3
 1408 BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL VOLUME 28 3 0 APRIL 1983 Health Services Development, Ambulance Service. Advanced training f o r ambulancemen. London: DHSS, 1976. (Health Notice HN(76)204.) 4White NM , Parker W S , Binning R A, Kimber ER, Ea d HW , Chamberlain DA. Mobile coronary care provided byambulance personnel. Br MedJ3 1973 ;iii :618-22. Briggs R S , Brown PM , Crabb ME , e t a l . T h e Brighton resuscitation ambulances: a continuing experiment i n prehospital care b y ambulance staff. Br Me d J 1976;ii: 1 161-5. 6 Mackintosh AF , Crabb ME, Grainger R , Williams JH,Chamberlain DA. T h e Brighton resuscitation ambulances: review of 4 0 consecutive survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Br MedJ 1978;i :1115-8. Neilson JM. A special purpose hybrid computer f or analysis o f EC G arrhyth- mias. London: Institute o f Electrical Engineers, 1971:151. (Conference publication No 79.) Vetter NJ , Julian DG. Comparison o f arrhythmia computer and con- ventional monitoring in a coronary care unit. Lancet 1975;i:1151-4. 9 La u Y K , Smith J, Morrison S L , Chamberlain DA. Policy for early dis- charge after acute myocardial infarction. Br Me d J f 1980;280:1489-92. ° Norris R M, Brandt PWT, Caughey DE, L e e A J , Scott P J . A n e w coronary prognostic index. Lancet 1969 ; i :274-8.  Armstrong A , Duncan B,Oliver MS , etal. Natural history ofacutecoron- a r y heart attacks. A community study. Br Heart3 1972;34:67-80. 1 2 Kinlen L J. Incidence a n d presentation o f myocardial infarction i n a n English community. Br Heart _ 1973;35:616-22. 3 Bainton CR , Peterson DR . Deaths from coronary heart disease i n persons fifty years o f a g e a n d younger. N Engl3 Me d 1963;268:569-75.  Gordon T , Kannel WB . Premature mortality from coronary heart disease. T h e Framingham study. JAMA 1971;215:1617-25. 5 Schwartz C J , Gerrity R G. Anatomical pathology o f sudden unexpected cardiac death. Circulation 1975;suppl 3:18-26, 51-2.  6 Margolis J R , Kannel W B , Feinleib M, et al. Clinical features of un- recognised myocardial infarction-silent a n d symptomatic. Am J Cardiol 1973;32:1-7.  7 Adgey AAJ, Nelson PG, Scott ME , e t a l . Management o f ventricular fibrillation outside hospital. Lancet 1969;i: 1169-71. 1 8 Pantridge JF. Mobile coronary care. Chest 1970;58:229-34.  9 Pantridge JF , Geddes J S . A mobile intensive-care unit i n the management o f myocardial infarction. Lancet 1967;ii :271-3. 2 0 Pantridge J F , Webb S W, Adgey AAJ, Geddes J S . T h e first hour after t h e onset o f acute myocardial infarction. Progress i n Cardiology 1974;3: 173-88. > Maroko P R , Kjekshus JK, Sobel B E , e t al . Factors influencing infarct size following experimental coronary artery occlusions. Circulation 1971 ;43:67-82. 2 2 Julian D , Campbell RWF. Sudden cardiac death. I n : Hamer J, Rowlands D, eds. Recent advances i n cardiology. V o l 8 . Edinburgh, London, Melbourne, N e w York: Churchill Livingstone, 1981:71-91. (Accepted 1 6 February 1983) Aviation Medicine Problems o f altitude I : Hypoxia a n d hyperventilation RICHARD M HARDING, F JOHN MILLS  Even modern aircraft still expose their passengers t o some risks from lowered atmospheric pressure. Concorde commonly cruises a t altitudes of 50 000-60 000 f t (15 240-18 288 m where, i f unprotected, it s occupants would b e unconscious within 1 5 seconds a n d dead four t o s ix minutes later from lack of oxygen.2 Even a t th e more usual cruising altitudes o f commercial aircraft-30 000-40 0 0 0 f t (9144-12 1 9 2 m - unprotected passengers a n d crew would rapidly succumb. Of course this does n o t happen, thanks t o t h e protection o f t h e aircraft pressure cabin. T he well being o f t h e a i r traveller within this artificial environment is , however, always threatened b y t h e problems o f altitude extending beyond lack o f oxygen t o decompression sickness, cold, a n d simple pressure effects. Physics o f t h e atmosphere Ascent t o altitude i s associated with a fall i n a ir pressure parallel b y decreases i n density a nd temperature. Thus a t 1 8 0 0 0 f t (5486 m atmospheric pressure h a s fallen t o half i t s value a t s e a level a nd t h e ambient temperature t o about - 20°C RAF Institute o f Aviation Medicine, Farnborough,Hants RICHARD M HARDING, M B , DAVMED,squadron leader F JOHN MILLS, MA, MB, squadron leader Correspondence t o : Squadron Leader R M Harding. (fig 1 ) . Th e fall i n total atmospheric pressure a n d t h e consequent reduction i n t h e partial pressure o f oxygen  Po2 poses the greatest single threat t o anyone w h o flies, hypoxia. Fortunately, the relationship between oxygen saturation o f haemoglobin and oxygen tension, reflected i n the shape o f the oxygen dissociation curve, minimises t h e Th e plateau represents a n reserve, which i s exploited b y aircraft designers, a n d provides protection against hypoxia u p t o a n altitude o f 1 0 0 0 0 f t (3048 m (fig 2 ) . Ascent to this altitude produces a fall i n alveolar P o 2 from t h e normal 1 3 7 k P a (103 mm H g ) t o 8 - 0 k P a ( 6 0 mm Hg) bu t only a slight fall in percentage saturation o f haemoglobin with oxygen. As th e altitude progressively rises above 1 0 0 0 0 f t (3048 m t h e percentage saturation o f haemoglobin falls precipi- tously a n d results i n hypoxia. Cabin pressurisation a n d decompression Commercial aircraft cabins a r e pressurised t o below 1 0 0 00 f t (3048 m)-usually between 5000 an d 7000 ft (1524-2134 m - both a s a safety margin fo r passengers (see previous article, 1 6 April, p 1229) an d because psychomotor performance a t novel which is o f relevance t o aircrew, deteriorates a t altitudes o f 8000 ft (2438m).3 Pressurisation t o se a level, though ideal, i s not cost effective. Aircraft maintain a positive ambient pressure within their cabins b y drawing i n external a i r an d delivering i t compressed t o t h e cabin. T h e outflow ofcabin a i r i s then controlled so a s t o maintain t h e required pressure differential. T h e through flow also ventilates t h e cabin a n d provides a means b y which th e ambient temperature m a y b e controlled. As long a s t h e pressuri- sation system a n d the aircraft remain intact, protection i s provi-

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7/21/2019 Journal Hypoxia

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1408

BRITISH MEDICAL

JOURNAL

VOLUME

28 6

30 APRIL

1983

H e a l t h S e r v i c e s

D e v e l o p m e n t ,

Ambulance S e r v i c e .

A d v a n c e d t r a i n i n g

f o r

a m b u l a n c e m e n .

L o n d o n :

DHSS,

1 9 7 6 .

( H e a l t h

N o t i c e

H N ( 7 6 ) 2 0 4 . )

4White

NM ,

P a r k e r W S, B i n n i n g

RA,

Kimber

ER,

Ead

H W ,

C h a m b e r l a i n

DA.

M o b i l e

c o r o n a r y

c a r e

p r o v i d e d b y a m b u l a n c e p e r s o n n e l .

Br

M e d J 3

1 9 7 3

; i i i

: 6 1 8 - 2 2 .

B r i g g s R S , Brown PM,

C r a b b ME,

e t

a l . The

B r i g h t o n

r e s u s c i t a t i o n

a m b u l a n c e s :

a

c o n ti n u i n g e x p e r i m e n t

i n

p r e ho s p it a l c a r e b y

a m b u l a n c e

s t a f f .

Br

Me d

J

1 9 7 6 ; i i :

1

1 6 1 - 5 .

6

M a c k i n t o s h

AF,

C r a b b

ME, G r a i n g e r R ,

W i l l i a m s J H , C h a m b e r l a i n

DA.

Th e

B r i g h t o n

r e s u s c i t a t i o n

a m b u l a n c e s :

r e v i e w

o f 4 0

c o n s e c u t i v e

s u r v i v o r s

o f

o u t - o f - h o s p i t a l

c a r d i a c

a r r e s t .

Br

MedJ

1 9 7 8 ; i : 1 1 1 5 - 8 .

N e i l s o n

JM.

A

s p e c i a l p u r p o s e h y b r i d c o m p u t e r

f o r

a n a l y s i s

o f

EC G a r r h y t h -

m i a s .

L o n d o n : I n s t i t u t e o f E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r s ,

1 9 7 1 : 1 5 1 . ( C o n f e r e n c e

p u b l i c a t i o n

No

7 9 . )

V e t t e r

N J , J u l i a n

DG.

C o m p a r i s o n

o f

a r r h y t h m i a

c o m p u t e r a n d c o n -

v e n t i o n a l

m o n i t o r i n g

i n

a

c o r o n a r y

c a r e

u n i t .

L a n c e t 1 9 7 5 ; i : 1 15 1 - 4 .

9

Lau YK,

S m i t h J , M o r r i s o n

S L ,

C h a m b e r l a i n DA.

P o l i c y

f o r e a r l y d i s -

c h a r g e a f t e r a c u t e m y o c a r d i a l

i n f a r c t i o n .

Br

Me d

J f

1 9 8 0 ; 2 8 0 : 1 4 8 9 - 9 2 .

° 0

N o r r i s

RM,

B r a n d t PWT, C a u g h e y DE, L e e

A J , S c o t t

P J . A

new

c o r o n a r y

p r o g n o s t i c i n d e x . L an c et 1 9 6 9

; i

: 2 7 4 - 8 .

  A r m s t r o n g

A ,

Duncan B , O l i v e r

MS , e t a l . N a t u r a l

h i s t o r y o f a c ut e c o r o n-

a r y h e a r t

a t t a c k s .

A

c o m m u n i t y

s t u d y . Br Heart3

1 9 7 2 ; 3 4 : 6 7 - 8 0 .

1 2

K i n l e n

L J .

I n c i d e n c e

a n d

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f

m y o c a r d i a l

i n f a r c t i o n i n a n

E n g l i s h

c o m m u n i t y .

Br H e a r t

_

1 9 7 3 ; 3 5 : 6 1 6 - 2 2 .

3

B a i n t o n CR, P e t e r s o n DR . D e a t h s f r o m

c o r o n a r y

h e a r t d i s e as e

i n p e r s o n s

f i f t y y e a r s o f

a g e a n d y o u n g e r . N E n g l 3 Me d

1 9 6 3 ; 2 6 8 : 5 6 9 - 7 5 .

 

Gordon T , K a n n e l

W B .

P r e m a t u r e

m o r t a l i t y

f r o m

c o r o n a r y h e a r t

d i s e a s e .

Th e F ramingham s t u d y .

JAMA

1 9 7 1 ; 2 1 5 : 1 6 1 7 - 2 5 .

5

S c h w a r t z C J ,

G e r r i t y

RG.

A n a t o m i c a l

p a t h o l o g y

o f s u d d e n

u n e x p e c t e d

c a r d i a c

d e at h . C i r c u l at i o n

1 9 7 5 ; s u p p l

3 : 1 8 - 2 6 , 5 1 - 2 .

  6

M a r g o l i s

J R , K a n n e l

W B,

F e i n l e i b M, e t a l . C l i n i c a l

f e a t u r e s o f u n -

r e c o g n i s e d

m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n - s i l e n t a n d

s y m p t o m a t i c . Am J

C a r d i o l 1 9 7 3 ; 3 2 : 1 - 7 .

  7 Adgey

AAJ, N e l s o n

PG, S c o t t ME,

e t

a l .

Management o f v e n t r i c u l a r

f i b r i l l a t i o n

o u t s i d e

h o s p i t a l .

L a n c e t

1 9 6 9 ; i :

1 1 6 9 - 7 1 .

1 8 P a nt r i d g e J F . M o b i l e

c o r o n a r y

c a r e .

C h es t 1 9 7 0 ; 5 8 : 2 2 9 - 34 .

  9

P a n t r i d g e

J F , G e d d e s J S . A m o b i l e i n t e n s i v e - c a r e

u n i t

i n

t h e

management

o f

m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n . L a n c e t

1 9 6 7 ; i i

: 2 7 1 - 3 .

2 0

P a n t r i d g e

J F , W e b b SW ,

Adgey

AAJ,

Geddes

J S .

The f i r s t h o u r

a f t e r

t h e

o n s e t

o f

a c u t e m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n .

P r o g r e s s

i n

C a r d i o l o g y

1 9 7 4 ; 3 :

1 7 3 - 8 8 .

> Maroko

P R ,

K j e k s h u s J K ,

S o b e l B E , e t

a l .

F a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g i n f a r c t

s i z e

f o ll ow i ng e x p e r i m e n t al

c o r o n a r y

a r t e r y

o c c l u s i o n s .

C i r c u l a t i o n

1 9 7 1

; 4 3 : 6 7 - 8 2 .

2 2

J u l i a n D ,

C a m p b e l l R W F . S u d d e n c a r d i a c d e a t h .

I n :

Hamer J ,

R o w l a n d s

D ,

e d s .

R e c e nt a d v a n c e s i n c a r d i o l o g y . V o l 8 . E d i n b u r g h ,

L o n d o n ,

M e l b o u r n e , Ne w

Y o r k :

C h u r c h i l l L i v i n g s t o n e ,

1 9 8 1 : 7 1 - 9 1 .

( A c c e p t e d

1 6

F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 3 )

A v i a t i o n

M e d i c i n e

P r o b l e m s o f a l t i t u d e

I :

H y p o x i a

a n d

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

RICHARD M

HARDING,

F

JOHN

MILLS

  E v e n

m o d e r n a i r c r a f t

s t i l l e x p o s e t h e i r

p a s s e n g e r s

t o

s o m e

r i s k s

f r o m

l o w e r e d

a t m o s p h e r i c

p r e s s u r e .

C o n c o r d e

commonly

c r u i s e s a t a l t i t u d e s

o f 5 0 0 0 0 - 6 0 0 0 0

f t

( 1 5

2 40 - 1 8 2 8 8

m w h e r e ,

i f

u n p r o t e c t e d ,

i t s

o c c u p a n t s

w o u l d b e

u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h i n 1 5

s e c o n d s

a n d d e a d

f o u r

t o

s i x

m i n u t e s

l a t e r

f r o m l a c k

o f

o x y g e n . 2

E v e n

a t

t h e more u s u a l

c r u i s i n g

a l t i t u d e s

o f c o m m e r c i a l a i r c r a f t - 3 0 0 0 0 - 4 0

0 0 0

f t

( 9 1 4 4 - 1 2

1 9 2

m -

u n p r o t e c t e d

p a s s e n g e r s

a n d c r e w

w o u l d

r a p i d l y

s u c c u m b . Of

c o u r s e

t h i s

d o e s

n o t

h a p p e n ,

t h a n k s

t o t h e

p r o t e c t i o n

o f t h e

a i r c r a f t

p r e s s u r e

c a b i n .

The

w e l l

b e i n g

o f t h e

a i r

t r a v e l l e r

w i t h i n

t h i s a r t i f i c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t

i s ,

h o w e v e r , a l w a y s

t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e

p r o b l e m s

o f

a l t i t u d e

e x t e n d i n g

b e y o n d

l a c k

o f

o x y g e n

t o

d e c o m p r e s s i o n

s i c k n e s s ,

c o l d , a n d s i m p l e

p r e s s u r e

e f f e c t s .

P h y s i c s

o f

t h e

atmosphere

A s c e n t

t o

a l t i t u d e

i s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a

f a l l

i n

a i r p r e s s u r e

p a r a l l e l

b y

d e c r e a s e s i n

d e n s i t y a n d

t e m p e r a t u r e .

Thus

a t

1 8

0 0 0

f t

( 5 4 8 6 m

a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e

h a s

f a l l e n

t o

h a l f

i t s

v a l u e

a t

s e a l e v e l

a n d

t h e

a m b i e n t

t e m p e r a t u r e

t o

a b o u t

-

2 0 ° C

RAF I n s t i t u t e o f

A v i a t i o n

M e d i c i n e ,

F ar nbo r ough , Hant s

RICHARD

M

HARDING,

M B , D A V M E D , s q u a d r o n

l e a d e r

F

JOHN

MILLS, M A , M B , s q u a d r o n l e a d e r

C o r r e s p o n d e n c e

t o :

S q u a d r o n

L e a d e r R M

H a r d i n g .

( f i g 1 ) . Th e f a l l

i n

t o t a l a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e

a n d t h e

c o n s e q u e n t

r e d u c t i o n

i n

t h e

p a r t i a l

p r e s s u r e

o f o x y g e n   P o 2

p o s e s

t h e

g r e a t e s t s i n g l e t h r e a t

t o

a n y o n e

w h o f l i e s ,

h y p o x i a . F o r t u n a t e l y ,

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n o x y g e n

s a t u r a t i o n o f

h a e m o g l o b i n a n d

o x y g e n

t e n s i o n ,

r e f l e c t e d

i n t h e s h a p e o f

t h e

o x y g e n d i s s o c i a t i o n

c u r v e ,

m i n i m i s e s t h e e f f e c t . The

p l a t e a u

r e p r e s e n t s

a n

i n b u i l t

r e s e r v e ,

w h i c h i s

e x p l o i t e d b y

a i r c r a f t

d e s i g n e r s ,

a n d

p r o v i d e s

p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t h y p o x i a

up

t o

a n a l t i t u d e

o f

1 0 0 0 0 f t

( 3 0 4 8 m

( f i g

2 ) .

A s c e n t t o t h i s a l t i t u d e p r o d u c e s

a f a l l

i n

a l v e o l a r P o 2

f r o m

t h e

n o r m a l 1 3

7 k P a

( 1 0 3

mm

H g )

t o

8 - 0

k P a

( 6 0

mm

H g )

b u t

o n l y a s l i g h t

f a l l i n

p e r c e n t a g e

s a t u r a t i o n

o f

h a e m o g l o b i n

w i t h

o x y g e n .

As

t h e

a l t i t u d e p r o g r e s s i v e l y

r i s e s

a b o v e

1 0 0 0 0

f t

( 3 0 4 8 m

t h e

p e r c e n t a g e

s a t u r a t i o n o f

h a e m o g l o b i n

f a l l s

p r e c i p i -

t o u s l y

a n d

r e s u l t s

i n

h y p o x i a .

Cabin

p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

a n d

d e c o m p r e s s i o n

C o m m e r c i a l

a i r c r a f t c a b i n s a r e

p r e s s u r i s e d

t o b e l o w

1 0

0 0 0

f t

( 3 0 4 8 m ) - u s u a l l y

b e t w e e n 5 0 0 0

a n d

7 0 0 0 f t

( 1 5 2 4 - 2 1 3 4 m -

b o t h a s a s a f e t y

m a r g i n

f o r

p a s s e n g e r s ( s e e p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e ,

1 6

A p r i l , p 1 2 2 9 )

a n d

b e c a u s e

p s y c h o m o t o r

p e r f o r m a n c e

a t n o v e l

t a s k s ,

w h i c h

i s

o f

r e l e v a n c e

t o

a i r c r e w ,

d e t e r i o r a t e s

a t

a l t i t u d e s o f

8 0 0 0

f t

( 2 43 8 m ). 3

P r e s s u r i s a t i o n t o

s e a

l e v e l ,

t h o u g h

i d e a l , i s

n o t

c o s t

e f f e c t i v e .

A i r c r a f t m a i n t a i n

a

p o s i t i v e

a m b i e n t

p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e i r

c a b i n s

b y

d r a w i n g

i n

e x t e r n a l

a i r a n d

d e l i v e r i n g

i t c o m p r e s s e d

t o

t h e

c a b i n . The

o u t f l o w

o f c a b i n

a i r i s

t h e n

c o n t r o l l e d

s o

a s

t o

m a i n t a i n

t h e

r e q u i r e d

p r e s s u r e

d i f f e r e n t i a l .

Th e

t h r o u g h

f l o w

a l s o v e n t i l a t e s t h e

c a b i n a n d

p r o v i d e s

a means

b y

w h i c h

t h e

a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e m a y

b e

c o n t r o l l e d .

As l o n g

a s

t h e

p r e s s u r i -

s a t i o n s y s t e m a n d t h e a i r c r a f t r e m a i n i n t a c t , p r o t e c t i o n i s

p r o v i -

7/21/2019 Journal Hypoxia

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/journal-hypoxia 2/3

BRITISH

MEDICAL

JOURNAL VOLUmE

286

30

APRIL 1983

800

7 0 0

-

 

I

 

E

a ,

a )

n

V )

Q i

. Y

  U

L

0

E

2 0 -

1 5 .

0

8

_ 1 0

D

, .-

a

5

_ c

V

C )

n

-5 0

L-60

F IG 1 - R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a l t i t u d e a n d

p r e s s u r e a n d b et w e en

a l t i t u d e a n d

temperature.

C o n v e r s i o n : t r a d i t i o n a l

t o SI

u n i t s - a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e :

1 0 0   Hg I

1 3 - 3

k P a .

( A l t i t u d e : 5 0 0 0 f t 1 5 0 0

m . )

A l t i t u d e ( x

1

f t )

c

a )

x

0

- c

E

a)

c-

 c

a

a

0

1 2 3

4

5

6

7

8 9

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 3

1 4

P a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f a l v e o l a r

oxyg e n

 

kPu

FI G 2 - R e l a t i o n

b e t w e e n

p a r t i a l pres s ure

o f a l v e o l a r

o x y g e n ,

percentage

s a t u r a t i o n

o f

h a e m o g l o b i n

w i t h

o x y g e n ,

a n d

a l t i t u d e .

C o n v e r s i o n :

SI

t o t r a d i t i o n a l

u n i t s - p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e

o f

a l v e o l a r

oxyg e n:

1 kPaz8  

g .

( A l t i t u d e :

5 0 0 0

f t

1 5 0 0

m . )

ded

a t normal

o p e r a t i n g

a l t i t u d e s .

I n

p r a c t i c e

t h e

d e g r e e

o f

p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

i n c r e a s e s

l i n e a r l y w i t h ,

b u t

a t

a

s l o w e r

r a t e

t h a n ,

a c t u a l

a l t i t u d e ,

f r o m

g r o u n d

l e v e l

t o

a

h i g h m a x i m u m

d i f f e r e n t i a l

pr es s ur e ( f i g 3 ) .

T h e r e a f t e r ,

c a b i n a l t i t u d e

i n c r e a s e s a t t h e same

r a t e

as

a i r c r a f t

a l t i t u d e

a l o n g

a

l i n e

d e t e r m i n e d

b y

t h e

pressure

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f t h e

h u l l ,

t h e

m a x i m u m

d i f f e r e n t i a l

pr es s ur e

l i n e .

Th e

p r o b l e m s

o f a l t i t u d e

become m a n i f e s t

i f a n d

whe n c a b i n

C a b i n

d i f f e r e n t i a l

p r e s s u r e

( l b / i n 2 )

0 2

4

/

,

6

 

o

  o

X/

  / /

  / / <

/

o

 < 8 M a x i m u m

d i f f e r e n t i a l

/

 

/

X-pressre

i n e

/

/ _

/

/

//

9

/ j

~ / /

/

/

/

/   ,

5

1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0

4 0

5 0

A i r c r a f t a l t i t u d e

( x

l O O O f t

)

F I G 3 - T y p i c a l

s u b s o ni c p a s s e ng e r a i r c r a f t p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

p r o f i l e . I n

t h i s e x -

a m p l e

t h e

m a x i m u m

d i f f e r e n t i a l

p r e s s u r e l i n e i s r e a c h e d when a i r c r a f t

a l t i t u d e

i s

3 9 5 0 0 f e e t

( 1 2

0 4 0

m a n d c a b i n

a l t i t u d e

i s

6 0 0 0 f t

( 1 9 2 9

m ) .

C o n v e r s i o n : t r a d i t i o n a l t o

SI u n i t s - c a b i n

d i f f e r e n t i a l

p r e s s u r e :

1

l b / i n 2

0 - 0 7

k g / c m 2 . ( A l t i t u d e : 5 0 0 0 f t - 1 5 0 0

m . )

p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

f a i l s . S u c h f a i l u r e s s t i l l

o c c u r i n b o t h c i v i l a n d

m i l i t a r y

a i r c r a f t ,

l a r g e

a n d

s m a l l . 4

6

I n

t h e

c a s e

o f

a

s l o w

l o s s

o f

p r e s s u r i s a t i o n - f o r e x a m p l e , a s a r e s u l t

o f m a l f u n c t i o n

o f

a c o n -

t r o l s y s t e m - t h e

c a b i n

a l t i t u d e w i l l

i n c r e a s e

s l o w l y ;

t h i s i s

u s u a l l y

r a p i d l y r e c o g n i s e d a n d d e a l t w i t h b y

t h e c r e w . H y p o x i a i n

s u s c e p t i b l e

s u b j e c t s

i s t h e m a i n d a n g e r . E f f e c t s a r e

more

d r a m a -

t i c w h en

a r a p i d d e c o m p r e s s i o n

o c c u r s - f o r e x a m p l e , when a

window i s

l o s t o r

t h e

p r e s s u r e h u l l

i s

r u p t u r e d b y

a n

e x p l o s i o n .

I n

t h e s e c a s e s t h e r e

i s

a

m a s s i v e mo v ement

o f

a i r

o u t t h r o u g h t h e

d e f e c t ,

w h i c h

w i l l

c a r r y

w i t h i t

a n y

l o o s e

a r t i c l e s

a n d

e v e n

p a s -

s e n g e r s

c l o s e

t o t h e b r e a c h who a r e

n o t w e a r i n g t h e i r s e a t b e l t s . 4

The

a i r m ove m e n t

c r e a t e s

c o n s i d e r a b l e n o i s e a n d t h e s u d d e n

c o o l i n g c a u s e s

c o n d e n s a t i o n a n d

m i s t i n g ,

t h u s

m a k i n g

b o t h

c o m m u n i c a t i o n

a n d

v i s i o n d i f f i c u l t . T h e s e i n i t i a l

e v e n t s

a r e

r a p i d l y

s u c c e e d e d

b y

t h e

p r o b l e m s

o f

h y p o x i a , p e r h a p s

c o m p l i -

c a t e d

b y c o l d i n j u r y

( f r o s t b i t e

a n d

f r o s t n i p ) , a n d

d e c o m p r e s s i o n

s i c k n e s s .

The

r a t e ,

d u r a t i o n ,

a n d

e f f e c t s

o f

r a p i d

d e c o m p r e s s i o n

d e p e n d

on

t h e e x t e r n a l

a n d

c a b i n

a l t i t u d e s a t t h e

m o m e n t o f

d e c o m p r e s s i o n ,

t h e

v o l u m e

o f t h e

c a b i n ,

a n d

t h e

s i z e

o f t h e

d e f e c t .

Combat

a i r c r a f t

a r e

p r e s s u r i s e d

t o a l e s s e r

d e g r e e

s o

a s

t o

a c h i e v e

a

l o w e r s t r u c t u r a l

w e i g h t

a n d

i m p r o v e t h e p o w e r t o

w e i g h t

r a t i o . I n

a d d i t i o n ,

t h e

r i s k

o f

s u d d e n

l o s s o f c a b i n

p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

i n

t h e s e

a i r c r a f t

i s

i n c r e a s e d

a s

a

r e s u l t o f

enemy

a c t i o n .

The

d e g r e e o f p r e s s u r i s a t i o n

d e p e n d s

on

a c t u a l

a l t i t u d e ,

a s i n

c o m m e r c i a l a i r c r a f t . The

o x y g e n

d e f i c i t when c a b i n

a l t i t u d e s

e x c e e d

1 0

0 0 0 f t

( 3 1 2 5

m

i n m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t i s

c o m p e n s a t e d

f o r

b y o x y g e n e n r i c h m e n t

o f t h e a i r

a s a l t i t u d e

i n c r e a s e s ,

u n t i l

a t a b o u t 3 0

0 0 0 f e e t ( 9 1 4 4

m 100 o x y g e n

i s

b e i n g d e l i v e r e d . The

s u p p l y

i s

f e d

i n d i v i d u a l l y

t o

e a c h

crew

m e m b e r

t h r o u g h

a

r e g u l a t o r

a n d

m a s k .

H y p o x i a

PHYSIOLOGICAL

FACTORS

The e a r l i e s t

f e a t u r e o f

h y p o b a r i c

h y p o x i a

i s

o f t e n

a

s u b t l e

p e r s o n a l i t y

c h a n g e

p e r h a p s

c o u p l e d

w i t h

e u p h o r i a ,

l a c k

o f

j u d g m e n t ,

l o s s

o f s h o r t term

m e m o r y ,

a n d

m e n t a l i n c o o r d i n a -

t i o n .

T h i s

c o m b i n a t i o n

i s

n o t

u n p l e a s a n t

a n d r e s e m b l e s t h e

e a r l y s t a g e s

o f a l c o h o l i c

i n t o x i c a t i o n ,

b u t i t s

i n s i d i o u s n e s s

i s

o f

t h e

g r e a t e s t

d a n g e r

t o

t h e v i c t i m .

I n

a

crew member

i t

ma y

b e

d i s a s t r o u s s i n c e h e i s unaware o f h i s

f a i l i n g

p e r f o r m a n c e .

S u b s e q u e n t

f e a t u r e s

r e f l e c t

t h e s t i mu l a t i on o f

c a r d i o v a s c u l a r

a n d

r e s p i r a t o r y

c o m p e n s a t o r y

m e c h a n i s m s .

I n

m o d e r a t e

h y p o x i a - f o r

e x a m p l e ,

a i r

b r e a t h i n g

a t

2 5

0 0 0

f t

( 7 6 2 0

M 6-

c a r d i a c

o u t p u t

a n d h e a r t r a t e

a r e

i n c r e a s e d

b u t o v e r a l l

p e r i p h e r a l

r e s i s t a n c e i s

r e d u c e d ,

s o

t h a t

m e a n a r t e r i a l b l o o d

p r e s s u r e

i s

u n c h a n g e d .

C e r e b r a l b l o o d

f l o w i s

i n c r e a s e d , t h o u g h

t h e

1 4 0 9

7/21/2019 Journal Hypoxia

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/journal-hypoxia 3/3

1 4 1 0

BRITISH

MEDICAL

JOURNAL

VOLUME

286 3 0

APRIL 1983

d e g r e e

o f i n c r e a s e i s m o d i f i e d

b y

t h e

m a g n i t u d e

o f

c o e x i s t i n g

h y p o c a p n i a

t h a t r e s u l t s

f r o m

i n c r e a s e d

r e s p i r a t o r y

m i n u t e

v o l u m e .

Thus c e r e b r a l a n d c a r d i a c

p e r f u s i o n

i s

i n c r e a s e d

a t

t h e

e x p e n s e o f

l e s s v i t a l

o r g a n s .

M u s c u l a r i n c oo r di n a t i o n d e-

v e l o p s - i n c l u d i n g

s l u r r e d

speech-and

t h i s , t o g e t h e r

w i t h l o s s

o f t o u c h s e n s a t i o n ,

ma y p r e v e n t t he v i c t i m

f r o m

t a k i n g

e f f e c t i v e

r e m e d i a l

a c t i o n . The

s p e c i a l

s e ns e s a r e a l s o

a f f e c t e d ;

c l a s s i c a l l y ,

t u n n e l l i n g

o f v i s i o n

o c c u r s , t h o u g h n o n - s p e c i f i c

v i s u a l

s y m p -

t o m s

a r e

more common.

L o s s

o f a u d i t o r y a c u i t y

i s

a

l a t e

f e a t u r e ,

h o w e v e r ,

a n d

e v e n

t h e n i s

n o t

p r o n o u n c e d .

R e s p i r a t i o n

i n c r e a s e s

u n d e r t h e

h y p o x i c

d r i v e t o

h e l p

a l l e v i a t e

c e r e b r a l

h y p o x i a

b u t i s

i n e f f e c t i v e ,

a n d t h e

s y m p t o m s

a n d

s i g n s

o f

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

d e v e l o p

w i t h t h o s e o f

h y p o x i a . H y p e r v e n t i l a -

t i o n i s

a n o r m a l

r e s p o n s e

t o

a f a l l

i n

a l v e o l a r

P o . ,

t o b e l o w

7

3 - 8 0 k P a

( 5 5 - 6 0

mm

H g )

a n d i n d e e d

m a y

b e t h e

d o m i n a n t

c l i n i c a l

f e a t u r e .

L i g h t h e a d e d n e s s , f e e l i n g s

o f

u n r e a l i t y

a n d

a n x i e t y , p a r a e s t h e s i a e ,

v i s u a l d i s t u r b a n c e s - f o r

e x a m p l e ,

b l u r r i n g

a n d s c o t o m a t a - a n d

p a l p i t a t i o n s

a r e c o m m o n

i n

p e o p l e

e x p o s ed s u d d e n l y

t o

a l t i t u d e s

o f 2 5

0 0 0 f t

( 7 6 2 0 m ) .

The

f e a t u r e s o f

h y p o x i a

v a r y

b e t w e e n

s u b j e c t s ,

a n d

t h e r a t e

a t

w h i c h t he y d e v e l o p

d e p e n d s

on t h e

s e v e r i t y

o f t h e

h y p o x i c

i n s u l t . Thus most

o f t h e

c h a n g e s

d e s c r i b e d

o c c u r

w i t h i n

t h r e e t o

f i v e m i n u t e s

o f

s u d d e n

e x p o s u r e

t o

a n a l t i t u d e

o f 2 5

0 0 0 f t

( 7 6 2 0

m

( b y

w h i c h t i m e

a l v e o l a r

P o 2 =40 k P a

( 3 0

mm

H g )

a n d

a l v e o l a r

P c o 2

29

k z P a ( 2 2

mm

H g ) , 6

b u t

a b o v e

4 5 0 0 0 f t

( 1 3

7 1 6

m u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

o f t e n

p r e c e d e d

b y c o n v u l s i o n s ,

s u p e r v e n e s

w i t h i n 1 5 - 2 0

s e c o n d s .

The t r e a t m e n t f o r

h y p o b a r i c h y p o x i a

i s

w i t h

o x y g e n .

I n

p a s s e n g e r

a i r c r a f t

o x y g e n

i s d e l i v e r e d

t h r o u g h a u t o m a t i c

d r o p

d o w n

s e t s

w h e n e v e r

t h e c a b i n

a l t i t u d e

e x c e e d s a

c e r t a i n

l e v e l ,

u s u a l l y

1 2

0 0 0 - 1 4

0 0 0

f t

( 3 6 5 8 - 4 2 6 7 m ) . E a c h

s e t h a s

a

mask

a t t a c h e d

w h i c h

s h o u l d b e

i m m e d i a t e l y p l a c e d o v e r

t h e

f a c e .

I n

man y

s y s t e m s

t h e

a c t i o n o f

p u l l i n g

t h e

mask

w i t h i t s

d e l i v e r y

t u b e a t t a c h e d

o n t o

t h e

f a c e

i n i t i a t e s t h e f l o w

o f

o x y g e n .

Even t h i s

s i m p l e

m a n o e u v r e

m a y

b e

b e y o n d

t h e

a b i l i t y

o f

p a s s e n g e r s w h en

t h e y

a r e

e x p o s e d

t o

r a p i d d e c o m p r e s s i o n

a t

h i g h

a l t i t u d e . 4

7

M a n i p u l a t i n g

t h e

e q u i p m e n t

m a y

b e f u r t h e r

c o m p l i c a t e d i f t h e

s t r i c k e n a i r c r a f t s u b s e q u e n t l y d e s c e n d s

r a p i d l y

a n d t h e

p a s s e n -

g e r s

a r e

f l e x e d

f o r w a r d

i n

t h e i r

s e a t s .

S e a t s

f a c i n g

b a c k w a r d s

w o u l d

p r e v e n t

s u c h

f l e x i n g

a n d

s o make t h e

o x y g e n

mask

e a s i e r

t o

u s e . 8

Th e

c r e w o n

t h e f l i g h t

d e c k

a r e

e q u i p p e d

w i t h

more

e l a b o r a t e o x y g e n s y s t e m s - s i m i l a r

t o t h o s e i n

m i l i t a r y

a i r c r a f t -

t o

e n a b l e t h e m t o

a c c o m p l i s h , u n i m p a i r e d ,

a

r a p i d

d e s c e n t t o a

s a f e a l t i t u d e

o f l e s s t h a n

1 0 0 0 0

f t

( 3 0 4 8

m ) .

The c a b i n s t a f f

h a v e

p o r t a b l e o x y g e n

s e t s

f o r t h e i r o wn

u s e

w h i l e h e l pi n g

p a s s e n g e r s .

A

d e g r e e

o f

h y p o x i a

w i l l

d e v e l o p

i n

a l l

o c c u p a n t s

o f

a n

a i r c r a f t

whe n

b r e a t h i n g

a i r a t

a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 1 0

0 0 0 f t

( 3 0 4 8

m ) .

Some

s u b j e c t s

m a y ,

h o w e v e r ,

become

h y p o x i c

b e l o w

t h i s a l t i t u d e

a n d w i l l

r e q u i r e t h e r a p e u t i c o x y g e n

i n t h e

a i r c r a f t ,

w h i l e

t h e i r

f e l l o w

p a s s e n g e r s

r e m a i n

f i t

a n d w e l l .

O x y g e n

m a y b e g i v e n

t h r o u g h

t h e

p a s s e n g e r s

ow n a u t o m a t i c

s e t o r

f r o m a

p o r t a b l e

e m e r g e n c y

s u p p l y ( s e e p r e v i o u s

a r t i c l e ,

9

A p r i l , p 1 2 0 4 ) .

MEDICAL

FACTORS

Many

f a c t o r s

ma y c a u s e

o n e

p e r s o n

t o

b e

more

s u s c e p t i b l e

t o

l a c k

o f

o x y g e n t h a n

a n o t h e r .

I l l

h e a l t h , e s p e c i a l l y

c a r d i o -

v a s c u l a r a n d

r e s p i r a t o r y d i s o r d e r s ( s e e

p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e ,

1 6

A p r i l , p 1 2 6 9 ) ma y

o b v i o u s l y

l e a d

t o p r o b l e m s .

A l c o h o l

a n d

o t h e r

d r u g s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y

p r o p r i e t a r y

c o l d c u r e s

( e s p e c i a l l y

t h o s e

c o n t a i n i n g

a n t i h i s t a m i n e s ) , m a y

p o t e n t i a t e t h e

l a c k

o f

o x y g e n . C a r b o n

m o n o x i d e

p r e f e r e n t i a l l y d i s p l a c e s

o x y g e n

f r o m

t h e

h a e m o g l o b i n

m o l e c u l e a n d

s o

s m o k i n g ma y

r a i s e

c a r b o x y h a e m o g l o b i n

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

s u f f i c i e n t l y t o

r e d u c e

t h e

r e s e r v e , d e s p i t e e n z y m a t i c a n d

h a e m a t o l o g i c a l

c o m p e n s a t o r y

m e c h a n i s m s . I n

a d d i t i o n , t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n

o f

c a r b o n

m o n o x i d e

w i t h h a e m o g l o b i n

s h i f t s t h e

o x y g e n

d i s s o c i a t i o n

c u r v e

t o

t h e

l e f t s o

f u r t h e r r e d u c i n g

t h e amount

o f o x y g e n a v a i l a b l e f o r

r e l e a s e t o

t h e

t i s s u e s . 9

Thus a n

e s t a b l i s h e d

h e a v y

s m o k e r

ma y

a l r e a d y b e a t

a n

e q u i v a l e n t a l t i t u d e

o f s e v e r a l

t h o u s a n d

f e e t

w h i l e

w a l k i n g t o h i s a i r c r a f t .

F i n a l l y , a n y

c o n d i t i o n t h a t

i n c r e a s e s o x y g e n

r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

s u c h

a s e x e r c i s e

o r

c o l d , w i l l

r e d u c e

t o l e r a n c e t o

h y p o x i a .

O c c a s i o n a l l y symptoms

a n d

s i g n s

w o r s e n

t r a n s i e n t l y

when

o x y g e n

i s

r e s t o r e d t o a

h y p o x i c

p a t i e n t .

T h i s

o x y g e n p a r a d o x

p r o b a b l y

r e s u l t s f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

a

r e f l e x

p e r i p h e r a l

a r t e r i o l a r

v a s o d i l a t a t i o n w i t h c o n s e q u e n t h y p o t e n s i o n a n d

a

p e r s i s t e n t c e r e b r a l

v a s o c o n s t r i c t i o n d u e

t o

h y p o c a p n i a

a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h

h y p o x i a . 6

The

phenomenon i s

u s u a l l y

m i l d

a n d

l a s t s

f o r

1 5 - 6 0

s e c o n d s , a f t e r

w h i c h

r e c o v e r y i s r a p i d p r o v i d e d

t h a t

o x y g e n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s m a i n t a i n e d . O c c a s i o n a l l y ,

h o w e v e r ,

t h e

p a r a d o x m a y

p r o d u c e c o n v u l s i o n s

a n d

l o s s

o f

c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

H y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

H y p o x i a i s

n o t

t h e

o n l y

c a u s e

o f

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

i n

f l i g h t ,

b u t

i t

i s t h e

m o s t

i m p o r t a n t a n d d i f f i c u l t

a s p e c t

o f

t h e

d i f f e r e n t i a l

d i a g n o s i s

o f

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n . O t h e r

c a u s e s

i n c l u d e

o t h e r e n -

v i r o n m e n t a l

s t r e s s e s ,

s u c h

a s w h o l e

b o d y v i b r a t i o n

i n

a i r

t u r b u -

l e n c e ,

m o t i o n

s i c k n e s s ,

a n d h i g h

a m b i e n t

t e m p e r a t u r e s .

The

m o s t c o m m o n

c a u s e ,

h o w e v e r , i s

a n x i e t y

o r

e m o t i o n a l

s t r e s s .

A

l a r g e

p r o p o r t i o n

o f

a i r c r e w

u n d e r

t r a i n i n g

h y p e r v e n t i l a t e , 0

a s

d o

e x p e r i e n c e d

a i r c r e w ,

e s p e c i a l l y

when c o n f r o n t e d

w i t h a n

u n u s u a l

o r s e v e r e

m e n t a l

s t r e s s

s u c h

a s

a n

i n f l i g h t e m e r g e n c y .

P a s s e n g e r s

w ho a r e

i n e x p e r i e n c e d

a i r

t r a v e l l e r s

a r e o f t e n

a f f e c t e d . The

symptoms

a n d

s i g n s

o f

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n ( a s

d e s c r i b e d

a b o v e )

a r e

a l l

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o

t h e

r e s u l t i n g

h y p o c a p n i a . 1 1

V e r y

r a r e l y

d o e s

u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s

o c c u r ,

o r

e v e n

t e t a n y .

The

u s u a l

c l i n i c a l

p i c t u r e

i s

a n

i n c r e a s i n g l y

a n x i o u s

p a s s e n g e r w i t h

e a r l y s y m p t o m s r e q u i r i n g

h e l p .

The

s i m p l e

b u t

e f f e c t i v e

r e -

b r e a t h i n g

o f

e x p i r e d

a i r

i s

t h e

t r e a t m e n t

o f c h o i c e

t o g e t h e r w i t h a

l o g i c a l

e x p l a n a t i o n

b u t

f i r m

i n s t r u c t i o n s t o b r e a t h e

more

s l o w l y .

I n

p a s s e n g e r s

who

h a b i t u a l l y h y p er v e n t i l at e s e d a ti o n

b e f o r e t h e

f l i g h t m a y b e

i n d i c a t e d . E x p e r i e n c e a n d t r a i n i n g w i l l

r e d u c e

t h e

l i k e l i h o o d

o f

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

amo ng c r e w m e m b e r s .

D e s p i t e t h e

f a c t t h a t

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

i s

p r o b a b l y m or e c om -

m o n d u r i n g f l i g h t

t h a n

h y p o x i a ,

a i r c r e w

must a s s u m e

t h a t

a n y

s u s p i c i o u s

symptoms

o r

s i g n s

a r e d u e

t o

h y p o x i a

w h e n e v e r

t h e

c a b i n a l t i t u d e

e x c e e d s

1 0

0 0 0

f t

( 3 0 4 8

m )

a n d n o t t o

h y p e r v e n t i -

l a t i o n f r o m a n o t h e r c a u s e .

They

must

a l s o

t a k e

a p p r o p r i a t e

r e m e -

d i a l

a c t i o n . Th e

i m p o r t a n c e o f

t h e

s i m i l a r i t i e s

b e t w e e n

h y p e r -

v e n t i l a t i o n

d u e

t o

h y p o x i a

a n d

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n a l o n e ,

a n d

t h e

p o s s i b l y

f a t a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s

o f

m i s d i a g n o s i s ,

s h o u l d

b e

e m p h a s i s e d

d u r i n g t r a i n i n g .

Next

w e e k s

a r t i c l e c o v e r s

f u r t h e r

m e d i c a l

p r o b l e m s

d u e

t o

c h a n g e s

i n

a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e

w h i l e

f l y i n g .

R e f e r e n c e s

M i n e r v a .

V i e w s .

Br

Med 3 1 9 8 2 ; 2 8 4 : 7 4 9 .

2

E r n s t i n g J .

Soze e f f e c t s o f r a i s e d

i n t r a p u l m n o n a r y p r e s s u r e

i n

m a n . M a i d e n -

h e a d , E n g l a n d :

T e c h n i v i s i o n

L t d ,

1 9 6 6 .

D e n i s o n

DM

L e d w i t h

MA ,

P o u l t o n

E C . Complex r e a c t i o n t i m e s a t

s i m u l a t e d c a b i n

a l t i t u d e s o f 5 0 0 0

f e e t a n d

8 0 0 0

f e e t .

A e r o s p a c e Me d

1 9 6 6 ; 3 7 : 1 0 1 0 - 3 .

1

N o r r i s

W . T h e u n s a f e s k y . L o n d o n :

Arrow

B o o k s ,

1 9 8 1 .

5

Underwood-Ground

KE.

Check

y o u r o x y g e n .

A v i a t S p a c e E n v i r o n Me d

1 9 8 2

; 5 3 : 2 4 - 6 .

6

E r n s t i n g J , S h a r p GR.

H y p o x i a

a n d

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n .

I n : Dhenin

G , e d .

A v i a t i o n n m e d i c i n e .

V o l 1 . L o n d o n : Tri-Med

B o o k s

L t d ,

1 9 7 8 .

7

H o f f l e r GW

Turner

HS, Wick RL, B i l l i n g s

CE. B e h a v i o u r o f n a i v e

s u b j e c t s

d u r i n g

r a p i d

d e c o m p r e s s i o n

f r o m

8 0 0 0

t o

3 0 0 0 0

f e e t .

A e r o s p a c e

Me d

1 9 7 4 ; 4 5 : 1 1 7 - 2 2 .

N

v o n B e c k h

H i .

F o r w a r d f a c i n g

v e r s u s r e a r w a r d f a c i n g

p a s s e n g e r

s e a t s

d u r i n g e m e r g e n c y

d e s c e n t

o f

m u l t i

m a c h - h i g h

a l t i t u d e

t r a n s p o r t

a i r -

c r a f t .

A e r o s p a c e

Me d

1 9 6 9 ; 4 0 : 1 2 1 5 - 8 .

9

P e r u t z

MF . H a e m o g l o b i n s t r u c t u r e

an d r e s p i r a t o r y

t r a n s p o r t .

S c i Am

1 9 7 8

; 2 3 9 : 6 8 - 8 6 .

B a l k e B , W e l l s

J G , C l a r k RT . I n - f l i g h t

h y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

i n

a i r c r a f t

p i l o t s .

J

A v i a t

Me d

1 9 5 7 ; 2 8 : 2 4 1 - 8 .

Lum

LC.

H y p e r v e n t i l a t i o n

a n d

a n x i e t y

s t a t e .

7

R S o c

Me d

1 9 8 1

; 7 4 : 1 - 4 .