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S T U D I A ARCHAEOLOGICA
59
STUDIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
59
STUDIA ARCHAEOLOGICA 59
1 - DE MARINIS, S. - La tipologia del banchetto nell'arte etrusca arcaica, 1961. 2 - BAR0NI, F. - Osservazini sul <<Trono di Boston", 1961. 3 - LAURENZI, L. - limanith di Fidia, 1961. 4 - GIULIANO, A. - Ii commercio dei sarcofagi attici, 1962. 5 - NOCENTINI, S. - Sculture greche, etrusche e rornane net Museo Bardini in Firenze, 1965. 6 - GsuLIANO, A. - La cultura artistica delle province greche in eta romana, 1965. 7 - FERRARI, G. - Ii commercio dei sarcofagi asiatici, 1966. 8 - BREOLIA, L. - Le antiche torte del Mediterraneo documentate da monete e pesi, 1966. 9 - LATTANZI, F. - I ritratti dei <<cosmetic netMuseo Nazionale di Alene, 1968.
10 - SALEYFI, C. - Ritratti severiani, 1967. 11 - BLANK, H. - Wiederverwendung alter Statuen als Ehrendenkmäler bei Griechen und
Romern. 2a Ed. nv. ed. ill., 1969. 12 - CANCIANI, F. - Bronzi onientali ed onientalizzanti a Creta nell'VIII e VII sec. aC., 1970. 13 - C0NTI, G. - Decorazione architettonica delta <,Piazza dorm, a Villa Adriana, 1970. 14 - SPRENOER, M. - Die etruskische Plastik des V. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. und ihr. Verhältnis zar
griechischen Kunst, 1972. 15 - POLASCHEK, K. - Studien zur Ikonographie der Antonia Minor, 1973. 16 - FABBRICOTTI, B. - Galba, 1976. 17 - POLASCHEK, K. - Portrattypen einer Claudischen Kaisenin, 1973. 18 - PENSA, M. - Rappresentazioni dell'oltretomba nella ceramica apula, 1977. 19 - COSTA, P.M. - The pre-islamic antiquities at the Yemen National Museum, 1978. 20 - PERRONE, M. - Ancorae Antiquae. Per una cronologia preliminare delle ancore del
mediterraneo, 1979. 21 - AUTORt VARI - Studi sull'arco onorario romano, 1979. 22 - FAYER, C. Aspetti di vita quotidiana nella Roma arcaica, 1982. 23 OLERICH, G. Archaische Statuetten eines metapontiner Heiligtams, 1979. 24 - PAPADOPOULOS, J. - Xoana e Sphyrelata, 1980. 25 - VECCHI, M. - Torcello. Contnibuti e ricerche, 1979. 26 - MANACORDA, D. - Un'officina lapidaria sulla via Appia, 1979. 27 - AUTORt VARI Srudi aulla cilIa antica in Emilia Romagna, 1987. 28 - ROWLAND, J.J. - Ritrovamenti romani in Sardegna. 1981. 29 - ROMEO, P. - Riunificazione del centro di Roma antics, 1979. 30 - ROMEO, P. - Salvaguardia delle zone archeologiche e problemi viari nelle cilIa, 1979. 31 - MACNAMARA, E. - Vita quotidiana degli Etruschi, 1982. 32 - STUCCHI, S. - It gruppo bronzeo tiberiano da Carloceto, 1988. 33 - ZUFFA, M. - Scritti di archeologia, 1982. 34 - VECCHt, M. - Torcello. Naove ricerche, 1982. 35 - SALZA PRINA Rscorni, E. - L'arte del convilo nella Roma antica, 1983. 36 - GILOTTA, F. - Raffigurazioni a livello di gutti e askoi, 1984. 37 - BECATTI, G. - Kosmos. Studi sal mondo classico, 1987. 38 - FABRINI, G.M. - Numana: vasi attici da collezione, 1984. 39 - Buostocoten, M. - Schiavi e liberti dci Volusi Saturnini, 1984. 40 - FUCHS, M. - Ii Teatro romano di Fiesole, 1986. 41 - BURANELLI, F. - L'urna <<Calabresi>, di Cerveteni. Monumenti, Musei e Gallenie Pontificie,
1985. 42 PICCARRETA, F. - Manuale di fotografia aerea: uso archeologico, 1987. 43 - LIVERANI, P. Municipium Augustum Veiens (Veio in eta inspeniale attraverso gli scavi
Giorgi (1811-13), 1987. 44 - STRAZZUI.LA, M.J. - Le terrecotte architettoniche delta Venetia romana, 1987. 45 - FRANZONI, C. - Habitus Atque Habitudo Militis. Monumenti funerari di militani nella
Cisalpina Romana, 1987. 46 - SCARPELLINI, D. - Stele romane con imagines clipeatse in Italia, 1986. 47 - D'ALESSANDRO, L.
PERSEGATI, F. - Scultura e calchi in gesso. Stonia, tecnica e conservazione, 1987. 48 - MILANESE, M. - Gli scavi dell'oppidum preromano di Genova, 1987. 49 - SCATOZZA HORICHT, L.A. - Le terrecotte figurate di Cuma del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli,
1987. 50 - UHLENBRDCK, J.P. - The Terrecotta Protomai from Gela: A Discussion of Local Style in Archaic
Sicily, 1989. 51 - CAVAONARO VANON! L., SERRA
RtDDWAY, F.R. - Vasi etruschi a figure rosse. Dagli scavi delta Fondazione Lenici nella necro-poli dei Monterozzi a Tarquinia, 1989.
continua a pag. 158
STUDIA ARCHAEOLOGICA 59
1 - De Marinis, S. 2 - Baroni, F. 3 - Laurenzi, L. 4 - Giuliano, A. 5 - Nocentini, S. 6 - Giuliano, A. 7 - Ferrari, G. 8 - Breglia, L. 9 - Lattanzi, E.
10 - Saletti, C. 11 - Blank, H.
12 - Canciani, F. 13 - Conti, G. 14 - Sprenger, M.
15 - Polaschek, K. 16 - Fabbricotti, E. 17 - Polaschek, K. 18 - Pensa, M. 19 - Costa, P.M. 20 - Perrone, M.
21 - Autori Vari 22 - Fayer, C. 23 - Olbrich, G. 24 - Papadopoulos, J. 25 - Vecchi, M. 26 - Manacorda, D. 27 - Autori Vari 28 - Rowland, JJ. 29 - Romeo, P. 30 - Romeo, P. 31 - Macnamara, E. 32 - Stucchi, S. 33 - Zuffa, M. 34 - Vecchi, M. 35 - Salza Prina Ricotti, E. 36 - Gilotta, F. 37 - Becatti, G. 38 - Fabrini, G.M. 39 - Buonocore, M. 40 - Fuchs, M. 41 - Buranelli, F.
42 - PiCC ARRET A, F. 43 - Liverani, P.
44 - Strazzulla, MJ. 45 - Franzoni, C.
46 - S CARPELLINI, D. 47 - D'Alessandro, L.
Persegati, F. 48 - Milanese, M. 49 - Scatozza Höricht, L.A.
50 - Uhlenbrock, J.P.
51 - Cavagnaro Vanoni L., Serra Ridgway, F.R.
La tipologia del banchetto nell'arte etrusca arcaica, 1961. Osservazini sul «Trono di Boston», 1961. Umanità di Fidia, 1961. Il commercio dei sarcofagi attici, 1962. Sculture greche, etnische e romane nel Museo Bardini in Firenze, 1965. La cultura artistica delle province greche in età romana, 1965. Il commercio dei sarcofagi asiatici, 1966. Le antiche rotte del Mediterraneo documentate da monete e pesi, 1966. I ritratti dei «cosmeti» nel Museo Nazionale di Atene, 1968. Ritratti severiani, 1967. Wiederverwendung alter Statuen als Ehrendenkmäler bei Griechen und Römern. 2a Ed. riv. ed. ill., 1969. Bronzi orientali ed orientalizzanti a Creta nell'VIII e VII sec. a.C., 1970. Decorazione architettonica della «Piazza d'oro» a Villa Adriana, 1970. Die etruskische Plastik des V. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. und ihr. Verhältnis zur griechischen Kunst, 1972. Studien zur Ikonographie der Antonia Minor, 1973. Galba, 1976. Porträttypen einer Claudischen Kaiserin, 1973. Rappresentazioni dell'oltretomba nella ceramica apula, 1977. The pre-islamic antiquities at the Yemen National Museum, 1978. Ancorae Antiquae. Per una cronologia preliminare delle ancore del mediterraneo, 1979. Studi sull'arco onorario romano, 1979. Aspetti di vita quotidiana nella Roma arcaica, 1982. Archaische Statuetten eines metapontiner Heiligtums, 1979. Xoana e Sphyrelata, 1980. Torcello. Contributi e ricerche, 1979. Un'officina lapidaria sulla via Appia, 1979. Studi sulla città antica in Emilia Romagna, 1987. Ritrovamenti romani in Sardegna, 1981. Riunificazione del centro di Roma antica, 1979. Salvaguardia delle zone archeologiche e problemi viari nelle città, 1979. Vita quotidiana degli Etruschi, 1982. II gruppo bronzeo tiberiano da Cartoceto, 1988. Scritti di archeologia, 1982. Torcello. Nuove ricerche, 1982. L'arte del convito nella Roma antica, 1983. Raffigurazioni a livello di gutti e askoi, 1984. Kosmos. Studi sul mondo classico, 1987. Numana: vasi attici da collezione, 1984. Schiavi e liberti dei Volusi Saturnini, 1984. Il Teatro romano di Fiesole, 1986. L'urna «Calabresi» di Cerveteri. Monumenti, Musei e Gallerie Pontificie, 1985. Manuale di fotografia aerea: uso archeologico, 1987. Municipium Augustum Veiens (Veio in età imperiale attraverso gli scavi Giorgi (1811-13), 1987. Le terrecotte architettoniche della Venetia romana, 1987. Habitus Atque Habitudo Militis. Monumenti funerari di militari nella Cisalpina Romana, 1987. Stele romane con imagines clipeatae in Italia, 1986.
Scultura e calchi in gesso. Storia, tecnica e conservazione, 1987. Gli scavi dell'oppidum preromano di Genova, 1987. Le terrecotte figurate di Cuma del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, 1987. The Terrecotta Protomai from Gela: A Discussion of Local Style in Archaic Sicily, 1989.
Vasi etruschi a figure rosse. Dagli scavi della Fondazione Lerici nella necro- poli dei Monterozzi a Tarquinia, 1989.
continua a pag. 158
Peter F.B. Jongste
0 1li IYAYII IL'J U WI [IIii
ci• {I]i MYA {II) U tfli
<L'ERMA> di BRETSCHNEIDER
Peter F.B. Jongste
THE TWELVE LABOURS
OF HERCULES
ON ROMAN SARCOPHAGI
«L'ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER
PETER F.B. JONGSTE The Twelve Labours of Hercules on Roman Sarcophagi
© Copyright 1992 <L'ERMA" di BRETSCHNEIDER Via Cassiodoro, 19 - 00193 Roma
Progetto grafico: <L'ERMA>> di BRETSCHNEIDER
Fotocomposizione: Grafica <<Cristal" Via degli Ord di Galba, 26 - 00152 Roma
Tipografia: <<Litostampa Ottavia>> Via del Pedagogisti, 19 - Roma
Tutti i diritti riservati. E vietata la riproduzione di testi e illustrazioni senza ii permesso scritto dell'editore.
ISBN 88-7062-730-6
Peter F.B. Jongste The Twelve Labours of Hercules on Roman Sarcophagi
© Copyright 1992 «L'ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER Via Cassiodoro, 19 - 00193 Roma
Progetto grafico: «L'ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER
Fotocomposizione: Grafica «Cristal» Via degli Orti di Galba, 26 - 00152 Roma
Tipografia: «Litostampa Ottavia» Via dei Pedagogisti, 19 - Roma
Tutti i diritti riservati. È vietata la riproduzione di testi e illustrazioni senza il permesso scritto dell'editore.
ISBN 88-7062-730-6
CONTENTS
Preface................................................................................................p. 5
Introduction.......................................................................................>> 9
The twelve labours of Hercules on Roman sarcophagi ...................> 13 Thelabours ..................................................................................>> 14
The sequence of the twelve labours ............................................>> 21
Conclusion..........................................................................................>> 32
Catalogue............................................................................................ >> 35 Sarcophagi from Rome ................................................................> 37
The Velletri-sarcophagus ....................................................... >> 39 Sarcophagi with scenes on chest and lid ............................. >> 43 Sarcophagi with strigils ........................................................ >> 61 Sarcophagi with pillars ......................................................... > 63 Sarcophagi with columns ...................................................... 66 Sarcophagi without scenes on the lid ................................... >> 70 Various sarcophagi ................................................................ >> 93
Sarcophagi from Italy .................................................................. >> 97 Atticsarcophagi ............................................................................ 101 Asiatic sarcophagi ........................................................................ >> 109
Sarcophagi with a straight entablature ................................ >> 109 Sarcophagi with arches ......................................................... >> 117 Sarcophagi of the Tone Nova type ....................................... > 124 Sarcophagi of the Aphrodisias type ....................................... > 125 Third century sarcophagi ....................................................... 126 Various sarcophagi ................................................................ >> 128
Sarcophagi from the eastern provinces ...................................... >> 132 Diagrams....................................................................................... > 139
Bibliography........................................................................................141
Listof figures .....................................................................................> 145
5
CONTENTS
Preface p. 5
Introduction » 9
The twelve labours of Hercules on Roman sarcophagi » 13 The labours » 14 The sequence of the twelve labours » 21
Conclusion » 32
Catalogue » 35 Sarcophagi from Rome » 37
The Velletri-sarcophagus » 39 Sarcophagi with scenes on chest and lid » 43 Sarcophagi with strigils » 61 Sarcophagi with pillars » 63 Sarcophagi with columns » 66 Sarcophagi without scenes on the lid » 70 Various sarcophagi » 93
Sarcophagi from Italy » 97 Attic sarcophagi » 101 Asiatic sarcophagi » 109
Sarcophagi with a straight entablature » 109 Sarcophagi with arches » 117 Sarcophagi of the Torre Nova type » 124 Sarcophagi of the Aphrodisias type » 125 Third century sarcophagi » 126 Various sarcophagi » 128
Sarcophagi from the eastern provinces » 132 Diagrams » 139
Bibliography » 141
List of figures » 145
5
Concordance ......................................................... p.148
Index of locations and provenances . >>150
Index of subjects .................................................. >>152
Addenda ................................................................ >>157
Concordance p. 148
Index of locations and provenances » 150
Index of subjects » 152
Addenda » 157
6
PREFACE
Die Sarkophage mit den Taten des Herakles nehmen nicht nur unter den mythologischen Exemplaren, sondern in der gesamten kaiserzeitli-chen Sarkophaproduktion einen bedeutenden Platz em.
Das Material wurde erstmals 1897 von Carl Robert in Band III 1 des Sarkophagcorpus gesammelt und in Zeichnungen publiziert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit stelit der Verfasser die Stücke einschIie31ich der zahireichen Neufunde in Rom und vor allem im Osten des Reiches zusammen, gruppiert sie, schlusselt die verwendeten Figurentypen auf, geht ihren Vorlagen nach, verteilt die Sarkophage vorschlagsweise auf Werkstatten und erörtert die Problematik der Datierungen.
Ein umfangreicher Katalog und zahireiche Abbildungen ergänzen den Text und geben mit ibm zusammen die Grundlage für spätere Detail- und weiterfuhrende Untersuchungen, beispielsweise über Werkstatten stadt-romischer Sarkophage des 2. und 3. Jhs. n. Chr., das Einsetzen der architektonischen Sarkophage in Rom und ihr Verhältnis zu den klein-asiatischen Exemplaren, den Beginn der Saulensarkophage in Dokimeion oder die Beziehungen der stadtromischen zu den ldeinasiatischen Heraklessarkophagen. Gleich das erste Stuck, der berühmte und vielfach behandelte Herakiessarkophag von Velletri, ist im Kontext dieser Fragen ein wichtiges und äuf3erst interessantes Exemplar.
Marburg, Mai 1991GUNTRAM KOCH
ii
PREFACE
Die Sarkophage mit den Taten des Herakles nehmen nicht nur unter den mythologischen Exemplaren, sondern in der gesamten kaiserzeitli- chen Sarkophaproduktion einen bedeutenden Platz ein.
Das Material wurde erstmals 1897 von Carl Robert in Band III 1 des Sarkophagcorpus gesammelt und in Zeichnungen publiziert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit stellt der Verfasser die Stücke einschließlich der zahlreichen Neufunde in Rom und vor allem im Osten des Reiches zusammen, gruppiert sie, schlüsselt die verwendeten Figurentypen auf, geht ihren Vorlagen nach, verteilt die Sarkophage vorschlagsweise auf Werkstätten und erörtert die Problematik der Datierungen.
Ein umfangreicher Katalog und zahlreiche Abbildungen ergänzen den Text und geben mit ihm zusammen die Grundlage für spätere Detail- und weiterführende Untersuchungen, beispielsweise über Werkstätten stadt- römischer Sarkophage des 2. und 3. Jhs. n. Chr., das Einsetzen der architektonischen Sarkophage in Rom und ihr Verhältnis zu den klein- asiatischen Exemplaren, den Beginn der Säulensarkophage in Dokimeion oder die Beziehungen der stadtrömischen zu den kleinasiatischen Heraklessarkophagen. Gleich das erste Stück, der berühmte und vielfach behandelte Heraklessarkophag von Velletri, ist im Kontext dieser Fragen ein wichtiges und äußerst interessantes Exemplar.
Marburg, Mai 1991 Guntram Koch
7
INTRODUCTION
From the second century AD. onwards more and more well-to-do Romans chose to be buried in marble sarcophagi instead of being cremated and commemorated by way of altars and urns. A large number of these sarcophagi were decorated with mythological representations at-tracting a specific group of customers, that wanted a sepulchral monu-ment depicting their favourite hero or god. Whether or not the shift from cremation to inhumation in the second century AD. had anything to do with a change in the ideology of this period towards an appreciation of the philosophy and culture from the East, or that economic motives were responsible for the shift, still remains to be questioned. In my opinion the fact that in the second century AD. inhumation was to become the new way of deposition of the dead must not only be related to a change in funerary rites and attitude towards life after death, but also to a change in access to marble by individuals, the private enterprise of workshops and general prosperity among the clients. The amount of marble being used for sarcophagi was much greater than for altars and urns and might not have come available to the Roman customer until the beginning of the second century AD.'.
The first half of the second century AD. may prove to be of crucial interest. A relatively small number of customers in Rome initiated the production of prestigious sarcophagi made specially to order. Their taste for mythology and theatre had an irreversible effect on the decoration of these objects; instead of simple garlands, also mythological scenes, episodes from the common life of the dead and theatre-masks were used as characteristic images. From inscriptions on sarcophagi and their con-text we know that the customers were, as in the first century AD., mem-
1 CLARIDGE A. 1988, Roman Statuary and the Supply of Statuary Marble, in: Ancient Marble Quarrying and Trade (J. Clayton Fant ed.: BAR mt. Ser. 453), p. 139-152.
VOIJ
INTRODUCTION
From the second century AD. onwards more and more well-to-do Romans chose to be buried in marble sarcophagi instead of being cremated and commemorated by way of altars and urns. A large number of these sarcophagi were decorated with mythological representations at- tracting a specific group of customers, that wanted a sepulchral monu- ment depicting their favourite hero or god. Whether or not the shift from cremation to inhumation in the second century AD. had anything to do with a change in the ideology of this period towards an appreciation of the philosophy and culture from the East, or that economic motives were responsible for the shift, still remains to be questioned. In my opinion the fact that in the second century AD. inhumation was to become the new way of deposition of the dead must not only be related to a change in funerary rites and attitude towards life after death, but also to a change in access to marble by individuals, the private enterprise of workshops and general prosperity among the clients. The amount of marble being used for sarcophagi was much greater than for altars and urns and might not have come available to the Roman customer until the beginning of the second century AD.1.
The first half of the second century AD. may prove to be of crucial interest. A relatively small number of customers in Rome initiated the production of prestigious sarcophagi made specially to order. Their taste for mythology and theatre had an irreversible effect on the decoration of these objects; instead of simple garlands, also mythological scenes, episodes from the common life of the dead and theatre-masks were used as characteristic images. From inscriptions on sarcophagi and their con- text we know that the customers were, as in the first century AD., mem-
1 Claridge A. 1988, Roman Statuary and the Supply of Statuary Marble, in: Ancient Marble Quarrying and Trade (J. Clayton Fant ed.: BAR Int. Ser. 453), p. 139-152.
9
bers of the senatorial and equestrian classes'. Sarcophagi became very popular towards the middle of the second century AD., when even more complex mythological scenes were depicted on the chests. In the same period the workshops in Athens and Asia Minor (Docimium) started to mass-produce their characteristic funerary monuments 3 . As in Rome, the sarcophagus became very popular in other regions of the Roman Empire. Here sarcophagi were imported, imitated, or new forms, like the garland- sarcophagi from the coast of Asia Minor and Proconnesos, were made4.
Part of the production of Athens and Asia Minor was meant for the Western market serving a group of customers interested in Attic or Colum-nar Asiatic sarcophagi. In Rome, workshops started to imitate these products in order to attract the same customers. Not only were these products likely to be cheaper than the original ones, but now the cus-tomer had the possibility to determine what was to be depicted on the sarcophagus and how. The famous sarcophagus of Velletri (cataloguenum-ber Al) is such a product, made by a workshop in Rome in Asiatic style for a rich, probably senatorial family in the neighbourhood of Velitrae.
In the Antonine period things started to change drastically. In my opinion the workshops were forced to rationalize their production in order to face increasing demand, making standardized products fit for the average Roman customer. Sarcophagi must have become cheaper, because of this rationalization, thereby attracting a larger group of customers who tried to imitate the elite in their funerary rites. In this context one could think of wealthy middle-class people, liberti and rich slaves who shared in the economic prosperity of the second century AD. An other conse-quence of this rationalization was prefabrication of sarcophagi, thereby hindering the access of the customer to the production process in their choice of the iconographical program. The relationship between customer and workshop therefore became very loose. The workshops anticipated the taste of future customers by producing sarcophagi depicting an ex-tensive variety of mythological scenes.
One wonders whether the representation still had any significance for the buyers other than a common one, by which the mythological hero or god served as an 'exemplum'. In my opinion the relationship between what is known of classical philosophy dealing with life after death and the decoration on sarcophagi is only present up to a certain level'. The
2 KOCH-SICHTERMMIN 1982, p. 22, p. 253. KOCH-SICHTERMANN 1982, p. 260-265; p. 458-459; WIEGARTZ 1965, Tafel 47;
WAELKENS 1982, p. 68-101. KOCH-SICHTERMANN 1982, p. 276-365, p. 486-496, p. 509-580.
ENGEMANN, 1973, Untersuchungen zur Sepulchralsymbolik der späten römi-schen Kaiserzeit (JbAChr 2. Erg.Bd.).
10
bers of the senatorial and equestrian classes2. Sarcophagi became very popular towards the middle of the second century AD., when even more complex mythological scenes were depicted on the chests. In the same period the workshops in Athens and Asia Minor (Docimium) started to mass-produce their characteristic funerary monuments3. As in Rome, the sarcophagus became very popular in other regions of the Roman Empire. Here sarcophagi were imported, imitated, or new forms/like the garland- sarcophagi from the coast of Asia Minor and Proconnesos, were made4.
Part of the production of Athens and Asia Minor was meant for the Western market serving a group of customers interested in Attic or Colum- nar Asiatic sarcophagi. In Rome, workshops started to imitate these products in order to attract the same customers. Not only were these products likely to be cheaper than the original ones, but now the cus- tomer had the possibility to determine what was to be depicted on the sarcophagus and how. The famous sarcophagus of Velletri (cataloguenum- ber Al) is such a product, made by a workshop in Rome in Asiatic style for a rich, probably senatorial family in the neighbourhood of Velitrae.
In the Antonine period things started to change drastically. In my opinion the workshops were forced to rationalize their production in order to face increasing demand, making standardized products fit for the average Roman customer. Sarcophagi must have become cheaper, because of this rationalization, thereby attracting a larger group of customers who tried to imitate the elite in their funerary rites. In this context one could think of wealthy middle-class people, liberti and rich slaves who shared in the economic prosperity of the second century AD. An other conse- quence of this rationalization was préfabrication of sarcophagi, thereby hindering the access of the customer to the production process in their choice of the iconographical program. The relationship between customer and workshop therefore became very loose. The workshops anticipated the taste of future customers by producing sarcophagi depicting an ex- tensive variety of mythological scenes.
One wonders whether the representation still had any significance for the buyers other than a common one, by which the mythological hero or god served as an 'exemplum'. In my opinion the relationship between what is known of classical philosophy dealing with life after death and the decoration on sarcophagi is only present up to a certain level5. The
2 Koch-Sichtermann 1982, p. 22, p. 253. 3 Koch-Sichtermann 1982, p. 260-265; p. 458-459; Wiegartz 1965, Tafel 47;
Waelkens 1982, p. 68-101. 4 Koch-Sichtermann 1982, p. 276-365, p. 486-496, p. 509-580. 5 Engemann, 1973, Untersuchungen zur Sepulchralsymbolik der späten römi-
schen Kaiserzeit (JbAChr 2. Erg.Bd.).
10
decoration on sarcophagi was in the first place a result of private enterprise by a workshop trying to increase its profits, whereby the cus-tomers were only able to influence its shape by their choice from finished products. When a decoration became popular the workshops were will-ing to increase the production of objects depicting this decoration, while less popular ones were abandoned. The reason why a customer chose a specific sarcophagus may have had something to do with his ideas on life after death, ideas that were to be transmitted by its decoration, but more likely the majority were attracted by it because the decoration showed a mythological person one could be identified with'. The same applies to the decoration of sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules. In this sense Hercules was nothing more than an example of how by firm and efficient action one had overcome one's problems in life. On some later sarcophagi a portrait is used to make this comparison even more explicit7.
Although the total number of sarcophagi depicting the labours that are available for modern study appears to be rather moderate, (only 70 objects are known to me), it is remarkable that customers in Rome were still buying them until the middle of the third century AD. In this book I shall attempt to show how a number of workshops acted in their com-petition with others and in their relationship with their customers in order to face specific demands and why changes in iconography occurred during the period of production of sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules. It may show that a more detailed study concerning the production and distribution of sarcophagi in the second century AD. is necessary in order to understand the complete concept of workshops producing sarcophagi and customers using them as funerary objects. For now only starting-points will be given in order to formulate some new ideas and concepts that can be used in future research.
The total number of sarcophagi can be divided into three main groups: sarcophagi from Rome (cataloguenumbers Al, 131-139, Ci, Dl-D2, El, Fl-F13, Gl-G3), Athens (cataloguenumbers 11-17) and Asia Minor (catalogue-numbers J145, Ki-K7, Li, Mi, N1-N2, 01-07). All regions started to produce sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules around 150 AD., but from 170/80 AD. onwards this production in Rome continued, whereas in the eastern Mediterranean it declined or was almost abandoned. Both the production in Rome and Asia Minor were rationalized to supply an extended market, where as the Attic products were specially made for a
6 MULLER F. 1987, Imago Explicatu Difficillima, De zogeheten Peleus en Thetis-sarkofaag in dc Villa Albani (diss. Nijmegen), p. 47-56, p. 65-79.
Cataloguenumbers F5, F6, F9.
11
decoration on sarcophagi was in the first place a result of private enterprise by a workshop trying to increase its profits, whereby the cus- tomers were only able to influence its shape by their choice from finished products. When a decoration became popular the workshops were will- ing to increase the production of objects depicting this decoration, while less popular ones were abandoned. The reason why a customer chose a specific sarcophagus may have had something to do with his ideas on life after death, ideas that were to be transmitted by its decoration, but more likely the majority were attracted by it because the decoration showed a mythological person one could be identified with6. The same applies to the decoration of sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules. In this sense Hercules was nothing more than an example of how by firm and efficient action one had overcome one's problems in life. On some later sarcophagi a portrait is used to make this comparison even more explicit7.
Although the total number of sarcophagi depicting the labours that are available for modern study appears to be rather moderate, (only 70 objects are known to me), it is remarkable that customers in Rome were still buying them until the middle of the third century AD. In this book I shall attempt to show how a number of workshops acted in their com- petition with others and in their relationship with their customers in order to face specific demands and why changes in iconography occurred during the period of production of sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules. It may show that a more detailed study concerning the production and distribution of sarcophagi in the second century AD. is necessary in order to understand the complete concept of workshops producing sarcophagi and customers using them as funerary objects. For now only starting- points will be given in order to formulate some new ideas and concepts that can be used in future research.
The total number of sarcophagi can be divided into three main groups: sarcophagi from Rome (cataloguenumbers Al, B1-B9, Cl, D1-D2, El, FI- FIS, G1-G3), Athens (cataloguenumbers 11-17) and Asia Minor (catalogue- numbers J1-J5, K1-K7, LI, Ml, N1-N2, 01-07). All regions started to produce sarcophagi depicting the labours of Hercules around 150 AD., but from 170/80 AD. onwards this production in Rome continued, whereas in the eastern Mediterranean it declined or was almost abandoned. Both the production in Rome and Asia Minor were rationalized to supply an extended market, where as the Attic products were specially made for a
6 Müller F. 1987, Imago Explicatu Difficillima, De zogeheten Peleus en Thetis- sarkofaag in de Villa Albani (diss. Nijmegen), p. 47-56, p. 65-79.
7 Cataloguenumbers F5, F6, F9.
11
limited market showing no standardization in decoration whatsoever. The distribution areas were separated, although Attic as well as Asiatic products were imported into Rome. The provincial production appears to have been of minor importance (cataloguenumbers 1 11-2, P1-P8).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book had not been published without the support and inspira-tion of Prof. Dr. Paolo Moreno. When I was writing my thesis in Rome in 1987, I attended his lectures and could talk to him about my dis-coveries. He encouraged me to write a book on the twelve labours of Her-cules on Roman sarcophagi and helped me to find a publisher.
Also I would like to thank Mat Immerzeel for his patience and help during our discussions on the subject, as well as the Dutch Institute in Rome, especially Ivana Bolognese, for the opportunity it has given me to spend time in Italy and study a substantial number of sarcophagi. Dr. Helmut Jung was so kind to read the text and give useful comments and advice.
Finally I would like to thank Joanna Sofaer, who corrected my crooked English and made the text legible.
12
limited market showing no standardization in decoration whatsoever. The distribution areas were separated, although Attic as well as Asiatic products were imported into Rome. The provincial production appears to have been of minor importance (cataloguenumbers Hl-2, P1-P8).
Acknowledgements
This book had not been published without the support and inspira- tion of Prof. Dr. Paolo Moreno. When I was writing my thesis in Rome in 1987, I attended his lectures and could talk to him about my dis- coveries. He encouraged me to write a book on the twelve labours of Her- cules on Roman sarcophagi and helped me to find a publisher.
Also I would like to thank Mat Immerzeel for his patience and help during our discussions on the subject, as well as the Dutch Institute in Rome, especially Ivana Bolognese, for the opportunity it has given me to spend time in Italy and study a substantial number of sarcophagi. Dr. Helmut Jung was so kind to read the text and give useful comments and advice.
Finally I would like to thank Joanna Sofaer, who corrected my crooked English and made the text legible.
12
THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES ON ROMAN SARCOPHAGI
This chapter deals with the origin of the iconographical types of the twelve labours of Hercules depicted on Roman sarcophagi, as well as the period in which these types started to become popular. The reason for this is to determine the way in which artists made use of known types or invented their own, and whether they used simultaneous popular types to satisfy a range of clientele.
Mainly based on the list of objects in Brommer's Denkmälerlisten8, iconographical parallels were found of the different labours as depicted on the sarcophagi. These parallels were classified in different iconographi-cal types, whereby the labours received a number (1-12) and each type a letter (A-G). The date of the oldest parallel found was considered to be possibly of the same period as the original prototype, whereas the begin-ning of the continuing use of the type until the second century AD. was considered to be the period in which the type became popular. Finally the iconographical program of the twelve labours as a whole was con-sidered for each group of sarcophagi (see catalogue) in order to deter-mine whether their compilation was an invention of an artist sculpting the sarcophagi and making use of different sources, or a program derived from an older cycle.
The three main regional groups (Rome, Athens and Asia Minor) responded differently to this iconographical analysis. The sarcophagi made in Rome all show a highly standardized iconography, reflecting a production that was to a large extent rationalized9. Two main subgroups can be set against each other: sarcophagi Al, B1-B9, D2 and El (begin-ning with Hercules fighting the lion) and sarcophagi Fl-F13 and Dl (beginning with Hercules holding the dead lion by its hind leg). Both
8 BR0MMER 1971.
See EICHNER 1977 and 1981 for a description of a comparable production in the Constantine period.
13
THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES ON ROMAN SARCOPHAGI
This chapter deals with the origin of the iconographical types of the twelve labours of Hercules depicted on Roman sarcophagi, as well as the period in which these types started to become popular. The reason for this is to determine the way in which artists made use of known types or invented their own, and whether they used simultaneous popular types to satisfy a range of clientele.
Mainly based on the list of objects in Brommer's Denkmälerlisten8, iconographical parallels were found of the different labours as depicted on the sarcophagi. These parallels were classified in different iconographi- cal types, whereby the labours received a number (1-12) and each type a letter (A-G). The date of the oldest parallel found was considered to be possibly of the same period as the original prototype, whereas the begin- ning of the continuing use of the type until the second century AD. was considered to be the period in which the type became popular. Finally the iconographical program of the twelve labours as a whole was con- sidered for each group of sarcophagi (see catalogue) in order to deter- mine whether their compilation was an invention of an artist sculpting the sarcophagi and making use of different sources, or a program derived from an older cycle.
The three main regional groups (Rome, Athens and Asia Minor) responded differently to this iconographical analysis. The sarcophagi made in Rome all show a highly standardized iconography, reflecting a production that was to a large extent rationalized9. Two main subgroups can be set against each other: sarcophagi Al, B1-B9, D2 and El (begin- ning with Hercules fighting the lion) and sarcophagi F1-F13 and D1 (beginning with Hercules holding the dead lion by its hind leg). Both
8 Brommer 1971. 9 See Eichner 1977 and 1981 for a description of a comparable production
in the Constantine period.
13
groups need a separate analysis in order to see whether their chronologi-cal distinction reflect not only an iconographical change, but also a change in production.
A division into two groups can also be applied for the Asiatic sar-cophagi. Here the highly standardized second century sarcophagi (cata-loguenumbers J145, Kl-K7, Li, Ml, Ni, 01-07) can be set against sar-cophagus N2 of third century production, which is clearly different in style and iconography. In the first case the workshop appeared to have used rather emblematic quotations of fights and victories not necessari-ly related to Hercules, yet in the latter a western iconography was used going back to sarcophagi from 150-170/80 AD.
In the case of the Attic sarcophagi the repertory of those depicting the twelve labours was heterogeneous. Their popularity must have been rather small and rationalization of the production would not have served any purpose. Every sarcophagus seems to be an ad hoc compilation of a number of quotations present in Athens as temple-decoration, votives and objects in art collections.
THE LABOURS
1. HERCULES AND THE NEMEAN LION
A. Hercules wrestles with the lion (cataloguenumbers Al, 131-133, B7, B9, D2, El, 111-112, 13, J2, Kl, K6, N2, 01, P1, P8?). This type is known in two variations, one in which the lion is rampant, the other in which one of the lion's hind paws rests on Hercules' leg. The earliest parallel for the former type was depicted on a fourth century Etruscan mirror now in Florence 10 . Besides a Greek bronze statue in New York" this type is used from the Antonine period onwards mostly on coins, reliefs, as statues and on lamps. Even more popular was the latter used for the first time by Attic vase painters in the period between 540 and 530 BC. 12 . More than 160 representations of this kind on Greek vases are known. Throughout the whole Greek and Roman period it continues to be very popular and is depicted on all kind of objects.
B. Hercules wrestles with the lion in a horizontal position, in which the lion pushes its hind leg against the head of its opponent (cata-
° BROMMER 1971, p. 108, No. 4. BROMMER 1971, p. 106, No. 8.
12 K. RATKATSANTIS 1977, Herakies im Lowenkanipf (unpubl. diss.) p. 60-65, 119-122.
14
groups need a separate analysis in order to see whether their chronologi- cal distinction reflect not only an iconographical change, but also a change in production.
A division into two groups can also be applied for the Asiatic sar- cophagi. Here the highly standardized second century sarcophagi (cata- loguenumbers J1-J5, K1-K7, LI, Ml, Nl, 01-07) can be set against sar- cophagus N2 of third century production, which is clearly different in style and iconography. In the first case the workshop appeared to have used rather emblematic quotations of fights and victories not necessari- ly related to Hercules, yet in the latter a western iconography was used going back to sarcophagi from 150-170/80 AD.
In the case of the Attic sarcophagi the repertory of those depicting the twelve labours was heterogeneous. Their popularity must have been rather small and rationalization of the production would not have served any purpose. Every sarcophagus seems to be an ad hoc compilation of a number of quotations present in Athens as temple-decoration, votives and objects in art collections.
THE LABOURS
1. Hercules and the Nemean lion
A. Hercules wrestles with the lion (cataloguenumbers Al, B1-B3, B7, B9, D2, El, H1-H2, 13, J2, Kl, K6, N2, 01, PI, P8?). This type is known in two variations, one in which the lion is rampant, the other in which one of the lion's hind paws rests on Hercules' leg. The earliest parallel for the former type was depicted on a fourth century Etruscan mirror now in Florence10. Besides a Greek bronze statue in New York11 this type is used from the Antonine period onwards mostly on coins, reliefs, as statues and on lamps. Even more popular was the latter used for the first time by Attic vase painters in the period between 540 and 530 BC.12. More than 160 representations of this kind on Greek vases are known. Throughout the whole Greek and Roman period it continues to be very popular and is depicted on all kind of objects.
B. Hercules wrestles with the lion in a horizontal position, in which the lion pushes its hind leg against the head of its opponent (cata-
10 Brommer 1971, p. 108, No. 4. 11 Brommer 1971, p. 106, No. 8. 12 K. Ratkatsanis 1977, Herakles im Löwenkampf (unpubl. diss.) p. 60-65, 119-122.
14
loguenumber Ii). Like type 1A, the oldest parallel originates from the Attic vase painter's workshop of Andokides in the thirties of the sixth cen-tury BC. 13 . Around the same period it was depicted on terracotta, gems and reliefs. After 500 BC., with the exception of sarcophagus Ii, no other examples of this type are known.
C. The battle is over and Hercules triumphantly holds the dead lion's hind leg as depicted on the sarcophagi Dl and Fl-F7, F9, F12. Parallels for this type are rare. Basically we are dealing with an image of the Pot-nia Thèroon: master of animals. Representations of the master of lions are depicted on coins 14 , gems 15 , statues 16 and vases 17 . Dead lions are de-picted on a metope of the Temple of Zeus in Olympia 18, the Polydamos- relief in Olympia 19 , a Hadrianic tondo used in the Arch of Constantine20 and two Roman sarcophagi21 . As Moreno demonstrated the hero's pos- ture resembles that of athletes in Lysippean style 22 . In one example it is Hercules in an identical pose 23 . The first real parallels are a bronze Etrus- can statue dated in the second quarter of the fifth century BC. 24 with
u K. RATKATSASIIS 1977, Hera/des im Lawenkampf (unpubi. diss.) p. 66-67, 122-127.
14 BROMMER 1971, p. 114, No. 23; p. 116, No. 64. LIPPOLD 1922, Gemmen and Kameen des Altertums und der Neuzeit, p. 37,
No. 1; BROMMER 1971, p. 111, No. 29; A. FURTWANGLER 1900, Die antiken Gem-men, Geschichte der Steinschneidekunst im klassischen Altertum, Taf. 6,48; J.D. BEAZLEY 1920, The Lewes House Collection of Ancient Gems, p. 6-7, No. 10, P1. 2, 10.
16 BROMMER 1971, p. 102, No. 2. 17 P. DucATI 1968, Pontische Vasen (Bilder griechischer Vasen 5), Taf. 24: some-
body is holding the hind-legs of two dogs. Next to it the Hydra is depicted (ca. 550 BC.); D.C. KURTZ 1975, Athenian White Lekythoi, Patterns and Painters, Taf. 1,1: a black figured lekythos of the Amasis Painter in Paris, Louvre F71 (third quarter of the sixth century BC.) depicting a winged goddess holding two lions by their hind-legs; P.E. ARIAS-H. HIRMER 1960, Tausend Jahre griechische Vasen-kunst, Taf. 34, fig. 143 oben: bowl of the Brygos Painter in Munchen, Staatliche Museen, MAK 2645, from Vulci (490 BC.) depicting a Maenad holding a leopard by its hind-leg.
18 BROMMER 1971, p. 3, No. al. 19 MORENO 1984, fig. 18; 1987, fig. 8-10. 20 MORENO 1984, fig. 19; 1987, fig. 43. 21 MORENO 1987, fig. 42; Antichità 1977, tav. 140, fig. 238 (erotes hold a dead
lion by its hind-leg). Dead lions on sarcophagi with lion hunts: ANDREAE B., 1980, Die Sarkophage mit Darstellungen aus dem Menschenleben, 2, Die romischen Jagd-sarkophage, Berlin (Die antiken Sarkophagreliefs 1,2), nos. 65, 104, 126, 128, 213.
22 MORENO 1984, fig. 4, 5, 7, 9; 1987, fig. 1, 44, 80, 83, 86. 23 MORENO 1984, fig. 11; 1987, fig. 87. 24 BROMMER 1971, p. 106, No. 1.
15
loguenumber II). Like type 1A, the oldest parallel originates from the Attic vase painter's workshop of Andokides in the thirties of the sixth cen- tury BC.13. Around the same period it was depicted on terracotta, gems and reliefs. After 500 BC., with the exception of sarcophagus II, no other examples of this type are known.
C. The battle is over and Hercules triumphantly holds the dead lion's hind leg as depicted on the sarcophagi D1 and F1-F7, F9, F12. Parallels for this type are rare. Basically we are dealing with an image of the Pot- nia Thèroon: master of animals. Representations of the master of lions are depicted on coins14, gems15, statues16 and vases17. Dead lions are de- picted on a metope of the Temple of Zeus in Olympia18, the Polydamos- relief in Olympia19, a Hadrianic tondo used in the Arch of Constantine20
and two Roman sarcophagi21. As Moreno demonstrated the hero's pos- ture resembles that of athletes in Lysippean style22. In one example it is Hercules in an identical pose23. The first real parallels are a bronze Etrus- can statue dated in the second quarter of the fifth century BC.24 with
13 K. Ratkatsanis 1977, Herakles im Löwenkampf (unpubl. diss.) p. 66-67, 122- 127.
14 Brommer 1971, p. 114, No. 23; p. 116, No. 64. 15 Lippold 1922, Gemmen und Kameen des Altertums und der Neuzeit, p. 37,
No. 1; Brommer 1971, p. Ill, No. 29; A. Furtwängler 1900, Die antiken Gem- men, Geschichte der Steinschneidekunst im klassischen Altertum, Taf. 6,48; I.D. Beazley 1920, The Lewes House Collection of Ancient Gems, p. 6-7, No. 10, PL 2, 10.
16 Brommer 1971, p. 102, No. 2. 17 P. Ducati 1968, Pontische Vasen (Bilder griechischer Vasen 5), Taf. 24: some-
body is holding the hind-legs of two dogs. Next to it the Hydra is depicted (ca. 550 BC.); D.C. Kurtz 1975, Athenian White Lekythoi, Patterns and Painters, Taf. 1,1: a black figured lekythos of the Amasis Painter in Paris, Louvre F71 (third quarter of the sixth century BC.) depicting a winged goddess holding two lions by their hind-legs; P.E. Arias-H. Hirmer 1960, Tausend Jahre griechische Vasen- kunst, Taf. 34, fig. 143 oben: bowl of the Brygos Painter in München, Staatliche Museen, MAK 2645, from Vulci (490 BC.) depicting a Maenad holding a leopard by its hind-leg,
18 Brommer 1971, p. 3, No. al. 19 Moreno 1984, fig. 18; 1987, fig. 8-10. 20 Moreno 1984, fig. 19; 1987, fig. 43. 21 Moreno 1987, fig. 42; Antichità 1977, tav. 140, fig. 238 (erotes hold a dead
lion by its hind-leg). Dead lions on sarcophagi with lion hunts: Andreae B., 1980, Die Sarkophage mit Darstellungen aus dem Menschenleben, 2, Die römischen Jagd- sarkophage, Berlin (Die antiken Sarkophagreliefs 1,2), nos. 65, 104, 126, 128, 213.
22 Moreno 1984, fig. 4, 5, 7, 9; 1987, fig. 1, 44, 80, 83, 86. 23 Moreno 1984, fig. 11; 1987, fig. 87. 24 Brommer 1971, p. 106, No. 1.
15
Hercules standing with one foot on the lion's body, and a scene on a Gnathian vase from 300 BC. of Hercules dragging the dead lion to an altar25 . This type, though not very popular during the Roman Empire was depicted from the second century onwards contemporary with the produc-tion of the sarcophagi.
2. HERCULES AND THE HYDRA FROM LERNA
A. The Hydra coils its snaky body around the hero's leg, as Hercules holds one of its tentacles in front of his body (cataloguenumbers 131-3, B9, D1-2, El). The oldest known parallel is depicted on a Calean vase now in the Louvre from the end of the third or second century BC. 26 . It returns on a silver bowl in the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century BC .)21, three glass pastes of Augustan age in Ber- un28 , a first century AD. lamp from Vindonissa29 , a Roman bronze statue30 and finally a Coptic tapestry of late antique date31.
B. As 2A, with Hercules not holding the tentacle in front of his body (cataloguenumbers Al, 17 1-177, F9, F12, G2, J2, K6, P1, P6). The oldest known parallels are a coin from Phaestus (330-325 BC .)32 and two fourth century BC. gems 33 . It was very popular until the late republic and from the Severian period onwards.
C. The Hydra has not coiled its body around the leg of the hero and Hercules holds a bow (cataloguenumber N2). This type is known by a coin from Phaestus (330-325 BC. )34. It did not become very popular, only a lamp in Alexandria from the end of the first century AD.35 and a Severian coin from Tarsus 36 show the same scene.
D. Hercules holds the creature in his hand (cataloguenumber H2). Only one parallel of this type was found on a Roman lamp37.
E. The Hydra is a woman reaching her snake covered arms out to
25 MORENO 1984, fig. e. 26 DRAGENDOREF 1895, Herakies und die Hydra, in: RM 10, p. 210-213. 27 BROMMER 1971, p. 12, No. 5. 28 BROMMER 1971, p. 81, Nos. 4-6. 29 BROMMER 1971, p. 80, No. 4. 30 BROMMER 1971, p. 79, No. 1. 31 BROMMER 1971, p. 12, No. 2. 32 BROMMER 1971, p. 83, No. 24.
BROMMER 1971, p. 81, No. 8; p. 81, No. 10. BROMMER 1971, p. 83, No. 21. BROMMER 1971, p. 80, No. 1.
36 BROMMER 1971, p. 83, No. 21. BROMMER 1971, p. 80, No. 11.
16
Hercules standing with one foot on the lion's body, and a scene on a Gnathian vase from 300 BC. of Hercules dragging the dead lion to an altar25. This type, though not very popular during the Roman Empire was depicted from the second century onwards contemporary with the produc- tion of the sarcophagi.
2. Hercules and the Hydra from Lerna
A. The Hydra coils its snaky body around the hero's leg, as Hercules holds one of its tentacles in front of his body (cataloguenumbers Bl-3, B9, Dl-2, El). The oldest known parallel is depicted on a Calean vase now in the Louvre from the end of the third or second century BC.26. It returns on a silver bowl in the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century BC.)27, three glass pastes of Augustan age in Ber- lin28, a first century AD. lamp from Vindonissa29, a Roman bronze statue30
and finally a Coptic tapestry of late antique date31. B. As 2A, with Hercules not holding the tentacle in front of his body
(cataloguenumbers Al, F1-F7, F9, F12, G2, J2, K6, PI, P6). The oldest known parallels are a coin from Phaestus (330-325 BC.)32 and two fourth century BC. gems33. It was very popular until the late republic and from the Severian period onwards.
C. The Hydra has not coiled its body around the leg of the hero and Hercules holds a bow (cataloguenumber N2). This type is known by a coin from Phaestus (330-325 BC.)34. It did not become very popular, only a lamp in Alexandria from the end of the first century AD.35 and a Severian coin from Tarsus36 show the same scene.
D. Hercules holds the creature in his hand (cataloguenumber H2). Only one parallel of this type was found on a Roman lamp37.
E. The Hydra is a woman reaching her snake covered arms out to
25 Moreno 1984, fig. e. 26 Dragendorff 1895, Herakles und die Hydra, in: RM 10, p. 210-213. 27 Brommer 1971, p. 12, No. 5. 28 Brommer 1971, p. 81, Nos. 4-6. 29 Brommer 1971, p. 80, No. 4. 30 Brommer 1971, p. 79, No. 1. 31 Brommer 1971, p. 12, No. 2. 32 Brommer 1971, p. 83, No. 24. 33 Brommer 1971, p. 81, No. 8; p. 81, No. 10. 34 Brommer 1971, p. 83, No. 21. 35 Brommer 1971, p. 80, No. 1. 36 Brommer 1971, p. 83, No. 21. 37 Brommer 1971, p. 80, No. 11.
16
the hero (cataloguenumber 12). The oldest parallels are coins of Antoninus Pius 38 and Septimius Severus39.
3. HERCULES AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR
A. Hercules carries his prey to a barrel in front of him (cataloguenum-hers 131-133, D2, 14). For the first time depicted on an Etruscan tripod from 540-470 13C. 40, it became popular from the Severian period onwards.
B. As 3A, but with Eurystheus in the barrel (cataloguenumbers Al, 139, El, Fl-F7, F9-F12, Dl, G2, 12?, N2, P5). Oldest known parallels are a terracotta relief in Agrigento and a Laconian vase in Naples (both mid sixth century BC.) 41 . It stayed popular until the fourth century BC. return-ing once on a silver bowl from the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century B C.)42 and again from the Antonine period on-wards. On the Asiatic sarcophagi (cataloguenumbers J2, J3, Ki, K3, K6, K7, 02, 06) a short version of both types without the barrel is shown.
C. As 3A, but Hercules supports the head of the boar with his hand (cataloguenumber 1 12). This type is known only from a medallion of Probus43.
4. HERCULES AND THE CERYNEIAN HIND
A. The hero kneels on the hind's back while holding both antlers (cataloguenumbers Bl-B3, 139, Cl, Dl-D2, El, F2-F7, F9, Fll-Fl2, Gl, J2, Kl, K3, K4, K6, 06). Oldest known representation of this type is shown on an Etruscan gem in Paris (mid of the fifth century BC .)41. It then be-comes very popular from the first century AD. onwards.
B. As 4A, but one of the hind legs is stretched (cataloguenumbers Al, Fl, N2). For the first time on a Attic vase in the Louvre (end of the sixth century BC .)45, it never became very popular in later times.
38 BROMMER 1971, P. 82, Nos. 2-5. BROMMER 1971, p. 83, No. 19.
40 BROMMER 1971, p. 83, No. 19. 41 BROMMER 1971, p. 42, No. 1; H. Riemann 1937, Archaologische Funde vom
Sommer 1936 bis Sommer 1937. Griechenland, in: AA, cc. 157-158, fig. 17. 42 BR0MMER 1971, p. 12, No. 5.
BROMMER 1971, p. 44, No. 20. 44 BROMMER 1971, p. 74, No. 17.
F. BROMMER 1986, Herakies, Die zwolf kanonischen Taten des Helden in an-tiker Kunst and Literatur, Taf. 17.
17
the hero (cataloguenumber 12). The oldest parallels are coins of Antoninus Pius38 and Septimius Severus39.
3. Hercules and the Erymanthian boar
A. Hercules carries his prey to a barrel in front of him (cataloguenum- bers B1-B3, D2, 14). For the first time depicted on an Etruscan tripod from 540-470 BC.40, it became popular from the Severian period onwards.
B. As 3A, but with Eurystheus in the barrel (cataloguenumbers Al, B9, El, F1-F7, F9-F12, Dl, G2, 12?, N2, P5). Oldest known parallels are a terracotta relief in Agrigento and a Baconian vase in Naples (both mid sixth century BC.)41. It stayed popular until the fourth century BC. return- ing once on a silver bowl from the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century BC.)42 and again from the Antonine period on- wards. On the Asiatic sarcophagi (cataloguenumbers J2, J3, Kl, K3, K6, K7, 02, 06) a short version of both types without the barrel is shown.
C. As 3A, but Hercules supports the head of the boar with his hand (cataloguenumber H2). This type is known only from a medallion of Probus43.
4. Hercules and the Ceryneian hind
A. The hero kneels on the hind's back while holding both antlers (cataloguenumbers B1-B3, B9, Cl, D1-D2, El, F2-F7, F9, F11-F12, GÌ, J2, Kl, K3, K4, K6, 06). Oldest known representation of this type is shown on an Etruscan gem in Paris (mid of the fifth century BC.)44. It then be- comes very popular from the first century AD. onwards.
B. As 4A, but one of the hind legs is stretched (cataloguenumbers Al, FI, N2). For the first time on a Attic vase in the Louvre (end of the sixth century BC.)45, it never became very popular in later times.
38 Brommer 1971, p. 82, Nos. 2-5. 39 Brommer 1971, p. 83, No. 19. 40 Brommer 1971, p. 83, No. 19. 41 Brommer 1971, p. 42, No. 1; H. Riemann 1937, Archäologische Funde vom
Sommer 1936 bis Sommer 1937. Griechenland, in: A4, cc. 157-158, hg. 17. 42 Brommer 1971, p. 12, No. 5. 43 Brommer 1971, p. 44, No. 20. 44 Brommer 1971, p. 74, No. 17. 43 F. Brommer 19865, Herakles, Die zwölf kanonischen Taten des Helden in an-
tiker Kunst und Literatur, Taf. 17.
17
5. HERCULES AND THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS
A. Hercules shoots the birds (cataloguenumbers Al, 131-133, 139, Fl-F7, F9, F12, H2,12, J2, Ki, K3, K6, N2). The oldest parallels are a Megarean bowl from the agora in Athens (second century 13C.) 46 and a Greek coin from Malienses47 . It stayed very popular from then on.
B. As SB, but Hercules is seen on his back (cataloguenumbers Dl, D2, El). The earliest known representation is depicted on an altar from Albano (first century AD.)", thereafter on three other reliefs49.
6. HERCULES AND HIPPOLYTA
A. Hercules takes the girdle of the amazon queen who is lying dead on the ground (cataloguenumbers Al, 132-133, 136, 138, 139, Dl, F2-F6, F9, F12). This type was depicted for the first time on a metope of the Temple of Zeus in Olympia (470-456 BC.) 50 staying popular until 100 BC. and from the second century AD. onwards.
B. As 6A, with the queen lying on her horse (cataloguenumber Fl). The oldest known parallel is depicted on a coin of Antoninus Pius from Alexandria51.
C. The amazon queen riding on her horse flees from the hero, who snatches her by the hair (cataloguenumber Bi, 12?, 16?, Ji, J2, K2, K6). This type was depicted for the first time on a relief from Magnesia (second half of the second century BC. )52. It then became popular in the second century AD.
D. The queen flees from the hero (cataloguenumbers Ml and N2). The only parallel is a relief from Magnesia (see 6C).
E. The amazon queen submits to Hercules (cataloguenumber Ki). For the first time depicted on a mirror from Athens (third quarter of the fourth century BC .)53, it became popular from the first century AD on-wards.
46 HATJSMANN 1959, Taf. 64,1. 47 BROMMER 1971, p. 167, No. 6. 48 BROMMER 1971, p. 7, No. a2.
BROMMER 1971, p. 7, No. b5; p. 8 No. Bb7; p. 9, No. 14. This particular type appears to derive from a three-dimensional prototype.
50 BROMMER 1971, p. 3, No. al. 51 BROMMER 1971, p. 22, Nos. 1-2. 52 LIMC 1981, I, no. 104.
BROMMER 1971, p. 21, No. 2.
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5. Hercules and the Stymphalian birds
A. Hercules shoots the birds (cataloguenumbers Al, B1-B3, B9, Fl- F7, F9, F12, H2,12, J2, Kl, K3, K6, N2). The oldest parallels are a Megarean bowl from the agora in Athens (second century BC.)46 and a Greek coin from Malienses47. It stayed very popular from then on.
B. As 5B, but Hercules is seen on his back (cataloguenumbers Dl, D2, El). The earliest known representation is depicted on an altar from Albano (first century AD.)48, thereafter on three other reliefs49.
6. Hercules and Hippolyta
A. Hercules takes the girdle of the amazon queen who is lying dead on the ground (cataloguenumbers Al, B2-B3, B6, B8, B9, Dl, F2-F6, F9, F12). This type was depicted for the first time on a metope of the Temple of Zeus in Olympia (470-456 BC.)50 staying popular until 100 BC. and from the second century AD. onwards.
B. As 6A, with the queen lying on her horse (cataloguenumber Fl). The oldest known parallel is depicted on a coin of Antoninus Pius from Alexandria51.
C. The amazon queen riding on her horse flees from the hero, who snatches her by the hair (cataloguenumber Bl, 12?, 16?, Jl, J2, K2, K6). This type was depicted for the first time on a relief from Magnesia (second half of the second century BC.)52. It then became popular in the second century AD.
D. The queen flees from the hero (cataloguenumbers Ml and N2). The only parallel is a relief from Magnesia (see 6C).
E. The amazon queen submits to Hercules (cataloguenumber Kl). For the first time depicted on a mirror from Athens (third quarter of the fourth century BC.)53, it became popular from the first century AD on- wards.
46 Hausmann 1959, Taf. 64,1. 47 Brommer 1971, p. 167, No. 6. 48 Brommer 1971, p. 7, No. a2. 49 Brommer 1971, p. 7, No. b5; p. 8 No. Bb7; p. 9, No. 14. This particular
type appears to derive from a three-dimensional prototype. 50 Brommer 1971, p. 3, No. al. 51 Brommer 1971, p. 22, Nos. 1-2. 52 LI MC 1981, I, no. 104. 53 Brommer 1971, p. 21, No. 2.
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7. HERCULES AND THE STABLES OF AUGEAS
A. Hercules swings his mattock over his head (cataloguenumber 133 and Al?). Oldest known parallel is a relief now in Naples (ca. 140 AD .)54.
B. Hercules shoulders his mattock (cataloguenumbers 131-132, 136, 139, F1-176, F8, F9, F12). This type has also been depicted on two Roman reliefs in Copenhagen and the Vatican'.
C. Hercules holds the mattock with his hand alongside his body (cataloguenumbers Dl, J2, Ki, K6). Only depicted once more on a relief in the tomb of the Haterii in Rome (ca. 100 AD .)-16.
D. Hercules pitches into a basket in front of him with his mattock (cataloguenumber N2). I have not found any parallels for this type.
8. HERCULES AND THE CRETAN BULL
A. Hercules holds the bull's nose and horn (cataloguenumbers Fl-F6, F8, F9, F12, F13). The same type is depicted on a gem now in Munich (late republic) 57 . It was very popular from the Trajan period onwards.
B. Hercules holds both horns (cataloguenumbers Al, 131-133, 139, Li, P2). It was depicted for the first time on a Megarean bowl from Athens (second century BC.)58 and became very popular after 140 AD.
C. Hercules kneels on the back of the bull (cataloguenumbers J1,J2,Kl,K6,N2,05). It was depicted only once on a golden rython in Plov-div (third century AD.)59.
9. HERCULES AND THE HORSES OF DIOMEDES
A. Hercules defeats Diomedes and the horses are seen fleeing (cataloguenumber F3). The oldest parallel of this type is depicted on a print of a gem from Ostia (first century BC.) and a silver bowl from the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century 13C. )60.
It became more used from the middle of the second century onwards. B. Hercules defeats Diomedes (cataloguenumbers F1,Jl,J2,K6). The
oldest representation of this type is shown on a coin of Antoninus Pius61.
BROMMER 1971, p. 7, No. al. BROMMER 1971, p. 8, Nos. Bb5 and Ba7.
56 BROMMER 1971, p. 33, No. 1. BROMMER 1971, p. 157, No. 14.
58 HAUSMANN 1959, Taf. 60,2. BROMMER 1971, p. 12, No. Bb6.
60 BROMMER 1971, p. 145, No. 1; p. 12, No. 5. 61 BROMMER 1971, p. 146, No. 1.
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7. Hercules and the stables of Augeas
A. Hercules swings his mattock over his head (cataloguenumber B3 and Al?). Oldest known parallel is a relief now in Naples (ca. 140 AD.)54.
B. Hercules shoulders his mattock (cataloguenumbers B1-B2, B6, B9, F1-F6, F8, F9, F12). This type has also been depicted on two Roman reliefs in Copenhagen and the Vatican55.
C. Hercules holds the mattock with his hand alongside his body (cataloguenumbers Dl, J2, Kl, K6). Only depicted once more on a relief in the tomb of the Haterii in Rome (ca. 100 AD.)56.
D. Hercules pitches into a basket in front of him with his mattock (cataloguenumber N2). I have not found any parallels for this type.
8. Hercules and the Cretan bull
A. Hercules holds the bull's nose and horn (cataloguenumbers F1-F6, F8, F9, F12, F13). The same type is depicted on a gem now in Munich (late republic)57. It was very popular from the Trajan period onwards.
B. Hercules holds both horns (cataloguenumbers Al, B1-B3, B9, LI, P2). It was depicted for the first time on a Megarean bowl from Athens (second century BC.)58 and became very popular after 140 AD.
C. Hercules kneels on the back of the bull (cataloguenumbers J1,J2,K1,K6,N2,05). It was depicted only once on a golden rython in Plov- div (third century AD.)59.
9. Hercules and the horses of Diomedes
A. Hercules defeats Diomedes and the horses are seen fleeing (cataloguenumber F3). The oldest parallel of this type is depicted on a print of a gem from Ostia (first century BC.) and a silver bowl from the House of Menander in Pompeii (second half of the first century BC.)60. It became more used from the middle of the second century onwards.
B. Hercules defeats Diomedes (cataloguenumbers F1,J1,J2,K6). The oldest representation of this type is shown on a coin of Antoninus Pius61.
54 Brommer 1971, p. 7, No. al. 55 Brommer 1971, p. 8, Nos. Bb5 and Ba7. 56 Brommer 1971, p. 33, No. 1. 57 Brommer 1971, p. 157, No. 14. 58 Hausmann 1959, Taf. 60,2. 59 Brommer 1971, p. 12, No. Bb6. 60 Brommer 1971, p. 145, No. 1; p. 12, No. 5. 61 Brommer 1971, p. 146, No. 1.
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C. The hero fights with horses (cataloguenumbers Al, 131-133, B5, B9, F2, F4-F6, F8, F12, F13, P8). The earliest parallel of this type can be seen on a bronze bowl from Stara Zagora (180-212 AD .)62.
D. Hercules holds a horse at its nose (cataloguenumber N2). This type is depicted on a Greek coin from Tarente 63 . In the second century AD. and later it became more frequent.
10. HERCULES AND GERYONETJS
A. Hercules fights three warriors (cataloguenumbers 131-133). The oldest parallel is shown on a relief from Sounion (fourth century B C.)64. It became very popular from the first century AD. onwards.
B. Hercules fights Geryoneus who has three torsos (cataloguenum-bers Al, F2, F3, F5, F8, F12, F13). This type is depicted on a Trajanic plaster in Ostia65 , but thereafter few other examples are known.
C. Hercules has conquered the three-headed Geryoneus and holds one of the heads by the hair (cataloguenumbers Ji, J2, K2, K6). The oldest parallel is shown on a Flavian wall-painting from Zliten (North Africa)66. It did not become very popular.
D. Hercules drives on two cows while holding one at its nose (cata-loguenumber N2; compare with cataloguenumber P7). This type returned on a coin issued from Antoninus Pius in Alexandria, but did not become very popular.
11. HERCULES AND CERBERUS
A. Hercules leads Cerberus (cataloguenumbers 131-133, B7, Cl, Fl, F2, F5, 12, 15, P3, P4, P6?, P7). The first know example of this type is depicted on an Attic vase in Wurzburg from the last quarter of the sixth century BC. 67 . It was popular until the first quarter of the third century BC. and from Ca. 120 AD. onwards.
B. As 11A, but with the dog standing or sitting (cataloguenumbers Al, Dl, St, J2, K6, N2). It is depicted on an Etruscan mirror now in
62 BROMMER 1971, p. 11, No. vA5. 63 BR0MMER 1971, p. 146, No. 11. 64 BROMMER 1971, p. 4, No. c7. 65 H. MIEL5cH 1975, Römische Stuc1creliefs (RM Ergh. 21), p. 160-161, No.
K89.66 BROMMER 1971, p. 49, No. 1. 67 BROMMER 1986, Herakies, Die zwolf kanonischen Taten des Helden in an-
tiker Kunst und Literatur, Taf. 27a.
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C. The hero fights with horses (cataloguenumbers Al, B1-B3, B5, B9, F2, F4-F6, F8, F12, F13, P8). The earliest parallel of this type can be seen on a bronze bowl from Stara Zagora (180-212 AD.)62.
D. Hercules holds a horse at its nose (cataloguenumber N2). This type is depicted on a Greek coin from Tarente63. In the second century AD. and later it became more frequent.
10. Hercules and Geryoneus
A. Hercules fights three warriors (cataloguenumbers B1-B3). The oldest parallel is shown on a relief from Sounion (fourth century BC.)64. It became very popular from the first century AD. onwards.
B. Hercules fights Geryoneus who has three torsos (cataloguenum- bers Al, F2, F3, F5, F8, F12, F13). This type is depicted on a Trajanic plaster in Ostia65, but thereafter few other examples are known.
C. Hercules has conquered the three-headed Geryoneus and holds one of the heads by the hair (cataloguenumbers Jl, J2, K2, K6). The oldest parallel is shown on a Flavian wall-painting from Zliten (North Africa)66. It did not become very popular.
D. Hercules drives on two cows while holding one at its nose (cata- loguenumber N2; compare with cataloguenumber P7). This type returned on a coin issued from Antoninus Pius in Alexandria, but did not become very popular.
11. Hercules and Cerberus
A. Hercules leads Cerberus (cataloguenumbers B1-B3, B7, CI, FI, F2, F5, 12, 15, P3, P4, P6?, P7). The first know example of this type is depicted on an Attic vase in Würzburg from the last quarter of the sixth century BC.67. It was popular until the first quarter of the third century BC. and from ca. 120 AD. onwards.
B. As 11 A, but with the dog standing or sitting (cataloguenumbers Al, Dl, Jl, J2, K6, N2). It is depicted on an Etruscan mirror now in
62 Brommer 1971, p. 11, No. vA5. 63 Brommer 1971, p. 146, No. 11. 64 Brommer 1971, p. 4, No. c7. 65 H. Mielsch 1975, Römische Stuckreliefs (RM Ergh. 21), p. 160-161, No.
K89. 66 Brommer 1971, p. 49, No. 1. 67 Brommer 19865, Herakles, Die zwölf kanonischen Taten des Helden in an-
tiker Kunst und Literatur, Taf. 27a.
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