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PLANT HALLUCINOGENS AND SHAMAN

V.J.Tiwari, M.D.Padhye and V.K.DeslunukhPost Graduate Deparement of Botany, Nagpur UniversityNagpur

Many reviews covering the broad subject of hallucinogenic plants havebeen published in recent years (Emboden, J r. 1972; Fransworth 1968; Schultes1969 a, b, c, d.; Rubin 1975). Scientific interest in the hallucinogenic plantsremains high in the hope of finding potentially valuable drugs for use inexperimental or even therapeutic psychiatry and also because they mightprove useful tools to study biochemical origins of mental abnormalities.Ethnobotanical and anthropological studies of various tribes of the worldhave also reported various plants used by herbalists and diviners and theirrole in the remedies of different illnesses. Such investigations include thereports ofStevenson (1908 - 1909), Osmond (1955), Barrau (1958), La Barre(1970, 1975), MacDougall (1960), Wasson (1968) Hoffman (1968), Chagnonet al (1971), Rivier and Lindgren (1972), Prance (1977) and many others.

The use of plant products as hallucinogens in aboriginal mythology andreligion is not new. Many primitive societies in India are still using mahualiquor, rice beer, toddy, tobacco, jaggery wine, ganja, bhang etc. in their routineway of life and many of them are addicts. Sometimes these preparations areused in magico-medical treatment of ailments. It is probable that they havelearned by trial and error that some plants and their preparations haveintoxicating effects. The most ancient hallucinogen is Soma) brought in bythe Aryan invaders of northern India. Its sacred narcotic use among theAryan goes back some 3,500 years. The botanists have identified it asAmanita muscaria, the widely recognized hallucinogenic fly agaric mushroom,which is still in ritualistic use in remote parts of north Asia. The psychoac-tive properties of Ganja (Cannabis saliva) is noted in Ayurveda.

The ethnobotanical studies on' the Madia tribe have been reported' byJain (1963, 1965) and anthropological work was done by Russell and Hiralal(1916), Elwin (1947) and Grigson (1949). However, very little work on thepsychopharmacological uses of plants has been done. Therefore we decidedto investigate inebriant plants used by this tribe.

372 THE EASTERN ANTHROPOLOGIST 43:4

The Madia is a principal subtribe of Gond inhabiting the dry deciduousforest areas of Bhamragad region of Gadchiroli district, located between 19°,30' and 19° 45' North latitude and 80°, IS' and 80°, 45' East longitude, inMaharashtra, India. The entire area is hilly and traversed by rivers, viz.Indravati, Pamul Gautam, Bandia and innumerable streams. It is coveredwith thick dry deciduous and bamboo forest. Their total population is 22,000,distributed in 158 villages. They live in hamlets of bamboo huts plas teredwith mud and covered with thatched roofs. Both men and women wearcoarse cloth which covers the lower part of their body and the part abovethe waist is bare. The ghotul (guest house) in every village represents atraditionally important socio-cultural institution. They still practiseshifting cultivation and partly subsist on the surrounding forest using a varietyof plants as food, beverages, medicine, also for house construction. The useof plant hallucinogens by shaman (perm a) and medicine men (bhagat) ofMadia tribe to trace and tap the sacred knowledge of supernatural power isquite common and these plants are also used by them to investigate the causeof a particular ailment. According to perma and bhagat these plants and theirpreparations induce visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory halluci-nations. They are used in the form of beverages, snuffs, smoking articlesand as fumigatory agents. The hallucination may enable them to speak withthe controlling spirit force to cure various types of diseases.

METHODOLOGYThe ethnobotanical investigation of Bhamragad region was carried out

from November 1986 to December 1989 when the data presented here wascollected. The use of hallucinogenic plants by shaman and medicine men ofthe Madia tribe was personally observed. These plants were botanicallyidentified and the method of preparation of the psychoactive articles werenoted. The voucher herbarium specimens of plants were prepared in thefield and are now preserved in the Department of Botany, Nagpur University.

RESULTSThe narcotic snuff prepared from the bark of the tree of Pivar (Barring-

tonia actangula) and fumigation of Gomra (Lepidagathis cristata) is used by theperma to diagnose and expel the ev~l spirit .responsible for village disease orany communicable disease. Tue muff is said to induce visual hallucination.The drink prepared from the fermentation of grains of Kodon (Paspaiumscrobiculatum) with the roots of Jilkara (Hamiltonia suaveolens) and the bark ofMowai iLennea grandis) tree is used by the b'i tg zt tocon n micate with thespirit world or to seek advice from ancestors to cure infertility in women.This drink is locally called jilkara and is believed to induce tactile and visual

SHORTER NOTES 373

hallucination. The bark powder of Dibrik Marha (Psychotria dalzelli) tree isused by bhagat as sneezing snuff to relieve headache and migraine. Thefumigation of Jilgu herb (Heliotropium supinum) is inhaled by the medicineman to commune and intercede with the devils responsible for tuberculosis.The perma of Kuwakodi village considers that the plant of Rikachari (Hemigra-phis latebrosa) can cure insanity. He holds that the intoxicating drinkprepared by mixing this plant in the liquor obtained from jaggery and mahua(Maduca indica) permits them to travel over great distances. The bhagat ofPermibhatti village believes that the chewing of roots of Dayampurka (Des-modium velutinum) with the bark of Koranjal tree (Holoptelea integrifolia) inducesgustatory hallucination. The seeds of Kiprivel (Rhyncosia minima) are chewedby a person attacked by witchcraft.

Dreaming has a crucial significance in the treatment of witchcraft.Perma uses dreams as a means of discerning the cause of some afflictions.The drink prepared by the mixing of Bhowarsal (Hymenodictyon excelsum) barkin the rice beer is believed to bring day dreams by inducting visual andauditory hallucination. The mahua liquor prepared by the addition of Pookeramarha (Justicia betonica) plant is given to clients during the ritual of divinationto diagnose paralysis attack. Medicines used to counter diseases also includeanimal substances e.g. one cup of hot decoction of roots of Dori Vel [Marsdeniaoolubilis), a climber, with horn pieces of Sambhar (Rusa aristotelis), a large deer,is prescribed for a person suffering from snake bite. This decoction preventsunconsciousness and removes the venom through urine. The use of mahualiquor, tapped exudate of toddy (Borassus jfabellifer) and gorga (Caryota urens]is very common among the Madia.CONCLUSION

It is very difficult to understand why hallucinogens have penetrated sodeeply into divinatory ritual performed by priests and medicine men. Theynot only play an important role in the health and sickness of individualsbut are also mentioned in their mythology and religion. The uses of 14hallucinogenic plants mentioned above are novel, not having been reportedearlier. As there is no phytochemical and pharmacological work whichsupports the usage of newly reported plants and it is suggested thatinvestigations be undertaken immediatly to identify active principles respon-sible for psychoactive effects of these plants. Such studies may lead to thediscovery of new drugs responsible for mental abnormalities. Further, it isnecessary to undertake psychopharmacological investigations with the help ofinterdisciplinary approach to understand the vast amount of informationassociated with the usage of hallucinogens.

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374 THE EASTERN ANTHROPOLOGIST 43:4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi whoprovided financial assistance for the research project.

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SHORTER NOTES 375

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