisyear(P10,AcademicSupervisor).

Theprocessofwritingwithinthelearninglogthroughoutthecourse,completingaportfolio

ofevidenceandengagingincriticaldiscoursestimulatedpractitionerstodevelopreflective

skills over time. Being no longer happywith the status quo, questioning and challenging

knowledge and practice as a result of their WBL experiences, suggested of a trajectory

towardsreflexivepractice.

ItdidchangehowIpractice,itmakesyoulookatthingsdifferentlyandconstantlyreflectonyourownpracticeandaskyourselfhowyoucoulddothingsbetter(P20,PastStudent).It’s like Iamlookingatstuff, Iamreading, Iamquestioningmuchmore like ‘whosaidthat,wheredidyougettheevidenceforthatthen’(P14,PastStudent).

The ability to promote critical reflection through discoursewas a skill that academic and

clinical supervisors also developed over time through continued engagement with the

programme,suggestingtheytoowereonatrajectoryoflearning.

I had the role down better the second time… to questionmore, ‘come on let’s think a bitdifferently…tellmehowyoufeelaboutthis,haveyouanysuggestionsaboutwhatyouthinkwecoulddo’,ratherthanyougivingthemtheanswers(P13,ClinicalSupervisor).

Increasedconfidencewasaprevalentfindingrelatedtopractitionerengagementwithwork-

based learning.Confidence inpractice, inquestioningpracticeandquestioningcolleagues

was evident in past student reflective learning logs and interview data, demonstrating a

changed identity for practitioners in that they became ‘confident’ practitioners. This

decision to act differently as opposed to previously complyingwithmanagers’ directions

withoutquerysignifiedalinkbetweenconfidenceandcriticalreflexivity

Isupposejustquestioningmaybemylinemanagers,wellIwouldhaveconfidenceinmyselftosay‘nothat'snotok’(P8,PastStudent).

PracticeTransformations

Datawithinthiscategoryrelatedtodevelopingcommunitytoolsandresources;knowledge

sharing;improvingpatientcare;andsustainingpracticedevelopment.WBLwasunderstood

byparticipantstobemutuallybeneficialtopractitionersandpractice.Abreadthanddepth


24

of practice development activities were evidenced through interviews and documentary

analysis. Engagement in WBL influenced both technical and emancipatory practice

development4during and following course completion. The amount of projects thatwere

embedded in practice and remained on-going at the time of interview signified the

sustainedinfluenceofwork-basedlearninginavarietyofcontexts.Practicetransformation

occurred through the development of community tools and resources and knowledge

sharing, which sometimes translated into direct improvements in patient care. Cultural

shifts were perceived by several participants within their organisations, associated with

emancipatorypracticedevelopment,asaresultofongoingengagementwithWBL.

The production of community tools and resources included the development of practice

guidelines; audit tools; and staff and patient education materials and programmes.

Signaturesfrommanagersandclinicalsupervisorsindicatedtheauthenticityoftheworkin

practice,asopposedtothepossibilityofitbeingpurelyacademic.Findingsinlearninglogs

andinterviewsrevealedthesenseofaccomplishmentstudentsfeltinimplementingchanges

inpracticethatultimatelybenefitedpatientsandserviceusers.

I felt a great sense of achievement when this guideline was implemented into practice as iteliminated admissions for our service users to hospital. Nurses on the ground can changepracticewiththerightknowledgeandskills.Thishasgivenmetheconfidencetocarryoutmoreresearch in the area of palliative end of life care and hopefully in the future I can make adifference(P11,PastStudent–LearningLogEntry).

That (information booklet) was really needed for some time. It has gone through all thegovernanceandconsumerpanels. It isgoingtobe inuse, indefinitely,on-goingwithmaybeonlyminoradjustmentstoit(P20,PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager).

WBLstudents’ sharedknowledgeofbestpracticewith theircolleaguesas theydeveloped

competence in facilitating education. Presentations and workshops often related to new

practice guideline implementation, audit or patient care topics. This was evident from

educationmaterialsandevaluationsinpaststudentportfolios,learninglogsandparticipant

interviews. Partnershipworking through the tripartite support system promoted learning

4Emancipatory practice development concerns the transformation of the culture and context of care, forimprovement purposes (Garbett & McCormack 2004). Technical practice development relates to thedevelopmentofaspecificaspectofpracticesuchasaguidelineorpolicy(DoCH2010).


25

between lecturers and practitioners, thus facilitating knowledge exchange and sharing of

bestpracticeacrossthelandscape.

I took on a project in acute stroke care so in terms of education and training I trainedmycolleaguesinthatparticularacutecarearea(P9,PastStudent).Iwasactually learningfromthestudent…..I learntnearlyasmuchbeingasupervisor. Iwasbeingasupervisor/student(P12,AcademicSupervisor).

Throughtheprocessofparticipationandreification,negotiatedWBLactivitiesenabledpast

learners to develop competence and produce meaningful tools and resources for their

practicecommunities.Inthisstudythedevelopmentandimplementationofevidencebased

practiceguidelines;thesharingofbestpracticethroughstaffeducationsessions;conducting

audits for practice improvement; and engaging in advocacy initiatives that involve the

serviceuserareapowerfuldemonstrationofthebenefitsofWBLtobothstudentsandtheir

organizations.

Sustained changes in practice were perceived by many of the participants. There were

suggestionsofculturalshiftswithinclinicalsettingsasaresultofpractitionersundertaking

WBLandtheensuingpromotionofteamlearningandsharingofbestpractice.

Ithasanimpactontheunitasawholeandthingschange,cultureshiftsfromaplacewherewejustcomedoourworkandgohome,toaplacewherewecanopenlydiscuss….itmakestheenvironmentveryopentochange(P2,DirectorofNursing).

Entries in learning logs on programme completion often outlined learner intentions to

continue their engagementwith practice development;many of whichwere validated in

participant interviewspostprogrammecompletionaspractitionersgaveexamplesofnew

initiativestheywereengagedin.Howeversustainedchangewasnotalwaysperceived.The

relationalinterdependencebetweenandsocialandpersonalfactorsastheexplanationfor

practitioners not continuingwith practice development activities following completion of

theirprogrammewasrecognised.

Once sort of the programme finishes, the innovation, the projects, they seem to fall once thepostgradqualificationisthengot.Isupposethat'salsocompoundedbytheenvironmentwecurrentlylivein…….opportunitiesarenotasforthcomingintermsofpromotion(P21,ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager).


26

Discussion:ApplyingtheConceptualModeltotheResearchFindings

The findings from this study support the conceptual model proposed in this paper as a

meansofinvestigatingandunderstandingtheinterrelatedinfluencesandoutcomesofWBL.

Thematic analysis uncovered fourmain categories of data: navigatingworkplace cultures

and contexts; learning within and across practices; practitioner trajectories and

transformations; and practice transformations. Process tracing of individual past student

cases identified the learner trajectories throughWBL thatareunique toeach learnerand

dependent on the degree of individual and social contributions across the landscape of

practice in realisingandsustainingWBLoutcomes.Learningat, forandthroughworkwas

found to be a combined endeavour of individual intentionality, agency and engagement

withwork-based learning opportunities, tools anddiscourse, in addition to the degreeof

workplaceaffordances(orconstraints),withinandacrosscommunitiesofpractice.

FactorsInfluencingIndividualandSocialContributions

Aninterdependentrelationshipexistsbetweenwhatisaffordedindividualsatworkandhow

they choose toengagewithwork-based learning, thus indicating thedualityof social and

personalcontributionsrequiredforsuccess(Billet,2011).Howevertheeffortsofindividuals,

their subjectivities and degree of motivation to engage in WBL despite challenges and

constraints are powerful influences on WBL trajectories. Motivation to pursue and

intentionality to learn from opportunities afforded to them was significant for many

studentsinthisstudy(Billet,2011).ItwasclearthatallstudentsfoundWBL‘hardwork’all

experienced time constraints and pressures associated with the dual role of learner and

practitioner(Ramage,2014).However,learnerintentionalitytocontinueontheirtrajectory

despite‘feelingoverwhelmed’atvariousjuncturesthroughtheprogrammewaspowerfully

demonstrated. Thiswasparticularly evident for one studentwho surmountedwork-place

constraints by independently accessing resources and other people to achieve significant

changes in practice. This suggests that learner agency, relational agency, individual

contributions and resilience are of paramount importance inmanaging learning journeys

throughworkandaddressingweaknessesinwork-placeaffordances(Billet&Choy2013).


27

Mediatingartefacts:toolsanddiscourse

ThetoolsandprocessessituatedwithintheWBLcurriculumweresignificant inpromoting

engagement and scaffolding learning through and for work for learners in this study.

Findings suggest that boundaryobjects (the role analysis, competencydevelopmentplan,

learning logs) and boundary encounters (tripartitemeetings) had a key role inmediating

andscaffoldinglearning.Thevalueoftheroleanalysis inaligningWBLwithrolerelevance

and informing the competency development process was evident (Stanley & Simmons,

2011). Tripartite meetings enabled the negotiation of mutually beneficial learning for

students and their organisations through discourse underpinned by the role analysis and

competency development plans. Although multi-voicedness and competing interests

resultedinconflictattimes,formost,themultipleviewpointsandinterestsofcliniciansand

academics furtheredunderstanding andpromotedmutually beneficial engagement at the

boundariesofacademicandclinicalcommunitiesofpractice.Thejointplanningofstudent

projects situated in practice enabled the negotiation of meaning between theory and

practice, in addition to continued discourse surrounding the process of participation

(engagement in practice) and reification (the production of something useful) (Wenger,

1998). However the power dynamics within a community of practice were evident on

occasionswherestudentswererestrictedfromengagementwithprojectworkasaresultof

their position within the organisation. The potential role of academic supervisors in

brokering WBL experiences and projects for students struggling to manage workplace

constraints,isanarearequiringfurtherinvestigation.

Trajectoriesandtransformations

FindingssupportWenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayners’claimthat ‘meaningfulengagement

across boundaries is transformative’ of both practice and identity (2015: 108); as both

personal and professional transformations were evident (Boomer & McCormack, 2010,

Ramage,2014).WBLparticipantsbecamemoreconfidentandcompetentintheirrolethus

indicatingdevelopmentofprofessionalidentity(Booth,2019).Itwasthetypesofactivities

andsocial interactions thatpractitionersparticipated in that influenced their learningand

transformation of self (Billet, 2004) and practice (Billet, 2011). Constant reflection on

learningandpractice(writtenandwithsupervisors)enabledthedevelopmentofreflexive,

proactive practitioners overtime who questioned and challenged practice. Learners


28

identifiedasbeinga‘transformedpractitioner’asaconsequenceoftheirWBLexperiences.

The alignment of competency developmentwith the production of community tools and

resources(participationandreification)enabledpractitionerstodevelop‘knowledgeability’,

thebuildingof relationshipsacross the landscapeandknowledgeofpeopleandpractices

related to their own (Wenger-Trayner &Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). Similar to Miller and

Volantes’ (2019)findingsonworkplace impact, undertakingprojectsrelatedtoworkplace

priorities and support from colleagues were considered important for creating and

sustaining change throughWBL. In this study, practitioner outcomes of knowledgeability

and reflexivity (evident through learning log entries),were linkedwith sustained practice

developmentoutcomes,describedbyparticipantsat the timeof interview.This sustained

impactalsoappearedtobeareflectionofthepracticecommunity,astoolsandresources

weresharedandfurtherdevelopedbytheteam,ornewprojectsinitiated.WBLwasfound

tohaveapositiveinfluenceonlearningcultureswithinorganisationsandcreateconditions

forchange(Boomer&McCormack,2010;Ramage,2014).

The relationship between social and individual contributions to WBL was also found to

influence the continuationofpracticedevelopmentoutcomesbeyond course completion.

One participant did not implement the tools and resources she developed during the

programme,despiteoutliningher intentionalitytodoso inher learning log.Findingsfrom

her interview suggest thatworkplace cultures and constraintswerea stronger force than

her own agency. Whereas another participant faced with similar restrictive workplace

cultures, was more successful in implementing and sustaining a number of practice

developments beyond course completion, suggesting her agency outweighed workplace

constraints. Although individual contributions have the potential to outweigh workplace

constraints,converselyworkplaceconstraintscanlimitthepotentialforsustainedchangein

practice.

ConclusionandImplications

This paper has provided a discussion and trajectory of key ideas and concepts from

sociocultural theory, CHAT, communities/landscapes of practice theory, and their

importance for understanding and positioning research on WBL. These progressive

theoretical and conceptual frameworks have been used to examine the sociocultural


29

influencesonWBL in relation to thedifferentiationof sustainableoutcomes in this study.

Theconceptualmodeloffers theresearcherawayof thinkingaboutand investigatingthe

influences and outcomes of WBL in Higher Education within their own discipline; be it

healthcare, engineering or business for example. It is not a universal explanation ofWBL

influencesandoutcomes;itisapreliminarypointwithinwhichtosituateaninvestigationof

WBLandallitscomplexities.Anumberofquestionsareraised:Howdoindividualandsocial

factors influence learner experience and outcomes ofWBL? How does individual agency

outweigh workplace constraints? How doesmulti-voiced-ness influence participation and

reification within and across communities of practice? How are cultural tools (boundary

objects)usedattheboundariesofcommunities;whathappensattheboundaries(boundary

encounters) and who negotiates learning at the boundaries (brokers)? How do students

undertaking aWBL programme, participate in and engage with multiple communities of

practice across a landscape of practice? What are the products, reified outputs of their

participation?Howdowork-basedlearnersengageintheremakingofculturaltoolsandare

thesesustained? Howdowork-based learnersdevelopcompetenceandknowledgeability

acrossa landscapeofpractice?Thesequestionsareimportant infurtheringunderstanding

ofWBLinfluencesandoutcomesindifferingcontexts.

Themodel also provides a common language for academics, supervisors and students to

broadenthediscoursesurroundingWBLpedagogyandpracticesregardlessofthemodeor

disciplinary field such programmes are situated within. A framework that recognises the

complex sociocultural influences and interfaces between communities, systems,

organizations and individuals is essential in supporting successful WBL programmes. By

integrating themodel into inductionprogrammes for students and supervisors, increased

awarenesstothesechallengesanddiscussionssurroundingpotentialsolutionsmayprevail.

Theneed topayattention toboth socioculturaland individual factors that influenceWBL

andthemanytoolsandprocessesofmediationisemphasizedwithinthemodel.Promoting

understanding and discourse around the multi-modal influences on WBL is critical if

sustainable outcomes that are beneficial to learners, their professional role and work

contextsaretoberealized.


30

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35

Pioneeringnewrolesinhealthcare:NursingAssociate

students’experiencesofwork-basedlearninginthe

UnitedKingdom

JULIEATTENBOROUGH1,STEPHENABBOTT,JUDYBROOKandRACHAEL-ANNEKNIGHT,

SchoolofHealthSciences,City,UniversityofLondon,UK.

Inordertoaddressurgentworkforceconsiderationsandchangingdemographics,in2017theNationalHealthServiceintheUnitedKingdomintroducedanewroleinhealthcare,theNursingAssociate.Educationforthenewrolewasdeliveredbywork-basedlearninginpartnershipwithlocaluniversities.Thispaperreportsonaqualitativelongitudinalstudyofastudywhichexploredtheexperiencesofwork-basedlearnersenrolledatauniversityinLondon.Datawascollectedintwostagesoverasix-monthperiod:17work-basedlearnersparticipatedininterviewsinstage1andseveninstage2.Datawasanalysedusingframeworkanalysis;theframeworkwasderivedfromasystematicliteraturereviewaboutintroducingnewrolesinhealthcare.Resultshaveresonanceforwork-basedlearningprogrammesinhealthcareandbeyondandincludedtheimportanceofadequatetimeforwork-basedlearning;supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator;stakeholderengagement;awell-definedscopeofpracticeandanappropriateandsupportiveeducationalprogramme.Participantsvaluedtheinputofexperiencedqualifiedstaffbutappreciatedthecapacityissuesthatmilitatedagainsttheirprogress,asstaffwerenotalwaysabletosupportthem.Participantsalsoidentifiedthenecessitytotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearninginclinicalpractice.University-basedlearningwasvaluedmorehighlythanlearninginpractice,suggesting,ashasbeenestablishedelsewhere,thatwork-basedlearningopportunitiesinhealthcarecanbedifficulttoidentify.

Keywords:work-basedlearning,healthcareapprenticeships,nursingassociate,healthcare

workforce

Introduction

TheNationalHealthService(NHS)isoneofthebiggestemployersintheworld,andthe

largestintheUnitedKingdomwith1.5millionemployees(NuffieldTrust,2019).Workforce

shortagesarecurrentlythebiggestthreattotheNHS,withthechangingdemographicsof

1 [email protected]


36

theUKpopulationbringingassociatedpressureonservices(Beechetal2019).Thisshortage

ismostacuteintheregisterednursingworkforcewith41,000vacancies,representingonein

everyeightposts(NursingTimes,2019).In2017,theNursingandMidwiferyCouncil(NMC)

reportedthatmorenursesandmidwiveswereleavingtheregisterthanbeingadmitted

(NMC,2017).

Onewayofaddressingthisworkforcechallengeistheexplorationofintroducingnewroles

inhealthcare.Inthepastdecade,tworeviews,Willis(2015)andImisonetal(2016)

highlightedtheneedforanewroletobridgethegapbetweenhealthcaresupportworkers

(HCSWs)andregisterednurses(RNs).Therecommendationsofthetworeportsweretaken

forwardforimplementationbyHealthEducationEngland,anarms-lengthgovernment

organization,bytheintroductionofarolethatbecameknownasaNursingAssociate.The

nursingassociaterolewasintroducedin2017withtheoverallaimofimprovingthecapacity

andcapabilityoftheNHStocareforpatients.Theroutetoqualificationwasbywork-based

learninginpartnershipwithlocaluniversities.

Thenewrolewasdesignedtobemoreflexiblethanestablishednursingroles,working

acrossthetraditionalfieldsofnursingandthroughoutthelifespaninhospital,community

andhome-basedservices.Therolealsoprovidedaroutetoqualificationasaregistered

nurse,and,inordertoovercomebarrierstoeducationformorematureentrants,was

deliveredbyanapprenticeshipmodelledbyemployersinpartnershipwithhighereducation

institutions(HEI).Themodelofdeliverywasan80:20splitbetweenwork-basedlearningin

clinicalpracticeanduniversity-basededucation.

Therolewasintroducedatpace.HealthEducationEnglandannouncedinJuly2016,thatthe

rolewouldbeintroducedintwostages.Onethousandtraineenursingassociates(TNAs)

wererecruitedinDecember2016tostartinJanuary2017,withafurther1,000startingin

April2017(Coulson2019).Whenthefirstintakecommencedtheircoursein2017therole

wasnotregulatedbytheNursingandMidwiferyCouncil(NMC).

Thispaperreportsaqualitativelongitudinalstudy,whichwaschosentotrackthe

experiencesofstudentsaspioneersonthisunregulatedcourse;followingtheirexperiences


37

gaveustheopportunitytogaininsightintohowthecoursedevelopedandbecame

embeddedovertime,fromthestudents’perspective.

ThelongitudinalstudywasundertakeninauniversityintheUnitedKingdomoveraneight-

monthperiod.Work-basedlearnersonaprogrammeleadingtoqualificationasanursing

associatewereinterviewedontwooccasions.Thedatafrominterviewswereanalysedusing

frameworkanalysisdrawingonthesevenrecommendationsofHalseetal(2018)for

introducingnewrolesinhealthcare.Thispaperreportsontheexperiencesofstudentsina

novellearningsituationinrelationtotheframeworkprovidedbyHalseetal(2018).

Theaimsofthestudyweretoestablishtheexperienceofwork-basedlearnersstudyinga

courseleadingtoqualificationinanewroleinhealthcareandtoestablishchangesover

timeexperiencedbythestudentsastherolebecameestablishedintheNHS.

Background

Newrolesinhealthcare

TheintroductionofnewrolesintheNHSwasconsideredbyBridgesandMeyer(2007).In

thepolicycontextofroleexpansion,investmentandthemodernisationoftheNHS,Bridges

andMeyer(2007)calledforincreasedfocusontheintricaciesofnewrolesinhealthcareand

reflectionandreviewastheyareintroduced.Theyalsoconcludethatthemoreflexibleroles

are(asintheNursingAssociaterole),themoretheyarelikelytochangeonceintroduced,

andthisinturncausesdifficultiesforregulation.Atthetimeofwriting,theUnitedKingdom

alongwithothercountries,isunderlockdownduetotheCOVID-19pandemic,whichstruck

justoneyearafterthefirstnursingassociatesjoinedtheNMCregister.Emergency

regulatorychangeshavebeenappliedtoestablishedroles,suchasinmidwifery,

radiography,medicineornursingbuthavenotbeenextendedtothenewrole,despiteits

flexibility,andwork-basedfocusduringtraining(NMC2020).Thisapproachpotentially

reflectsthenoveltyoftheroleandstageofembeddednessinclinicalpracticeandraises

issuesaboutregulation.

Work-basedlearninginhealthcare


38

InasystematicreviewNevalainenetal(2018,p26)reportedthreemaininfluenceson

nurses’experiencesofwork-basedlearning:thecultureoftheworkcommunity;the

structure,spacesanddutiesofthenursingworkforce;managementandinterpersonal

relationships.Interestingly,thepaperreportsthatlackofmanagementsupportisthe

greatestimpedimenttowork-basedlearningfornurses.Theauthorsdescribethedouble

bindofincreasedneedforeffectivenessinclinicalpracticecounterbalancedagainstthe

professionaldevelopmentneedsofnurses.

Additionally,Attenboroughetal(2019)reportthat,despitetherichnessoflearning

opportunitiesinhealthcareenvironments,theidentificationoftheseopportunitiescanbe

difficultforbothstudentsandtheirsupervisors.Threatsandopportunitiestowork-based

learningarediscussed,withtimeandcapacitymilitatingagainstlearninginmostclinical

environments.ThesefindingscorrespondwiththeviewofEraut(2004),aworkplace

learningresearcher,whodiscussedlearningasbeingona‘continuumofformality’(p250),

informalortacitlearningbeing‘largelyinvisible’(p249).Hediscussesthelackof

consciousnessandrecognitionofinformallearning,describingthecharacteristicsof

informallearningas‘implicit,unintended,opportunisticandunstructuredlearningandthe

absenceofateacher.’

Furthermore,Brown(2016)discussesthecontextofknowledgeacquisition;the‘codified

knowledge’thatcomesfromacademiathroughbooksandjournalsversusthe‘situated

knowledge’(p186)inclinicalpracticethatdominateswork-basedlearning.Drawingon

recontextualizationasatheoreticalconstructforlearningasstudentslearnandultimately

putthenewknowledgeintotheirownpractice,Brownsuggests(p188):

…theprocessofrecontextualizationisawholebodyresponsetolearningthatchanges

learnersasindividuals,aswellasthecontext(workplace)inwhichtheyoperateand

ultimatelytheknowledgeitself.

Focussingontheexperienceofmedicalstudents,Brownhighlightstheimportanceoflinks

betweenclinicalpracticeanduniversities;thescaffoldingofknowledge;theimportanceof


39

learningconversationsbetweenstaffandstudents;theutilisationoflearninginthe

workplaceandthesharingofpracticebetweentheuniversityandclinicalareas.

Correspondingly,usingaliterature-basedconceptanalysisManleyetal(2008)definewhat

distinguishes work-based learning in healthcare and what makes for success. Through

undertakingaconceptanalysis, theauthorssuggestadefinitionofwork-based learning in

healthcare,whichincludes:

Theeverydayworkofhealthcareisthebasisforlearning,development(includingevidence

implementation)enquiryandtransformationintheworkplace(p121).

Theemphasisisontheimportanceofwork-basedlearningtosupporttheprinciplesoflife-

longlearningandthepotentialtoprovidesignificantbenefitsforhealthcareorganisations,

whileChapman(2006)reportsonwork-basedlearningasawayofimprovingpatientcare,

oneoftheaimsoftheintroductionofthenursingassociaterole.Chapmanidentifieswork-

based learning as having ‘improved the quality of care, increased health promotion,

increasedaccess to services, increasedpatient choiceand reduced riskof infection.’ (p41).

Work-based learning helped participants to feel ‘emotionally engaged’ (p43) with their

studiesbecauseofthedirectlinktoimprovedpractice.

Additionally, the position of apprentices under the relatively new implementation of the

apprenticeshiplevyisaddressedbyBooth(2019).Whilstthisaccountissituatedintheretail

sector,therearesimilarconcernsabouttheshiftingexternalandpoliticalfactorsthataffect

work-basedlearnersundertheapprenticeshipschemeintheUnitedKingdom.Booth(2019)

suggests that perhaps resilience in relation to this context should be part of work-based

learningprogrammes.

Theexperiencesofwork-basedlearningbynursingassociatetrainees

Therearefewpapersabouttheexperiencesofnursingassociatetraineesduetothe

newnessofthecourseandrole.However,Thurgate(2018)reportsonaforerunnerofthe

nursingassociate,theassistantpractitioner,inapaperabouttheexperiencesofthose

undertakingawork-basedprogramme,recruitedfromthehealthcareassistant(HCA)


40

workforce.Thurgateidentifiesthatsupportingwork-basedlearnersinthehealthcare

contextrequiresdifferentskillstosupportingthosewhoaresupernumerarysuchasthose

studyingnursingdegrees,andthatstaffneedtounderstandthedifference.Overallthis

paperidentifiestheimportanceofa‘workplaceculturewhichsupports,accommodatesand

learnsfromthedevelopmentandimplementationofnewroles’(p87).

IntworelatedpapersfromanearlyexperiencestudyofnursingassociatetraineesCoghill

(2018a;Coghill2018b)reportsonthebalancerequiredtobebothanemployeeor‘worker’

andastudentor‘learner’inclinicalpractice.Thepapersrecommendedraisingtheprofileof

therolewithstaffandpatients,clarifyingwhethertheTNAsarelearnersorworkersand

assistingmanagerstoidentifyandenablelearningopportunitiesforTNAs.Theissueof

protectedtimeforlearningisconsideredworthyoffurtherdebate.

Finally,inconsideringthedifficultiesofundertakingresearchintheworkplace,Eraut(2004)

cites:thelackofvisibilityoflearning;howthatlearningisviewed,whichmaybeaspartofa

person’scapabilitiesratherthanknowledgeactuallyacquiredandputintopractice;andthe

factthatthecomplexityofknowledgegainedintheworkplaceisdifficulttoarticulate.

Althoughtheresearchdescribedinourpaperisaboutwork-basedlearningandwas

undertakenatauniversityratherthanintheworkplace,Eraut’sdescriptionofhisresearch

intheworkplace,bothobservationalandthroughinterviewsacknowledgesthechallenges

ofinvestigatingtheacquisitionofknowledgeatwork.

Theresearchreportedinthispaperissituatedinaspecificplaceandtime,animportant

partofthedevelopingstoryoftheNHSinrespondingtochange.Atatimeofworkforce

crisisanddemographicchangeanewrolewasintroducedtoenhancepatientcare.

Planning,reportsandrecommendationsaboundaboutintroducinganewroleinhealthcare

andthetheoryandpracticeofwork-basedlearning.Thecurrentresearchaimedto

investigatetheexperiencesofthoseundertakingthenursingassociatecoursethrough

work-basedlearningoveraperiodoftime,viewedthroughthelensofasystematicreview

ofexistingrecommendationsaboutintroducingnewrolesinhealthcare(Halseetal,2018).


41

Therearefewstudiesaboutthenursingassociateroleperse,butHalseetal’s(2018)

systematicreviewwasundertakenatthetimeoftheintroductionofthenewwork-based

learningcoursefortraineenursingassociates.Intheirarticleaddressingthechallengesof

introducingnewrolesinhealthcare,theauthorsidentifiedsevenfactors(p35)that

contributetosuccessfulimplementation.Theseare:robustworkforceplanning;well-

definedscopeofpractice;wideconsultationandengagementwithstakeholders;strong

leadership;aneducationprogrammethatmirrorspatientneed;adequateresourcesfor

work-basedlearning;andsupervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator.

Methods

Thisisalongitudinalqualitiveinterviewstudy,toexploretheexperienceoftraineenursing

associatesovertime.Thoughcommonlyusedinquantitativestudieslongitudinalmethods

arerelativelyunusualinqualitativeresearch(Hermanowicz2013).Themethodwaschosen

acknowledgingthenewnessoftheroleandcourseandtoenabletheresearchersto

investigatethestudents’experiencesofandresponsestobeingpioneers,partofaspecific

changetohealthcaredeliveryintheUnitedKingdom,basedonpolicy.Toassessthe

embeddednessoftherole,thedatawerecollectedintwostagesandtwomethodswere

used,groupinterviewsatstage1(April2019)andindividualinterviewsatstage2

(November2019).Groupinterviewsofferedtheopportunitytogatheraddedvaluefromthe

groupdynamicsandinteractionbetweenstudents,whilsttheindividualinterviewsenabled

indepthexplorationofthestudents’personalexperiencesandtheissuesraisedinthe

groupinterviewsingreaterdepth.

Stage1ofthestudywascompletedinApril2019.Traineenursingassociates(TNAs)

studyingatauniversityintheUnitedKingdomweresentdetailsaboutthestudybye-mail

andinvitedtotakepartinagroupinterview.Thesetookplaceinparallelwithobjective

structuredclinicalexaminations(OSCEs),testsofpracticalskillsinalaboratoryenvironment,

whichmayhaveencouragedahigherresponserate.Informedconsentwasobtainedbefore

data-gatheringbegan.Ofthe18TNAsonthecourse,allbutoneagreedtotakepart,

resultinginfiveinterviewswiththreeTNAsandoneinterviewwithtwo.Participantswere

askedthesequestions:


42

• Pleasedescribeyourexperienceofwork-basedlearning.

• Pleasedescribewhatsupportsyourlearningintheworkplace.

• Pleasedescribeyouridentityasatraineenursingassociate.

Workbasedlearning(WBL)wasdefinedatthestartofeachinterviewas‘learningthattakes

placeintheclinicalsettingandnotintheuniversity’.Discussions,whichlastedabouttwenty

minutes,wereaudio-recordedandprofessionallytranscribed.

Stagetwoofthestudywasinitiatedsevenmonthslater.AllTNAswereinvitedbye-mailto

anindividualinterview,andseveninterviewswerecarriedoutthoughnotallwho

respondedwereinterviewed,duetotimecommitmentsofparticipants.Writteninformed

consentwasagainobtained.Sixinterviewswereface-to-face,andonebytelephone.They

wereaudio-recordedandprofessionallytranscribed.

Theindividualinterviewssetouttoexplorefurtherviewsexpressedinthegroupinterviews.

Thequestionaskedofintervieweeswastherefore:

• Whatdoyoudotoensurethatyouhaveagoodlearningexperienceinthe

workplace?

Thiswastheonlyquestioninthetopicguide,apartfromanumberofpromptsfor

amplification.

However,thefirstTNAinterviewedbeganbyemphasisingthathissecondplacementwas

verydifferentfromthefirst,andthatstaffhadbeenmuchmoresupportive.Healso

emphasisedthekeyroleofuniversitystaff.Thetopicguidewasthereforeexpandedto

ascertainwhethersimilarexperiencesweresharedbyothers.Theframeworkanalysisused

inthisstudyaffordsthistypeofadjustment(SrivastavaandThomson2009).Individual

interviewslastedabout15minutes.

Bothdatasetswereanalysedthematically,usingthekeyfactorsforintroducingnewroles

identifiedbyHalseetal(2018),asaframeworkfortheanalysis.Frameworkanalysiswas

chosenasaninstrumenttoassesstheimpactoftheimplementationofthenewroleon

thosemostdirectlyaffected.Theanalysisprocedurefollowedthesevenstagesoutlinedby


43

Gale(2013),forframeworkanalysisofqualitativedatainmultidisciplinaryhealthresearch;

namelytranscriptionfromaudiorecording;familiarisationwiththedatausingthe

transcript;coding;identificationoftheanalyticalframework;applyingtheframeworktothe

dataandinterpretingthedata.Gale(2013)suggeststhattheframeworkmethodissuitable

forthematicanalysisoftext,especiallyfrominterviewswherelengthytranscriptionshave

beenproduced,enablingdatatobeanalysedincontext.

Quotationsfromgroupinterviewsarefollowedbyacodedenotingthegroup(G1-G5)from

whichtheyemerged,whilequotationsfromindividualinterviewsareidentifiedbycodesfor

individuals(T1-T7).

EthicalapprovalwasobtainedfromtheSchoolofHealthSciencesEthicsCommitteeatCity,

UniversityofLondon.SRECreferencenumber:Staff/17-18/07

Results

DatawereanalysedusingthefactorsestablishedbyHalseetal(2018),whichareasfollows:

• Robustworkforceplanning;

• Well-definedscopeofpractice;

• Wideconsultationandengagementwithstakeholders;

• Strongleadership;

• Aneducationprogrammethatmirrorspatientneed;

• Adequateresourcesforwork-basedlearning;

• Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator

TNAsprovidedmuchmoredataaboutsomeofthesefactorsthanothers,andvirtuallynone

abouttwofactors:strongleadershipandrobustworkforceplanning.

Re-orderingtheremainingfivefactorsprovidesamorecoherentnarrativeframeworkfor

theresults,andminorre-wordingcapturesmoreexactlythepreoccupationsofthose

interviewed.Thus,ourthemes,expandedandexemplifiedinthefollowingsections,are:

• Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning

• Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator

• Engagementwithstakeholders


44

• Well-definedscopeofpractice

• Anappropriateeducationprogramme

Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning

Ineachofthestage1groupinterviews,TNAslaidconsiderableemphasisonthelackof

adequatetimeforlearningintheclinicalplacement.Groupdiscussionstypicallybeganby

emphasisingthelackoflearningtimeandreturnedtoitatleastonce.Therewasagreement

betweenmembersinallgroupsonthissubject.

Theparticipantsinthisstudywereallemployedashealthcareassistants(HCAs)andwere

thereforepartoftheestablishedclinicalteam.Theyreportedthatthislimitedtheir

opportunitiesfor‘onthejob’learning,asstaffgenerallyexpectedthatperformingtheirHCA

dutieswouldtakeprecedenceoveranyopportunitiestolearn.

Becausewearestillcountedinthenumbers,mostofthetimeyouarestilldoingtheHCAjob.

Eventhoughyouseeyourselfasastudent,you’restilldoingtheHCAjob(G2).

Mostofthetime…wearedoingwhatwe’ddobefore,sowe’renotkindofgettingmore

knowledge(G1).

Inparticular,itwashardtofindtimetopractisenewprocedures,whichcouldhaveserious

consequencesfortrainees.

Solet’sjustsaylike,nowwe’redoingsubcutaneousinjection.Formetoperformit,Ineedto

practiseit,andwithpracticecomesperfection.Sothen,ifIdon’tpractice,andnowIhaveto

comeanddoanOSCE, it’sgoingtoseemlike I’mnot learning.But ifyou’renotgettingthe

opportunitytodostuff,you’realwaysgoingtofail(G2).

However, in the individual interviews later in the year, TNAs spokemuch less about time

pressuresthanpreviously,andseveralmentionedthat itwasnoweasiertostudywhile in

theclinicalsetting.

Mymentor,shetoldmethatIdon’tneedtobegoing,doingwork,work,work,workallthe

time.Shesaidthistime,‘Takealittletime-Iwantyoutogototheoffice,sitinthereanddoa

littleresearch(T5).

Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator


45

TNAsreportedinthestage1interviewsthatsupervisorsweremuchlessavailablethanthey

wouldhaveliked.

Wedon’tshadowthem,wedon’tworkalongsidethem…Theyaretoobusydoingthings(G1).

I’veonlyworkedwithherontwoshifts[insixweeks](G2).

Justasthepressureofworkoftenimpededtraineesfromlearning,soitoftenimpeded

nursesfromteaching.TNAsappreciatedthatitwasaquestionofsupervisors’capacityto

teachandsupportthem,ratherthantheirunwillingnesstodoso.

You’vegotsomegoodnurses,theywanttoteachyou.Butthen,it’sjusttheworkload(G2).

Someparticipantsreportedthatseniorwardstaffrecognisedthisproblemandarranged

extrasupport.

Mymanagerhasappointedthreepeople,soit’seasierforme.Ifthispersonisnotthere,the

otherpersonwouldbethere,andtherewillalwaysbesomeone(G4).

RathermoreTNAsreportedalackofsupportwhenthesupervisorwasunavailable,

however.

Youcan’tgettoworkwithyoursupervisorallthetime,andoftenyouareworkingwith

someonewhocan’torwon’thelportalktoyou(G6).

SomeTNAshadlearntbyexperiencethattheyhadto,and/orwereexpectedto,take

responsibilityfortheirownlearning.

Imanagedtogetsomefantasticopportunitiesbyjustaskingpeople.BecauseIfoundthat

thevastmajorityofpeople,onceyouaskthemandexplainthatit’salearningexperience,

theywouldletyoudoit(G5).

Nevertheless,theneedtodosoreflected,tosomedegree,theunsupportivebehaviourof

somestaff.

Youhavetoputyourselfforward.WhichIdon’tminddoing,butsometimesthenyoujustfeel

like,doIhaveto?Theyknowthatyou’restudying,theyshouldhelpyou,theyshould

encourageyou(G6).

WhatTNAsappreciatedaboutthestaffwhodidhelpwasthewillingnesstoexplainandto

challenge.


46

Somepeoplewillactuallycomeandcallyou,‘I’mgoingtododrugs,doyouwanttofollowme

and I’ll teachyouoneortwothings’…She’sverydemanding,but inaverygoodway,she’s

alwayschallengingyou,tolearn(G1).

Somealsomentionedthatotherstaff,includingthosefromotherdisciplines,werehelpfulin

supportingtheirlearning.

Doctorsonmyward,they’relike,‘Ifyouneedanyhelp,cometome,andthenwe’llsitdown.’

They’reveryhelpful(G4).

Inthestage2individualinterviews,TNAsexpandedonthevariouswaysinwhichstaffwere

helpful.

Everysingletimeanursewouldcomeonshift,‘Right,you’regoingtodothiswithme,we’re

goingtodothis,we’regoingtolookatcareplans,you’regoingtocomewithmeonan

assessment,youcandothenotesforthispersonundermysupervision,we’llgooveranything

you’renotfullycomfortablewith…’Igottoobservethedoctors,theOTs,thealliedmental

healthcareprofessionalswhentheyweredoingthingslikeMentalHealthActassessments.

Pharmacistscamein,secureambulancecrews...Ididsafetyhuddlesaswell(T1).

StaffalsohelpedTNASlearnpracticalskills,bydemonstration,observationandassessment.

Isay,‘Please,canIdothedressingwhileyouassessme?’...She’llgladlysayyes,andIwilldo

itforthem,toseehowI’mimproving(T7).

SeveralspokeofthevalueoffeedbacktoTNAsabouttheirknowledgeandskills.

They’requitehappyformetobeshadowingthem,andtheygivemefeedbackattheendof

theshift…[they]askmesomequestions.Forexamplesheaskedme,‘Sowhyhasthispatient

developedthiskindofpressureulcer?’Well,Icouldexplaintoher,butnotinmuchdetail.So

shesaid,‘Yourhomeworkfortonightisgoingtobealittleresearchonthistopic’(T5).

SomeTNAsspokeenthusiasticallyofparticularlearningsituations,andmethodsofexposing

themtodifferentaspectsofclinicalpractice.

Iconstantlymanagemyowncaseload.So,Ijusttakeprobablytwopatients,lookafterthem

fromadmissiontodischarge... Mysupervisortoldme it’sthebestwayto learn,andthen I

gaveitatry.Itwasfantasticwayoflearning(T4).


47

Theyespeciallyappreciatedwhenlearningwasplanned,thoughtfulandscaffolded.

For instance, you’re working with a nurse and you’re going to do wound care: shewould

explaintheprocedurethroughoutfirst,callitadryrunifyoumay,andthenshewillaskyou

youropinionabout it, thenask youwhat kindof equipmentdo youneed to carryout that

wound care…and if you’re confident to do it, shewill allow you to do it. If you’re not so

confident,thenshewillaskyoutojustshadowandseewhat’sgoingon,andthenmaybethe

nexttimeyoucandoit.Whichisgood(T6).

Engagementwithstakeholders

Datafromthegroupinterviewsinstage1ofthestudysuggestedawidespreadlackof

engagementwithstakeholdersatwardlevel.Therewereplentifulreportsofstaffignorance

abouttheTNArole.

Mostofthenursesdon’tevenhaveaclueofwhatwearedoingwhenwesayweareTNAs

(G1).

Giventhatstaffwereusedtoworkingwiththoseindividualsinanon-studentcapacity,such

ignorancemadeiteasyforstafftooverlookTNAs’newstatusaslearners.

Wewent frombeinghealthcareassistants tostudents inasense.Buta lotof thestaff still

hadthemind-setof‘You’reahealthcareassistant’(G5).

Ontheotherhand,mostgroupsreportedthatoncetheyhadbeguntoweartheiruniforms

(whichwereseveralmonthslateinbecomingavailable),theyreceivedmorerecognitionof

theirstatus.

‘Sincewe’vehadtheuniformit’schanged,peoplelookatyoudifferently.’(G2).

Sevenmonthslater,instage2ofthestudy,theindividualintervieweesagreedthatthings

weremuchimprovedandthatstaffworkingsupportingthemintheirplacementswerenow

muchbetterinformedabouttheirrole,statusandlearningneeds.

Before,itwaslikepeopledidn’treallyknowaboutthecourse,sotheydidn’tknowwhatto

expectorwhattoimparttous.Butnow…yougoforthefirstdayandthenursewillaskyou,

‘Whatdoyouwanttoachievefromthisplacement?’(T6).


48

Themanagersknowwhattodomore.Theyknowmoreabouttheprogrammeandtheyare

verysupportive…Afewpeoplestillstrugglewithourroleandhowwefitinonourshiftsand

allthat.Butgenerally,thingshaveimproved(T4).

Indeed,someTNAsreportedthatlatterly,Trustanduniversitystaffhadraisedwardstaff’s

awarenessoftheTNAroleandtheneedtofacilitatelearning,suggestingthatengagement

withstakeholdershadbelatedlytakenplace.

Well-definedscopeofpractice

Thosetakingpartinthestage1groupinterviewsreportedthat,aswellasageneral

ignoranceoftheTNArole,therewasalackofclarityamongstaffaboutwhichclinicaltasks

TNAsshouldorshouldnotbeallowedtodo.

Someoftheplacesdon’tknowwhatwe’reallowedtodoandwhatwe’renotallowedtodo

(G5).

AparticularproblemwasthatstaffwereasyetunfamiliarwiththePracticeLearning

AssessmentDocument(PLAD),thedetailedrecordthatrequiresstafftosignwhentheyare

sufficientlyassuredofaTNA’scompetenceinaspecificareaofhealthcare.

Somedon’twanttosignone[PLAD]becausetheysaytheydon’tknowwhatthey’resigning

(G2).

However,TNAsdidnotreportlackofclarityinthemselvesaboutthescopeoftheirpractice

asstudents,indicatingthattheproblemstheyencounteredwereduetolackof

disseminatedknowledgeabouttheroleratherthanpoordefinition.

Bythetimeofthestage2individualinterviews,someTNAsseemedtobemorecomfortable

withbeingassertiveabouttheirpractice.

IfI'mnotcomfortabletodothingsthatIamtoldtodo,Itendtonot,Ijustdon’tdoit.And

especially if it’s something that I'm not trained to do, because at the end of the day it’s,

patientsafetyisstillmyconcern(T2).

Anappropriateeducationprogramme

Asexperiencedhealthcareworkers,TNAswerewell-placedtojudgethefitbetweentheir

studiesandtheneedsofpatientsontheirward.Therewerenosuggestionsofanylackoffit.


49

TNAsexpressedgreatpleasureinhowmuchtheywerelearningandspokeofhowtheywere

acquiringthereasonsandevidencebasefordoingwhatoftentheyhadbeendoingasHCAs.

I’vebeendoinghealthcareforalmost8years,soI’vegotexperience.Butbefore,Ididn’tknow

the rationale behind certain things, Iwas just doing it for doing its sake, per se. But now

studyingandthengoingbacktotheward,Iknowtherationalefordoingthings,soit’sgood

(G6).

Therewasastrongsenseinthegroupinterviews,oftenmadeexplicit,thatfarmore

learninghappenedintheuniversitythanintheclinicalsetting.

Thoseinterviewedindividuallyalsostressedhowtheiruniversitystudiescomplementedand

enhancedtheirplacementexperience.

Whatever I learnt theoretically in theuniversity, itmadeabigdifference inmypractical, in

myclinicalpracticeanditmademefeelempowered. Anditmadememoreprofessional in

dealingwithmypatients(T2).

Discussion

Theaimsofthisstudyweretoestablishtheexperienceofwork-basedlearnersstudyinga

courseleadingtoqualificationinanewroleinhealthcareandtoestablishchangesover

timeexperiencedbythestudentsastherolebecameestablishedintheNHS.Theresultsof

theinvestigationhavedemonstratedsignificantareasfordevelopment,mappedacrossthe

chosenframework.

Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning

Oneofthebenefitsofconductingalongitudinalstudywasthepossibilityofdemonstrating

changeovertime.Participantsreportedanimprovementintheiraccesstolearning

opportunitiesbetweenstage1ofthestudyandstage2,partlyduetoqualifiedstaff

recognisingtheneedforprotectedlearningtime,possiblyduetoincreasedawarenessof

theroleandcourse.Thismightalsohavebeenduetoimprovedrecognitionoflearning

opportunitiesinpracticeonboththepartofthestudentandthepracticestaff.Participants

atstage1ofthestudycomparedtheirexperiencetostudentnurseswhoare

supernumerarytotheclinicalteam.However,thisissuewaslessdominantbystage2

perhapsindicatingfurtherembeddingoftheroleand,giventhatoneofthepurposesofthe


50

newrolewastoenhancethemultidisciplinaryteambyeasingstaffshortages,therecould

bechallengestoachievingprotectedlearningtimeinpractice.

Participantsoverwhelminglyattributedlackoftimetotheirnothaving‘supernumerary

status’-inotherwordsbeingpartoftheworkforceor‘countedinthenumbers’.Incontrast

studentnurseshavesupernumerarystatusandcannotbe‘countedinthenumbers’.2

Supernumerarystatusisprotectedasarequirementofnurses’regulatorybody,theNursing

andMidwiferyCouncil(NMC),whichalsoregulatesthenursingassociatecourses.TheNMC

doesnotrequirenursingassociatestudentstobesupernumerarywhilelearninginpractice

butrequiresthestudenttohave‘protectedlearningtime’,whichisnotdefinedbythe

regulator,andinsteaddeterminedlocallybyuniversitiesandemployers.

Althoughtheparticipantsinthisstudyadvocatedfortheirstudentroletobe

supernumerary,thereisevidencethatthesupernumeraryrolecontributestothe

theory/practicegapinnursing(Allanetal2011).Supernumerarystatusmaymilitateagainst

studentsaccessingthehiddencurricula,i.e.thatknowledgethatishiddeninrelationto

socialisationintotheprofession,andintoclinicalpracticeitself,stronglylinkedtoidentity.

Allanetalfoundthatbecauseoftheirsupernumerarystatusnursingstudentshadto

negotiatetheirwayintoaclinicalsituationandbehaveinthewayqualifiedstaffexpected

themto.Participantsinourstudyexpresseddifficultyinaccessinglearninginpractice,but

thiswasinrelationtospecificskillsacquisition,ratherthantacitlearning.Furthermore,the

authorsofthisethnographicstudyfoundthatmentorsandseniornursesdidnotbelieve

thatsupernumerarystatusfacilitatedlearning,duetolackofimmersion(Allanetal2011).

Similarly,McGowan(2006)investigatedstudents’viewsofsupernumerarystatusandhowit

workedinpractice.Onefindingwasthatwhenpoorlyimplementedsupernumerarystatus

detrimentallyaffectedstudents’confidence.Ourparticipantswereallexperienced

healthcareassistantswithyearsofsocialisationintopractice;theyexpressedfrustrationin

2 Atthetimeofthestudythispertained.Atthetimeofwritinghowever(April2020)temporaryemergencymeasureshadbeenbroughtinbytheUKgovernmenttoaddresstheCovid-19crisissituationintheUnitedKingdom.Thisincludedbringingstudentnursesinyearstwoandthreeoftheirprogrammeintotheworkforceasstudentemployees,withprotectedlearningtimeratherthansupernumerarystatusinlinewithnursingassociates.Notablytheapprenticeshipsofmanynursingassociatetraineeshavebeenpausedtofurtherenhancetheworkforce.


51

nothavingaccesstotrainingoreducationinexplicitskills-basedknowledge,deliveredat

workandplacedtowardsthemoreformalendofEraut’scontinuumofformalityinlearning

(Eraut2004).Thus,theyvaluedtheuniversity-basedaspectsoftheprogramme,feelingthat

thisgavethemaccesstoknowledgeinawaythatwasinaccessibleintheworkplace.

Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator

Ourparticipantswereoftensupportedbyprofessionalsotherthannursestolearn,notably

doctors,whichmayreflecttheapprenticeship-styleofspecialistmedicaltrainingand

empathywiththestudents’positioninseekingoutsupportandsupervision.Participants

acknowledgedthepressureeducatorsinpracticeareunder,asdescribedbyMoffettetal

(2019)inanarticleaboutclinicaleducatorwell-being.Reynoldsetal(2020)suggestamodel

forcreatingteachablemoments(T-moments)inpracticethanencouragesreflectionand

maximiseslearningopportunities,acknowledgingtheconstraintsofclinicalpractice,andthe

importanceofthosewhofacilitatelearningbeingcapableofputtingthemselvesinthe

learners’position.Althoughtherewassomeevidenceofthisapproachtolearningand

teachingbeingimplementedinstage2ofthestudythiswasnotalwaysourparticipants’

experience.

Theroleofclinicaleducator,mentororsupervisorintheimplementationofwork-based

learninginclinicalpracticehasbeendemonstratedtobepivotaltolearningandstrongly

linkedtothedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity,thoughinasystematicreviewGibsonet

al(2019)alsofoundthatstudentexperiencewasmixedandthisconcurswithourfindings.A

poorexperiencemight,forexample,bedetrimentaltothedevelopmentofprofessional

identity,andthecharacteristicsoftheindividualsupervisororassessorinpracticealong

withtheircapacity(throughworkload)tobeavailabletothelearnerareimportantfactors.

Engagementwithstakeholders

LackofawarenessoftheroleandoftheTNAs’changedstatusaslearnerswasanissuefor

participantsinstageoneofthestudy;thismirrorsthefindingsofThurgate’sworkwith

AssistantPractitioners(Thurgate2018).Therapidityofimplementationofthecourse,and

subsequentlytheintroductionoftherole,militatedagainstunderstandingandsupportfor


52

thestudentsaswork-basedlearners.Bystage2ofthestudythishadimproved,butas

pioneersofanewcourseleadingtoanewroletherewerenorolemodelsintheworkplace.

TheimpactofwearingauniformonboththeTNAandthoseworkingwiththemappearedto

beanimportantpartofidentityformation,whichisidentifiedindifferentcontextsinthe

literature.Poppe(2013)exploresthepoweroftheuniformasanidentity-markerand

importantmarkerofesteemamongparamilitaryforestersandrangersinBurkinaFaso.Her

interviewsdemonstrateimpactonthoseatthelowerendofhierarchiessimilartothaton

participantsinthisstudy.Similarly,Destaetal(2015)establishthatuniformscanleadto

increasedconfidenceandimprovedperformanceinnurses.Moreover,theidentificationof

thewearer(asastudent,alearner)isimportantandthiswasestablishedbyour

participants.Uniformsinclinicalpracticearenotwithoutcontroversythough.Derivedfrom

nuns’habitsanddesignedfornursingwork(dirtywork)theChiefNursingOfficerfor

Englandspokeoutagainsttheoutdatedimagesofnursesinuniform(NHSEngland,2019),

buttodenotethedifferencebetweenaworkerandalearnerintheworkplaceuniforms

appeartoserveausefulpurpose.Ourlongitudinalstudycapturespre-uniformandpost-

uniformresponsesandestablishesthesignificanceofuniformstotheparticipants.

Well-definedscopeofpractice

Intheexperienceofourparticipants,scopeofpractice,ortheroleofthetrainee,wasnot

wellestablished,althoughthereweresignsofimprovementbetweenstage1andstage2of

thestudy;participants’perceptionwasthattherehadbeenmoreinformationaboutthe

roleavailabletosupervisorsandmanagers.Lackofclarityinscopeofpracticecanimpacton

theeffectivenessoftherole(Priceetal2015),thoughitwasnotpossibletojudgehow

effectivetheroleofnursingassociatewasatthetimeofthestudy.Priceetal(2015)

investigatedtheeffectivenessoftheAssistantPractitionerroleinradiography,ratherthan

thework-basedlearningundertakenbytrainees.NonethelessPriceestablishedthata

minorityofmanagershadconsideredtheworkforceimplicationsofintroducingthe

AssociatePractitioner,orthesupportrequired.Moreover,scopeofpracticemaybeclearly

articulatedinpolicyandregulationbutwithoutadequateworkforcepreparationand

communicationthiswillnotbeunderstoodinclinicalpractice.Indeed,participantsnoted

positivechangesovertimealignedtoincreasedcommunicationabouttheirrole.


53

Anappropriateeducationprogramme

TherewasevidenceatbothstagesofthestudythattheTNA’sappreciatedtheirprogramme

andfeltitsupportedtheirwork-basedlearninginclinicalpractice.Inparticular,the

programmeprovidedparticipantswitharationalefortheiractionsandtheevidencebase

fortheirinterventionsandthiswasstronglysupported.TNAsfeltthatmorelearning

happenedattheuniversitythaninthepracticesetting.Whilethiscouldbedueto

difficultiesinrecognisingandarticulatinglearningintheworkplace(Attenboroughetal

2019;Eraut2004),Tynjälä(2008)suggeststheimportanceofintegratingtacitknowledge

(frompractice)andexplicitknowledge(fromacademia):

Thedevelopmentofvocationalandprofessionalexpertisemustbeseenasaholisticprocess

inwhichtheorycannotbeseparatedfrompractice-orpracticecannotbeseparatedfrom

theory…..Participatinginreallifesituationsisanecessarybutnotasufficientconditionfor

thedevelopmentofhighlevelexpertise.Onlydeepintegrationoftheoretical,practicaland

self-regulativeknowledgecreatesexpertise(p145).

TheTNAsinourstudyreportedintegrationassuggestedbyTynjälä(2008),buttheir

satisfactionwiththework-basedelementofthecourse,thoughimprovedovertime,

remainedlow,atleastforsomeparticipants.Howthismightinfluencetheeffectivenessof

studentsoncequalifiediscurrentlyunknown.Itisthereforedifficulttocommentonthe

overallappropriatenessoftheprogrammeapartfromthestudentperspective.

Inastudyinvestigatinghowprofessionalidentityisinfluencedthroughexperiencesona

work-basedlearningprogrammerunthroughtheapprenticeshipsystemBooth(2019)

discussesimprovedself-confidenceandbeliefinparticipants’capabilitytocarryouttheir

rolesasbeingimportantfactors.

Fitwiththeframework

OutofHalseetal’s(2018)sevencategories,fivewerereflectedinbothstagesofthestudy.

Nationalstrategicleadershipandrobustworkforceplanningdidnotresonatewithour

participants,yetparticipants’experienceswererelatedtobothofthesecategories,for

examplerobustworkforceplanningcouldhaveaddressedtheissueofawarenessaboutthe


54

roleinpracticegenerallyandprovidedmorecapacityforsupportandteachinginclinical

areas.Thelackofdataaboutthesefactorsishardlysurprising,asthesefactorsoperateat

nationallevelratherthanatwardlevel,whereasourpurposeinthisanalysisistoconsider

thesefactorsfromthepointofviewofTNAsonthefront-line.

Theydid,asreportedintheresults,appreciatethepositiveinvolvementofwardmanagers

andotherseniorwardstaffinsupportingtheirlearning,butthatitisadifferentsortof

leadershipfromthatindicatedinHalseetal’s(2018)systematicreview.Similarly,TNAsin

stage1ofthestudyhadstrongviewsaboutthelackofsupernumerarystatusand

unanimouslyreportedthatTNAsthemselveshadtotakeresponsibilityfortheirlearningin

clinicalsettings,asstaffwereunableorunwillingtodosoconsistently.Thisimpliesthat

workforceplanninghadnotaccountedfortheintroductionofthenewrole.

Thestrongleadershiprequiredtoembedtheroleinpracticewasnotnecessarilyabsent,

anditisclearthattherolewasintroducedafterreviews,stakeholderinvolvementand

policydevelopment.TherolewaslaunchedbytheMinisterforHealthandwashighprofile

inbothprofessionalandnationalmedia.However,thenationalprofileandimportanceof

therolewasnotraisedbyparticipantsandmayreflectthepaceofintroduction,

underpinnedbystretchingtargets.Theanalysisrevealedthattheexperiencesofthosemost

affectedbypolicychange,inthiscasetheTNAs,dosupporttheintroductionoftherole.

Conclusionandrecommendations

Ourparticipants’experiencesdemonstratetheimportanceofpreparationoftheworkplace

forwork-basedlearningforspecificroles,andhowthesedevelopedovertime.Aspioneers

theTNAshadcommittedthemselvestotrainingforarolewhich,atthetimetheywere

studying,didnotexistinactualclinicalpractice.Despitethis,theirobviousenthusiasmfor

learningandtheirdescriptionsofhowtheexplicitknowledgegainedthroughtheacademic

componentofthecoursesupportedtheirtacitpracticeknowledgeisapparentandendorses

theprogrammeandapproachtosomeextent.TheTNA’svaluedskillsacquisitionabovetacit

knowledgethattheyhadgainedthroughyearsofsocialisationintohealthcare.They

appreciatedtheconstraintsoneducatorswithcompetingpressuresinpracticetoteach

themduetoclinicalcommitments,butequallyfeltfrustratedthatknowledgeabouttheir


55

rolewasnotsufficientlydevelopedtoenablequalifiedstafftosupportthemfully;this

improvedbetweenstageoneandtwoofthestudy.Furthermore,stakeholderengagement

wasnecessarytosupporttheirdevelopingidentity,thiswasachievedthroughincreased

inputwitheducatorsandprovisionofadistinctiveuniformtogiveavisualcueabouttheir

status.Thelackofrolemodelsforanewrolelinkedtoanunderstandingoftheirscopeof

practicealsodevelopedovertimeandshouldimproveastherolebecomesembeddedin

theworkforce.Overalltheimportanceofskillededucatorscommittedtolearning,bothin

clinicalpracticeandinuniversitieswasevidentinbothstagesofthestudy.

Alimitationofthestudyisthatboththegroupinterviewsinstage1andindividual

interviewsinstage2wererathershort,asTNAshadtofittheminduringdaysatthe

university,whentheirtimetablewasalreadytight.Thestage1groupinterviewswerewell

attendedbecausetheywereheldimmediatelybeforeorafterOSCEs;individualinterviews

wereheldduringaperiodallottedtoprivatestudy,andonlysevenwereachieved(several

otherTNAshadoriginallyagreedtobeinterviewed,buttheywereabsentduetoillnessor

familycommitments,anddidnotreplytofollow-upe-mails).Thoseinterviewedinstage2

believedthattheirimprovedexperiencewascommontoallTNAs,however.

Afurtherlimitationisthatofanysmall-scalestudyofanationalphenomenonsuchasthe

introductionofanewrole.Itmaybethattheclinicalsettingswhereourinformantswere

placedwerenottypicalofthoseelsewhere,eitherintheirinitialinabilitytoofferenough

support,ortheirabilitytolearnfairlyquicklyhowtodoso,orboth.Itisnotnowpossibleto

replicatethestudyelsewhere,becauseinevitablyperceptionsofandunderstandingsofthe

roleandofTNAs’learningneedswillhavechangedsinceourresearchwascarriedout.

Thisstudydoes,however,addtotheevidence-baseaboutintroducingnewrolesin

healthcare,endorsingHalseetal’s(2018)findingsfromtheliteratureexistingatthetime

therolewasintroduced.Thispaperdemonstratestheimpactofaninitiativealignedto

governmentpolicytoincreasetheclinicalworkforceonindividualsonawork-basedlearning

course,whichwasintroducedatpace.Thepaperhighlightstheimportanceofpreparation

ofthequalifiedworkforcethatsupportslearninginpractice.Bystudyingthe

implementationovertime,withincreasedunderstandingoftherole,wewereableto

demonstratethecrucialityofthispreparation.Thisisanimportantcontributiontothe


56

evidence-basethatinformsandinfluencescurriculumdesignanddevelopmentinhigher

educationoncoursesdeliveredinpartnershipwithemployersthroughwork-basedlearning.

Thisalsosuggestsimportantareasforinvestigationinwork-basedlearningthatisdelivered

inpartnershipwithhighereducationinstitutions.Futureresearchcouldexplorethelackof

parityofvaluebetweenuniversity-basedlearningandthelearningfrompracticeas

perceivedbylearners.Itwouldalsobeusefultoheartheperspectiveofthosesupporting

learning,mappedagainsttheframework,andinparticulartheroleofadequate

information-givinginhelpingqualifiedstafftounderstandandcarryouttheirrolein

supportinglearners.Moreambitiously(becauseofthelongitudinalnatureofthestudies),it

wouldbeinterestingtoexploretowhatextentunderstandingtherationaleoffamiliar

duties,muchappreciatedbyTNAs,enhancesthecarethatTNAsgiveaftertraining

comparedwithbefore;andtheextenttowhichtheirownexperiencesofbeingrelatively

unsupportedatthebeginninginfluencetheirowncommitmenttoandskillatsupporting

futurelearnersthemselves.

Funding

TheresearchreportedinthispaperwassupportedbyHealthEducationEnglandaspartofa

projecttosupporttheexpansionofwork-basedlearninginclinicalpractice.

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https://www.hee.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/documents/2348-Shape-of-caring-review-

FINAL.pdf


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Work-BasedLearninginNigeria’sHigherEducation:Whatnow?IKEV.IYIOKE1andIFEOMAC.IYIOKE,

History,Philosophy&SociologyofScience,MichiganStateUniversity,USA.

Academicwork-basedlearning(WBL)hasanoveracentury-longhistoryinNigeria.ThecurrentWBLprogramsaretheStudents’IndustrialWorkExperienceScheme(SIWES)andtheGraduateInternship(GI).Theyaresponsoredbythefederalgovernmentwiththeaimtoimproveemploymentoutcomes.However,thereisstillagrossmismatchbetweentheskillsofgraduatesandthedemandsofemployers.ThisstudyanalyzeswhytheWBLprogramsinNigeriahaveyettobesuccessfulandsuggestsalternatives.TheanalysisrevealsadysfunctionaljobplacementprocessasaprimarybarrierandsuggestsconsolidatingtheSIWESandGIintooneschool-to-workprogram,basedupontheGraduateEmployabilitySkillDevelopment(GESD)model,alongwithstrategiestoimprovethedevelopment,management,andqualityassuranceofplacement.ThearticleconcludesbyunderscoringtheintegrationandeffectivemanagementofWBLatalllevelsofeducation,includingcontinuingeducationasanimportantandrealisticapproachthatNigeriashouldstrivefortoattainappreciabledevelopment.Keywords:Work-basedlearning,Nigeria,vocational/technicaltraining,higheducation,internship.

Introductionandhistoricalbackground

Highereducation(HE)–a.k.a.,tertiaryeducation–hasbeenreceivingextraordinaryattention

sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury.Muchoftheglobalattentionisbecausethegrowthand

developmentofnationsarehingedonthelevelofeducationandknowledgeofitscitizens

(Boudetal,2020;Costley&Boud,2020).Withknowledgeproduction,dissemination,and

consumptionatthecoreofeconomictransformation,HEinstitutionsareenvisionedasstrategic

playersindevelopinghumanresources(Sall,Lebeau,&Kassimir,2003).Likewise,work-based

learning(WBL)hasbecomeavitalelementoftheeducationalsystemaroundtheglobewiththe

recognitionoftheimportanceforfacilitatingeconomicdevelopment(Boud&Solomon,2001).

CountrieswithHEsystemsthatintegrateWBLarebetterpoisedtomakethetransitiontoa



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knowledgeeconomy.

Today,whatisknownasWBLinNigeriabeganasvocationalandtechnicaltraining.Vocational

education(VocEd)orTechnicaleducation(TechEd)istheeducationalprocessthatfocuseson

individuals’preparationforentranceandprogressinoccupationsorcareers.Itcantakeplaceat

thesecondaryschoolorhighereducation(Uwaifo,2010).Strikingly,VocEd/TechEdinNigeria

datesto1885whenthecolonialHopeWaddellInstitutewasestablishedinCalabar.However,

therealplanningofthesystemwasin1946whenitwasgivenaplaceintheTen-YearPlanfor

DevelopmentandWelfare.Beforethisdate,thecolonialgovernment’sattitudewasthatthe

provisionoftechnicaleducationforNigerians(beyondverylimitedartisantrainingfor

governmentaldepartments)wasnotimportant.Upuntiltheearly1940s,technocratswere

unabletorecommendtheestablishmentofasingletraininginstitution.Theybelievedthatbig

tradeschooloratechnicalcollegewaswasteful.Theyreasonedthatsuchschoolwouldbe

expensivetobuildandequipandrequiremanyEuropeanandAfricanstaff(Osuala,1976).But

eventually,ittookrootin1947whenthefirstindigenousHEinstitutionandPolytechnic,the

YabaTechnicalInstitute(nowYabaCollegeofTechnology)wasfounded.Lateron,Nigerian

tradeschoolsandpolytechnicsstarteddevelopinganarrayofskillsetsthatwereresponsible

forsomeportionoftheworkforceuptoapoint.Forawhile,theNigerianworkforcewas

viewedasapromisinglotcomparabletoitscounterpartsinAsiaandelsewhere.Butwithtime,

employersobservedthatgraduateswerelackingpracticalskillsandresolvedthattheeducation

beingreceivedintheinstitutionswasnotresponsivetotheneedsforemployment(Uvah,

2004).Thedependenceofindustryontechnicalcompetenciesforoperationandmaintenance

ofitsresourcesrequiredacadreofworkerswhopossessedknowledgeofthenewtechnologies

thatwereprevalentatthetimeintheworkplace.

Hence,WBLwasformallyintroducedintheYabaTechnicalInstitutein1969whenitattained

autonomousstatustoupgradetheVocEd/TechEdprovidedtothestudents.Thereferencefor

WBLasintegratedintothecurriculumintheYabaCollegeofTechnologywasindustrialtraining.

Thestudentsparticipatedintheschemeattheendoftheacademicyearperiodsandwere


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sponsoredbyemployers.However,thisformofindustrialtraininginvolvingautomatic

sponsorshipbyemployerswasdiscontinuedwiththerapidexpansionoftheHEinstitutions

(Uvah,2004).Fast-forwardtocurrentWBLprogramswhicharesponsoredbythefederal

governmentasprerequisitesforemployment.TheyaretheStudents’IndustrialWork

ExperienceScheme(SIWES)andtheGraduateInternship(GI).Theplacementofstudentsor

graduatesofHEforvocationalandtechnicaltraininginworksettingsisanopportunityto

participateinactivitiesrelevanttovariousdisciplinesandtoreflectontheexperiences(Obiete,

Nwazor,&Vin-Mbah,2015).

Nigeria’sIndustrialTrainingFund(ITF)setupSIWEStodevelopemployabilityskillsofstudents

(IndustrialTrainingFund[ITF],1973).Employabilityskillsareknowledge,skills,andattitudes

studentsneedtoattainandmaintainjobs(Pitan,2016).Ontheotherhand,theGIisofferedas

partofcontrolofprofessionalpracticeinthehealthfieldsandadministeredbytwoprofessional

bodies.TheprofessionalcouncilforthefieldofmedicineistheMedicalandDentalCouncilof

Nigeria(MDCN)establishedin1963,whilethatforpharmacyisthePharmaceuticalCouncilof

Nigeria(PCN),establishedin1992(MedicalandDentalCouncilofNigeria[MDCN],n.d.;

PharmaceuticalCouncilofNigeria[PCN],n.d.)1.

StudieshavedemonstratedtheacademicrelevanceoftheWBLprogramsandhavecredited

themwithimprovingskills(Adebakin,2015;ITF&UniversityofJos,2011;Oyeniyi,2012;

Ugwueze,2011).ButquestionsremainwhyNigeria’sdevelopmentcontinuestospinonits

wheelsdespiteoveracenturyofinvestmentinthisarea.Preliminaryanalysisindicatesthat

despitethelonghistoryofintegrationofWBLinHEinstitutionsinNigeria,thegoalsarestillfar

off.Thereisstillagrossmismatchbetweentheskillsgraduatescomeoutwithandthedemands

ofthebusinessworld.Specifically,HEcurriculahavenotmatchedpacewithmodernskillsets.

Consequently,mostgraduatesofNigeriantertiaryinstitutionsareplaguedbytheinabilityto

getjobsorbecomeself-employed(Obieteetal.,2015).


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Thepurposeofthisarticleistoconductafine-grainedanalysistoilluminatethebarriersto

progressandstrategiestointegrateWBLtoachieveeconomicdevelopmentinNigeria.

Theremainingsegmentsofthepaperarefour-fold.Thefirstservesasabriefcontextualizing

appraisalofthetertiaryeducationsystem.Thesecondsectionprovidesacomparativeanalysis

ofthetwoformsofWBL(SIWESandGI).ThethirdsuggestsawaytoimplementWBLintertiary

educationrelativetotheneedsforincreasingemploymentoutcomesandeconomic

developmentinNigeria.TheconclusiondiscussesprospectsofextendingWBLtoelementary,

secondary,andcontinuingeducationinNigeria.

AppraisingtheNigeriantertiaryeducationsystem

Giventheprecariousstateofmanyeconomiesinthedevelopingworldandaconcern

thattheyarelikelyto“misstheboat”andnotbenefitfromtheknowledgeeconomy,HEin

Nigeriahasbeenscrutinizedlikeneverbefore(Salletal.,2003).Theseeffortsareindicativeof

theplaceofHEinanation’slifeandhowitisshapedbyglobalforces.Thisappraisalaimsto

shedlightonthestatusquoastheyrelatetonationalgovernanceinNigeriaandglobal

economicdynamics.

CountryContext

ItistritetorecounttheabundanceofNigeria’sresources,bothhumanandnatural.For

instance,oneineverysixAfricansisaNigerian,makingitAfrica’smostpopulous

country–theseventhmostpopulouscountryintheworld,andrecently,Africa’slargest

economy.Nigeria’spopulationmorethanquadrupledfromanestimated42.5millionpeopleat

independencein1960toanestimated140millionpeoplein2016(NigerianEmbassywebsite).

Amongthenotabledemographicsisasignificant‘youthbulge’--morethan60percentofthe

country’spopulationisundertheageof24(WES,Staff,2017).

Thecountryisalsoendowedwithmanynaturalresources,mostprominentlythe


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crudeoil,whichhasbeenthesinglelargestsourceofexportandgrowthoftheeconomysince

1970,accountingformorethan90%ofexportsand70%ofthegovernmentrevenues(Adedipe,

2004;WorldEducationServices[WES],2017).Theeconomyhasenjoyedsomegrowthbasedon

crudeoilproductionandhasachievedsomekeymilestones.Forinstance,inAprilof2014,the

country’sGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)wasrebasedafter24yearsfromaboutUS$270billion

toUS$510billion.Becauseofthis,Nigeriain2015surpassedSouthAfricaasAfrica’slargest

economy.Thisemergenceandtheprojectiontobeinthetop20oftheworld’seconomies

come2050,arebeyondmeresymbolisms(Vanguard,2016).ButwhileGDPisameasureof

economicgrowth,itdoesnotnecessarilytranslatetoeconomicdevelopment.Nigeriaisthe

largestAfricaneconomy,butitrankslowineconomicdevelopment(HumanDevelopment

ReportOffice,2014).Economicanalystshavecharacterizedthecoexistenceofresourcesand

extremepovertyinNigeriaasaresourcecurse(Oni,2013).Itdoesnottakemuchtorealizethe

reasonforthis.ThehistoryofNigeria’soilwealthisassociatedwithalonglistofsocialvices,

suchascorruptionamonggovernmentofficials,whichledtothecollapseofbasicinfrastructure

andsocialservicessincetheearly1980’sandhassincethenhinderedinvestmentinallsectors

oftheeconomy.TheWorldBankestimatedthat80%ofenergyrevenuesinthecountry

benefitedonlyaround1%ofthepopulation(Odularu,2008).Harbison’s(1971)analysesof

humanresourceproblemsinAfricannationsstillcapturethestatusquoinNigeria,46years

afterastheeducationalsystem,especiallyHE,isstillpoorlygearedtomatchdevelopment

needs.

TheeducationalsysteminNigeriacomprisestheprimary,secondary,andtertiarylevels.The

tertiarylevelismadeupofuniversityandnon-universityinstitutions.Theuniversitysystem

offersdegreesinacademic,vocational,andtechnicalareas.Thenon-universitysystemis

composedofpolytechnicsandcollegesofeducation,whichprovidetechnical/vocationaland

teachingskills,respectively.Thefederalgovernmentbodiestaskedwithmanagingthetertiary

institutionsaretheNationalBoardforTechnicalEducation(NBTE)forpolytechnics;the

NationalCommissionforCollegesofEducation(NCCE)forcolleges;andtheNationalUniversity


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Commission(NUC),fortheuniversities.

UniversityeducationinNigeriadatesto1948,whentheUniversityCollegeofIbadanwas

establishedasaresidentialandtutorialcollegeaffiliatedtotheUniversityofLondon(Okojie,

2008).However,thebraggingrightsforthefirstindigenousfederaluniversitybelongstothe

UniversityofNigeria,Nsukka,whichwasestablishedatindependence,in1960(Okojie,2008).

Post-independence,in1962,theUniversityCollegeofIbadanattainedanautonomousstatusas

adegreeawardinginstitutionandfollowingthatthenumberoffederaluniversitieshadrisento

fivewiththeadditionofUniversityofIfe,AhmaduBelloUniversityZaria,andUniversityof

Lagos.Subsequently,thefirststateuniversitiesemergedin1979ledbytheRiversState

UniversityofScienceandTechnology.

MilitaryRuleandStructuralAdjustment

“By1980,Nigeriahadestablishedawell-regardedtertiaryeducationsystemoffering

instructionataninternationalstandardinanumberofdisciplinaryareas.The

universitiesofIbadanandAhmaduBello,forexample,earnedglobalrecognitionfortheir

researchintropicalhealthandagriculture,respectively”(Saint,Hartnett,&Strassner,2004).

TheUniversityofNigeriaNsukkaexcelledinarts,education,andthebiomedicalsciences.

However,thisreputationsteadilydiminishedwiththefiscalirresponsibilityofthegovernment

andtheIMF-imposedstructuraladjustmentprogram(SAP)tocurbbudgetdeficits.

Theinstitutionsweregrosslyunderfundedandmismanagedbythesuccessivemilitary

governmentsduringthe1980sand1990s.Inresponsetosocialandpoliticalpressures,access

totertiaryeducationexpandedrapidlydespitecutsinthebudget.Between1990and1997,the

enrollmentsgrewby79%–evenasrealvalueofgovernmentallocationsfortertiaryeducation

declinedby27%(Saintetal.,2004).Attributingthedecliningqualityofeducationto

underfundingandunplannedexpansion,aWorldBankreportonthestateofeducationin

Nigeriastatedthatthelastwell-trainedgraduatesleftthesysteminthemid-1980s.


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Similarly,theSAPhadadevastatingeffectontheeducationalsystemsinmanyotherAfrican

economies.Numerousscholarlyworks,includingthatoftheWorldBank,provideevidencethat

thepatternofdecliningresourceallocationtoeducationwasadirectresultofWorldBank/IMF

austerityprograms.UNESCO’sWorldEducationReportanalysisof26Africancountriesshowed

anoveralldeclineof33percentinpublicspendingperpupil,intheperiod1980-1988.In

Nigeria,theexpenditureoneducationwasaslowas2.7percent(Geo-Jaja&Magnum,2003).

Also,theSAPhadaconsiderableimpactonthecivilservice—oncethemainemployer

ofgraduates(Salletal.,2003).Theconcomitanteffectofthesepolicieswasthedeclineinthe

qualityoftertiaryeducationandintheemployabilityofgraduates.

PostStructuralAdjustmentandDemocraticRule

Ademocraticallyelectedgovernmentreemergedin1999after15yearsofhiatus.Withitcame

thepoliticalwilltotacklethenation’stertiaryeducationdifficulties(Saintetal.,2004).The

governmentrelinquishedabsolutecontrolovertertiaryeducation(Salletal.,2003).Afteran

earlierfailedattempt,privateuniversitieseventuallybecamearealityin1999whenthefirst

threeprivateuniversitiesBabcock,Igbinedion,andMadonnauniversitieswerelicensedto

operate(Akpotu&Akpochafo,2009).

Sincethen,Nigeriahascontinuedtoseeanexponentialgrowthofthetertiaryinstitutions.As

thedemandforeducationmounted,privateproprietorswerequicktorespondwitha

characteristicbutpeculiarattitudeofprivatesectorsolutiontosocialneeds.Proprietorsof

theseinstitutionshavecontinuedtoadopttheprivateoptionresponse,turningitintooneof

themostprofitablesectorsoftheNigerianeconomy(Saintetal.,2004).Atthelastcount,the

NBTErecognizes107polytechnicsand220collegesinvariousspecificdisciplines.Thenumber

ofrecognizeduniversitieshasgrownto152,consistingof40federaluniversities,44state

universities,and68privateuniversitiesasaccrediteddegree-grantinginstitutions(WES,2017).

Thus,Nigeriahasnotbeenlackinginestablishinginstitutions;herAchilles’heelhasmostlybeen

inthemanagementandensuringcommitmenttofollowthroughwithqualityservices.


68

Onefundamentalmanagementissueoftheinstitutionsisunderfunding.Saintetal.(2004)note

thatNigeria’sbudgetallocationforeducationsignificantlyfallsshortofbothregionaland

internationalnorms.In2009,whatthetopthreeAfricannationsmeasuredintheirproportion

ofgrossnationalproduct(GNP)spentoneducationwereSouthAfrica(7.9%);Kenya(6.5%);and

Malawi(5.4%).ButNigeriawasspending0.76%ofherGNPoneducation(Akpotu&Akpochafu,

2009).Whileherspendinghasfluctuatedovertheyears,thelevelsdecreasedwellbelow10%

followingtheoilprice-inducedfiscalcrisisin2015(WES,2017).Evenat10%,theexpenditure

oneducationislessthanhalfofthe26%recommendedbytheUNESCOforeconomic

development(Adeoti,2015).Duetofundingconstraints,theinstitutionslackotherresources,

includingstaff,physicalfacilities,andequipmentforqualityservicedelivery(WES,2017).

Thesecondmajorissuerelatestoqualityassurancewhichinvolvestheestablishmentof

standardsforlicensingandaccreditingprograms(Okojie,2008).Itistheresponsibilityofthe

regulatoryagencies,theNUC,NBTE,andNCCEtolicenseandaccredittheactivitiesand

programsoftheinstitutions.InOctoberof2017,theAssociationofViceChancellorsofNigerian

Universitiesdecriedthecontinuingexpansionoftheinstitutionsregardlessofacademic

standardsandrelevancetosustainabledevelopment(ThisDay,2017).TheNigerianNational

BureauofStatistics(NBS)estimatedthat33million(23.10%)ofNigerianswereunemployedin

2028.The2017WESfiguresshoweda47%unemploymentrateamonggraduatesoftertiary

institutionswiththewarningthatthesituationwouldgetworseandithasgottenworsewith

therapidnosediveincrudeoilprices.Already,Nigeria’sGDPsufferedasharpdeclinewhenit

droppedfrom6.2%inlate2014to2.8%inlate2015(Ikedi&Adewole,2016).Furtherslashing

ofthefundingforeducationwasreportedincludingscalingbackof40%ofthefundingfromoil

andgasrevenues.Nottomentiongovernment-inducedever-presentstrikeactionsbymembers

oftheAcademicStaffUnionofUniversities,derisivelyreferredbysomeasan“annualfestival.”

Theunabatedincreaseinunemployment,particularlyofgraduatesoftertiaryinstitutions,even

withtheintegrationofWBLwarrantstheanalysisthatfollows.

Work-BasedLearningProgramsinNigeria


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Asnotedearlier,currentWBLprogramsinNigeriantertiaryinstitutionsaredesignatedasSIWES

andGI.Thenotionofinternshipisaone-time,short-termjobplacementandamutually

beneficialrelationshipbetweenstudentsandemployers,inwhichstudentsacquireskillsin

exchangeforservicesforanorganization(Anderson,2017).TheSIWESisconsideredanin-

school,whileGIisanafter-schoolprogram.Hence,theuseofGIhighlightsthetimingofthe

internshipprogram.Thediscussionthatfollowsprovidessomebackgroundandacomparative

analysisoftheprograms.

TheSIWESisaskillstrainingprogram.Itwasinitiatedin1973bytheIndustrialTrainingFundto

addressthemismatchbetweenthetertiaryinstitutioncurriculumandthepracticalskills

requiredforemploymentintherealworld.TheobjectivesoftheSchemeincludebridgingthe

gapbetweentheoryandpractice;enhancingcontactsforjobplacement;andimprovingthe

involvementofemployersintheeducationalprocess(ITF,1973).Itstartedofficiallywith784

studentsacross11universitiesandpolytechnicsandparticipationwaslimitedtoengineering

andtechnologyspecialties.Sincethen,thenumberofparticipantsgalloped.Theprogramnow

formspartoftherequirementforstudentsenrolledinthefieldsofengineering,technical,

business,appliedsciencesandarts.ThepeakofparticipationintheSchemewasin2008,when

204institutionsand210,390studentsparticipated(Mafe,2010).Thenumberdippedto136

institutionsand79,852studentsparticipatingin2017(SundiataPost,2017).

Ontheotherhand,GIisaclinicaltrainingforrecentgraduatesinthehealthfields.Itisoffered

byprofessionalcouncilsaspartofthecontrolofpractice.Medicineandpharmacyareexamples

offieldswhosegraduatesparticipatetoobtainfulllicensetopractice.Theprofessionalcouncil

formedicineanddentistryistheMedicalandDentalCouncilofNigeria(MDCN).Theinternship

formedicaldoctorsiscalledhousemanship,andthemedicalinternsarehouseofficers.The

professionalcouncilforpharmacyisthePharmaceuticalCouncilofNigeria(PCN).TheMDCN

andPCNarestatutoryagenciesundertheFederalMinistryofHealth.Theyarechargedwith

developingthestandardsandmaintenanceofregistersofpersonsandpremiseseligible


70

topractice(MDCN,n.d.;PCN,n.d.).Thecouncilsalsoissuerelevantpublicationsinsupportof

thesefunctions.Fundingsupportforthecouncilsarefrominternallygeneratedrevenueand

grantsfromthefederalgovernment.

OrganizationalStructure

TheorganizationalstructureforSIWESconsistsoffourhierarchicallevelsandmultiple

stakeholdersasfollows:(1)federalgovernmentandITF;(2)regulatoryagenciesoftertiary

institutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,NCCE)andChiefExecutivesForum;(3)ITFareaoffices,

employers/industries,andtertiaryinstitutions;and(4)students(Mafe,2010).TheITFisan

agencyoftheFederalMinistryofCommerceandIndustrywiththesubsidiarymandateforthe

centralmanagementofSIWES.TheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEaretheregulatoryagenciesofthe

tertiaryinstitutionsandbelongtotheFederalMinistryofEducation.TheChiefExecutives

ForumcomprisesoftheITF,NUC,NBTE,NCCE,andtheindustryleaders.Thetertiary

institutionsandemployers/industriesareresponsiblefortheoperationofSIWES.The

institutionsarerequiredtoestablishfullystaffedandequippedcoordinatingunits;appointfull-

timecoordinators;andoperateanaccountforSIWES.

Incontrast,thestructureofGIiscomprisedoftwohierarchicallevelsandfewerstakeholdersas

follows:(1)federalgovernment,professionalcouncils,andNUC,NBTE,andNCCE;and(2)

employers/industriesandthetertiaryinstitutions.Whilethecoordinatingunitsmediatethe

relationshipbetweentheregulatoryagenciesofinstitutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,andNCCE)and

theemployers/industriesintheoperationoftheSIWES;theregulatoryagenciesforpractice

(i.e.,professionalcouncils)workdirectlywiththeemployers/industriesintheoperationofGI.

TheorganizationalstructureforSIWESapparentlyismorebureaucratic.Thus,thestructurehas

witnessedlackofqualitycontrol,administrativebottlenecks,andunnecessaryoverheadcosts

(Mafe,2010).Aleanerorganizationalstructure,inthecaseofGIseemsalogicalsolutionto

theseoperationaldysfunctions.Also,therehasnotbeenastableoperationofSIWESunder


71

centralmanagementbytheITF.TheITFhadfacilitatedtheestablishmentoftheSchemein

1973andmanagedituptill1979;itwasfraughtwithmanagementissuesnecessitatinga

takeoverbytheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEfromthenontill1985.Butsimilarconcernscontinued

withthistransfer.Hence,themanagementwasrevertedtoITF(Mafe,2010).Despiteallthepolicyreversals,theproblemcontinues.Likewise,theabsenceofcentralmanagementforGIledtoinstabilityintheoperation.ProspectiveInterns/HouseOfficersAssociationofNigeria(PIHAN),anassociationcomprisingallgraduatesofhumanhealthscienceshadcalledfortherestructuringoftheGItrainingprogram,andforthecreationofanorganoftheFederalMinistryofHealthsolelycommittedtoitssmoothfunctioning(Ekeh,2016).Inanapparentresponse,theFederalMinistryofHealthconsummatedaplanfortheMDCNtocentrallymanagehousemanshipasfrom2018(Ogunberu,2017,ascitedinTalbot,2019).TheplantohavetheMDCNmanagehousemanshipasaprimaryroleseemedapttoaddresstheoperationaldysfunctionsofGI.

OrganizationalFunctions

ThefunctionsoftheWBLprogramsareherebrokenintoplacement,orientation,trainingand

supervision,assessment,fundingandpaymentofallowances,andqualityassuranceand

research.Undereachofthesefunctions,responsibilitiesandchallengesofstakeholdersare

discussed.Notedalsoareconsequencesofimproperimplementationofthefunctionsand

recommendations.

Placement:EligiblepersonsforSIWESarestudentsintheirpenultimateyear.The

establishmentsforplacementincludegovernmentagenciesandprivateenterprises.Notably,

thecoordinatingunitsworkwithemployerstodevelopjobspecificationsanddescriptionsto

supporttheplacementoperations.TheSIWEScoordinatingunitsintheinstitutionsusethe

employerslistbyITFtoplacestudentsbasedonmatchbetweentheknowledgeandskill

requirementsoftheirfieldandthejobspecifications,andsendthemasterandplacementlists

totheITFthroughtheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEforvetting.Studentscanalsoinitiateplacement

withemployersintheirfieldsofstudyandinlocationstheycanfindlivingaccommodation(ITF,

2016).


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Eligiblepersonsforplacementinaninternshiparegraduatesofhumanhealthscienceswithin

twoyearsofawardofthedegree,andthoseprovisionallyregisteredtopractice.Thetraining

centersfordoctorsandpharmacistsincludeshospitals.Thehospitalsareapprovedbythe

professionalcouncilsthrougharigorousaccreditationprocessleadingtotheawardofa

certificateofregistration(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Intermsoftheopportunitytheyaffordthe

internstoobserveclinicalcasesandtryouttreatmentprocedures,theyareclassifiedastertiary

orsecondary.Tertiarylevelhospitalsencompassallteachinghospitalswhilesecondarylevel

hospitalsincludeFederalMedicalCenters.

Theprofessionalcouncilsprovidealistofapprovedtrainingcenterstothegraduatesor

prospectiveinternsduringtheinductionceremonywhothenchooseplacesofinteresttoapply.

Thus,itistheresponsibilityofagraduateseekinganinternshippositiontoensurethatthe

trainingcentersofinterestarerecognizedbythecouncil,andtofindoutapplicationdate,

apply,andfollowupwiththeselectionprocedures(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Trainingcenters

recruitinternsbyadvertisingpositions;andscreeninginvolvesreviewingapplications,

shortlistingofapplicants,andadministeringawrittenexamand/orinterview(Ajemigbitse,

Omole,Ezike,&Erhun,2014;Oshiko,Senbanjo,&Amole,2009).Theyalsomakeavailable

suitableaccommodationforinternswithinorneartheplaceofworkorprovidecommensurate

allowancewherenotavailable(PCN,2009;MDCN,2006).

Thus,livingaccommodationisguaranteedforGI,butnotforSIWES.Althoughplacementis

facilitatedforSIWESparticipantsusinglessstringentstandardforeligibilitydetermination,

however,theprocessofferslessautonomy(Mafe,2010).Okoli(2016)hasnotedthatthetiming

anddurationofplacementasmitigatingthequalityofSIWES.Hecitedcaseswherestudents

werepromisedbytheirhostemployerstheywillbehired,butthisofferdidnotmaterialize

becauseofthelongwaittimetobecomeemployable.Regardingthedurationofplacement,he

highlightedconstraintsinthebuildingofskillsduetotheshorttimeforthetraining.Intermsof

ensuringthequalityofplacement,theprocessforGIseemsmoreproactiveandappropriate


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becausetheprofessionalcouncilspre-approvethetrainingcenters.ForSIWES,theprocessby

NUC,NTBE,andNCCEinvettingtheactualplacementofstudentsisretroactive.

Thescarcityofplacesofattachmenthasbeenagreatchallengeforbothprograms.TheSIWES

coordinatingunitshavebeenunabletoofferplacesofattachmenttoalleligiblestudentsand

relyonthestudentstoseekfortheirownplacements.Thereasonsincludelackof

comprehensivelistofemployerswillingtoacceptstudentsfortraining.Thisisattributedtothe

failureofthefederalgovernmenttoenforcethemandates(Amadi,2013;Anderson,2017;

Atakpa,2017;Mafe,2010;Oladimejietal.,2017).Asaresult,moststudentsdidtheirSIWESin

placesthatwerenotgermanetotheirfieldofstudy.Recommendationshavebeenmadefor

governmenttoinvokepenaltiestoenforcethemandates(e.g.,Mafe,2010;Tambuwal,2012).

Others,suchasAgboh(2016)recommendofferingincentives,suchastaxrebatestoemployers.

Thelatterseemslikeabetteroptiontomotivateemployerstoparticipateinhuman

development.

Severalauthorsreportordealsofprospectiveinternsseekingplacementinaccreditedtraining

facilities,suchaslimitedvacanciesandbiasedselectionprocesses(China,2016;Ekeh,2016;

Makinde,2016).Asaresult,somedoctorsoptforasupernumeraryposition,whichmeansthey

wouldworkwithoutbeingpaidtofulfilltheinternshipobligationrequiredtogainpermanent

registration(China,2016).Toaddressthesechallenges,theFederalMinistryofHealthlater

mandatedtheMDCNtotakefullresponsibilityofplacingmedicaldoctorsasfrom2018

(Ogunberu,2017,ascitedinTalbot,2019).

Orientation:ThecoordinatingunitintheinstitutionsorganizestheSIWESorientationprogram

tofamiliarizestudentswiththecodeofconductandethicsatwork(Mafe,2010;Oladimejiet

al.,2017).Thesupervisorinthetrainingcentersorganizestheorientationforinterns(PCN,

2009;MDCN,2004).Theorientationforpharmacistsspanstwoweeks(PCN,2009).While

informationwasnotaccessedaboutthequalityoftheoperationoftheorientationfor

internship,thatonSIWESindicatesinadequateorientationduetothelargenumberof


74

participatingstudentsandlimitedtimefortheprogram(Mafe,2010).Consequently,many

studentslackworkethicsandproperconduct(Oladimeji,2017;Tambuwal,2012).Toaddress

theseissues,somestakeholdersrecommendprovidingalternativeresourcessuchas,manuals

onSIWEStoaugmentorientation(Mafe,2010).

TrainingandSupervision:ThecurriculumforSIWESconsistsofjobdescriptionsbasedonstated

learningandcareerobjectivesindifferentfieldsofstudy.ThatofGIconsistsofdiagnosisand

managementofclinicalcases(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Thedeliverymethodsforbothfeature

theopportunitytoobserveandparticipateinjobrotationsinthedifferentdepartmentalor

specialistlineswhilekeepingrecordsoftrainingactivitiesandassignmentsinlogbooks.

ThedesignofthecurriculumanddeliverymethodswithSIWESisintegrated.Specifically,the

designissequentialwithGIbecauseitisaftertheawardofacademicdegreeandforoneyear

beforeobservingtheNationalYouthService(NYSC)scheme.Also,itisintegratedwithSIWES

becauseitisarequirementforacademicdegreeandbuiltintothepenultimateyearstudy.

Meanwhile,studentsinuniversitiesembarkonsixmonthsofSIWEStraining,andthoseinthe

polytechnicsandcollegesofeducationgoonfourmonthsoftraining(Akerejola,2004).Thus,

thecourseloadissixandfourcreditunitsforuniversitiesandpolytechnics/collegesof

education,respectively(Mafe,2010).TheintegrateddesignwithSIWESisevidence-basedfor

facilitatingtheacquisitionandtransferofknowledgeandskillstojobs.But,ithasbeen

observedthatthesequentialdesignwithGIisbettersuitedforfacilitatingemployment(Okoli,

2006).So,itbehoovesexpertstostrikeabalancebetweenthetwoapproachesbasedonthe

relativeoverlapinthedeliveryofacademicandvocationalcontentintertiaryeducation.

Becausethisissuebordersonthemainintentofthisdiscourse,itwillbediscussedlaterinthis

analysis.

Meanwhile,participantsinSIWESaresupposedtobejointlysupervisedbyanITFareaofficer,

employer,andinstitutioncoordinatingunitsupervisor(Atakpa,2017;Mafe,2010).TheITFarea

officestaffisexpectedtovisitthestudentsatleastoncetovetlogbookswhiletheinstitution


75

coordinatingunitsupervisormonitorsstudentactivitiesduringthreeroundsofvisits(Mafe,

2010;Oladimejietal.,2017).Anemployer-basedsupervisormonitorsthedailyperformanceof

jobs,assessesthestudents’progressonaweeklybasis,andmakesappropriatecommentsin

theirlogbooks(ITF,2016).Similarly,thesupervisionofinternsinvolvesanexperiencedandfully

registeredprofessionalinthetrainingcenterwhoisresponsibleforsigningtheweeklyrecords

ofinternsinlogbooksandtheCertificateofExperience(COE)issuedattheendoftrainingto

certifythatparticipantssatisfactorilyperformedalldutiesandassignmentsundertheir

supervision.ThesupervisionofGIalsoinvolvestheStateDirectorsoftheMinistryofHealthand

professionalcouncils.TheStateDirectorsofMinistryofHealthinspectandendorsethelogbook

duringthemonitoringvisitswhilearepresentativeoftheprofessionalcouncilsinspectsthe

logbookatareasonableintervalduringthetraining(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).

Notably,thesupervisionofGIrightlyinvolvestheprofessionalcouncilsasqualityassurance

agenciesforpractice.Conversely,thesupervisionofSIWESdoesnotinvolvethequality

assuranceagenciesoftertiaryinstitutions.Thelackofengagementofthequalityassurance

agenciesinthesupervisionofSIWESleavesroomforlapsesintheoperationsasreportsshow

thatITFoftenfailtosupervisethestudentsintraining.Consequently,studentstaketheir

logbookstotheareaofficesforendorsement(Mafe,2010;Agboh,2016).Also,theinstitution

supervisorsvisitstudentsonlyonceduetolackoftransportationandfundingwhileindustry-

basedsupervisorsdonottakesupervisionwithanylevelofseriousness(Atakpa,2017;Mafe,

2010;Oladimeji,2017).Thislackofadequatesupervisionisparticularlyproblematicbecauseit

impingesontheintegrityofthegradesstudentsgetatendoftraining.

Assessment:Theassessmentofstudents’forSIWESisbasedonthereviewandgradingofthe

logbook,end-of-trainingreport,oralpresentationoftheend-of-trainingreport,ITFForm84,

andInterimReportofSupervisorsonascaleof0-100%(Mafe,2010).TheITFForm8,logbook

andInterimReportofSupervisorsaremeanttocapturebothsupervisorandstudent

evaluationsoftheexperience,whileend-of-trainingreportandoralpresentationcaptureonly

thestudentperspectiveabouttheirexperience.Guidelinesareprovidedtostandardizethe


76

reports,whichthestudentspresenttoapanelconsistingofarepresentativeoftheSIWESunit

oftheuniversityandthemembersoftheirdepartment(ITF,2016;Tambuwal,2012).Students

submitlogbook,ITFForm8,andInterimReportofSupervisorstotheirinstitutionsattheendof

thetraining,andforfinalgradeswhichareassessedbyCumulativeGradePointAverages

(CGPA)aswellasapassorfailevaluation.FailuretoobtainapassgradeintheSIWEScourse

mayleadtorepeatparticipation.

Theassessmentofinternsinvolvesthereviewandgradingoflogbooks,andtheapprovedskill

acquisitionrecordonascaleof0-100%aswellasapassorfailevaluation.Thepassingscorefor

houseofficersisanaverageof60%(MDCN,n.d.).Theassessmentalsoinvolvesapre-

registrationexamforpharmacists(PEP)post-internship.Thepassmarkis50%(PCN,2016).The

gradesfortheinternsaresubmittedtotheMinistryofHealthintheStateofthetrainingfor

vettingandtotheprofessionalcouncilaspartofthesupportingdocumentsforanapplication

forfullregistration.TheRegistraroftheprofessionalcouncilissuesinternswhomeetthe

criteriaofgoodcharacterandsoundmindaFullRegistrationcertificate.Theconsequenceof

failingtomeetthepassingscoresforinternshipisequallyarepeat.

Overall,theassessmentofparticipantsdependsmostlyonsubjectivejudgmentsof

professionalsandnon-standardizedprocedures(exceptforthePEP).Theseassessment

approachesarebasedon“holism,”aparadigmwidelyadoptedincollegeadmissionsand

implicitlyheldbyemployerswhorelyexclusivelyoninterviewstomakehiringdecisions.The

principlesarethefollowing:assessmentoffuturesuccessrequiresconsideringthewhole

person;standardizedtestscoresormeasurementratingsareverylimitedsnapshots,andexpert

judgmentistheonlywaytofullyunderstandhowattributesinteracttocreateacomplexwhole

(Highhouse&Kostek,2013).

Mafe(2010)furthernotedthenon-uniformcriteriaandsystematicassessmentapproachacross

allinstitutionsnecessarytostandardizethescoresearnedbystudents.Besides,the

assessmentsofstudentsforSIWESfocusonengagementinjobstoawardCGPAswhilethe


77

assessmentofinternsisbasedonmorecomprehensivecriteria,includingengagementinjobs,

performanceonduties,andmoralconducttoawardaCertificateofExperience(COE)andfull

registrationforpractice.Becauseitisarequirementforgraduation,thereisneedforuseof

multiplecriteriaandformoredirectperformanceassessmentofSIWESparticipants.

FundingandPaymentofAllowances:ThefederalgovernmentfundsbothSIWESandGI.The

fundingforSIWESisthroughtheITFwhichinturnpaysstudentsallowancesandsupervisory

allowancesduetoinstitutions(Mafe,2010).ForGI,thegovernmentallocatesthefundingto

employersandapprovesthesalaryscaleforinterns.Asis,thefundingofGIseemssatisfactory

(Ekeh,2016).Conversely,thefundingofSIWESappearstoreallybeproblematic(Okoli,2006).

SIWEShasgrosslybeenunderfundedovertheyears.

Thisunderfundingispartlybecauseparticipatingstudentshadincreasedatamuchhigherrate.

BasedonestimatesbyMafe(2010),theamountexpendedatthepeakofparticipationin2008

representsa29.2%increasefromthedollaramountspentattheinceptionin1974whilethe

growthinstudentpopulationwas99.6%.Thisdisproportionateincreaseintheamount

expendedcomparedtoservedpopulationresultedinnon-paymentofstudentallowancesand

indisincentivesonthepartofstudentstoparticipate.Overall,thelackoffundinghasresulted

indwindlinghumanandmaterialresourcestosupportSIWESoperations,especiallythe

supervisionofparticipants.

Similarly,theemployersonlyareinvolvedinpayingallowancestoparticipantsofGI(Ekeh,

2016).Conversely,thepaymentofallowancestoparticipantsofSIWESinvolvesmultiple

stakeholders,includingtheFederalMinistryofindustries,ITF,employers,andinstitutions

(Oladimeji,etal.,2017).ThebureaucraticstructureforthepaymentofallowancesforSIWES

participantshasresultedinadministrativedelays.Thedelaysarepartlybecausemost

institutionslackfinancialautonomyandshareacommonaccountforoperation(Oladimeji,et

al.,2017).Thesedelayshaveinthepastresultedinabacklogofuptofiveyears.Authorslink


78

thisdelaytothelackofmoraleandcommitmentofbothstaffandstudentstothetraining

(Oladimejietal.,2017;Atakpa,2017;Agboh,2016;Anderson,2017).Althoughonlinepayment

waslaterintroducedasasolution,butthewebsitedesignedfortheonlinepaymenthashad

inherentproblemswhichfurtherhindereditsimplementation.

QualityAssuranceandResearch:ThequalityassuranceofGIinvolvesdevelopingminimum

academicstandards,operationalguidelines,andaccreditationofprograms(MDCN,2006;PCN,

2009).Theregulatoryagenciesoftheinstitutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,andNCCE)arepartly

responsibleforthequalityassuranceofSIWESandGI.Theyworkwiththeinstitutional

coordinatingunitsforSIWESandwiththeprofessionalcouncilsforGIindeveloping,

monitoring,andreviewingjobspecificationstoguideinternshiptraining.WhiletheNUC,NBTE,

andNCCEseemtohavegenerallyliveduptoexpectationsinmonitoringinstitutionstoensure

compliancewiththeguidelines;notallSIWES-approvedprogramsintheinstitutionshave

compliedwiththeguidelines(Tambuwal,2012).Thus,thereisneedforbettermonitoringof

SIWESoperationsbytheNUC,NBTE,andNCCE.Specifically,moreattentionneedstobepaidto

SIWESintheaccreditationofinstitutions.Conversely,theNUC,NBTE,andNCCEhaveworked

wellwiththeprofessionalcouncilstoaccreditinternshiptrainingcentersforplacingstudents

andtomonitorcompliancewithguidelines(Oshikoetal.,2009;PCN,2009).

Meanwhile,theITFhasnotkeptupwiththeresponsibilityofresearchingandcirculating

reportsonSIWESoperationstostakeholdersusingthecomprehensivereportstheinstitution

coordinatingunitssubmitattheendofeachperformancecycle(Mafe,2010).Ideally,quality

assuranceandresearchofGIshouldbepartofthemandateforprofessionalcouncilstocontrol

practices.However,itseemstheprofessionalcouncilshavenotkeptupwiththisresponsibility

asfarmoreresearchwasaccessedonSIWES.

Tosummarize,SIWESapparentlyhasbetterplacementstandards.Therehasbeena

tremendousexpansionofeligiblestudentsandplacementisfacilitated.However,theoperation

hasbeenbesetbyseveralsetbacks.Manyauthorsalsoidentifiedthelackofqualitysupervision


79

andfunding.Notably,theseproblemsarelogisticalduetothebureaucraticorganizational

structure.However,theleanerorganizationalstructureforGIappearsmoreefficientand

effectiveformotivatingandpreparingstudentsforthetransitionfromschooltotheworkplace.

Besides,itappearsthatanorganizationofanetworkofprofessionalsisusefultoimprovethe

operationoftrainingandsupervision.Also,thetimingofplacementforGIseemsaptfor

facilitatingemploymentoutcomes.However,GIhassimilarinefficientplacementoperations

(China,2016;Ekeh,2016;Makinde,2016).

WhilepreviousstudiesfocusedoneithertheSIWESorGI,thisintegratedreviewsuggests

strengthsandweaknessesaswellassimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheprograms,andtheneed

tobuildacoherentsystem.ThereisneedtoconsolidateSIWESandGIintooneschool-to-work

internshipprogram.Thisproposalincludesextendingthecentralmanagementroleof

professionalcouncilsbeyondhousemanshiptoallfieldsofstudy.Thenextsegmentpresents

thevisionfortheoperationoftheunifiedprogram.

Thewayforward

AModelofWork-BasedLearning:TheGraduateEmployabilitySkillDevelopment(GESD)model

ofWBLbeingproposedheredrawsfromPitan’s(2016)model,whichisevidence-based.By

inference,theframeworkoftheGESDmodelisoutcome-basededucation(OBE).Itiscentered

onaddressingcontemporarycurriculummismatchesandmakingeducationrelevanttothe

nationalandlocalneeds(Geo-Jaja&Magnum,2003).Accordingly,WBLiscomposedof

opportunitiesfordevelopingemployabilityskills.Thecomponentsarecareereducation,real-

worldactivities,workexperience,andreflectionandevaluation.TheSIWESandGIincorporate

workexperiencesandreflectionandevaluation.


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Figure1:Graduateemployabilityskilldevelopmentmodel

Careereducationandreal-worldactivitiesaretheunderemphasizedcomponentsofthe

programs.Theyareallformsofcollaborationwithemployerstopreparestudentsonactivities

orsituationswhichtheyarelikelytocomeacrossintherealworld.Pitan’s(2016)findings

suggestthatcareereducation(e.g.,careercounselingprograms)andreal-worldactivities(e.g.,

fieldtripstoindustries)areimportantforbuildingtheemployabilityskillsofstudents.However,

mostinstitutionslackorunderutilizeguidanceandcounselingunits.Therefore,herecommends

institutionalizedcareerserviceunitstoprovidecareereducationatanearlystageand

continued.Amadi(2013)hasrecommendedacomprehensivemodelofWBLthatincludes

careereducationandreal-worldactivities.

Hence,theGESDisacontinuummodelofWBLwhichbeginswithcareereducationandreal-

worldactivitiesinschoolandextendstotheworksettings.Asstatedearlier,SIWESandGIare

designedtofacilitatecareerpreparationthroughplacement,training,andsupervisioninwork

settings.Thus,theGESDmodelimpliesamulti-purposingofWBL,coveringcareerawareness,

exploration,andpreparation(VirginiaDepartmentofEducation,2014).Thesetupand

managementfunctionsforapplyingthemodelareasfollows.


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OrganizationalStructure

AwayforwardwithorganizationalstructureforWBListomaintaintheleanmanagement

structureofGIwhiletheprofessionalcouncilsshouldcentrallymanagetheprogram.Asnoted

already,analystshadadvocatedforacentralmanagementagencywithaprimarymandatefor

SIWES.Becausetheprimarymandateofprofessionalcouncilsisthequalityassuranceof

practice,itwillhelpmitigatethedemandsofcentralmanagement.Asstatedpreviously,the

FederalMinistryofHealthhassimilarlyconsummatedaplantohavetheMDCNcentrally

managetheGIprogramtoaddressthechallengesmedicaldoctorsexperience,beginningfrom

2018.ExtendingthemanagementstyleofGItootherfieldsofstudyisappropriateto

standardizethefunctionsofWBLandfacilitatequalityassuranceandresearch.Whilethe

healthfieldiswellestablishedandalreadyhavetheprofessionalcouncilsrepresentedatthe

nationallevelintheMinistryofHealth,somefieldsofstudy,lackrepresentationatthefederal

level.Thus,effortsshouldbemadetohaveanequalrepresentationofallfieldsatthefederal

level.Inthemeantime,fieldsthatlackrepresentationatthefederallevelcanhavethe

respectivecouncilsaffiliatedtotheMinistryofCommerceandIndustryasiscurrentlythecase

withSIWES.

OrganizationalFunctions

Jobplacementandqualityassurancefunctionsarethefocusbecauseoftheobserved

operationaldysfunctions.Theideaofjobplacementwasoriginallyformulatedforindividuals

withdisabilitiesintheUSHere,wesuggestitisanideathatcanbeadaptedforgeneralusein

Nigeria.Thegoalofplacementistointerveneinthemanagementfunctionofstaffingan

organization(Millington,Butterworth,Fesko,&McCarthy,1998).Staffingisauniquelyhuman

resourcemanagementfunctionandinvolvesworkermovementintoanorganizationthrough

selection,orientation,andtraining(Millington,Miller,Asner-Self,&Linkowski,2003).Job

placementasitrelatestoasystemperspectiveisdefinedasaninterventiontobypassthe

employeeselectionprocess.Theemployeeselectionprocessinvolvescomparingapotential

employeewithotherapplicantsforselection.Theultimatecompetencyofaplacement

professionalistheabilitytoeffectpositivechangeintheapplicant,theemployer,orthe


82

processofselectionthatbindsthem(Millington,Butterworth,Fesko,&McCarthy,1998).

Thetargetsforplacementarestudentsintheirfinalyear,sotheycanparticipateinthe

internshipassoonastheycompletetheirfinalyearandbeforetheircalltonationalservice

(NYSC).Anoptimaljobplacementshouldultimatelyfacilitateemploymentandmeetthe

followingcriteria:matchwiththeeducationalqualificationsandknowledgeandskills

requirements,locatedinapreferredareaofresidence;andremovebarrierstoemploying

graduatesbeforetheyparticipateintheNYSC(Agboh,2016;Anderson,2017;Ekeh,2016).

Abottom-upmanagementprocessseemsmoreappropriatetoaddressplacementissues.There

isneedforthecoordinatingunitstoserveasthelocalchampionstoinitiatethedevelopmentof

trainingcenterswiththeemployersandmediateplacement.Thehiringofcareercounselorsis

usefultofacilitatethesefunctions.Theprocesstoensureasuccessfulplacemententails:

reachingout,establishingpartnershipsandagreementwiththeemployers;consultingwiththe

managementoftheworkorganizationtobuildrapportforjobanalysisandsupervision;

advisingappropriatearmsofinstitutionsontheareasforofferingpreparatorycourses;and,

counselingofcandidatesforplacement(Atakpa,2017;VirginiaDepartmentofEducation,

2014).TheMDCN(2006)providesaprophylacticratherthanjudgmentalfunctionofquality

assurance.Aspreviouslystated,thisqualityassurancefunctionofGIisproactive.Theoperation

inrespectofthisframeworkisoneofinvolvementofcouncilsintheinitiationandplanning

phasesoftheestablishmentofatrainingcentertoensurecompliancewithguidelinesof

minimumstandard.Thisimpliesthatinstitutioncoordinatingunitsandprofessionalcouncils

shouldcollaborateinestablishingorturningexistingprivateandpublicenterprisesindifferent

partsofthecountrytotrainingcenters.Thestandardsandguidelinesforaccreditingtraining

centersshouldensureadequacyofthephysicalfacilitiesforadmittingstudentsandmustbe

clearlydefinedbythecouncilsandwidelycirculatedtoinstitutions.Thecouncilsshouldarrange

theaccreditationvisitstoincludebefore,during,andattheendofthetrainingofthefirstsetof

students.


83

Subsequentvisitscanbearrangedwithatrainingcentertoensurethemaintenanceof

standards.Eachvisitationshouldinvolvethecompletionofspecificquestionnairesinrespectof

criteriaoutliningstandards;inspectionofthefacilities;interviewswiththestaffand

participants;reportoffindings;andevaluationofthetrainingcenter.Thecouncilshould

facilitatetheresearchofeffectsofoperationthroughcreatingadatabaseforusebythe

coordinatingunitsandemployersinrecordingtheinputs,processes,outputs,andoutcomesof

programs.Harbison(1971)hasidentifiedcomprehensiveassessmenttechniquesforWBL

programstoinclude,manpowersurveys–thestudyoflabor-absorptivecapacityofdifferent

industries;laborforcesurveysandenumerations–continuousenumerationofthelaborforce;

tracerstudiesofgraduates–tracingofcareerpatternsofgraduates;andcost-benefitstudiesof

returnstoeducation–thecalculationofcost-effectivenessofinvestmentsineducation.From

alloftheabovediscussion,thereareobviousbenefitstoappropriateintegrationofWBLinto

HE.Theconclusionbelowsummarizesthemainpointsofthisdiscourseandrecommendsthe

extensionofWBLtootherlevelsofeducationforadvancingeconomicdevelopment.

Conclusion

Nigeriahasonemorechancetoupholdthetrustofheryouthsinyetanotherdecadeof

promise.In2009,theAfricanUnion(AU)launchedTheAfricanYouthDecade,2009-2018Plan

ofAction,DPoA.Itisaframeworkformulti-sectoralandmulti-dimensionalengagementofall

stakeholderstowardstheachievementofthegoalsandobjectivesoftheAfricanYouthCharter

towardsacceleratingyouthempowermentanddevelopment(AU,2011).WiththeDPoA,itis

envisionedthatby2025,Africawouldbeanintegratedfrontierintheareasofeconomic,social,

cultural,andpoliticaldevelopment.Bysharesizeofhereconomy,humanandnatural

resources,itcouldbesaidthatasgoesNigeria,sogoesthatAUproject.Nigeriaoccupiesa

quintessentialpositiontoleadthecontinenttothe2025AUvision.

TherationaleforintegratingWBLintotheHEcurriculuminNigeriawastoaddress

employabilityskills.Butwhathavedefiedlogicisthecontinuoushistoricallyhigh

unemploymentratesamongNigeriangraduates.Indeed,therehasbeenlittleevidenceofthe


84

expectedpositiveimpactontheemployabilityofgraduatesaswellasoneconomic

development,whichiswhythisstateofaffairsdemandsthatextraeffortsbetakento

investigatethebarrierstoeffectiveintegration.Thisanalysisindicatesthatthereasonwhythe

Nigeria’sHEsysteminrecentdecadeshasfailedtoprovidetheneededskillstograduatesis

becausetheinstitutionshavebeengrosslyunderfundedbutyetexpandedtremendously

regardlessofacademicstandardsandrelevancetosustainabledevelopment.Theanalysis

equallyidentifiedinadequateplacementasafundamentalbarrieroftheWBLprograms.Hence,

therecommendationsfocusonstrategiestoimprovethedevelopmentandqualityassuranceof

internshiptrainingcenters.However,findingsfromtheliteratureinadvancedeconomies,such

asbySolomonet.al(2001),suggestthevalueofextendingWBLtoprimary,secondary,and

continuingeducationtoimproveemploymentoutcomes.Morerecently,RooneyandBoud

(2018)haveexaminedinformallearning,usingapracticetheoryperspectivetoshowhow

learningcanbeunderstoodasakeyfeatureofworkingandhowitisimplicatedinthenormal

ebbandflowofworkpractices.

Fortunately,withthe2014UniversalBasicEducationguidelines,theprimaryandsecondary

schoolcurriculumnowemphasizesvocationaltrainingandisintendedtoincreaseemployability

ofgraduates.Also,theFederalMinistryofEducationrecentlyhassupportedseveralreform

projectstoadvancevocationalandtechnicaleducationatalllevelsofeducation,suchasthe

“vocationalization”ofsecondaryeducation(WES,2017).Thesechangescanbeviewedasasign

ofgravitationtowardsWBL.TheessenceofextendingWBLtoprimaryandsecondaryschool

levelsistoserveasanalternativeforbuildingtheskillsofthosestrugglinglearnersandother

individualswhomaynotbecutoutforacademiccareer.Itisimportanttobemindfulof

individualsinthiscategory,andtobeinclusiveinformulatingfiscalpoliciesintrainingoncrafts

andentry-leveljobs,sothateverycitizencancontributetheirownquotatonational

development.Thiswouldmeanacquisitionofsubtlemixofknow-how,techniquesandtollsin

theeducationalprocessthatfocusesonindividuals’preparationforentranceandprogressin

occupations.Itincludessuchjobskillslikecarpentry,building,farming,welding,sewing,


85

knitting,weaving,officeadministrationandfarming.

Asitstands,therewasnointegrationofWBLincontinuingeducationinNigeriafor

professionals.Putotherwise,WBLasacomponentoftertiaryeducationissimplymeantto

facilitateemploymentdefinedasaneventofbeinghired.Thismodeltendstoseetrainingand

developmentassomethingundertakenonlyearlierinliferatherthanalife-timeprocess.

However,employabilityhasbeenchanginggloballyfromastaticbinaryeventofbeinghiredfor

ajob,toamoredynamicandcomplexnotionofobtainingmeaningfuljobsthroughoutan

individual’slifetime(Adebakin,2015).Work-basedlearningincontinuingeducationisapart

timeeducationforthoseinwork.InthistypeofWBLthetraditionalapproachtothecurriculum

isabandonedsothatthecurriculumisdeterminedbytherequirementsoftheworkplaceand

learningisdesignedaroundtheneedsoftheindividualororganization.

Asacomponentofcontinuingeducation,WBLaccentuatestheessenceofviewinglearningasa

lifelongactivityandforgeneratingnationalwealthandiscentraltoaparadigmshiftfroman

“industrialsociety”toa“knowledgesociety”(Solomonetal.,2001).TheincorporationofWBL

incontinuingeducationisimportantbecauserealprogressinhumandevelopmentinvolves

fosteringresilienthumandevelopmentandreducingvulnerabilitiestoadverseeventsintothe

future(HumanDevelopmentReportOffice,2014).Thus,theessenceofextendingthemodelto

continuingeducationistofurtherfacilitatethedevelopmentandemployabilityofindividuals.

Hence,theconceptofdevelopmentisafuture-orientedtypeoftrainingfocusedonbringingthe

competenciesofindividualsuptothedesiredstandardsforperformanceincareersintothe

future(Adebakin,2015).BecausetheITFandprofessionalbodieshaveasimilarmissionto

controlpractice,bothagenciesarecentraltoworkingoutthemodalitiesforWBLasa

continuingeducationscheme.TherecouldbenobettertimeforascrupulouslyarticulatedWBL

thannow.Ultimately,theintegrationandeffectivemanagementofWBLatalllevelsof

educationisanimportantandrealisticidealthatNigeriashouldstrivefor.


86

Notesoncontributors

IkeIyioke

IkeIyiokehasextensiveteaching,research,andadministrativeexperiencebothintheUSandelsewhere

thatspanalmosttwodecades.HismultidisciplinarybackgroundsincludeaBPhil.inPhilosophyfrom

PontificalUniversity,Rome;ateachingcertificatefromUniversityofNigeria,Nsukka(UNN);aMasterof

ScienceinInternationalRelationsfromUNN;aMasterofArtinEnvironmentalScienceWritingfrom

MichiganStateUniversity(MSU);andaPhDinHealthEthicsfromMSU.Hehasresearchedandtaught

businessethics,moralphilosophy,particularlybioethics,environmentalscienceandpublicpolicy;and

environmentaljustice/racism.

IfeomaC.Iyioke

IfeomaC.Iyiokeisadatascientistwithadoctorateineducationalmeasurementandquantitative

methodsandamaster’sdegreeinappliedstatisticsbothfromMichiganStateUniversity.Herinterests

areindesigningandimplementingresearchmethods(e.g.,conductingsurveysandinterviews),data

analyses,andreportingfindingsontheimpactofthemissionofgraduateeducationatMichiganState

Universityofcreatinginclusiveculturesandinnovativepracticestoadvancehumanityandfurther

knowledge.Herotherinterestsareineducationalachievement,attainment,equity,standards-based

testingandperformanceevaluation.Shehaspublishedpeer-reviewedpapersandbookchapterson

substantivetopicsthatincludedevelopingcriticalthinkingskills,professionaltrainingonstandard-

setting,andwork-basedlearning.

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Competency,CapabilityandProfessionalIdentity:TheCaseforAdvancedPracticeLEEC.FERGUSSON1,ANNETTEBRÖMDAL,MURRAYGOUGHandSTEPHENMEARS,

SchoolofEducation,UniversityofSouthernQueensland,Australia.

Inthelast40years,aseriesofmodelsandframeworksassociatedwithcompetency,capabilityandidentityhavebeenadvancedinthepublishedliterature.Thesemodelsandframeworkshavearisen at a time of fundamental shifts in both the type and nature of work in developedcountries,forexampleshiftsassociatedwithchangestolabourmarketsfromarelianceonjobsinagricultureandmanufacturing(intheindustrialera)toarelianceonjobsinbothtraditionalandnovelserviceindustries(inthepost-industrialandserviceeras)alongwithariseindemandforworkwhichrequiresnon-routinecognitiveabilitiesandattributes.Moreover,an increasingdemandforadvancedpractitionersand leaders ineveryfieldofworkhas led to the advent of the so-called ‘advanced practice professional’, a practitioner whocontributeshigherordercognitive,affectiveandconativeinputstoorganisationsandtheworldofworkmoregenerally.Thesefundamentalshiftsinworknowrequirepractitionerstonotonlyhave the competencies and capabilities to perform at a high level, but also require a well-developed senseofprofessional identityandanability to contribute, asadiscipline leader, ininnovativewaystoenhanceorganisationalperformanceandtheworldofworkmoregenerally.This paper explores these propositions. We advocate a model of advanced practiceprofessionalism in relation to competency, capability, and professional identity, and showthrough two real-world examples how work-based learning and research, as practiced byUniversity of Southern Queensland in its Professional Studies program, contribute to thedevelopmentofadvancedpracticeprofessionalsinAustralia.Keywords: Competency, capability, identity, advanced practice, professional studies, work-basedlearning,work-basedresearchIntroduction

Ourgeneralgoal is to introducetherelationshipofcompetencyandcapabilitytoprofessional

identityandshowhowtheirrespectivedevelopmentcanleadtoadvancedpractice.Wewillalso

indicate,usingtworeal-worldexamples,howaProfessionalStudiesdegreeprograminAustralia1Email:[email protected]


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built around a pedagogy of work-based learning (WBL) has been operationalised to create

advanced domain specialists.Notwithstanding issues surrounding diverse functional learning

definitions, which use nomenclature like ‘expanded’, ‘extended’, ‘advanced’ (e.g., Chang,

Gardner,Duffield,&Ramis,2012)and‘expert’ (Luther&Rosenbaum,2018),sucheducational

approachestoprofessionalpracticeinAustraliahavebeendeemedimportantbecause:

Thecapacitytoattainandapplynewknowledge,andusenewtechnologieswillbethefocusof

thefuture.Asbothknowledgeandtechnologiesriskrapidobsolescence,andtasksbecome

susceptibletoautomation,humanskillsrequiredbythemarketandsocietywillconstantlyshift.

Inthisenvironment,itiscrucialtohave[educational]systemsthatsupportandenablepeopleto

retrain,ratherthanlearnhowtodoonejobverywell(AustralianIndustryandSkillsCommittee

[AISC],2017,p.26).

The type and nature of work are changing. These changes, sometimes referred to as

‘megachanges’(e.g.,Kohlbacher,2017),aretheresultofso-calledmegatrendsandcollectively

represent how work and its future are viewed by governments, business leaders and

researchers (AISC,2017).Fundamentalchanges inworkhavebeen impactedbysurges in the

global mobility of workers, the ageing of indigenous workforces, increases in workforce

urbanisation,systemicinnovationsindigitaltechnologiesandtheirapplicationtoandimpacton

work (including automation, artificial intelligence and robotics, as discussed by Susskind and

Susskind, 2015), and increased participation by women and minority workers in traditional

markets (AISC,2017,pp.10-11).Asaconsequence, thecompositionofAustralia’sworkforce,

forexample,hasbeentransformedoverthelastcentury,withaccelerationoccurringinthelast

30years.

Consider the following two diagrams in Figure 1,which reflect trends inmany industrialised

countries.SharesoftheAustralianworkforceengagedinfivemaintypesofworkarepresented

(left-handdiagram).Overonehundredyearsago,40%ofworkerswereemployedintheservice

sector (i.e., tertiary industries), which included professions such as nurses, psychologists,

pharmacists, teachers, police officers, emergency services personnel, consultants, journalists,


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architectsandaccountantsamongothers.Theother60%of theworkforcewascomposedof

those working in agriculture and mining (i.e., primary industries) and manufacturing and

construction(i.e.,secondaryindustries).

However, by the early 21st century, 80%of theworkforcewas engaged in providing services

rather than goods, with just a combined 20% of the workforce employed in the other four

industry groups. Such changes in sectoral shares of the Australian workforce are similar to

thoseoftheUnitedKingdom,whichhadan82%servicesectorand1.1%agriculturalsectorin

2017(Statista,2019a),andNewZealand,whichhada73%servicesectorand6.6%agricultural

sector in2017(Statista,2019b).Hencethesteadytransitionoverthe lastcentury inWestern

countriestowhatsomehavecalleda‘careeconomy’(e.g.,Dwyer,2013).

NotethattypesofworkinAustralia,whicharesusceptibletoautomation(suchasagriculture

and manufacturing), have declined but construction, which is not, has remained stable.

Nevertheless,themostimportantsectoralsharegrowthinthelast40yearsisacrossindustries

whicharenotonly largely impervious toautomationbutarealsomoredynamically fluidand

require significantly higher levels of cognitive, affective and conative input, throughput and

output. For example, among the cornerstones of service industries are their reliance on

interpersonaltrust(Johnson&Grayson,2005)andloyalty(Manzuma-Ndaaba,Harada,Romle,

& Shamsudin, 2015), and thus not only skills and knowledge but attitudes to work become

criticallyimportantinservice-basedprofessions.

Amongtheso-called ‘non-automatableskills’ requiredbyworkers intheknowledgeeconomy

are empathy, sociability, ability to work in teams, social and cultural awareness, persuasive

ability and adaptability (AISC, 2017, p. 30). These shifts in type of work have been well

documented inAustralia and theUKover severaldecades, forexampleby Jones (1995)who

advocated 25 years ago for an extension of tertiary industries into quaternary and quinary

industries, andare typically associatedwith the social andeconomic transformation froman

industrialtoapost-industrialera,andsubsequentlytoaserviceera.


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Figure1:SharesoftheAustralianworkforcebyindustrysector,1905-2015(left);sharesofthe

Australian workforce engaged in jobs which demand routine and non-routine manual and

cognitivecapacity,1985-2015(right)(derivedfromHeath,2016).

Perhaps more significantly for this paper, and in parallel to the economic restructuring of

Australia’s workforce since the early twentieth century, are fundamental transitions in the

characterofwork,alsowelldocumentedintheliterature.Figure1(right-handdiagram)shows

howinthelast30yearsasimilarseismicshifthasoccurredintherelationofroutineandnon-

routineworktocognitiveandmanualwork,withthemostrapidriseindemandfornon-routine

work which requires cognitive input, a topic recently discussed in detail by Pennington and

Sanford(2019).Inthiscase,‘cognition’meansinnovation,creativity,problemsolving,memory,

andattentionwhileworking;thesecognitivetraitsaresometimesappliedtoworkinways“we

canneverimagine”(CommitteeforEconomicDevelopmentofAustralia[CEDA],2015,p.46).

Of interest is thatthedemandfornon-routinework,which isworkdoneforthefirst timeor

performedirregularly(althoughthetermhasadifferentmeaning inprojectmanagement,for

example, because non-routine work is non-project work, not irregular work), has increased

significantly, with the greatest increased demand being for skills related to non-routine

cognitivework. Thus, by 2015 inAustralia theneed for routinemanualwork, irrespectiveof

whetherornot itrequiredcognitiveskill,wasdecliningbutnearly50%ofallworkperformed


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wasnon-routine,andmostofthat(i.e.,37%ofallwork)requiredcognitiveinput.[Note,some

non-routine cognitive work is laborious and does not require advanced skills or knowledge,

suchaspublic relationsandmedicalor technicalpositions,but typicallyalladvancedpractice

requirescognitionandisoftennon-routine.]

Some researchers have referred to these typesofworkforce shifts frommanual to cognitive

andfromroutinetonon-routineas‘jobpolarisation’,althoughthetermhasassumedaslightly

differentmeaningwhen applied in otherwork contexts (for example in the U.S., where the

conceptmostlyrelatestothedivisionoflow-andhigh-paidjobs,Dwyer,2013).Gratton(2015,

p. 33) also explains the phenomenon of job polarisation in the context of routine and non-

routine work and what she calls the “hollowing out of work”. However, irrefutable is the

conclusion that as the type and character of work change the need for different modes of

learning,trainingandeducation,andthegeneralupskillingoftheworkforce,become(orshould

become)nationalpriorities.

Governments, educational institutions and industries around the world have responded

differently (andsometimesslowly)tothesetypesofsystemicchanges inwork.Onepervasive

innovationinAustraliadesignedtoaddressworkforceevolutionhasbeenthedevelopmentand

implementation of competency frameworks and evidence-based practice competencies (e.g.,

Carraccio, Englander, Van Melle, Ten Cate, Lockyer, Chan ... & Snell, 2016), such as those

embraced by the vocational and education training (VET) sector (e.g., Smith, 2010), which

emphasisehowtheAustralianQualificationsFramework(AQF,2013)canbeappliedandhow,

more recently, the Australian Core Skills Framework (Department of Industry, Innovation,

Science, Research and Tertiary Education, 2012) has been employed across a variety of

industries.

Examples of AQF application have included uniform standards like the National Competency

StandardsforProjectManagement(AustralianInstituteofProjectManagement,2008)andthe

NationalCompetencyStandardsforDietitiansdesignedforentry-levelpractitioners(Dieticians


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Association of Australia, 2015), although the latter related more to generalist rather than

specialist competencies (Palermo, Capra, Beck, Dart, Conway, & Ash, 2017, p. 328), a

differentiatorwithourmodeltobediscussedlaterinthispaper.Hence,theneedtoensure“all

stagesof theeducationprocess focuson instilling competencies rather than the retentionof

specificknowledge…it is important thattheskillsbeingtaughtarenot firm [i.e.,organisation]

specific, but instill broad competencies that represent a valuable public investment” (CEDA,

2015,p.15).

Asaconsequenceofthesetrends,theCommonwealthGovernmentofAustraliahasinthelast

tenyearsalsoidentifiedas“anurgentpriority”thenecessityoffilling“skillgaps[which]remain

in critical fields such as information and communications technology (ICT), high level policy

[development], research and projectmanagement” (AdvisoryGroup on Reformof Australian

Government Administration [AGRAGA], 2010, p. ix); worryingly, in 2010 the Government

reported a skills shortage of between 29% and 34% (AGRAGA, 2010) in the Australian

workforce, a persistent problem through 2019 in many industries (e.g., Australian Industry

Group,2019).

Moreover,theAustralianpublicservice,ithasbeensaidinthepastdecade,must“ensureithas

thecapabilitytoprovidehighqualitysupporttogovernment[andtherefore]mustattracthigh

performingindividualsfromwithinandoutsidethepublicsector.Itmustalsoinvestinlearning

anddevelopmentandprovidepathwaysforhighperformingemployeestogrowanddevelop…”

(AGRAGA, 2010, p. 24). Similarly, according to healthcare industry representatives, Australia

must “ensure a capable and qualifiedworkforce—through registration, accreditation, training

and development” (Mason, 2013, p. 7). The Commonwealth Government of Australia has

therefore recognised that an organisation’s worth is not its assets, capital or intellectual

property but its people, its intellectual capital. TheGovernment has noted that “the private

sector increasingly recognises human capital as a primary source of competitive advantage

[and] recognises that investing in people provides significant productivity improvements”

(AGRAGA,2010,p.24),achallengewhichcontinues(Weise&Troller,2018).


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In considering the nature of its future workforce, in 2010 the Australian Government has

acknowledgedthatprivateorganisationsexpendanaverageof4%oftheirpayrollonemployee

development (although by 2019 only half these organisations planned to increase spending,

according to Pennington and Stanford, 2019, p. 81), which represents an investment in

“retention,capabilitydevelopmentandtalentmanagement”(AGRAGA,2010,p.24).However,

almosthalfofAustralianpublicserviceagenciesin2010spentlessthan1%oftheirbudgetson

“staffdevelopment” (AGRAGA,2010,p.24),although investment intheGovernment’shealth

sectorworkforcetraininganddevelopment increasedfrom$286million in2004-2005to$1.8

billion in 2016-2017, a 525% increase in 12 years (Department of Health, 2017). “Critically”,

accordingtotheAdvisoryGrouponReformofAustralianGovernmentAdministrationtenyears

ago,evidencethussuggestedthattheAustralianpublicservice:

…wasnotsufficientlyoreffectivelyinvestinginlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesforall

employees.Onlysevenpercentofagenciesspendmorethanthreepercentoftheirannual

budgetsonlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesforemployees….Thequalityoflearningand

developmentisalsoaproblem.Fewerthanoneinthreeemployeesratedtheeffectivenessof

theirlearninganddevelopmentprogramsashighorveryhighintermsofhelpingthemto

improveperformance(AGRAGA,2010,p.24).

At the vanguard of Australia’s drive to upgrade its workforce is themore recent shift from

evidence-basedcompetencymodelstocapabilitydevelopmentmodels(O'Connell,Gardner,&

Coyer, 2014), and in some cases to the promotion of advanced practice professionals (e.g.,

Grace, 2018). Our purpose is to examine the relationship between breadth and depth of

competency,capabilityandprofessionalidentityandtoproposehowthischainofprofessional

developmentcanleadtoadvancedpracticeinwork-basedlearning(WBL).

In the following sections we introduce advanced practice professionalism, the Professional

Studies program at University of SouthernQueensland (USQ) and its relation to professional

practice, and two real-world examples which apply these developmental approaches to

Australian and German businesses. The two examples we draw from are from project


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managementandeducationdomains.However,mostoftheobservedeconomictrendsoutlined

in the paper and the potential contributions of advanced professionalism are not limited to

Australia,andwherepossiblewewillmakelinkstoothereducationalandworkcontexts.

Advancedpracticeprofessionals

Amodelshowingtherelationbetweencontext,workforcestrategy,workforcecompetencyand

capacity, andorganisational performancehasbeenadvancedby theAustralianPublic Service

Commission(2010),asshowninFigure2.Thismodel,whichhasalsobeenbroadlyidentifiedas

central to the strategic development of Australia (AGRAGA, 2010), explains that the human

capitalofanygivenworkforceistheproductofaworkforceplan,whichitselfisembeddedinan

external work environment and business context. Its applicability, however, is not limited to

Australia.

Humancapitaliscomposedofthecompetencyandcapacityoftheworkforcebutisembedded

in the culture, conditions, design and leadership of the collective workforce. In this sense,

workforcecapacityrefers toan“organisation’sability toperformworkor theenabling factors

that allowanorganisation toperform its functions andachieve its goals” (Cox, Jolly, Vander

Staaij, & Stolk, 2018, p. 7). In the case of the public service, it is a government’s ability to

“marshal,develop,directandcontrolitsfinancial,human,physicalandinformationresources”

(Coxetal.,2018,p.7).ThemodelpresentedinFigure2suggeststhatorganisationaloutput(i.e.,

anorganisation’soverallperformance)istheproductofthesevariousworkforceinteractions.


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Figure2:Relationshipofhumancapitalofaworkforcetoorganisationalperformance.

In this paper we argue that to enhance the human capital of an organisation and hence its

performance,notonlywillnewworkforcecompetencies,skillsandknowledgeberequiredasa

resultoftraining,professionaldevelopment,education,work-integratedlearningandresearch,

but entirely new human capabilities must be developed, particularly in the leaders of work

domains, as represented by the dotted line additions made to Figure 2 by these authors.

Workforce capabilities in government, for example, encompass “the skills, knowledge and

abilitiesthatemployeesofahighperformingpublicservicemustpossess”(AGRAGA,2010,p.

24).As proposed in the following sections of this paper, such capabilities are the product of

advancedpractice.

However, itshouldalsobenotedthattenyearsagotheAustralianpublicservice (APS),by its

ownadmission,“isblurringthecapabilitiesandskillsdevelopmentrequiredby[its]employees”

(AGRAGA, 2010, p. 27). For example, in addition to a blurringbetween capabilities and skills

(i.e., competencies) development, in the context of a government’s ability to deliver ‘large

projectsandprograms’,Shergold(2015)pointedoutthatfortheAPS,problemsassociatedwith


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poorandambiguousdecisionmaking,apaucityof support forkeydecisionmakers,a lackof

clear understanding within the workforce of a minister’s appetite for “risk on individual

programs and across their portfolio, and [the commitment to] reach agreement on how

implementation challenges [should] be identified, accepted and managed within agreed

resources”(Shergold,2015,p.vii),andaneedtoenhanceprogrammanagement,allplayapart

in the failure of governments.Moreover, it is evident on close inspection that these failures

beardirectlyupontheissuesofcompetencyandthecapabilitydevelopmentcontemplatedby

thispaperinrelationtoadvancedpractice.

Advanced Practice Professionals (APPs) are described in the international literatureas those

whohaveanopportunity to learn, study, and thrive in ‘advancedpractice’ becauseAPPsare

considered workforce contributors who extend knowledge and skills within a practice

environment,suchasaworkplaceorcommunityofpractice (e.g.,Lowe,Plummer,O’Brien,&

Boyd,2012).Leadingpractitionersdrivepracticeforwardandareoften‘thoughtleaders’within

their organisations. APPshave therefore been said to make a valuable contribution to

productivity and organisational output and indeed to society as a whole (e.g., Newhouse,

Stanik-Hutt,White,Johantgen,Bass,Zangaro...&Weiner,2011).

KeybenchmarksofanAPPincludetheirabilitytoactwithautonomy.Assuch,theyhaveasense

of their own identity and an ability to act independently and exert control over their

environment, including a sense of task mastery, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy

(APPFSC Secretariat, 2012, p. 4). APPs also gainpeer recognition as a leader, although we

supposeAPP leadership involves leadingwith ‘humility’,asrecentlyexaminedbyChiu,Owens

and Tesluk (2016), and an ability to influence the professional practice of others and their

disciplineasawhole.

SuchAPPbenchmarkssomewhatdovetailwith theearlierworkofStuartDreyfusandHubert

Dreyfus in their five-stagemodel of adult proficiency (Dreyfus, 2004). However, theDreyfus

model isbuiltexclusivelyaround,andthereforereliesheavilyon,theoriesofcompetenceand


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skill.Forexample,Dreyfusproposesthata‘novice’learnerissomeoneforwhomworkisbroken

downintoasetoftasksandtheskillsneededtocarryoutthetask;an ‘advancedbeginner’ is

someone for whom repeated, situational work experiences as a novice can lead to the

recognitionofso-calledmaxims,and thus “learning canbecarriedon inadetached,analytic

frameofmind,asthestudentfollowsinstructionsandisgivenexamples”(p.177).TheDreyfus

thirdstageis‘competence’inlearningandwork,whichDreyfususestomean:

Withmoreexperience,thenumberofpotentiallyrelevantelementsandproceduresthatthe

learnerisabletorecognizeandfollowbecomesoverwhelming.Atthispoint,becauseasenseof

whatisimportantinanyparticularsituationismissing,performancebecomesnerve-wracking

andexhausting,andthestudentmightwellwonderhowanybodyevermasterstheskill.Tocope

withthisoverload,andtoachievecompetence,peoplelearn,throughinstructionorexperience,

todeviseaplanorchooseaperspectivethatthendeterminesthoseelementsofthesituationor

domainthatmustbetreatedasimportantandthosethatcanbeignored.Asstudentslearnto

restrictthemselvestoonlyafewofthevastnumberofpossiblyrelevantfeaturesandaspects,

understandinganddecisionmakingbecomeseasier(p.178).

‘Proficiency’, the fourthstageof learninganddevelopment,occurswhenthe individual isnot

onlyfamiliarwithrules,butbasedonmoreextensiveexperiencebeginstounderstanddifferent

situationsandhow tomake informeddecisionsabout them. Finally, ‘expertise’,which canbe

likened to advanced practice professionalism, in the Dreyfus model means the proficient

individual,“immersedintheworldofhisorherskillfulactivity,seeswhatneedstobedone[and

can] decide how to do it” (p. 179), often in non-routinework situations requiring advanced

cognitivetraitstosuccessfullyachieveaconstructiveoutcome.Thus,“theabilitytomakemore

subtle and refined discriminations is what distinguishes the expert from the proficient

performer” and “allows the immediate intuitive situational response that is characteristic of

expertise. (180). The word ‘intuitive’ being the key to non-routine cognitive work for the

advancedpractitioner.

UsingtheexampleofAustraliansocialwork,thehallmarksofadvancedpractic,whichgowell

beyondcompetenceandskill,arethusdefinedas:


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Theabilitytodealeffectivelywithcomplexityinwaysconsistentwithcoresocialworkvalues.

Withinthiscontext,advancedpracticeinvolvestheabilitytoseebeyondthepresentingproblem,

tounderstandtheusesandlimitationsofstandardisedassessments,diagnosticclassifications,

historytaking,thirdpartyreportsandothersourcesofinformation.

Advancedpracticetheninvolvestheabilitytoprioritiseissues;tobeabletoworkwiththeclient

toidentifythegoalorgoalsofinterventioninwaysthataffirmtheirself-determinationwhile

balancingthiswithothercompetingconcerns….Advancedpracticeinvolvesdelivering

interventionswithahighlevelofknowledgeandskill,withselectionofinterventionapproaches

informedbyanunderstandingofboththestrengthsandlimitationsofevidence-basedpractice.

Inapproachingthesetasks,advancedpracticedisplayssensitivitytothevulnerabilityand

powerlessnessofmanyclients,toculturalandindigenousissues,aswellasanawarenessofthe

ethicaldilemmasanddimensionsofpracticesituations(Simpson,nd,p.2).

Moreover,“advancedsocialworkpracticeshowsthepractitioner’sgreatercapacityforaflexible

use of self, for reflexivity, and for a more autonomous and independent reflective practice”

(Flaskas,2011,p.4).Intheseways,APPshavegonebeyondcompetencyandevencapabilityto

a developed sense of professional identity and have done so via two possible routes: a

broadeningofcompetenceoradeepeningofcompetenceinthedirectionofgreatercapability.

[Forthepurposesofthispaper,weequallyweighthesignificanceofbroadeningordeepening

competence and experience in relation to advanced practice, but it can be argued that

deepeningknowledge,asin‘specialization’,ismorevaluablethanbroadeningit.Nevertheless,

other theorists support our position in relation to expertise and advanced practice (e.g.,

Mangione,Borden,Nadkarni,Evarts,&Hyde,2018).]

In Figure 3 we therefore show the relationship of competency, capability and professional

identitytothedevelopmentofadvancedpracticeinamodelwehaveadaptedfromanearlier

advancedpharmacypractice framework (APPFSC Secretariat (2012, p. 7), amodel somewhat

aligned to the Australian Institute of Project Management’s (2019) professional certification


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modelof:practitioners>managers>seniormanagers>directorsandexecutivemanagersfor

portfolio,programandprojectmanagement.

WeagreewiththeAPPFSCSecretariat’s (2012,p.9)earlierassessmentthatcompetency is“a

complex construct where the attributes contributing to [it] include the individual’s values,

beliefs,motives,attitudesandpersonal traits”,and thereforewedefinecompetency tomean

whatBoyatzisoriginally intendedittomeaninthe1980swhenhefirstpopularisedtheterm,

namely an underlying characteristic of a person, as opposed to later uses which either

inexorably link competency to leaders and high-performance individuals or apply it as an

umbrella term to mean “almost anything that might directly or indirectly affect job

performance” (as stated 30 years ago by Woodruffe, 1993, p. 29), such as role-specific

competencies(Ghasemy,Hussin,&Daud,2016,p.218).

Figure 3: Advanced practice professionalism and its relation to breadth and depth of

competence,capabilityandprofessionalidentity.

The characteristics associated with competency in its earliest incarnation could include a

“motive,trait,skill,aspectofone’sself-imageorsocialrole,orabodyofknowledgewhichheor


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she uses” (Woodruffe, 1993, p. 29), and have subsequently been extended to include

characteristicslikesocialcompetence(Wight&Chapparo,2008)andculturalcompetence(e.g.,

Garneau & Pepin, 2015). Thus, competencies in work mean those underlying human

characteristics(orlatentcognitiveandaffectivetraitsorabilities)whichanindividualpossesses

and applies to his/her job. In ourmodel, general competencies relate to Box A of Figure 3,

which refer to theminimalorbasicprofessionalqualifications an individual in theworkforce

wouldbeexpectedtopossesswhenworking.Suchanattribution iscommon, forexample, in

contemporarynursing(Melnyk,Gallagher-Ford,Long,Fineout-Overholt,2014).

Capability,ontheotherhand,referstoahigherorderlevelofthinkingandbehaving,andcan

be reflected inbothbroaderanddeeperexpertise.However, like competency, the capability

construct has evolved significantly over the last 30 years, and in some cases has become

ambiguous, with what Gasper (2007, p. 336) called “unclear boundaries”, but may be

associatedwithhigherordercompetency.Tothisend,Ghasemy,HussinandDaud(2016)point

outthatresearchershaveregardedcapabilities“asrelatedto leadershipqualitiesofplanning

and implementing successful transformations” whereas “competencies [are] related to

managerial abilities of delivering or performing at the highest possible level in a particular

setting”(p.218).

Thus, by this definition, capability can be associated with leadership and organisational

transformation and competencywithmanagerial abilities in specificwork contexts, although

bothmayoccuratahigh levelof cognitive, affectiveandconative functioning.The cognitive

domain includes knowledge and skills to be acquired and learnt and the affective domain

includesattitudesandbehaviourstobeacquiredandlearnt,whereasconativeskillshelpAPPs

determine future courses of action—not onlywhen interactingwith data andskills, but also

wheninteractingwithpeople.Conativefunctioningthusalsodealswithfeelingsandemotions

andhowtoharnesstheminordertobemoreproductive,andincludestheabilitytointerpret

complexwork-based situations and circumstances andhowbest to respond to them. Such a

conclusionabout cognition,affectandconative functioning,however, is contentiousbecause


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the level of deliberation and reflective thinking required in expert problem solving when

associatedwithnormalandabnormalworkcircumstancesanddecisionmakingmayormaynot

requirecriticalthinkingtobesuccessful(e.g.,Gobet,2018).

In the 1980s, Sen (1999) andNussbaum (2011) introduced the capability construct viawhat

they called the ‘Capability Approach’, which has continued to evolve in the last 30 years.

AccordingtoGasper(2007,p.336),capabilityis:

Thefullsetofattainablealternativelivesthatfaceaperson;itisacounterparttothe

conventionalmicroeconomicsnotionofanopportunitysetdefinedincommoditiesspace,butis

insteaddefinedinthespaceoffunctionings.‘Capabilities’,incontrast,conveysamoreconcrete

focusonspecificattainable‘functionings’inalife,andconnectstoordinarylanguage’sreference

topersons’skillsandpowersandthecurrentbusinessjargonof‘corecapabilities’.

TheprimaryconstituentsoftheCapabilityApproacharethusfunctioningsandcapabilities,or

what can be called the ability to be and the ability to do. As explained by Kettle,Wells and

Fergusson (2017) ‘functioning’ is an achievement whereas a ‘capability’ is one’s ability to

achievethefunctioning,andthusafunctioningrelatestothequalityoflife(forexampleinthis

context, the quality of one’s life at work) and capability relates to one’s ability to remove

obstacles so they have more ‘freedom’ to live the kind of life they have reason to value

(Robeyns,2005).Intheworkplace,thismeansdevelopingtheabilitytodo(i.e.,thecapabilityof

doing or what can be called the ‘effectively possible opportunity’) in order to achieve the

desiredoutcomeorstateofbeing(i.e.,thefunction,achievementorthe‘realised’).

Functioningscanvaryfromsuchelementarythingsasbeingadequatelynourishedandbeingin

goodhealth,tomorecomplexachievementssuchashavingavaluablejob,notsufferingfroma

lackofself-respect,andbeingavaluedmemberofalearningorsocialcommunity.Indeed,the

Capability Approach should be understood in terms of human development (Krishnakumar,

2007),andthe“endsofwell-being,justiceanddevelopmentshouldbeconceptualisedinterms

of people’s capabilities to function; that is, their effective opportunities to undertake the


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actionsandactivities that theywant toengage in,andbewhomtheywant tobe” (Robeyns,

2005, p. 95). Gasper (2007, p. 337) pointed out that because the Capability Approach is

“attentive to issues of responsibility anddiversity of aims, it contrasts favourablywith views

that focus on achievements (however understood), because it is attentive to diversity in

abilitiestotransformmeansintoachievements,itispreferabletoviewsthatfocusonequality

ofmeans”,bothimportantissueswhenconsideringdiverseandmulticulturalworkplacesanda

rapidlychanging,disruptedworkforce.Thefactthatcapability is“attentiveto”thesetypesof

issues,makes ourmodel of competency > capability > professional identity thatmuchmore

relevant as these issues are of central concern to higher education in general (e.g., Lozano,

Boni,Peris,&Hueso,2012),andtoProfessionalStudiesinparticular,aswillbediscussedbelow.

Theconceptofcapabilities isparticularlyrelevantinthecurrentwork-basedcontext,because

attheheartofwhatitmeanstobeanAPPisnotonlythecleardemarcationofachievement,

including goals, objectives and key performance indicators (KPIs) but also the means and

abilities (i.e., one’sworkplace capabilities) required to achieve them. In thisway, thehuman

capacity to function in a specific workplace or at work generally can be framed along a

continuum of abilities from basic competency, as reflected in professional qualifications, to

higherordercapabilitiesasreflectedintheCapabilityApproach.

However, we recognise that the competency > capability construct is a disputed one (for

example in the contexts of society and education, as discussed by Lozano, Boni, Peris and

Hueso,2012),althoughphilosophersofeducationlikeLozanoetal.haveshowntheassociation

ofcompetencyandcapabilityasweproposeit,andWalker(2005)hasconsideredcompetency

specifically in the context of higher education and professional capability.Wealso note that

whilenotallauthorsagreewiththeassociation(letalonethecontinuum)ofcompetencyand

capability,suchanassociationhasbeenearlierendorsedwithintheworkandlearningcontexts

(e.g.,Lester,2014;Lester&Chapman,2002).


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InourmodelshowninFigure3,therearetwopossiblecontinuumsonthepathtodeveloping

greatercapabilityinwork:1)fromBoxA>B,whichrepresentsabroadeningofcapability;and

2)fromBoxA>C,whichrepresentsadeepeningofcapability.Suchpathwaysarecomparable

to those proposed by Palermo et al. (2017, p. 327), who said in the context of advanced

dieteticsthathigherlevelsofpracticemayrelateto“generalistandfocusedspecialtypractice

areas, [that is] profession-specific areas and situations relating to specific client groups or

geographicsettings”.

Pathway 1) represents a broadening of one’s capability such that the practitioner develops

generalcapabilities(i.e.,leadership,empathy,understanding,insight,foresight,etc.relatedto

‘profession-specificareas’)andtherebybecomesanadvancedgeneralistpractitioner.Pathway

2) represents a deepening of one’s capability such that the practitioner develops specific or

focused capabilities (i.e., specialist skills and knowledge, such as forensic accounting for an

accountant,multi-strandcurriculumevaluationforaneducator,orthetheoriesandmethodsof

restorativejusticeforapoliceofficerrelatedto‘specificclientgroupsorgeographicareas’)and

therebybecomeswhatwecallanadvancedfocusedpractitioner.Innursing,thisevolutionfrom

competency to capability can be seen in the example of anurse training tobecomeanurse

anesthetist (Waugaman& Lu,2018), and thereby become an advanced focused practitioner.

Thus, advanced practice not only refers to ‘specialisation’ but also to “expansion and

advancement”(Palermoetal.,2017,p.328).Notethat,inkeepingwiththeinclusivenessofthe

Capability Approach, we do not limit application of our model of advanced practice to

managersorexecutivesbutbelieveitrelevanttoeveryindividualinaworkforcewhowishesto

advancetheirprofessionalpracticeandidentity.

Thepromotionofadvancedpractice thus representsadevelopmentalmovealong twoother

pathways,asshown inFigure3byBoxB>DandBoxC>D.APPsextendknowledge,display

bothcompetencyandcapability,arediscipline,practiceand/orworkplaceleaders,andhavea

developed sense of professional identity; they arewhatwe call‘researching practitioners’ in

theWBL context and are discipline leaders or leading professionals. APPs define advanced


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practice as “practice that is so significantly different from that achieved at initial registration

[i.e.,BoxAinFigure3]thatitwarrantsrecognitionbyprofessionalpeersandthepublicofthe

expertise of the practitioner and the education, training and experience from which that

capabilitywasderived”(APPFSCSecretariat,2012,p.4).

OfnoteforanAPPistheirsenseofprofessionalidentity(e.g.,Johnson,Cowin,Wilson,&Young,

2012; Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide, 2014), an advanced trait apparently associated with

resilience (Wald, 2015). Professional identity can simply mean self-identification with a

profession,butweexpandthisbasicmeaningtomeannotonlythelinktoaprofessionbutalso

the embedded sense of personal and professional worth gained from work when the

practitioner:a)recognisestheyareinfluencedbyandinturninfluencetheirworkenvironment

and/orcommunityofpractice;b)becomesawareofandrecognisesthevalueandmeaningof

their profession; c) gains a positive influence from education and recognises their lifelong

learningstatus;andthusd)incorporatestheirprofessionalresponsibilitiesintoanoverallsense

ofself.

As acknowledged above, APPs demonstrate a sense of task mastery, have a well-developed

internal locus of control, and identify as a self-efficacious professional. These among other

personal traits distinguish an APP from those with mere competence or even advanced

capability. Forexample,havingawell-developed internal locusofcontrolmeansanAPPdoes

notseetheeventsoftheirprofessionalcircumstanceasrandomandoutsidetheircontrol,but

ratherassociatesboth ‘good’and ‘bad’eventsasentirely controllablebychanges inattitude,

reflection,reflexivity,effortandpreparation.Suchpersonaltraitsappliedprofessionallytowork

are obviously not the sole domain of leaders, managers or executives but reflect a well-

developedsenseofselfandofprofessionalidentityregardlessofwhopossessesit(TenHoeve,

Jansen,&Roodbol,2014).

Forthepurposesofthispaper,wedohoweverassociateleadershipwithbeinganAPP.Inother

words,aleadermaynotbeanAPP,butanAPPistypicallyaworkplaceordomainleader.Thus,


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“given the critical role of leaders in embedding…reforms within their organisations…strong

leaders devise effective strategic directions, enunciate them clearly, then build support for

themwithin their organisations” (AGRAGA, 2010, p. 20). In ourmodel, leadership is thereby

derivedfromnotonlyarangeofwell-developedcompetenciesandcapabilitiesasappliedinthe

workplace,butalsofromastrongsenseofprofessionalidentityasexpressedthroughanability

toresearchprofessionalpractice, leadacommunityofpractice,andarticulatetheparameters

andmeaning, through theory, advanced concepts and evidence, of work and workplaces as

applied toone’sprofession. SuchAPPs,wepropose,canbe found inwork-basededucational

programswhicharefoundedonactionresearchandproblemsolving,suchasthoseembodied

by the principles and spirit ofWBL.Moreover, participation in suchwork-based programs is

typicallydrivenbyaltruism,aconcernforthewell-beingofone’sprofessionandworkplace,and

adesiretoadvanceprofessionalpractice.

Ourthesis,asillustratedinFigure3,isthereforebasedonthefollowingprecepts:competency>

capability>professionalidentity,whichequatestoandcanbeoperationalisedas:professional

qualifications (Box A) lead to advanced generalist practitionership (Box B) or advanced focus

practitionership(BoxC)whicharebothpathwaystoadvancedpracticeprofessionalism(BoxD).

Thus,anAPPembodiesbothcompetenciesandcapabilitiesandhasawell-developedsenseof

professional identityand is,asaresult, inapositionto leadanorganisationorcommunityof

practice, set strategic direction, embed practice in theory and evidence, and articulate the

scope,natureandvalueofaprofessionanditsworkcontext,therebypotentiallyenhancingthe

performanceoftheirorganisationandwidercommunity.

Professionalstudiesandexamplesofadvancedpractice

It is notwithin the scopeof thispaper topresent thedetail ofwork-basedhighereducation

degrees designed to develop the capacity of governments, private organisations and APPs

throughlearning.However,spacedoesallowanoverviewoftheProfessionalStudiesprogram

atUSQbecause itsMastersandDoctoralpostgraduatedegreeprogramshavebeendesigned


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expressly to help train mid- to senior-career professionals in developing the skills and

knowledgeofwork-basedresearch,higherordercognitivethinking,andworkplacechangeand

problem solving. This program is therefore consistent with Australian government and

workplace initiatives thatacknowledge“teachingstyles,educationapproaches,andquestions

relatingtotheroleoftheeducator[which]continuetobepresentindiscussions.Systemsthat

enable knowledge exchange and two-way learningwithin education and training settings are

increasinglypreferred”(AISC,2017,p.26)inaworldofso-called“fluideducation”(p.27).

Elsewherewehavedocumentedthestructureoftheprogram(Fergusson,Allred,&Dux,2018),

explored its relation to advanced practice (Fergusson, Allred, Dux, & Muianga, 2018) and

reflective practice in work-based research (Fergusson, Van der Laan, & Baker, 2019), and

examineditsethosandtransformationaldimension(Fergusson,vanderLaan,White,&Balfour,

2019)anduseoffirstprinciplesofscience(Fergusson,Shallies&Meijer,2019).Moreover,van

derLaanandNeary(2016)haveinvestigatedtheprograminthecontextofaccessandequity

and van der Laan and Ostini (2018) have done so in relation to foresight and university

leadership. While not immediately obvious from this published literature is the program’s

originalfoundationinprinciplesofWBLasderivedfromthecurriculumofMiddlesexUniversity.

Wehave shown that the program is composedof two strands of learning: (A) awork-based

projectstrand;and(B)a researchstrand,asshown inFigure4,witheachstrandbuiltonthe

identificationofpersonalisedlearningobjectives.Learningobjectivesarecentrallyimportantin

this program because they ground the project (A) and research (B) strands in personal

functioningsforwhichextantcompetenciesmustbeadvancedintocapabilitiesinorderforthe

topicofinvestigationtobefullyactuatedinwhatisreferredtoinAustraliaasaHigherDegree

byResearch(HDR).

On these bases, a work-based project (often conducted by what Costley, Elliott and Gibbs,

2010, call ‘insider-researchers’) leads to the generation of an artefact; that is a work-based

productwhichcontributestoorganisationalimprovement(forexampleamodelorframework


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forpolicydirection)andthusleadstonotonlyapostgraduatequalificationbutotherbenefits

associatedwith theorganisationanddisciplineasawhole (i.e., the so-called ‘tripledividend’

[Fergusson,Allred,Dux&Muianga,2018]ofProfessionalStudies),asshownby(C)inFigure4.

Inparalleltothework-basedproject,arigorousresearchdesignisdevelopedtoinvestigatethe

veracityoftheproject.Asaresultofimplementingtheresearchstrand,empiricalresults,often

basedonmixedmethodologies,areusedtoconvergewiththework-basedartefactresultingin

acompletework-basedinvestigationofarelevantphenomenonorproblem.

Figure4:Thetwo-strandsofProfessionalStudies—work-basedproject(A)andresearchproject

(B)—whichleadtoatripledividend(C).

Examples of research questions driving such practice-based research include: “What is the

organisationalimpactofdisseminatingoperationalintelligenceusingnewsoftwareapplication

technology to consolidate and improve information flow in the Queensland Police Service

(QPS)”; “What critical business situations do senior managers in multi-national corporations

workon,andwhatarethecompetencybehaviourstheyusetoreachadesiredoutcomeineach

criticalbusinesssituation?”;andfinally,“Whatistheimpactofresiliencetrainingonrecruitsin

emergencyservicevolunteerorganisationsinQueensland”?Intopicslikethese,therelevance

of both professional competency and capability development as well as organisational

improvement is evident. For example, coupling mixedmethods research with a work-based

projectmeansinvestigativepracticesinworkcanbeevidencedbymultiplelines-of-inquiryand

rigorousdatagatheringtechniquesfromdiversesourcesofprimaryandsecondarysourcesof


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evidence (Fergusson,Harmes,Hayes,Rahmann,2019),not somethingalwaysassociatedwith

WBL.

We conclude that this transdisciplinary approach to WBL and research not only aims at

knowledge and skills developmentbut canbe appliedtoworthwhile researchprojectswhich

seektosolvework-basedproblemsanddriveinnovativeknowledgeonafoundationofaltruism

leadingtoorganisationalimprovementandsocialadvancement.

Inthepresentcontext,theproposedshiftfromcompetency>capability>professionalidentity

in the development of advanced practice through Professional Studies can be seen in the

exampleprovidedbyFergusson,Allred,DuxandMuianga(2018,p.28) inwhichonedoctoral

studentdescribedhisexpectationthatWBLwouldbe“alinearlearningprocess—astep-by-step

processofbuildingknowledgeandskills”(henceassociatedwithcompetence)buthefoundit

actually to be “nonlinear and non-sequential, as a result of the self-paced, learner-centred

pedagogy”(requiringthedevelopmentofcapability).Accordingtothisstudent:

Thedoctoraljourneyhasbeenoneofcontinuallearning;everythingwhichhasprecededithas

helpedprepare[me]forthejourney—eachlife-stagehaspresenteditsownlearnings,andeach

hassupportedsubsequentgrowthandopportunity.Ithereforelikenthejourneytothatofablack

beltinkarate:eachrankpreparestheparticipantforthenextgrade,buttheblackbeltisnotthe

endofknowledge;itisratherthebeginningofnewknowledge.Theaspirationisthustoharness

theconceptofShoshin,inwhich‘therearemanypossibilities[inthebeginner’smind],butinthe

expert’s[mind]therearefew’(p.29).

Figures5and6operationaliseourAPPmodelusing thework-basedprojectsand researchof

two Professional Studies doctoral students. In each case, the model provides evidence of

competencies leading to capabilities and subsequently to professional identity, with each

exemplifyingamoreprofessional attitudeandapproach towork.As theProfessional Studies

programonlyattractsmid-tosenior-careerprofessionals,mostwithmanyyears’experiencein

government, private practice or sole practitioner work environments like insurance, energy,


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projectmanagement,healthandsafety,andcoaching,studentsalreadyhaveareasonablywell-

developedsetof competenciesandcapabilitiesandsenseofprofessional identitywhen they

enter the program. Practice domains forwhomWBL is attractive in the Professional Studies

program include nursing and allied health, education, policing, correctional services, and fire

andemergencyservices,amongmanyothers.However,studentcompetencies,capabilitiesand

identity in relation to scholarship at the postgraduate level—particularly critical thinking and

logic,academicwritingandpublishing,andmixedmethodsresearch—issomewhatlimited,and

theseareamongtheareaswherewewouldexpectthegreatestadvanceinprofessionalismasa

resultofconductingthefollowingwork-basedprojects.

ThebusinessandlearningcontextfortheexampleinFigure5isproject,programandportfolio

management (P3M). In order to operate effectivelywithin this context, a basic qualification,

suchasabachelor’sdegreeinbusinessmanagement(specialisinginprojectmanagementora

professional VET certification), is required, although some managers may have a master’s

degreeorhigher-levelspecialisttechnicalexpertise.However,tooperateathigherlevelswithin

P3Mpractice, thepractitioner is required todevelopeitherbroaderormore focused setsof

capabilitiesrelatedtospecificcorporateorbusinessstrategiesandresults.ThechoiceofP3M

practitioner by a company or government agency is therefore critical in improving and

sustaining an organisation; hence, inmost P3M cases, it would be a seniormanagerwho is

involvedinexecutivedecision-making.

Tothisend,amoregeneralP3Mcapabilitywouldbetheskillsandknowledgeassociatedwith

involvement in strategic business planning, forecasting and managing programs and project

prioritisation,managingworkforceexpertisethroughprofessionaldevelopmentpathwaysand

coaching,managingorganisationalchangeandliminality,managingbenefitsrealisation,and/or

anabilitytoutiliseculturalcompetenceintheworkplace.Similarly,amorespecificorfocused

capabilitymightinvolvetheabilitytoworkwithsupplychainmanagementandlogistics,orto

understand,interpretandapplyknowledgerelatedtoareturnoninvestment(ROI)inanygiven


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project or program. These types of capability are not generally found in entry-level or even

establishedP3Mpractitionersandrepresentabroadeningordeepeningofbasiccompetencies.

An APP, on the other hand, must have the ability to integrate and apply holistic P3M

management systems for sustained project, program, portfolio, and/or organisational

functionings as measured against expected strategic and business performance indicators.

These key performance indicators are typically devised at personal, program, project and

business-specificlevels,andarealmostalwayslinkedtoorganisationalmaturity(Bourne,2016).

Thus,an importantcomponentofourAPPmodelwhenapplied toP3M isawell-formedand

agreed incentive program. Such a program should not be understood simply as a bonus

scheme,rather it reliesonacceptanceofaprofessionaldevelopmentpathwaythat is framed

andsponsoredbytheorganization(i.e.,whatwearecallingan‘APP’inthispaper).

Figure5:Exampleofadvancedproject,programandportfoliomanagementpractice.

The five case studies associated with this P3M doctoral study involve both the private and

public sectors. Although based in Australia (i.e., including case studies in Queensland, New


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SouthWales,andtheAustralianCapitalTerritory),thestudyincludesgovernmentdepartments

and agencies in Malaysia and Sri Lanka. The participating organisations have been chosen

because they embody how improvement needs to be contextualised rather than sought

through the simple applicationof standardised, inflexible P3Mmodels in that one sector.Of

notealsoarethethree levelsofmanagement (i.e.,portfolio,programandproject)whichare

involved in an integrated P3M improvement initiative. For example, general and regional

managers(i.e.,portfoliomanagers)areinvolvedinthisresearch.

Thestudyalsoattemptstohighlightthatnoonetierofmanagementproducescorporateand

culturalchange,andtherebyaimstoreinforcehowtheProfessionalStudiesprogramusesWBL

andresearchinanumberofsettingstocontributetotheaccelerationofadvancedpracticein

boththeresearchingpractitionerandinP3Mpractitionersoperatinginthesethreecountries.

Importantly,itprovidesaflexibleformulafororganisationalchangeandawell-framedformula

forpersonalimprovementaswellasthetransformationofteamleadership.

Correspondingly, in Figure 6 advanced practice work-based research being conducted with

supervisors,leadinghands,businessownersandtheirapprenticesinGermany’sMittelstand(a

typeofsmall-tomedium-sizedenterprise)Handwerk(orcraft)industriesseekstoexplorethe

efficacy of communication between supervisors and apprentices through a combination of

visualandverbaltechniques,andtotherebyenhanceorganisationalculture.Atitsmostbasic,

thepractitionerisrequiredtohavequalificationsandworkexperience,andhenceadegreeof

socio-cultural competency in frontline management training and change management

processes.


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Figure 6: Example of advancedWBL and communications practice in Germany’sMittelstand

Handwerkindustries.

To develop amore comprehensive capability in communications, the practitionerwill in this

caseconductworkshopstofacilitateengagementofstakeholdergroups,butinparallel isalso

required to establish and apply focused capabilities associated with the development of

advancedwork-baseddocumentationrelevanttoeachHandwerkbusiness,whichmayormay

not include textual, linguistic explanations. These two pathways of learning represent the

broadeninganddeepeningofcompetencewhichwillbe required tosuccessfully conduct the

work-basedresearchinGermany.

However, to fullyadvancehisprofessionalism,theresearchingpractitioner in thisprojectwill

also be required to develop the ability to build organisational culture (i.e., through the

application of socio-cultural competence), drive innovation, and foster the creation and

managementofnewknowledge.Inthiscase,theadvancedfunctioningasaresultofthework-

based project and research will not only include an enhanced professional identity for the

practitioner but also (possibly) a contribution to the organisational performance of the


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MittelstandHandwerkbusinesses themselves. This typeofWBLproject leads towhat in this

paperwehavecalledadvancedpracticeprofessionalism.

Conclusion

Wehaveexplored the relationshipbetween competency, capability andprofessional identity

and explained how the Professional Studies program at USQ apparently contributes to the

development of advanced practice in Australia, specifically how it relates to non-routine

cognitivework.Wehaveshownthatcapabilityisaconceptuallyhigherorderpractitionerability

than competence, and thus parallels the need for non-routine cognitive job capability.

According to Woods (2013), capable advanced practitioners not only know ‘what’ but also

‘how’ to learn, and such capabilities allow practitioner-led learning reflection and reflexivity,

drivenbyholisticconsiderationsandaself-motivateddesiretoimprove(Lozano,etal.,2012).

Such earlier views in awork-based context now suggest advanced practitioners are “leaders

who can influence, inspire and innovate to solve practice problems, to change practice and

showevidenceoftheirimpact[onworkenvironments]”(Palermoetal.,2017,p.332).

Ascasesinpoint,fornursinginAustralia,“itisclearthatadvancedpracticenursesareworking

to the extent of their scope of practice, demonstrating the skills and capabilities required to

meetthecomplexhealthcareneedsofthecommunitiesinwhichtheypractice”(Parker&Hill,

2017,p.197)and foreducators suchadvancedpractice “sees teachers’ researchandenquiry

skills andpredispositions as helping to renew [their] professional identity andpractice…[with

the conclusionbeing] that a cultureneeds tobe encouragedwhere engagement in andwith

research becomes an everyday part of teachers’ professional identity and practice” (Lindsay,

Kerawalla,&Floyd,2018,p.2321).

Furthermore, according to published data from both government and industry sources,

ProfessionalStudiesprograms,suchastheoneofferedatUSQ,aremeetingan‘urgent’national

priority of filling skill gaps within the space of policy development, research and project

management (e.g., AISC, 2017). Those mid- to senior-career professionals from around the


122

world who undertake the Professional Studies Master’s and Doctoral HDR programs are

engagedininnovativeworkandauthenticresearchandtherebyacademicallycontributetonew

knowledge production while addressing problems in the organisations, industries and

governments with which they work. This, we noted above, is called the triple dividend of

ProfessionalStudies;hence,feedbackfromcandidatesindicates“thedoctoraljourneyhasbeen

oneof continual learning;everythingwhichhaspreceded ithashelpedprepare [me] for the

journey—eachlife-stagehaspresenteditsownlearnings,andeachhassupportedsubsequent

growthandopportunity”(citedinFergusson,Allred,Dux&Muianga,2018,p.27).

It is for these and other reasons outlined in this paper that we propose the shift from

competency standards to capability development is a precursor to enhanced professional

identity and higher order thinking, and ultimately to the status of an advanced practice

professionalonthebasisofwhichtheresearchingpractitionercanleadandguideconstructive

changeatwork.ThisshiftismadepossiblebyhighereducationprogramswhichfocusonWBL

and research, and thereby fulfill the goals of, in this case but probably also applicable

elsewhere, the Australian Government and broader worlds of work in Australia which have

identified the need for individuals who can navigate and successfully perform non-routine,

higherorder,cognitivework.

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TheroleofindustryinimplementingWork-based

LearningPedagogy

REVATINAMJOSHI1

MaharashtraKnowledgeCorporationLtd,Pune,India.

Work-based Learning (WBL) models being implemented across the globe highlight theimportanceoftheroleofindustryinmakingthework-environmentconducivetolearning.Thispaperdiscussesvariousparametersthatcontributetobuildafavorableecosystemforsuccessfulimplementation of WBL pedagogy. The findings are based on practices followed by criticalobservation of an integrated Work-based Learning model based on M.K.Gandhi’s Nai Talimprinciple of ‘Learning through Working’ (M.K.Gandhi 1968) implemented in the state ofMaharashtra,India.(MKCL2001)

In this system, the open universities in collaborationwith industries offerwork-based degreecourses to suit the nature and needs of the businesses (Sawant 2017) and admit the youthespecially from the economically weaker sections of the society at affordable fees. Thebusinesses/industriesofferpaidinternshipstothestudentsforperformingattheworkplace.

Theinternsbuildthetheorybasedontheworkperformed.TheseniorsintheindustryassisttheinternsinsynthesizingknowledgethroughdailyreflectionsessionsbyaccessingeLearningstudymaterials. The interns record their reflections through blogs and undertake evidence-basedcomprehensiveassessmentsessionsontheeLearningplatformontheworkcontentandrelatedcoursemodules.

The interns thusobtain two typesof credits viz.workcreditsgivenby the industryappraisersandknowledgecreditsearnedontheeLearningplatform leadingtotheawardofadegreeattheendofthreeyears.

It is in this context and in view of the crucial role of the industries offering real life work-environments,thekeyaspectsoftheWBLecosystemdesirableattheworkplacearediscussedandanalyzed.

Keywords:Work-basedLearning,Roleofindustry,Pedagogy,WBLEcosystem



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Introduction

Work-basedLearning(WBL)modelunderstudyattemptsconvergenceofworkingandlearning.

(Vinoba,955)IndustryisinvolvedintheacademicproceedingsofundergraduateWBLstudents,

withoutcompromisingonthebusinessobjectives,goalsandprocesseswithintheindustry

settings.

Fromthestudent’sperspectivetheWBLmodelunderstudyisasfollows:Figure1

Figure1:WBLmodel

(RevatiN2017)

WBLstudentsgainhands-onpracticalskillsinalocalcontextthroughexposuretoreallifework

experienceprovidedbyindustry.Theirconnectionwithglobalcontextandbestpracticesis

establishedthroughsituation-basedeLearningmodulesbeforeandafterofficehours.eLearning

contentcoverstheoreticalconceptsandeAssessmentslinkedtothecurriculumstipulatedby

theUniversity.Finally,thederivationoftheoryoutofpracticeatthework-labi.e.industry

workplaceisenabledthroughreflectionsessionsconductedbymentors(seniorprofessionals/

industryexperts)fromtheindustry.

• eLearning• ReflectionsessionswithMentor

• eLearning• IndustryWorkLab• Reallifeworkexperience

Practicalinlocalcontext

Situationbased

Learning-GlobalContext

TheoryConcepts

DerivingTheoryoutofPracticeatWorkLab

(Workplace)


134

VariouscomponentscontributetotheWBLpedagogy.(Figure2)

Figure2:WBLAcademicprocessataglance

TheWBLecosystemincludingreal-lifeworkplace,peers,appraisers,mentorsandeLearning

environmentcontributestooffer‘LearningthroughWorking’experienceforWBLstudent.

Itisinthiscontext,theroleofindustryincreatingWBLecosystemwithintheworkplaceandits

keyparametersisdiscussed.

Methodology

ResearchliteratureprovidesexamplesofWBLpedagogies.JosephRaelininhisbook–Work-

basedLearning(Raelin,2008)conceptualizesamodelofWBLthatcombinesexplicitandtacit

formsofknowledgewiththeoryandpracticemodesoflearning.Thesignificanceofthe

students’ownreflectionsisemphasizedinthemodel,anditisconsideredimportantto

articulatethetacitknowledgethatmanyworkplacepracticesarebasedon.MichaelEraut

(Eraut,2004)providesananalyticalframeworkthatfocusesonfactorsthataffectlearning

intheworkplace.Heidentifiedboth-learningfactors(confidence,supportandchallenge)and

contextfactors(allocationofwork,relationshipsatworkandexpectationsofperformance).

FromconceptualizationofboththesemodelsandtheWBLmodelunderstudy,itcanbe

derivedthattheroleofindustryofferingreal-lifeworkplaceforimplementingWBLiscrucial

anditcomprisesofroleofactorsinvolved,theprocessesandpoliciesadaptedbyindustry.


135

Further,inordertoensureconfident,committedandperformingWBLstudents(SFIA:Levelsof

responsibility2003-2020)withasoundexposuretoformaltheoreticalknowledge,itis

necessarytoimplementenrichingacademicprocesseswithintheworkplace.

Focusofthispaper,therefore,istodocumenttheroleofindustryintermsofkeyparameters

essentialforsettingtheWBLenvironmentwithintheworkplace.

ProcessthatledtodocumentationofkeyparametersofWBLecosystemwithintheworkplace

andfurtheranalysiswasasfollows:

1. Mockinterviews:MockinterviewsofThirdYearstudentswereconducted.

a. Ratinganalysis:Analysisofratingswasdoneanditwasfoundthatthe

performanceofthestudentsvariedsignificantly.

b. WorkLab-wiseanalysisofratings:Thisledtofurtherstudyofdataanditwas

observedthatthestudentswhoperformedwellinthemockinterviewsand

thosewhodidnot,belongedtodifferentwork-labs.

2. IdentifyingWBLimplementationpracticesatawork-labwherestudentsperformed

betterinmockinterviews:Itwasdecidedtoidentify,observeandifnecessaryconduct

surveystodocumentthepracticesfollowedbycompanywithintheworkplaceasapart

ofWBLimplementation.Thisexercisewasplannedfortheorganizationwherestudents

performedwellinthemockinterviews.

3. KeyparametersofWBLEcosystem:Duringobservations,fewkeyparametersforminga

WBLenvironmentwithintheworkplacewereidentified.Thisyieldedinteresting

findings.Keyactors,processesandfunctionsortoolsoftheWBLenvironmentwithin

theworkplacearedocumentedbasedonthefindings.


136

4. StudentSurvey:Further,asurveyofstudentswasconductedtounderstandifsimilar

practiceswerefollowedbyothercompanies,wherethestudentsdidnotperformwellin

themockinterviews.

5. ComparativeAnalysis:ComparativeanalysiswasdonetocheckifWBLenvironmentis

toberecommendedforreplication.

Mockinterviews

MockinterviewswerescheduledforthirdyearstudentspursuingWBLdegreeprogram.The

interviewswereconductedbyseniorprofessionals(seniorgeneralmanagersandgeneral

managers).

Primaryobjectivesofthisexercisewastogiveaclose-to-realkindofexperienceofinterviewto

thestudents.Researchesstatetheimportanceofconductingmockinterviewsandjob-search

seminarsforundergraduatestudents.(Reddan,2008)Studentsdevelopareasonablyhighlevel

ofconfidenceinpreparationfor“real-world”scenarios.

ThisisparticularlyfoundtobeessentialforWBLunderstudy,becauseWBLstudentscomplete

theirtenureofassociationwiththeindustry/organizationofferingwork-labastheyreceivethe

degree.Whiletheindustry/organizationhasachoicetoretainthestudentswhowouldhave

attainedthreeyearsofwork-experience,itisnotmandatoryforthemtocontinueanystudent.

Itisinthiscontextandinordertoensurethereadinessofstudentsforreal-lifeinterview

experience,mockinterviewswereconducted.

FindingsandOutcome

Analysisofratingsreceivedinthemock-interviewswasdone.

Ratingparameterswere:

• EnglishConversationAbilities

• EthicalValues

• ExposuretoSkills(NewSkills)


137

• Interactionswiththementor

• SelfConfidence

• Theoreticalknowledge

IP:IndustryPartner(i.e.Work-Lab)

Figure3:Work-Labwiseaverageratingsofstudents


138

IP:IndustryPartner(i.e.Work-Lab)

Figure4:Work-LabwiseAverageInterviewScoresforeachparameter

Qualitativefeedback

Qualitativefeedbackwasalsoreceivedfromtheinterviewpanelmembers.Fewstudentslacked

confidencewhileappearingfortheinterviewandwerenotabletoestablisheventheeye-

contactwiththeinterviewer.Fewofthemwereunabletoexplaintheworktheyaredoing.

Clarityaboutthejobroletheyarelookingforwasfoundtobemissinginsomecases.However,

someofthestudentswereextremelyclearabouttheircurrentjobrole,theirstrengthsand

theiraspirations.Theydidwellintheinterview.Theywereevenawareofthewaytheywere

learning.Theycouldmentionthattheircourseisbasedon‘WBLpedagogy’.However,though

werenotabletoexpressitinfurthertechnicalterms.

Fewinterviewswereconductedoverphoneandmixedobservationswerereceivedfromthe

interviewersonthesimilarlinesofface-to-faceinterviews.

Thisfeedbackandtheanalysisofratingsofmock-interviewledtoinvestigateifthestudents

whodidwellandwhodidnot,belongtodifferentwork-labs.SincetheeLearninginputwas


139

sameforall,itwashypothesizedthatdifferenceinperformancecouldberelatedtoworkplace

environment.

ItledtofurtherinquiryofWBLecosystemattheworkplacesofthestudentswhoperformed

wellinthemockinterviews.

ThefindingsofthisinquirymayleadtoaprobablehypothesisthatincaseofavailabilityofWBL

ecosystemattheworkplacewithcertainkeyparameters,theperformanceofthestudentsas

expectedbytheindustryforrecruitmentisassuredafterthreeyears.

Whilesuchahypothesisneedstobecloselyinspectedandvalidatedbyastructuredresearch,

thecurrentanalysiscreatesaworthwhilebaseforestablishingsuchacorrelation.

KeypracticesimplementedatWork-Lab

Work-reporting

Aformatforreportingevery-dayworkissharedwiththeWBLstudents.Itisobservedthat

studentsperformthetaskssatisfactorilyhoweverarenotabletoformcompleteandprecise

sentencesforreportingthetaskinEnglishlanguage.Hence,initialformatofwork-reportisin

formof‘fillintheblanks’.Thisisonthebasisofthescaffoldingtechniquesoastohelpstudents

reportfactsaboutthetasks,theirindividualrolesincompletingthetasksetc.Graduallythe

studentsaregivensheetwithopenendedquestionsandareaskedtofilluptheworkreport

underbroadheadingssuchas:Tasksallotted,Roleperformed,Skillsattained,Timetaken,Steps

followed,Challengesfacedetc.(TheWritingProcess:AScaffoldingApproach,2015)

Theobjectiveofusingthisformatwithleadingquestionsatabroadlevelistoassessifthe

studentsareabletoexplainthetaskscompletedinaprofessionalandtheoreticallanguage.

Qualitativeanalysisofthework-reportsonfollowingparameterswasdone.

1. Specificityinexplainingthetask

2. Clarityaboutthemethod

3. Clarityaboutexpectedoutput

4. Clarityaboutpurpose

5. Clarityaboutchallenges


140

6. Specificityinexplainingthesolution

7. Istheskillmentionedbythestudentrelatedtotheworkortask

8. MeaningfulExpression

Everydayreflection

Seniormembersofwork-labconductreflectionsessionswiththestudentseveryday.The

attendancetothesessionsismandatoryforallstudents.

Reflectingonwork-reports–Peerexercise

Apeerexerciseintheformofquestions&answersisconductedduringeverydayreflection

session.(Rivers,2017)

Theobjectiveoftheexerciseistocheckif:

- Studentscanaskmeaningfulquestions

- Studentscananswerquestionsreasonablywell

- Studentscanunderstandtheworkdonebyothers

Theworkreportssubmittedbythepeersarecirculated.Everystudentisgivenaccesstotwo

work-reports.Minimumtwoquestionsaretobeaskedbyeachstudentaftergoingthroughthe

reportindetail.Fact-basedandobviousquestionssuchas–‘howmuchtimedidittaketo

completethetask’or‘whatwasyourrole’arediscouragedanddiscarded.Studentsare

expectedtoaskquestionssoastolearnnewthings.

Initiallythestudentsarerequiredtobeprompted.However,afterfollowingthepracticefor

morethan1month,meaningfulquestionsareaskedbypeersForex.-Inwhatwayyourworkis

linkedtothebusinessofthecompany?Whichstepinthisprocesscouldhavebeenavoided?

Enrichmentactivities

SpecialactivitiesinordertoofferajoyfulenvironmenttoWBLstudentsareconducted.These

include:

• Readingsessions

• SpokenEnglishsessions


141

• Involvingstudentsinorganizationalevents

• Fitnessactivities

• Sportscompetitions

• Presentationcompetitions

• Givingresponsibilitytoconductfewactivitiesforemployeesoftheorganization

WBLEnvironmentwithintheworkplace:Actors,ProcessesandFunctions

Afteranalyzingfindingsofallthekeypracticesimplementedwithinawork-labwherestudents

performedbetterinmockinterviews,itisobservedthatWBLecosystemisaninterplayof

actors,processesandfunctions&toolswithintheworkplace.

Processes

FunctionsandTools

Actors


142

Outcomesandimpactofimplementingaforementionedprocesses

Actorsperformvariousfunctionsandusetoolstoexecuteprocessesleadingtosuccessful

implementationofWBL.

Mentionedbelow(Table1)theinter-linksalongwithfewexamplesoffunctionsperformed

and/ortoolsusedandtheirimpact.

Table1:Theinter-linksalongwithfewexamplesoffunctionsperformedand/ortoolsusedand

theirimpact.

Actors:

Keypersononnelinimplementationof

WBL

• HRDepartment/HRManager• Appraiser• Mentor

Processes:

LearningthroughWorking

• Taskallocation• Performancemonitoringwithcorrectivefeedbak• Reflecting• eLearning

FunctionsandTools

• SpecialHRpolicies• Workreport• Performancemonitoringcriteria• Reflectionsessions• eLearningframework• Enrichmentactivities


143

Actor: HRDepartment/HRManager

ProcessExample(1): SpecialcadreforWBLStudents/Interns

Function/Tool Outcome/Impact

• SpecialHRpolicies

(Ex.PF,Holidays,Specialtimings

foreLearning)

• Students(undergraduate,betweentheagegroup

18–20),getablendedenvironmentoflearningand

working.Manymaysufferfromhomesickness

becauseofmigration.Suchreliefpolicieshelpin

buildingtheircommitmenttowardslearningand

working

• ImportanceofWBLimplementationatorganization

levelgetshighlighted

• Uniforms • PolicieslikeUniformsbenefitstudentscomingfrom

differentbackgrounds,mostlyfromunderprivileged

sectionsofthesociety.Suchpoliciesalsogive

organization-widerecognitiontoWBLprogram

• Specialeventssuchassports,

Culturalevents,Picnicsetc.

includingEnrichmentActivities)

• Specialeventshelpstudentsshowcasetheirtalents.

Thisisnecessarybecausethestudentsdonotgeta

traditionalcollegeenvironment.

ProcessExample(2): Taskallocation

• Rotationwithinteams • Studentsgetanexposuretovariousdepartments/

functionsoftheorganization

• Studentsgetdiversifiedworkexperienceduringthe

threeyearsofinternship


144

Actor: Appraiser

ProcessExample(3): PerformanceMonitoringwithcorrectivefeedback


• WorkReports • Everydayinteractions

• Personalmentoringandguidance

• Friendlyandcaringrelationship

• Specialprojectassignments

• Posingchallenges

• Involvementinthestudent’slearning

• Encouragingreflections

Actor: Mentor

ProcessExample(4): Reflection


• ReflectionSessions • Helpingstudentsderivetheoryoutofpracticeatthe

workplace

Conclusions

Thereisascopefordeterminingapositiveeffectontheperformanceandoveralldevelopment

ofthestudents,providedtheyaregivenaWBLecosystemwithintheworkplacethatensures

‘LearningthroughWorking’.Appropriateuseofwork-basedlearningmanagementsystemcan

helpinreplicatingthekeypracticesforimplementingWBLeffectively.Thekeychallengehereis

toensuremotivationandcommitmentofactorsinvolved.Continuoustraining,retraining,

orientationofappraisersandtheirinputsinordertofurtherstreamlinetheWBLprocessesin

theorganizationiscrucialforthesuccessfulimplementationofWBL.


145

Notesoncontributors:

(1) Dr.RevatiNamjoshi

Dr.RevatileadsEducationalTransformationProgramofMKCL-agovernmentpromoted,public

limitedcompanyestablishedasafasttrackenablerforbringingintransformationsinthefieldof

education,governanceandempowerment.Herresearchinterestsincludework-basedlearning

pedagogies,technologyenabledlearning,teachereducation.

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Figure1:WBLmodel.................................................................................................................133

Figure2:WBLAcademicprocessataglance............................................................................134

Figure3:Work-Labwiseaverageratingsofstudents...............................................................137

Figure4:Work-LabwiseAverageInterviewScoresforeachparameter..................................138

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