Job DesignJob Design

A JOB is aA JOB is a set of specified work and set of specified work and

task activities that engage an task activities that engage an

individual in an organizationindividual in an organization

Ways of Thinking about JobsWays of Thinking about Jobs

Organizational position – a job Organizational position – a job in relation to other parts of the in relation to other parts of the organizationorganization

Career – a sequence of job Career – a sequence of job experiences over timeexperiences over time

WorkWork

mental or physical activity that has mental or physical activity that has

productive resultsproductive results

Meaning of WorkMeaning of Work

= the way a person interprets and = the way a person interprets and

understands the value of work as a part understands the value of work as a part

of lifeof life

SixPatterns of Work

B – provides personal affect and identity

D – physical activity directed by others and performed in a workplace

E –generally unpleasant physically and mentally strenuous activity

F – activity constrained to specific time periods; no positive affect through its performance

A – value comes from performance; accountabilityis important

C – profit accrues to others by work performance

.

TraditionalApproaches to

Job Design

ScientificManagement

JobCharacteristics

Theory

Job Enlargement/Job Rotation

JobEnrichment

Emphasizes Emphasizes work simplificationwork simplification – – standardization and the narrow, explicit specification of task activities for workers.standardization and the narrow, explicit specification of task activities for workers.

Limits number of tasks; tasks are designed so worker doesn’t have to think.Limits number of tasks; tasks are designed so worker doesn’t have to think.

++ Allows diverse groups to work together Allows diverse groups to work together++ Leads to production efficiency and higher Leads to production efficiency and higher

profitsprofits-- Undervalues the capacity for thought and ingenuity Undervalues the capacity for thought and ingenuity

Scientific Management

Job Enlargement –Job Enlargement –increases the number of activities increases the number of activities in a job to overcome the boredom of in a job to overcome the boredom of overspecialized workoverspecialized work

Job Rotation –Job Rotation – workers are exposed to a variety of workers are exposed to a variety of specialized jobs over timespecialized jobs over time

Cross-Training – Cross-Training – workers are trained in different workers are trained in different specialized tasks or activitiesspecialized tasks or activities

Job Enlargement / Rotation

+ Overcomes boredom and lack of variety of highly specialized jobs+ Overcomes underutilization and lack of stimulation - Need to make sure that workers see the consequences of their decisions moving on to the next task

Designing or redesigning jobs by incorporating motivational factorsDesigning or redesigning jobs by incorporating motivational factors

++ Increases recognition, responsibility and opportunity for achievement. Increases recognition, responsibility and opportunity for achievement.-- Only certain jobs should be enriched. Only certain jobs should be enriched.

Job Enrichment

Job Characteristics TheoryJob Characteristics Theory

Emphasizes the interaction between the individual and specific attributes of the job.

A worker’s values, religious beliefs and ethnic background influence response to the job

Job Diagnostic Survey – diagnoses jobs by measuring five core job characteristics and three psychological states

Job Characteristics Model

Five Core Job CharacteristicsFive Core Job Characteristics

MPS =

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

x [Autonomy] x [Feedback] 3

+ +

Motivating Potential Score

EngagementEngagement

the expression of oneself as one the expression of oneself as one

performs in work or other rolesperforms in work or other roles

Social Information Social Information Processing (SIP) ModelProcessing (SIP) Model

= a model that suggests that the = a model that suggests that the

important job factors depend in part important job factors depend in part

on what others tell a person about on what others tell a person about

the jobthe job

4 Premises of (SIP) Model4 Premises of (SIP) Model

1. people provide cues to understanding the work environment

2. people help us judge our jobs

3. people tell us how they see our jobs

4. people’s positive and negative feedback help us understand our feelings about our jobs

ErgonomicsErgonomics

the science of adapting work and the science of adapting work and

working conditions to the employee working conditions to the employee

or workeror worker

Interdisciplinary ApproachInterdisciplinary Approach

MotivationalMechanistic

BiologicalPerceptual/

motor

Motivational Approach

Mechanistic Approach

Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches

+ +

Decreased training timeHigher utilization levelsLower error likelihood Less mental overloadLower stress levels

Higher job satisfactionHigher motivation

Greater job involvementHigher job performance

Lower absenteeism

-Increased training time

Lower personnel utilization Greater chance of errorsGreater chance of mental

overload and stress

Lower job satisfaction Lower motivation

Higher absenteeism

-

Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches

Less physical effortLess physical fatigue

Fewer health complaints Fewer medical incidents

Lower absenteeismHigher job satisfaction

Biological Approach

Perceptual Motor Approach

+

-+

-

Lower error likelihoodLower accident likelihood

Less mental stressDecreased training timeHigher utilization levels

Higher financial costs because of changes

in equipment orjob environment

Lower job satisfaction Lower motivation

Hierarchical Model of CriteriaHierarchical Model of Criteria

International Perspectives on International Perspectives on the Design of Workthe Design of Work

The Japanese ApproachThe Japanese Approach• Emphasizes strategic levelEmphasizes strategic level• Encourages collective and Encourages collective and

cooperative working cooperative working arrangementsarrangements

• EmphasizesEmphasizeslean production

using committed employees with

ever-expanding responsibilities to

achieve zero waste, 100% good

product, delivered on time, every time

Lean Production

Beyond the Book:Beyond the Book:Lean Production to the RescueLean Production to the Rescue

Manufacturing companies in the U.S. are turning to lean production methods to stay profitable during the recession.

The method involves producing only what is ordered, reducing inventory and making each part in an uninterrupted flow.

61% of manufacturers have adopted lean production methods or plan to do so within the next year.

International Perspectives on the International Perspectives on the Design of WorkDesign of Work

The German ApproachThe German Approach• Previously,Previously, Technocentric –Technocentric –

placing technology and placing technology and engineering at the center of job engineering at the center of job design decisions design decisions

• Recently,Recently, Anthropocentric –Anthropocentric – placing human considerations placing human considerations at the center of job design at the center of job design decisionsdecisions

International Perspectives on the International Perspectives on the Design of WorkDesign of Work

The Scandinavian ApproachThe Scandinavian Approach• encourages high degrees of encourages high degrees of

worker controlworker control• encourages good social support encourages good social support

systems for workerssystems for workers

Work Design and Well-Being:Work Design and Well-Being:

Work Design and Well-Work Design and Well-Being:Being:

Work Design and Well-Being:Work Design and Well-Being:

Emerging Issues in Design of WorkEmerging Issues in Design of Work Telecommuting –Telecommuting – employees work at home or employees work at home or

in other locations geographically separate from in other locations geographically separate from their company’s main locationtheir company’s main location

Alternative work patterns:Alternative work patterns:• FlextimeFlextime –– an alternative work pattern that an alternative work pattern that

enables employees to set their own daily enables employees to set their own daily work scheduleswork schedules

• Job Sharing –Job Sharing – an alternative work pattern in an alternative work pattern in which there is more than one person which there is more than one person occupying a single joboccupying a single job

Emerging Issues in Design of WorkEmerging Issues in Design of Work Technology:Technology:

• Concept involves work being where the people Concept involves work being where the people are, rather than people moving to where work is. are, rather than people moving to where work is.

• Virtual Office –Virtual Office – a mobile platform of computer, a mobile platform of computer, telecommunication, and information technology telecommunication, and information technology and servicesand services

• TechnostressTechnostress –– the stress cause by new and the stress cause by new and advancing technologies in the workplaceadvancing technologies in the workplace

Skills development – Skills development – the knowledge and the knowledge and information requirements for jobs of the future are information requirements for jobs of the future are especially high.especially high.

Beyond the Book:Beyond the Book:The Work Design QuestionnaireThe Work Design Questionnaire

The Work Design Questionnaire was created to fill gaps in existing work-characteristics assessments and integrate their data

Results from the questionnaire found that both motivational work characteristics and social support played a strong role in predicting job satisfaction

Counter-Role Behavior – deviant behavior in either a correctly or incorrectly defined job or role

RoleCharacteristics

Standard Role Behavior

Extra RoleBehavior

Counter RoleBehavior

Correctly Specified Role

Ordinary goodperformance

Excellent performance(organizational citizenship and prosocial behavior)

Poor performance(deviance, dissent, andgrievance)

Incorrectly Specified Role

Poor performance

Very poor performance (bureaucratic zeal)

Excellent performance (task revision and redirection, role innovation)

Performance Consequences of Role Behaviors

Republished with permission of Academy of Management, PO Box 3020, Briar Cliff Manor, NY 10510-8020. “Task Revision: A Neglected Form of Work Performance,” (Table), R. M. Straw & R. D. Boettger, Academy of Management Journal, 1990, Vol. 33. Reproduced by permission of the publisher via Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.0