Enlightenment and the Other Major Thinkers/Writers (1750-1850)Name Country Publication Main Ideas Influence/Enduring issueJohn Locke England Two Treaties of

Government (1689)Social contract, natural rights, human mind is a blank state

Enlightenment, French Revolution, American Revolution, Latin American Independence Movements, modern democracies

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

France The Social Contract (1762), Emile (1762)

Social contract, popular sovereignty, child centered education

American Revolution, French Revolution, Latin American Independence Movements, modern democracy, modern education philosophy

Adam Smith Scotland The Wealth of Nations (1776)

Free trade, free market, non-government intervention, modern capitalism,

Modern capitalistic systems as existing in the Western Europe, the US and much of the world, WTO, NAFTA, IMF, World Bank, multinational corporations

Baron de Montesquieu

France The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Separation of powers American Constitution, China and some modern democracies

Olympe de Gouges

France Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791)

Female-male inequality, women’s rights

French Revolution, Women’s rights, Malala Yousafzai (Malala Fund) in Pakistan, One Child Policy in China, dowry in India (infanticide and bride murder), education in some Islamic countries

Voltaire France Candide (1758) Separation of church and state, freedom of speech and religion

American Revolution, French Revolution, Latin American Independence Movements, modern democracy

Mary Wollstonecraft

England A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

Women are not naturally inferior; they appear so because of a lack of education

Equal education opportunity for female, universal voting rights, Malala Yousafzai (Malala Fund) in Pakistan, One Child Policy in China, dowry in India, education in some Islamic countries

William Wilberforce

England Slavery Abolition Act of 1833

End of African slave trade and slavery in the British Empire

Abolishment of slavery in almost all nations, equality of all humans, UN Declaration of Universal Human Rights

Karl Marx Germany Communist Manifesto (1848)

Socialism, communism, class struggle, exploitation of workers, alienation

The rise of socialism, Lenin and Stalin (Soviet Union), Mao (China), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), Fidel Castro (Cuba), Pol Pot (Cambodia)

Major Treaties and Laws Title Country/ Time

period Historical Context Enduring Issues/ Impacts

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

France/ 1789;French Revolution

A human rights declaration created by the National Assembly during the French Revolution

Human rights, power, conflict, idea and beliefs.French Revolution, Latin American independence movements, global nationalism (China, India, Turkey), Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Napoleonic Code

France/1804;French Revolution

Replaced the existing feudal laws and was the first major modern legal code and became the model for many nations in Europe and Middle East after the Napoleonic Wars

Power, conflict, idea and beliefs, innovation, interconnectedness, human rightsAdopted by countries including Prussia, Austria, Spain, Egypt, Belgium, and France

Treaty of Nanjing

Qing (China) and Great Britain/ 1842, Age of Imperialism

The first unequal treaty China signed with a foreign power, it opened the door for other European colonial powers and Japan

Power, conflict, idea and beliefs, innovation, nationalism, scarcity, interconnectedness, human rights.As more foreign countries gained their sphere of influence, the Chinese started the Boxer Rebellion but was put down by the foreign troops, resulting in further humiliation and the downfall of the Qing dynasty

Treaty of Kanagawa

Japan/1854;Age of Imperialism

A decade after the Opium Wars, American president Millard Fillmore sent Commodore Perry to force Japan to open the country for international trade, aka Gun Boat Diplomacy

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, inequality.Ended Japanese Closed-Door Policy and led to the downfall of the Tokugawa Shogun and the beginning of the Meiji Restoration. Japan became an industrial and a colonial power during the WWI and WWII

General Act of the Berlin Conference

Germany/ 1885;Age of Imperialism

After King Leopold II of Belgium colonized much of Congo, Germany’s Bismarck organized this pan- European conference to partition Africa without the presence of one single African

Conflict, cooperation, power, human rights violation, scarcity, and interconnectedness.Scramble for Africa, WWI, African independence movements, civil wars and ethnic conflicts in Africa, famine, poverty, underdevelopment

Balfour Declaration

Britain/ 1917;WWI

During WWI, British government announced its intention to create a Jewish home state in Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire

Conflict, cooperation, power, innovation, ideas and beliefs, interconnectedness.The emergence of Zionism, the creation of British Mandate, and the establishment of a Jewish state, Israel, in 1948; Palestinian-Jewish conflict, and the rise of terrorism

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Russia and Central Powers/ 1918; WWI

A peace treaty signed between the newly created Bolshevik Russia government and the Central Powers that ended WWI for the Russia

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs.Ending WWI for Russia, but Russia also had to give up part of its territory including the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Finland. Disintegration of USSR in 1991 when the three Baltic states declared independence

14 Points The US, Germany/ 1918, WWI

A peace proposal by US President Woodrow Wilson, with terms such as freedom of the seas, disarmament, and national self-determination.

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs.Became the basis of the League of Nations and United Nations

Treaty of The Big Four – A peace treaty that brought WWI to an end. But Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs.

Versailles US, Britain, France, and Italy/ 1919; WWI

it was very harsh on Germany especially its war guilt clause and reparation terms, leading to widespread German resentment and the rise of Hitler

Ending WWI, the rise of Hitler, WWII, League of Nations, United Nations, Marshall Plan

Munich Agreement

Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy/ 1938, WWII

A peace settlement that permitted German annexation of Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia. It further encouraged Hitler and led to the Polish invasion in 1939 that started the WWII

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs.Appeasement, WWII, United Nations, Gulf Wars I and II

Germany-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Germany and Soviet Union/ 1939, WWII

A secret agreement that both countries would attack Poland together and divide up the country. On the next day, Germany invaded Poland and the WWII began. A year later, Hitler betrayed the pact and attacked USSR

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, scarcity of resourcesThe start of WWII, the invasion of USSR, the cold Russian winter and Russian army that defeated Hitler, the rise of USSR as a superpower, the Cold War

United Nations Charter

50 countries led by the US, USSR, France UK, & China/ 1945, post WWII era

Because of the League of Nations’ impotence and the ongoing WWII, leaders of the Allies created the UN to maintain global peace and security

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefsThe UN was ineffective as a peace keeping institution during the Cold War era but has been pivotal on improving healthcare, anti- poverty, environment, equality, human rights and education issues

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Adopted by 48 UN member nations/ 1948, post WWII era

After the cruelty of the Holocaust was disseminated, and the founding of the UN, 48 UN member nations, influenced by Eleanor Roosevelt, agreed upon the thirty fundamental rights that form the basis for a democratic society

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, equality, scarcity, and ideas and beliefsEven though the Declaration has no binding authority, it has been accepted as a living contract between a people and its government throughout the world, echoing the ideals first put forth by the Enlightenment philosophers

Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

Accepted by 191 countries/ 1970, Cold War

At the height of the Cold War, nations came together to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology and to achieve nuclear disarmament

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, scarcity, and ideas and beliefsMany critics charge that the treaty has done little to stop the major powers from keeping their nuclear arsenals

North America Free Trade Agreement

The US, Canada and Mexico/ 1994, post-Cold War

After WWII, many nations had pushed for free trade, free market and international cooperation. After the fall of the Soviet, the pace quickened and EU, NAFTA soon became the goals

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, scarcity, environment, and ideas and beliefsDespite the impressive gains brought by free trade, many workers in the developed world either lose their jobs or see their wage stagnant

Kyoto Protocol/ Paris Accord

Almost all nations;1992; 2016

200 years after Industrial Revolution, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) committed member nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, scarcity, environment, and ideas and beliefsThe US remains the only major nation that is not fully committed to the Paris Agreement

Major Nationalist/Reform Leaders Leader Time/ place Historical Context Enduring Issues and Consequences

MaximilienRobespierre

Late 1700s/ France

A member of the radical Jacobin club, led France during the Reign of Terror and guillotined Louis XVI and his wife, but was himself later guillotined also

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsFrench Revolution turned violent under his leadership, but his most radical ideas also influenced the world then and now

Napoleon Early 1800s/ France

Came to power in a 1799 coup and became emperor of France from 1804-1814. Conquered much of Europe with his Grand Armee but was finally defeated by cold winter in the Russian campaign

Conflict, cooperation, power, interconnectedness, human rights, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsLegal reforms, French Revolution ideals, his invasion of Spain led to freedom in the New World

ToussaintL’Ouverture

Early 1800s/ Haiti

Despite a free man, he led the slave rebellion in Haiti against France. A year after his death in 1803, the freed slaves built the first democracy in the New World

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, human rights, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsInspired the enslaved and oppressed the world over

Simon Bolivar

Early 1800s/ Latin America

Byname the Liberator, he led the revolutions against Spanish rule in Latin America and was later president of Colombia and dictator of Peru

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, human rights, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsBrought freedom to Latin America but failed to unify the continent because of geographic barriers

Meiji Reigned 1868-1912/ Japan

Became emperor at 14 and soon ended the Tokugawa shogunate. His reign, Meiji Restoration, marked the transformation of Japan from a feudal society to a westernized, industrialized, militarized colonial power

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, scarcity, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsLacking natural resources for industrialization, Japan soon colonized Korea, Taiwan and Manchuria. Later, it invaded and took over much of S. E. Asia in WWII

Sun Yatsen 1911-12/ China A nationalist leader who fought to end foreign domination. He established Three People Principles and founded the Nationalist Party, which overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established a republican form of government in its place

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsUnable to consolidate his power and control China, Sun Yatsen was soon forced out by a warlord, leading to two decades of warlordism in China

Kemal Ataturk

Ruled 1923-38/ Turkey

After the defeat in WWI, Ottoman Empire was partitioned, and Turkey became a republic in 1923. Ataturk became its president until his death. He was credited for bringing secularization, westernization, and modernization to Turkey

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsHe emancipated women, turned Turkey into a secular state, and introduced westernized legal code, dress and custom to its people

Lenin Ruled 1919-1924/ Russia

Led the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 and won the 3-year civil war afterwards. He founded the world’s first socialist state and remained its leader until his death in 1924 and before he could implement his National Economic Policy

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, and ideas and beliefsFounded USSR and exported socialism to all over the world, including China. Setting up the stage for a confrontation with capitalism after WWII

Gandhi First half of the 20th century/ India

The leader of the Indian Independence Movement, he championed against British colonial rule through mass civil disobedience movements, such as Salt March and Home Spun Movement

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsHis belief in civil disobedience inspired leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King Jr. India was also one of the first colonies to gain its independence

Ho Chi Minh

1946-69/ Vietnam

Founder of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and the leader of North Vietnam, he led the party to fight against the US in the Vietnam War for more than two decades

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsSix years after his death in 1969, Vietnam was unified by North Vietnam. But communism did not spread to the rest of the S. E. Asia as once feared

Mao 1949-1976/ China

Leader of the People Republic of China, Mao was instrumental in winning the Chinese Civil War against Chiang and the Nationalist party by gaining the support of the farmers

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsHe built a new China but also led it into the disastrous Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, in which tens of millions died

Kwame Nkrumah

1957-66/ Ghana Led the Gold Coast, the first African independent nation, to gain self-rule from the British in 1957, A life-long champion of Pan-Africanism

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsDespite his role in gaining independence, he led an authoritarian and corrupt government and was disposed in a military coup.

Jomo Kenyatta

1964-1978/ Kenya

The founder of Kenya as an independent republic, Kenyatta served as the country’s president in 1964 until his death in 1978

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsA controversial figure, known as both an anti-colonist and also a dictator and authoritarian

Nelson Mandela

1994-1999/ South Africa

The first black president of South Africa, he spent 27 years in prison fighting to dismantle the Apartheid system

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, imperialism, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsJoined the African National Congress in 1944, Mandela led it while in prison and became an icon for human rights and independence all over the world. Became S. Africa first black president

Mikhail Gorbachev

1985 – 91/ Soviet Union

After he became the leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev began to democratize his country’s political system (glasnost) and decentralize its economy (Perestroika), leading to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefs He unknowingly engineered the end of the Cold War and unleashed a wave of democratization and economic reforms throughout the world, leading to a complete retreat of global communism

Major International InstitutionsInstitution Time/

Headquarter Mission Impacts

League of Nations

1920/Geneva To solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open warfare

With its origin in Wilson’s 14 Points, League of Nations failed to prevent the Axis Powers from their military aggression, and effectively stopped during the WWII

United Nations (UN)

1945/ NYC To maintain world peace and promote global cooperation in various issues

Results have been mixed at best, impotent during the Cold War, but has more successes in human rights and health related issues

World Bank 1944/ Washington D. C.

To provide loans to countries of the world for long term capital projects

Mixed results; most long-term loans during the Cold War went to corrupt regimes in the developing world.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

1945/ Washington D. C.

To manage balance of payment difficulties and international financial crises

Mixed results, as the world has been plagued with one international financial crisis after another since the 1970s

World Trade Organization (WTO)

1995/ Geneva; the heir of GATT (1948)

To promote open trade between all nations and promote free trade for the benefit of all

World trade has increased by many folds since 1945, leading to unprecedented economic growth in many once poor nations. But also created job problems for many developed nations

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

1949/ Brussels To defend each other from the possibility of communist Soviet Union taking control of their nation

Successfully accomplished its original purpose as the world witnessed the disintegration of the Soviet and its Warsaw Pact allies. But as it expands its membership recently, its mission becomes ill defined

Warsaw Pact 1955/ Warsaw To show communism solidarity and to oppose to American capitalism

Dissolved in 1991, a year after German unification and months before the end of the USSR

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

1980/ Vienna To coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets

Responsible for the 1973 and 1979 oil crises and the subsequent transfer of wealth to its members, OPEC is still one of the world’s most powerful political organizations

Greenpeace 1971/ Amsterdam To ensure a peaceful and sustainable world for future generations

 Greenpeace is known for its direct aggressive actions and has been described as the world’s most visible environmental organization.

Human Rights Watch

1978/ NYC To pressure some governments, policy makers and human rights abusers to denounce abuse and respect human rights

Was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 and is recognized as one of the most successful human rights activist organizations

European Union (EU)

1993/ Brussels To promote greater social, political and economic harmony among the nations of Western Europe

Is currently at the brink of collapse, as the Union was severed affected by the 2008 financial crisis, and still can’t fully recover ten years afterwards

Major Dictators/AuthoritariansLeader Ruling

Time/ Place Historical Context Enduring Issues/ Consequences

Joseph Stalin

1922-53/ Soviet Union

Came to power after Lenin’s health problem and replaced Lenin’s New Economic Policy with several 5-year plans. Propelled the Soviet into an industrial power, but at a huge human cost, including a widespread famine in Ukraine in 1933

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsConsidered as one of the most brutal dictators in history, Stalin set the example for many dictators to learn from, including Mao

Benito Mussolini

1923-45/ Italy

After WWI, many Italians were unhappy about the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini seized the opportunity, organized his Black Shirts to “March on Rome”

Conflict, power, nationalism, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsHe started fascism, an extreme form of nationalism and authoritarian, demanded complete loyalty from his followers, and inspired future dictators such as Hitler

Hitler 1933-1945/ Germany

Leader of the Nazi party, he established a totalitarian and fascist regime, started WWII by invading Poland in 1939, and committed numerous atrocities including the systematic murder of 6 million Jews known as the Holocaust

Conflict, power, nationalism, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsStarted a global war and planned to kill all the Jews in Europe and is considered the most racist and demonic dictator in recent history

Mao Zedong

1949-1976/ China

Led the Chinese communist party to victory over the Nationalist Party but is also widely blamed for his failed socio-economic reforms, such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, which together accounted for a death toll of over 70 million

Conflict, power, nationalism, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsHis ill-conceived policies turned China into one of the world’s poorest nations and also one of the fastest growing in population

Deng Xiaoping

1979- 1997/ China

Came to power after Mao’s death, Deng initiated the Four Modernizations, opened Chinese economy and invited foreign capitalists to come in, making the country the fastest growing economy over the next few decades

Conflict, power, nationalism, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsDeng successfully turned around Chinese sagging economy but was also responsible for the Tiananmen Square Massacre

Fidel Castro

1959-2008/ Cuba

Overthrew Batista dictatorship in 1959, he then ruled the island nation for almost fifty years, crashing numerous times with the US most famously in the Cuban Missile Crisis

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, nationalism, human rights, and ideas and beliefsHe was instrumental in bringing universal healthcare and literacy to Cuba but was unable to solve the country’s lingering poverty problem

Pol Pot 1976-79/ Cambodia

After taking over as Cambodia’s prime minister, Pol Pot sought to create an agrarian socialist society and forcibly relocated the urban population to the countryside to work on collective farms, leading to the death of 1.5 – 3 million Cambodians

Conflict, power, interconnectedness, scarcity, human rights, and ideas and beliefsAfter killing about 25% of his country citizens, Pol Pot attacked Vietnam, which led to Vietnam’s retaliation and his own disposal. He fled to a jungle area near Thailand

The world in 1750

Important Countries/Regions from 1750-1914

Countries/ Regions

Historical Circumstances at 1750 Later Development until 1914 Enduring Issues

Africa

Powerful states in west Africa including Ashanti, Dahomey, and Benin. Ashanti and Dahomey both engaged in slave trade and used western guns to expand their territory, resulting in constant warfare and power struggles

After Berlin Conference, King Leopold II of Belgium immediately established Congo Free State and killed an estimated 3-5 million Africans during Belgium reign. Similarly, British defeated the Zulu in South Africa and expanded its rule. By 1910s, much of Africa became European colonies

Conflict, technology, power, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Austria Habsburg

Ruled by Marie Teresa until her death in 1765, Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter’s dissolution in 1808. Multinational and decentralized, the empire tried to centralize throughout the 19th century but to no avail.

Austria became a dual monarchy, the Austria-Hungary Empire, in 1867 but its efforts to modernize and centralize were thwarted by its sheer size and ethnic complexity. In 1914, when crown prince Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo, which started a chain reaction that led to WWI.

Conflict, power, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

China (Qing)

A multinational empire at its zenith in 1750 but ruled by the Manchu minority, a closed country increasingly inward looking and lagging the west

After the Opium Wars and the Treaty of Nanjing (1842), Qing was further weakened by the devastating Taiping Rebellion. Soon the empire fell prey to the foreign colonial powers which carved out spheres of influence, and was overthrown by the Nationalist Party in 1911

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

France In 1750, France was ruled by an absolute monarch, Louis XV, who was incompetent, indifferent, and much hated by the public. He would soon engage the nation in the Seven Years’ War which would bankrupt the nation consequently.

As the French Revolution broke out in 1789, the fervent spirit soon swept the continent and later, the world. After the Napoleonic war, France spent much of the 19th century going back and forth between a republic and a monarchy. It wasn’t after the defeat of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the Third Republic finally provided the country with political stability that lasted until WWI started

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Germany (Prussia)

Under Frederick II, an Enlightened despot, Prussia continued its military and economic ascension and would emerge as the most powerful state in the Holy Roman Empire

Following the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia used diplomatic means to subdue other smaller Germanic states. But it wasn’t until Bismarck when a combination of nationalism, militarism and industrialism unified the Germanic states, disrupting the delicate balance of powers in Europe and paving the road to WWI

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Great Britain(England)

Largely because of England’s plentiful natural resources and innovative craftsmen, Industrial Revolution was about to begin in this tiny island

Defeated China in the Opium Wars and forced it to open for trade in the Treaty of Nanjing. After the Sepoy Rebellion, England also colonialized the entire

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism,

nation, turning it into the world’s premier industrial and colonial power, and enabling it to take over India, much of Africa and parts of China

Indian subcontinent imperialism, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs

India (Mughal)

By 1750, as Mughal Empire became weaker and divided, British East India Company started to control more of the India sub-continent.

By the early 1800s, The East India Company expanded and controlled almost the entire subcontinent. The last Mughal ruler was disposed after the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, and the East India Company also lost its charter and the subcontinent became was controlled by the British directly

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights

Japan (Tokugawa)

Tokugawa Shogunate, the last feudal military government, had banned almost all contact with foreigners. The only exceptions were China, Korea, and Netherland. And for almost 250 years, Japan remained in almost complete seclusion

The seclusion ended when Commodore Perry, with an order from President Fillmore, arrived in 1853 and forced Japan to open its country for trade. This profound impact led to a group of samurais to overthrow the Tokugawa and restored Emperor Meiji as emperor and its subsequent modernization and westernization

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, and ideas and beliefs

Latin America

For three centuries until the French Revolution, European colonial powers such as Spain and Portugal had ruled Latin America. Spain ruled its vast empire through viceroys and an encomienda system that led to

From 1791 to 1804 in Haiti, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture fought against France and became the first independent country in Latin America. Elsewhere in South America, two creoles, Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin, also won independence from Spain

Conflict, power, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Russia The country remained backward and isolated from much of Europe, but in 1762, Russia was taken over by Catherine the Great in a coup. An Enlightened despot, Catherine’s reign was considered a golden age, as Russia expanded to the Black Sea and modernized its culture

After Catherine, Russia was ruled by a succession of incompetent and autocratic rulers and the country was further weakened by the disastrous Russo-Japanese War in 1905 and the Bloody Sunday. But it was the disastrous WWI that led to the abdication of Czar Nicholas II and the subsequent rise of Lenin

Conflict, power, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Turkey (Ottoman)

A multicultural, multilingual, multinational empire, Ottoman controlled most of the Middle east, much of eastern Europe, some of central Europe, North Africa and Asia but was in a rapid decline, falling behind its European rivals economically, militarily, and technologically

Joined the Central Powers during WWI, murdered roughly 1.5 million Armenians in the Armenian Genocide, lost WWI and much of its empire. The remaining Turkish sultanate was defeated by Kemal Ataturk in the Turkish War of Independence and Turkey was transformed into a democratic, secular and westernize country.

Conflict, power, nationalism, interconnectedness, human rights, and ideas and beliefs

Pre WWI Europe Post WWI Europe

Africa Japan During WWII

Important Countries from 1914 – 2019

Countries Historical Circumstances in 1914 WWII until Present Enduring IssuesAustria The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand was the

immediate cause to WWI, but Austria was ill prepared for the war

Austria lost much of its vast empire after the war, and became largely irrelevant until it was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938

Power, conflict, imperialism, nationalism

China After the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, Qing lost its control of the country to the colonial powers and was overthrown in 1911 by the Nationalist Party led by Sun Yatsen. But Sun was also unable to control the country as China slid into warloadism and chaos until Chiang Kaishek took over in 1927. But the country soon embroiled in a civil war with the Communist Party led by Mao until WWII broke out. Mao won the civil war with the support of farmers and founded People Republic of China in 1949, as Chiang fled to Taiwan.

The new China began promisingly but was soon in turmoil as Mao introduced his own version of Stalin’s Five Years Plan – The Great Leap Forward. Tens of millions died, and Mao was forced out. But in less than a decade, he came back with the help of the Cultural Revolution and ruled the country until his death in 1976. Within a year, Deng Xiaoping took over and began his Four Modernizations. By any measure, it was the greatest economic miracle since the Industrial Revolution in England. But Deng was also responsible for 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre and One Child Policy

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, economic development, interconnectedness, human rights, ideology and belief

France/ Germany/ England

The three Great Powers fought two world wars against each other and in both cases, Germany lost. After WWI, the Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression led to the rise of fascist parties. The appeasement policy further encouraged the fascist dictators and contributed to the outbreak of WWII

WWII proved to be a disaster to the three countries, as they saw their economic and political powers waned after the war. They reluctantly or were forced to give up their colonies but were able to rebuild because of the Marshall Plan, the Cold War, and the free trade policy. French and Germany and 4 other western European countries soon formed the EEC and later expanded to become EU. But the success was temporary, as the EU was unable to resolve the 2008 financial crisis

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, ideology and belief

India After the Amritsar Massacre in 1919, leaders of the Indian National Congress began to fight for home rule. Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians formed the non-violence civil disobedience movement, using tactics such as Salt March and Homespun Movement to undermine British authority

India won its independence in 1947 but the subcontinent was partitioned into two countries, the Muslim Pakistan and the Hindi India. 14 million were displaced, and hundreds of thousands died in the conflicts. The two countries, now both have nuclear weapons, have been hostile to each other over some disputed area in Kashmir since

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, ideology and belief

Japan Lacking key natural resources, Japan began to colonize its nearest neighbors during Meiji Restoration. It invaded China in 1937 and was encouraged by a weak and indifferent League of Nations. It attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, prompting the US to join the Allies

After the Nanjing Massacre, Japan took off much of China and S. E. Asia. It surrendered unconditionally after the US dropped two atomic atoms on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With American helps, Japan developed rapidly after WWII and became an economic superpower in the 1990s, until its economy stagnated

Conflict, power, technology, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights

Russia After Czar Nicholas abdicated in Feb 1917, the After Lenin’s death, Stalin took over after a power struggle, Conflict, power, technology,

Kerensky Provisional Government was unable to stabilize the rapidly deteriorating situation and was overthrown by Lenin in the October Bolshevik Revolution. A civil war immediately broke out, Lenin won and established USSR, the first socialist government in history. But the War Communism proved to be a failure, and Lenin retreated to New Economic Policy, allowing some small-scale private ownership

and implemented a series of Five-Year Plans, aiming to collective the farming sector and centralize the heavy industries and caused the Ukraine Famine, in which millions of farmers died. After Yalta Conference and WWII, USSR controlled the Eastern Europe, leading to the Cold War until Gorbachev’s reform in 1985 and the Soviet disintegration in 1991. Since then Russia has tried to reform several times but its economy has been unable to catch up with the modern age

nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, ideology and belief

South Africa

Once a British colony, S. Africa declared independence in 1948 and initiated Apartheid, the separation of blacks and white and the disenfranchisement of the blacks. The country’s vast natural resources such as gold and diamond enabled the whites to live a very high standard but at the expenses of the blacks

Under Nelson Mandela, a leader of the African National Congress, the Apartheid system was ended in 1994 and Mandela, after serving 27 years in prison, became the country’s first black president. He stepped down in 1999 voluntarily and became the first African leader to do so but not of coup, assassination, or natural death

Conflict, power, nationalism, imperialism, interconnectedness, human rights, ideology and belief