Io9.Com 5867082 10 Images That Changed the Course of Science and One That is About To

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WE COME FROM THE FUTURE

NEWER STORIES

DAILY 10

10 Images That Changed

the Course of Science (And

One That Is About To)One image can change the way we see the

world, especially in science. From photographs

of movement that's too fast for the human eye to

perceive, to atomic force microscope images of

atomic bonds, pictures created by new

DEC 29, 2011 10:00 AM

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technologies have often catalyzed scientific

discovery. More than tools of discovery, though, images can help scientists communicate the reality of

what they study to each other and the public.

One poignant image can change not just the course of science, but also ordinary people's perception of

their place in the cosmos. Here are ten powerful images that did just that - and one that's going to

change our lives over the next century.

Top image of the "Brainbow."

Click any image to enlarge.

Human anatomy, by Leonardo Da Vinci (1509-

1510)

At a time in history when few people had

methodically attempted to document human anatomy

both inside and outside the body, Renaissance artistLeonardo Da Vinci did both. He produced over 200

drawings, based on dissections he obs erved, of

human musculature and skeletal structure. Not only

were these images beautiful, but they were among the

most accurate medical diagrams created in Europe up

to that point. By combining scientific observation with his art, Da Vinci helped to invent modern anatomy

studies.

Original Pe riodic Table, by Dmitri Me ndelee v

(1869)

Just as Da Vinci's anatomy drawings helped doctors

visualize what they were working on, so too did

Dmitri Mendeleev's efforts to organize what we knew

of the elements into a rational data table. Mendeleev

established the periodic table in the mid-nineteenth

8:00 AMSECRET HISTORY

The Curious Case o f the Severed

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AFTERNOON REA

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Weird art projec t turns bo nes into

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Charles Yu, Lauren Beukes and Cherie

Priest on the Challenges and Thrills

of Filming Their Books

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MORNING SPOILE

Peter Jackson reveals

why The Hobbitis no thing like Lord

of the Rings!

WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 2 8, 2 011

8:50 PMTHIS IS AWESOME

In Ecuador, insane g iant sc ulptures o f

The Hulk and Hellboy invade on Ne w

Years Eve

6:40 PMEXOSKELETONS

This unco mfo rtable exo skeleton

s s

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MORE STORIES

century, organizing the known elements and

predicting more that have s ince been discovered. This

table first appeared in a form that doesn't look much

like a table - it comes from a manuscript draft. The

Periodic Table, which all s choolchildren memorize

today, is one of the earliest examples of an

infographic helping people to understand a scientific

discipline.

Hadrosaurus - the first dinosaur skeleton on

display. From the Smithsonian (Photographtaken in the early 1870s )

In 1868, a dinosaur skeleton went on display for the

first time. Fossil hunter William Parker Foulke had

discovered the remains of aHadrosaurus foulkii

(named after him). Although five other d inosaurs were

already known at the time, Foulke's skeleton was the most complete one ever discovered, and it was

mounted and displayed at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia (along with many other

museums in America), bringing dinosaurs to the public awareness . Images of the skeleton circulated

widely, impress ing on the general public for the first time what naturalists had known for centuries: The

world was once ruled by creatures far stranger than we could ever imagine.

The Horse in Motion, by Edward Muybridge

(1882)

In 1878, Leland Stanford, then the former governor

of California and a horse aficionado, commissioned

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The secret to preventing malaria

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photographer Eadweard Muybridge to prove his pet

theory: that galloping horses actually lift all four

hooves off the ground. Muybridge set up a s eries of

cameras to take 12 shots in under half a second,

creating an early filmstrip. This not only

demonstrated the truth of Stanford's theory, but also

became a precursor to the motion picture. At the time, photography was a relatively new technology, so

these images are an example of a new imaging technology being applied to a very old question, and at

last revealing an answer.

The First X-Ray, by Wilhelm Conrad Rntge n

(1895)

Physicist Rntgen stumbled across a novel property

of cathode rays, which is that they appeared to emit a

light (electrons) that could be picked up by a

photographic plate. Eventually he decided to test histheory by enlisting the help of his wife. Peter Peters

writes in the Textbook o f Radiology :

Roentgen had already proved his capability as

an experimental phys icist, and the experimental

set-up for the study of the "new light" was

carefully planned. To document his

observations he used photographic plates. Onthe evening of December 22, 1895, he asked his

wife Bertha to let him photograph her hand

using the new rays. After a fifteen minute

exposure the first radiograph of a human being

was obtained showing clearly the bones of the

hand and the two rings she was wearing.

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This image would eventually transform medical science, allowing doctors to peep inside the bodies of

their patients without diss ection. We s till use x-rays in both medicine and other areas of s cience today.

Photograph 51 (DNA), by Rosalind Franklin

(1952)

X-rays played a part in one of the twentieth century's

greatest discoveries. Scientist and x-raycrystallographer Rosalind Franklin, in this x-ray

diffraction image (dubbed Photograph 51),

demonstrated the double helix structure of DNA . The

diffraction pattern you see not only suggested the

likely double helix structure, but also that phosphate

structures (what we now know as DNA bases ) were

on the outside. Her work inspired colleagues James

Watson and Francis Crick, who later won the Nobel Prize for the discovery (Franklin had died by then,

and Nobel P rizes are not awarded pos thumously).

First neutrino tracks in a hydrogen bubble

chamber, from the Zero Gradient Synchrotron

(1970)

Like many of these groundbreaking visualizations,

this photograph was the result of combining a novel

technology (the bubble chamber) with a known

imaging technique (photography). The ArgonneNational Lab website describes it like this:

The world's first neutrino observation in a

hydrogen bubble chamber was found Nov. 13,

1970, on this historical photograph from the Zero Gradient Synchrotron's 12-foot bubble

chamber. The invisible neutrino s trikes a proton where three particle tracks originate (right). The

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neutrino turns into a mu-meson, the long center track. The short track is the proton. The third

track is a pi-meson created by the collision.

For the first time, we had physical and visual proof of neutrinos.

First image of the s tructure of a silicon crystal

lattice taken by scanning tunneling microscope

(STM), by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer

(1983)

STM is one of the primary methods we use to see

individual atoms and molecules, and it revolutionized

many areas of science, including materials science

(nanotechnology). It was invented in 1981 and Bennig

and Rohrer won the Nobel P rize for it in 1986. After

Binnig and Rohrer managed to image individual

silicon and gold atoms (this image is just one of many they produced), the technique was proven to

work. Now it is impos sible to imagine how we would s tudy the molecular world without STM.

First Image of the Cos mic Microwave

Background (evidence of the Big Bang), by

George Smoot/NASA COBE (from observations

taken 1990-92) The enormous heat of the Big Bang

created waves that are still detectable, although they

have cooled and stretched out to microwaves since,

forming the cosmic microwave background radiation.

The presence of this radiation, which provides supporting evidence for the Big Bang, was predicted

back in 1948, accidentally observed in 1965, and originally s een as uniform in brightness . However,

more sens itive instruments can detect tiny fluctuations (the variations are less than one in one thousand),

and create a map of the temperature of the CMB over the sky. The first such map was created in 1992,

based on data gathered by the Differential Microwave Radiometer (DMR), an instrument on the Cosmic

Background Explorer (COBE) s atellite, which NASA launched in 1989. Physicist George Smoot won a

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Nobel Prize for his work on the CMB.

Brainbow, by Jean Livet/Harvard Center for

Brain Science (2007)

This image marked the first time that it was easy for

researchers to see the pathways taken by many

neurons in a brain (in this case, a mouse brain). The

process that created the "brainbow" was a

combination of familiar imaging technology and a

novel way of using fluorescence to "tag" individual

neurons. On the CBS website, the researchers

explain:

To trace the longer pathways that interconnect

different brain regions, CBS labs developed a

genetic method to label each individual nerve

cell a different color to identify and track axons

and dendrites over long distances . With light

microscopy, scientists image the branching

patterns and connections of all the axons within

a region of the nervous system in transgenic

mice that express a number of different fluorescent proteins in individual neurons. The idea here

is to co lor-code the individual "wires" and "nodes." The images below give an indication of the

power of this approach.

The images were first described in a 2007 Nature article by Jean Livet, et. al.

The molecular bonds in a Pentacene molecule, by

IBM Res earch (2009)

Taken with an atomic force microscope, which grew

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Contact Annalee Newitz and S: EMAIL THE AUTHOR COMMENT TWITTER

out of the technologies pioneered by Bennig and

Rohrer's STM, this is the first image ever taken that

shows molecular bonds. According to Technology

Review:

The hexagonal shapes of the five carbon rings

in the pentacene molecule are clearly resolved.Even the positions of the hydrogen atoms around the carbon rings can be deduced from the

image. Twenty-two carbon atoms (gray balls) form five interconnected hexagonal rings.

Fourteen hydrogen atoms (white balls) bind to the carbon atoms. The molecule itself measures

1.4 nanometers in length.

While this image hasn't changed the course of science yet, it hints at a future where we will have greater

and greater access to molecular structures - both as observers and engineers.

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DISCUSSION THREADS FEATURED ALL START A NEW THREAD

sui generis Thu 29 Dec 2011 11:02 AM

That last one is really amazing. I had no idea the structure of the models science used to demonstrate

molecular bonds were actually more or less accurate. I just as sumed they were more of the "this is the

easiest way to envision what's happening" -type of model. The atomic force microscope image is

surprisingly comparable to how it's always been represented.

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promoted by sui generis

SuzyM @sui generis

It's hexagons all the way down :)

Daveinva @sui generis

Ditto. I remember when I first s aw that photo, I was like, "Wait a s econd... NON E of my science

teachers ever bothered to say that those hexagonal maps were literal."

Still blows my mind.

Ellis T Harrison @sui generis

Yeah, I was cruising through these things thinking, "Yeah, that's pretty cool." When I got to this one, I

did a mental spit take.

Vundal @sui generis

hahaha yeh . its funny to see some of your old school studies actually be right... i always figured the

hexagon was used because of the ease in making it clear where the bonds were made

Purple Dave @sui generis

Well...the issue is that molecular diagrams are all two-dimensional, and we have no way of knowing forsure that all atoms are flat. It seems like some could be wrapped around themselves like the seam on a

baseball, at which point you'd never be able to produce a photograph that meshes with the diagram in

this way. This just happens to be a fairly simple molecular shape, and if the ends of the molecule

repulse each other, flat is the most logical shape. A more complicated shape with bits sticking off in four

or more directions would not be as likely to sit flat like this. If you take two balls and put them side-by-

side, they can't produce a 3-dimensional orientation because they only form a single line. Three balls

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also can't produce a 3- dimensional orientation because they can only form a s ingle triangle. But when

you add a fourth ball, you can either have a diamond/square...or you can have a four-sided pyramid.

Of the two shapes, the pyramid is by far the more stable shape when you think in terms of inward-

directed pressures. So if these four balls are actually magnetic marbles, if you have them in a diamond

shape, you can easily move the two end marbles around in relation to each other and the two center

marbles. But once you push them around into the pyramid arrangement, they kinda tend to s tay that way

unless you exert sufficient force to break the magnetic bonds.

Now, of course, you might be wondering why I'd use magnetic bonds to demonstrate how repulsion

would work, and that's a fair question. But if the ends of the molecule attracted each other, this

molecule would wrap into a ring, or flex into an accordion shape. But if you think in terms of a

molecule that has four matching arms, if those arms repulse each other, then in order for Arm 1 to move

away from Arm 2 and Arm 4, Arms 1 & 3 have to move in one direction and Arms 2 & 4 have to move

in the other. Only when they've wrapped around the core enough that any one arm is equidistant from

the other three arms are they all as far away from their immediate neighbors as they can possibly get

without stretching out the molecule itself. And if you draw lines between all the arm tips , you get that

same four-sided pyramid.

jtrugga @sui generis

I am a chemisty teacher, and even I d idn't know that!

promoted by Evil Tortie's Mom: R.O.A.C.H.

SteveDu @Purple Dave

Sorry, but every chemistry and crystallography text talks about the three-dimensional geometry of

atomic structures. You take two very long paragraphs to reveal you have no idea of the tetrahedral

bonding of carbon or silicon.

Evil Tortie's Mom: R.O.A.C.H. @SteveDu

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Exactly. My Chem 101 textbook even had stereo pairs and goggles s o that you could see the

structures in 3-D.

Which is doubly awesome late at night when you have access to... substances...

darklighter @Daveinva

Really? I thought molecular geometry was a pretty standard part of most introductory chemistry

courses . I definitely remember learning VSEPR theory in high school.

KiwiMan @SteveDu

I don't think he ever s aid there weren't tree- dimensional atomic structures. It think you agree with what

he said and misunders tood him, either that or I've misunders tood him.

It sounds to me like he's explaining how not all structures would translate as easily to 2D diagrams asthe one pictured, which would be right.

Azethoth @SuzyM

Not all the way down. Eventually you get to

little painted miniatures on the las t level of

hexagons.

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Io9.Com 5867082 10 Images That Changed the Course of Science and One That is About To