Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences ... Vol. 8, No.1, Jan. 2018.pdf · The Role of Midwife on the Use of Poedji Rochjati Score Card with Knowledge of Cadres in

Volume 8, Issue 1, January 2018

Journal of Applied Environmental

and Biological Sciences (JAEBS)

An International Peer-reviewed journal

Number of issues per year: 12

ISSN (Print): 2090-4274

ISSN (Online): 2090-4215

Copyright © 2018, TEXTROAD Publishing Corporation

J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., Vol.8 No. 1: pp. 1-248, Year 2018

Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS)

Monthly Publication

Scope

Number of issues per year: 12 ISSN: 2090-4274 (Print) ISSN: 2090-4215 (Online)

Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is a peer

reviewed, open access international scientific journal dedicated for rapid publication of high quality original research articles as well as review articles in the all areas of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is devoted

to the monthly publication of research papers of outstanding significance in the all fields of environmental sciences, environmental engineering, environmental Pollution, green chemistry, environmentally friendly synthetic pathways, alternatively fuels, environmental analytical chemistry, biomolecular tools and tracers, water and soil, environmental [management, economics, humanities], Mathematics, multidisciplinary aspects such as Business Management, Organizational Behavior, all areas of biological sciences, including cell biology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biochemistry, biotechnology, biodiversity, ecology, marine biology, plant biology, bioinformatics, toxicology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biotechnology, biodiversity and related fields. The journal presents the latest developments in the fields of environmental social marketing, environmental journalism, environmental education, sustainability education, environmental interpretation, and environmental health communication.

Editorial Board

Editor -in–Chief William Ebomoyi Ph.D., Professor, Department of Health Studies, College of Health Sciences, Chicago State University, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

Associate Editors

Prof. Dr. Sanaa T. El-Sayed Ex Head of Biochemistry Department, Professor of Biochemistry, Genetic Engineering &Biotechnology Division, National Research

Centre, Egypt

Saeid Chekani Azar PhD of Veterinary Physiology; Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Physiology, Ataturk University, Erzurum 25010, Turkey.

Prof. Dr. Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo Professor, Professional Engineer of Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers, Indonesia

Prof. Dr. Ashraf Latif Tadross

Head of Astronomy Department, Professor of Star Clusters and Galactic Structure, National Research Institute of Astronomy & Geophysics (NRIAG), 11421 Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.

Dr. Chandrasekar Raman Research Associate, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Biotechnology Core Facility, 238, Burt Hall, Kansas State

University, Manhattan 66506, KS, USA.

Dr. YUBAO CUI Associate Professor, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yancheng Health Vocational & Technical College, Jiangsu Province,

P. R. China

Dr. Muhammad Altaf Khan Department of Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan

Dr. Fahrettin Tilki Assoc. Professor, Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Science, Artvin, TURKEY.

Dr. Ibtisam abd el ghany hammad Associate Professor of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Helwan University. Egypt.

Dr. Charalambos Tsekeris Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece.

Dr. Elsayed E. Hafez Associate Professor, Molecular Biology, Plant Molecular Pathology & Arid Lands Institute, Egypt.

Dr. Naushad Mamode Khan University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius.

Mirza Hasanuzzaman Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.

Dr. Hala Ahmed Hafez Kandil Professor Researcher, National Research Centre, Plant Nutrition Dept. El-Bhouth St. Dokki, Giza, Egypt.

Dr. Yule Yue Wang Biotechnology and Medicinal Biochemistry, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, China

Dr. Aziza Sharaby Professor of Entomology. Plant Protection Department, National Research Center. Cairo, Egypt.

Dr. Sulaiman Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Abdul wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

mailto:[email protected]

Editors

Maulin P Shah PhD-Microbiology, Chief Scientist & Head Industrial Waste Water Research Laboratory, Division of Applied &

Environmental Microbiology, Enviro Technology Limited, Ankleshwar-393002, Gujarat, India

Dr. Josphert N. Kimatu Department of Biological Sciences. South Eastern University College, Kenya.

Dr. Mukesh Kumar Meena

Assistant Professor (Crop Physiology), Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584104, Karnataka , India

Jehngir Khan Lecturer in Zoology Department, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan (AWKUM), Buner Campus, Buner, Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Syed Muhammad Nurulain Medical Research Specialist, FMHS, UAE University, Emirates

Dr. Ayman Batisha Environment and Climate Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.

Dr. Hakeem Ullah Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan.

DR. DATTA ASARAM DHALE Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, Maharashtra State, India.

Dr. Muhammad Ismail Mohmand Tutor/Administrator in the Excellence Training Den College in Newcastle, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Valdenir José Belinelo Department of Health Sciences and Postgraduate Program in Tropical Agriculture, Federal University of Espirito Santo (UFES),

São Mateus, ES, Brazil.

Siva Sankar. R Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, India.

Table of Contents, January 2018

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Siti Farida Noorlayla

Family Support with Coping Mechanism of Elderly Hypertension in Elderly Integrated Health Service Post in Kediri

J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(1): 1-5. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML]

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Nahal Bouderba Nora, Belmekki Anouar, Ghassel Aicha, Kadi Hamid

Antioxidant Activities and Antifungal Screening of Salviaofficinalis Flavonoids


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sana Yasin, Tariq Ali, Umar Draz, Low Tan Jung, M. Ayaz

Formal Analysis of Malicious Attacks of Ad Hoc Distance Vector Protocol in Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks (MAHSNs)


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Nurdina

Analysis of Lawrence Green Theory Concerning Pregnancy Sexuality Behavior to Sexual Behavior Change in Primigravida in Kediri


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sidra Arooj, Syed Asif Ali Naqvi, Muhammad Sohail Amjad Makhdum

Impact of Environmental Degradation on Wheat Production in Pakistan


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muhammad Naeem Shahid, Dr. Muhammad Ayub Siddiqui, Muhammad Haris Qureshi, Faraz Ahmad

Corporate Governance and its Impact on Firm’s Performance: Evidence from Cement Industry of Pakistan


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sentot Imam Suprapto

Post Accreditation Performance on Service Quality of Outpatient in Gambiran Hospital


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sumaira Aslam, Muhammad Naeem Shahid, Muhammad Haris Qureshi, Dr Amina Muzaffar Qureshi

Investigating Innovativeness and Emotional Intelligence as Mediator to Explore Entrepreneurial Marketing Strategy Focused on Firm Performance: A Case in Pakistan


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ghulam Murtaza Bodla, Muhammad Tahir khalily

Treatment of Mental Health Issues through Positive Psychology Interventions


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Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Sri Hidanah, Suharsono, Anisah Fathinah, Arrifah Ratna Dewi, Anita Dwi Andriani, Balqis Karimah, Tri Nurhajati, Koesnoto Soepranianondo, Mirni Lamid

Potency of Probiotics on HDL, LDL, Cholesterol and Total Protein of Egg’s Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)


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Muhammad Nisar, Mussawar Shah, Asadullah, Dilkash Sapna, Anas Baryal, Zia Ur Rahman

Land Ownership Disputes Due to Land Commercialization and Its Effect on Social Structure in Tehsil Dargai District Malakand


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch., Muhammad Arqam Mushtaq, Muhammad Idrees, Muhaammad Atif

Socio-Economic and Cultural Determinants of Criminal Youth Behavior: A Case of Faisalabad City in Punjab, Pakistan


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Humaira Gul, Seema Gul, Husna, Aqib Sayyed, Naeema Begum, Sheheryar and Zahida Parveen

Interactive Role of Potassium Nitrate and Sodium Chloride on Growth and Biochemical Constituents of Brassica Junceal.


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Muhammad Nisar, Dilkash Sapna, Anas Baryal, Ejaz Ahmad, Zia Ur Rahman

Effects of Mothers Employment on Chıldren Socıalızatıon (A Case Study of Dıstrıct Charsadda)


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Yung Savitri and Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo

Technical Evaluation of Residential Wastewater Treatment Plant in West Lombok Regency


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Uzma Niaz, Zunera Jamil, Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch., Shazia Nasim

Socio-Economic and Cultural Problems of Brick Kiln’s Working Families: (A Case Study of District Faisalabad)


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Itbar Khan, Azhar Mehmood, Nabi Bux Jumani

The relationship of Instructional Beliefs of Teacher Educators with their Classroom Practices in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Erma Retnaningtyas

The Role of Midwife on the Use of Poedji Rochjati Score Card with Knowledge of Cadres in Early Detection of Pregnant Women Risk in Working Area Sidomulyo Health Center


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lailan Ni’mah, Fidelis Boy Manurung, Eka Pramita

Lightweight Concrete Production by Gypsum from Waste Materials of Clamshell and Eggshell


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fayyaz Ahmed Anjum, Dr Iffat Batool, Muhammad Umar Fayyaz

Internal Consistency Reliability of Modified Hand Test


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Rabia Safdar, M. Imran, N. Sadiq, Farooq Ahmad

Unsteady Rotational Flow of a Burgers' Fluid through a Pipe with Non-Integer Order Fractional Derivatives


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

N. Sadiq, M. Imran, Rabia Safdar, Hassan Waqas

Rotational Flow of Second Grade Fluid with Caputo-Fabrizio Fractional Derivative in an Annulus


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Danial Habib, M. Anwar Kamal, Farooq Ahmad, Sajjad Hussain

Partial Slip and Buoyancy Effects on MHD Flow Through Porous Medium Adjacent to Porous Accelerated Sheet in Presence of Heat Radiation


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muhammad Nisar, Dilkash Sapna, Anas Baryal, Saima Gul, Zia Ur Rahman

Effects of Disabled Children on Their Families (A Case Study of District Charsadda)


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muhammad Nisar, Anas Baryal, Dilkash Sapna, Zia Ur Rahman

People’s Perceptıon Regardıng Jırga ın Pakhtun Socıety


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muhammad Amjid, Shazia Zamir

Comparison of Leadership Attributes Among Students at Cadet and Public Sectors Colleges


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mohibur Rehman, Dr. Saleemur Rahman

A Jurisprudential Evaluation of Noncasuistical Questions Mentioned in Kanz-ul-Daqaayeq


Hafiz Ashfaq Ahmad, Dr. Hussain Farooq

A Critical Evaluation of Contention of Qyas and Arguments of Imam Razi


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Asmat Ullah Yahya, Danial Habib, Sajjad Hussain, Shan E. Farooq

Time Dependent Slip MHD Flow Due to Stretching or Shrinking Vertical Sheet with Thermal Radiatio


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muhammad Khurshid Azam, Muhammad Younas, Ghulam Farid, Muhammad Imran, Farooq Ahmad, Muhammad Azizurehman

Some Results of K -Fractional Derivatives


----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Shafqat H.Memon, Zubair A. Memon, M. Aslam Uqaili, Shan-E-Farooq

Voltage Stability and Reactive Power Compensation of 132kv Grid Integrated 50MW Wind Farm Using Statcom


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Saeed Ahmed Memon, Rafique Ahmed Memon, Muhammad Anwar Solangi, Farooq Ahmad

Stresses and Power Consumption Analysis of Mixing Flow in Cylindrical Shaped Container


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J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 8(1)1-5, 2018

© 2018, TextRoad Publication

ISSN: 2090-4274


and Biological Sciences

www.textroad.com

*Corresponding Author: Siti Farida Noorlayla, STIKes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia.

Email: [email protected]

Family Support with Coping Mechanism of Elderly Hypertension in

Elderly Integrated Health Service Post in Kediri

Siti Farida Noorlayla*

STIKes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia Received: September 13, 2017

Accepted: November 25, 2017

ABSTRACT

Family support to the elderly as a rehabilitative and curative effort, such as help their needs, help their

financial, look for transportation for their activities, including recreation. The family is a support system for

the elderly to maintain their health. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of Family

Support with coping mechanism of elderly hypertension in elderly integrated health service post in Kediri.

The research design in this research was correlation design with crossectional approach. The population was

all elderly hypertension in integrated health service post elderly in Kediri City. The sample size was 67

respondents taken with Purposive Sampling technique. Variable dependent was coping mechanism,

independent variable was family support. Instruments used in collecting data were questionnaire sheet.

Analysis results used Chi Square. The result of this research is most of respondent have good family support

that is 46 respondent (68,7%), while most respondent of adaptive coping mechanism that is 43 respondent

(64,2%) Chi Square test result obtained significant result p = 0,000 < 0.05), which means there is a

relationship of family support with coping elderly hypertension in Integrated health service post Elderly

Kediri City. The motivation will greatly assist the individual in facing and solving the problem. Individuals

who are not motivated to deal with and solve problems will form a destructive coping. If each requirement

can be achieved, then the individual is motivated to seek needs at the next higher stage, so that the individual

will have the ability to solve the problem. If the respondent gets good family support will make the elderly

coping mechanism becomes adaptive.

KEYWORDS: Family Support, Coping Mechanism, Elderly

INTRODUCTION

Elderly is a person who has age of 60 years and older. The elderly is group in humans who have final

age of their life phase. Groups categorized elderly will occur a process called aging process is a natural

process that accompanied by the decreasing of physical, psychological and social conditions that interact with

each other. This situation tends to potentially cause health problems in general and especially mental health

[1]. Family support is important for the elderly, especially elderly who suffer from certain diseases, because it

is a support system for the elderly to maintain their health [2].

In the elderly stage there will be some changes, especially on physiological changes because with the

increasing age, organ function will decrease both due to natural factors and because of disease. One of the

most common health disorders is the cardiovascular system that is decreased elasticity of the aortic wall; heart

valve becomes thickens and stiff, and decreased the ability of the heart to pump blood. This results in

decreased contraction and blood volume, loss of elasticity of blood vessels, lack of effectiveness of peripheral

blood vessels for oxygenation, as well as the occurrence of hypertension due to increased peripheral vascular

resistance [3].

WHO data in 2009 shows the elderly amounted to 7.49% of the total population, in 2011 amounted

7.69% and in 2013 obtained elderly proportion of 8.1% of the total population. [4] The number of elderly

population in Indonesia in 2011 was 20 million (9.51%), with life expectancy of 67.4 years and by 2015

estimated at 28.8 million (11.34%), with age of expectation life 71.1 years [5] The increase in the elderly

population is due to an increase in life expectancy as a result of improving the quality of health of East Java

society with the number of elderly 4,113,847 people or about 11% of the total population of East Java.

Nowadays, hypertension is a big challenge in Indonesia because its condition often found in primary health

care. Based on a national health basic research survey (RISKESDAS) in 2013 hypertension has a high

1

Noorlayla, 2018

prevalence of 25.8%. In addition, hypertension control is inadequate despite the availability of many effective

drugs. [5] The total prevalence of Elderly Hypertension disease in Kediri District from January to November

2016 for age 60 years and over is 16,142 consist of 6,302 males and 9,840 women.

Hypertension is a degenerative disease that is often experienced by elderly. Elderly is the process of

decreasing endurance that can end with death [6]. Elderly people with health problems, especially

hypertension, need families in their care process. Therefore, for the elderly who cannot care for themselves,

the family is tasked care the elderly. The care of the elderly by the family can give informational support,

emotional support, instrumental support, and assessment support [7]. Family support to the elderly as a

rehabilitative and curative effort, such as help their needs, help their financial, look for transportation for their

activities, including recreation. The family is a support system for the elderly to maintain their health. Family

support in elderly services include keeping or caring for the elderly. Maintain improved mental status,

anticipate socioeconomic changes, as well as provide motivation and facilitate spiritual elderly [2].

The results of interviews at Elderly Integrated health service post in Kota Kediri in 8 elderly people, 3

of them said they have long suffered from hypertension and always get attention and support from family to

visit and treatment to Public Health center, while 5 people say they get less attention from family and

mechanism coping to hypertension is not good. This study aims to determine the relationship of family

support to coping mechanism of elderly hypertension in elderly integrated health service post Kediri.

RESEARCH METHODS

This research was quantitative research using correlation design with Cross Sectional approach that is

type of research that emphasizes on the measurement or observation data of independent and dependent

variable only once at one time. Research begins by selecting populations that meet inclusion criteria, then

selected until the number of samples is met. In this study the population used is all elderly hypertension in

elderly integrated health service post Kediri as many as 150 people.

The numbers of samples of this study were 67 respondents with sampling technique using purposive

sampling. Data analysis used chi-square test.

RESULTS

Table 1. Distribution of frequency of respondents based on family support for elderly

at elderly Integrated health service post Kota Kediri Family Support Frequence Percentage (%)

LESS

ENOUGH

GOOD

0

21

46

0

31.3

68.7

Total 67 100

Based on table 1 above is known that most respondents have good family support that is 46

respondents (68.7%). It was concluded that family support in elderly of hypertension at Elderly Integrated

health service post Kediri City has done well.

Table 2. Distribution of frequency of respondents based on family support for elderly

at elderly Integrated health service post Kota Kediri Criteria of elderly coping Frequence Percentage (%)

Maladaptif

Adaptif

24

43

35.8

64.

Total 67 100

Based on table 2 above it is known that most respondents have adaptive elderly coping that is 43

respondents (64.2%). it can be concluded that elderly coping in elderly Integrated health service post in Kediri

well done in accordance with existing rules.

2


DATA ANALYSIS

Table 3. Chi Square Statistics Test Results between Family support and hypertensive

elderly coping at Integrated health service post Kediri. Value Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 54.802a .000

Likelihood Ratio 65.239 .000

Fisher's Exact Test

N of Valid Casesb 67

Based on table 3 statistical test results can be obtained by using Chi Square test to 67 respondents in

elderly Integrated health service post Area public health center Pesantren II Kediri obtained ρ value = 0.000

because the value ρ value = 0.000 <0.05 then H0 rejected which means there is family support relationship

with coping elderly hypertension at elderly Integrated health service post Kediri City.

DISCUSSION

Family Support to Hypertension Elderly at Elderly Integrated health service post.

The results of the study shows that from total of 67 respondents, most respondents have good family

support that is 46 respondents (68.7%).Family support is a process that occurs throughout the life span, the

nature and type of support differs in various stages of the life cycle. Family support can be internal social

support, such as support from a husband, wife or support of siblings and may also be external family support

for the nuclear family. Family support enables families to function with a variety of intelligence and common

sense. As a result, this enhances the health and adaptation of the family [8]

From the research results obtained most respondents who stay in their own homes have good family

support. Family support plays an important role in providing feelings of comfort to the elderly. Family

support within a family includes information support, emotional support, instrumental support and awards

support. Information provided by the family to the elderly is information about diseases such as treatment of

hypertension, hypertension diet, lifestyle and sport habits. Emotional support given by the family is love

affection for the elderly such as caring, empathy, giving attention to elderly. The instrumental support

provided by the family is to spend time with the elderly, provide assistance, funding such as giving a little

income to the elderly so that the elderly do not feel the deep change in entering his old age. Family support

awards are rehabilitation support such as support for acute hypertensive age or to stroke, providing extra

assistance to the elderly. If the family is active in carrying out all these components, the elderly will feel

appreciated and cherished by his family. People who live in a supportive environment are much better off

than those who do not. That support will be created when interpersonal relationships between families and the

elderly go well. A strong family bond is helpful when the elderly face problems, because family is the closest

one to the elderly. Big families and close friends encourage elderly to communicate personal difficulties. So

the problem will be given advice and personal guidance in accordance with the problems faced by the elderly.

The difficulties experienced by the elderly in this research are about hypertension disease. Where

elderly should get support from their family in maintain their healthy. Family should help the daily work if

not busy. They also give advice to the elderly to go to the doctor if they feel pain. Family also provide

guidance in maintain health and care in a variety of circumstances and attention to all needs. The support of

families used by elderly in facing the problems especially related to health and quality of life. As well as in

maintaining the pattern of life, diet and schedule control to health services. Therefore the importance of

family support is very influential on the life of the elderly.

Elderly Coping Mechanism Hypertension at elderly integrated health service post.

The result of the research shows that from 67 respondents, most respondents have adaptive coping that

is 43 respondents (64,2%).

3

Noorlayla, 2018

Coping mechanisms means how individuals solve problems, overcome changes and situations that

threaten both cognitively and behaviorally. Coping (problem handling) is thought or behavior is effective in

reducing or relieving stress that comes from a painful, dangerous, or challenging condition [9]

Factors affecting coping depend on internal and external stimulus that is internal and external stimulus.

Internal stimuli include experiences, emotional abilities, personality and biological stress processes (cells or

molecules) that come from within the individual body. External stimulus stimuli include focal stimuli

(diseases), contextual stimuli (decreased endurance), and residual stimuli (patient perception of disease,

lifestyle, and role function).

The coping mechanism of the elderly in the adaptive category is indicated by the behavior in the face

of problems where they will talk to others if there is a problem. Elderly would prefer to talk to the people

closest to him. Elderly tend to be more comfortable if gather with family. Because every elderly have their

own comfort while in the family environment. Elderly will feel cared for and given love to family members.

For elderly people over the age of 60 years old, support and attention is needed. At that age, the elderly feel

unable to do everything by themselves. Elderly need more help from their family. If the problems faced

related to the health of the elderly will require family members to seek treatment. Some elderly people who do

not get support from the family, while feeling the pain just use relaxation to deal with pain, balanced exercise

to maintain health or other non-pharmacological management. When the elderly get support and attention

from the family in facing the problem, such as facing psychological problems such as anxiety or stress.

Elderly do not vent with excessive eating and avoid others when angry or damage the goods around. But carry

out the worship and closer to Allah SWT.

Relationship of family support with coping mechanism of elderly hypertension in elderly integrated

health service post.

The result of analysis between family support and coping mechanism obtained value p value 0,000

<0,05, it can be concluded there is Relation of Family Support with Mechanism of Elderly Hypertension in

elderly integrated health service of Kediri.

Decreased physical or biological conditions, psychological conditions and social changes occur in old

age. Elderly even the people think as if the task is completed. They stop working and increasingly withdraw

from social interaction which is one of the characteristics of this phase. Elderly with various problems

requires a variety of preventive measures. One of the problems faced, among others, the state of his mental

health becomes threatened. In addition to lack of income, the elderly generally experience a loss of role and

identity, position, volume and type of daily activities, status, authority and authority as well as loss of

relationship with the group and even self-esteem. Facing the process of loss, the elderly require coping

mechanisms. [10] Coping mechanisms are the way in which individuals solve problems, adapt to change, and

respond to threatening situations. [11]

Family support to the elderly as a rehabilitative and curative effort, such as help their needs, help their

financial, look for transportation for their activities, including recreation. The family is a support system for

the elderly to maintain their health. Family support in elderly services include keeping or caring for the

elderly. Maintain improved mental status, anticipate socioeconomic changes, as well as provide motivation

and facilitate spiritual elderly [2]

Family support is important for the elderly, especially elderly who suffer from certain diseases,

because it is a support system for the elderly to maintain their health. Elderly families advise if they are sick

and suggest to the doctor only when ill. Families also provide guidance in maintaining health and care in a

variety of circumstances and attention to all needs to feel valuable so that in the face of elderly problems,

especially related to health they will use relaxation to overcome illness, balanced exercise to maintain health

or other non-pharmacological management. When faced with psychological problems such as anxiety or

stress do not vent with excessive eating when anxious, stressed, avoiding other people when angry or damage

the goods around. This is possible because it is supported by their age-old factors.

The existence of motivation will greatly assist the individual in facing and solving the problem.

Individuals who are not motivated to deal with and solve problems will form a destructive coping. If each

requirement can be achieved, then the individual is motivated to seek needs at the next higher stage, so that

the individual will have the ability to solve the problem. If the respondent gets good family support will make

the elderly coping mechanism becomes adaptive. Therefore, many benefits and linkages of family support to

4


the elderly. The better the support the family provides to the elderly will have a positive effect. Elderly will

feel comfortable and appreciated by his family and gain confidence for a better life.

CONCLUSION

1. Most of the respondents have good family support that is 46 respondents (68,7%) from total 67

respondents.

2. Most respondents have adaptive coping that is 43 respondents (64.2%) of total 67 respondents.

3. There is a Relationship of Family Support with coping mechanism of Elderly Hypertension in Elderly

Integrated health service post Area Pesantren II Health Center of Kediri

REFERENCES

[1]. Darmojo & Martono, 2009. Buku Ajar Geriatri (Ilmu Kesehatan Usia Lanjut). FKUI: Jakarta.

[2]. Maryam, R. Ekasari, M. Rosidawati. Jubaedi, A. & Batubara I. 2008. Mengenal Usia Lanjut dan

Perawatannya. Jakarta: Salemba Medika.

[3]. Junaedi, I. 2009. Hipertensi. Jakarta : Gramedia

[4]. Handayani, D. 2012. Hubungan Dukungan Keluarga Dengan Kepatuhan Lansia Dalam

Mengikuti Posyandu Lansia Di Posyandu Lansia Jetis Desa Krajen Kecamatan Weru Kabupaten

Sukoharjo. Jurnal Gaster. Volume 9 No. 1.

[5]. Depkes, RI. 2006. Pedoman Teknis Penemuan dan Tatalaksana Penyakit Hipertensi. Jakarta:

Direktorat Pengendalian Penyakit Tidak Menular.

[6]. Azizah, Lilik Ma’rifatul. 2011. Keperawatan Lanjut Usia. Edisi 1. Jogyakarta: Graha Ilmu.

[7]. Kuspiatiningsih, T. 2009. Hubungan Dukungan Keluarga Sosial Keluarga Dengan Kepatuhan

Menjalankan Pengobatan Pada Pasien Hipertensi di URJ Jantung RSU Dr. Soetomo Surabaya

Sidoarjo : Program Studi Keperawatan Sidoarjo.

[8]. Wulandhani, S. A. 2014. Hubuangan Dukungan Keluarga Dengan Motivasi Lansia Hipertensi

Dalam Memeriksakan Tekanan Darahnya. Jurnal JOM PSIK. Vol. I No. 2.

[9]. Yuniar. 2007. Gambaran Konsep Diri Pada Lanjut Usia Yang Tinggal Di Daerah Urban

Kecamatan Jetis Jogjakarta. Skripsi. (Tidak Dipublikasikan).

[10]. Nugroho, Wahjudi. 2008. Keperawatan Gerontik & Geriatrik. Edisi 3. Jakarta : Penerbit Buku

Kedokteran EGC.

[11]. Hermawati.2009. Hubungan Kemandirian ADL Terhadap Konsep Diri Lanjut Usia di Desa

Bangun Jiwo Kasihan Bantul Yogjakarta. Skripsi. (Tidak Dipublikasikan

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ISSN: 2090-4274


And Biological Sciences www.textroad.com

Corresponding Author: Nahal Bouderba Nora, Faculty of sciences of nature and life, biology department; BP417, TAHRI Mohamed; University of Béchar, Algeria

Antioxidant Activities and Antifungal Screening of Salviaofficinalis

Flavonoids

Nahal Bouderba Nora, Belmekki Anouar, Ghassel Aicha, Kadi Hamid

Faculty of sciences of nature and life, biology department; BP417, TAHRI Mohamed; University of Béchar, Algeria.

Received: October 4, 2017 Accepted: December 7, 2017

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants constitute an immense source of bioactive molecules, endowed with numerous biological activities. This study aimed at performing antioxidant and antifungal screening of flavonoids extract from Salvia officinalis leaves, this plant with therapeutic properties serving to the curative needs of certain peoples An antioxidant and antifungal test were performed after the extraction of flavonoids, which are in the value of 6.96%. Antioxidant activity of Salvia officinalis flavonoids was evaluation by the DPPH test revealed a fairly high anti-radical effect with results ranging from 75.67% to 90.27% and an effective concentration to reduce 50% of free radicals of 10.60 μg / ml. The evaluation of antifungal activity was fined by radial growth technique gave the antifungal indices according to the order of efficacy of the flavonoids; on the following recorded antifungal registers; Aspergillusflavus

24.16%, A.ochraceus 21.61%, A. niger 20.16% and P.expansum 16.95%. KEY WORDS: Medicinal plant, Salvia officinalis, flavonoids, antioxidant, antifungal.

INTRODUCTION

Algeria has a climatic diversity: Mediterranean, Saharan and tropical, which influences the richness of its flora, where there are more than 3000 species of several botanical families, of which 15% are endemic [7]. The molecules responsible for the therapeutic effect of so-called natural plants are considered a very important source of drugs; knowing that more than 120 herbal compounds are now used in modern medicine and nearly 75% of them are applied according to their traditional use. During recent decades, different plant-derived extracts and phytochimicals have been ascribed a variety of potentially health-promoting biological activities [27]. Therapeutically, the antioxidant potential of medicinal plants has a very important role in reducing the damage caused by free radicals [35]. Salvia officinalis is distinguished by the effectiveness of its essential oils and bioactive substances [37]. Sage is a perennial round shrubin the family of labiatae/ Lamiaceae; Salvia is the largest genus of this family and includes near 900species. Plants of this genus grow all over the world and the species of Salvia officinalis is native to Middle East and Mediterranean areas [20]. Salvia officinalis is known for its wide range of therapeutic activities including antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antioxidant effects [31, 5 and18] In the present study, flavonoids extracted from Salvia officinalis were tested, the effect of scavenging free radicals and the antifungal effect were tested on fungal strains isolated from durum wheat stored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Plant samples collected

Salvia officinalis used in this study is collected from Hassi 20 located north of the town of Bechar at 20 km, during the month of September 2015.Wilaya of Bechar is located in the southwest of Algeria, 1600Km from the capital Algiers. The leaves of the collected plant were dried to amber, at room temperature, for 25 days, the dried leaves are stored in closed containers and milled in an electric mill on the day of extraction.

1. Flavonoids extraction protocol

Following the extraction protocol was described by Lee et al., (1995), modified and used by Bouchelta et al., (2005); 50g of these plant leaves are milled and added to a mixture compounded with 250ml of distilled water and 250ml absolute ethanol, putted under the 90°C of temperature. In an assembly of reflux for 4 hours, the extract is filtered through a filter paper. The hydro-ethanolic phase was evaporated to remove the ethanol, after that it extracted with 100 ml of n-butanol. This step is followed by a decantation and then acidification with HCl

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Nora et al., 2018

(10%) until a pH=3, the n-butanolic phase is up to the dried up evaporation. The dry residue was collected in three times with 200 ml of the distilled water / ethyl acetate (v / v) for one hour, the organic phase was basified with NaOH until pH = 9, after 15 minutes of resting; organic phase (flavonoids) was evaporate dry. The yield of flavonoids is calculated by the following formula:

Yields =Balloon mass after drying Empty balloon mass

Mass of plant materialx 100

The dry residue was dissolved in 1% ethanol for biological tests

2. Antioxidative activity by DPPH technique the technique used to test the antioxidant activity of flavonoids extracted from Salvia officinalis leaves is that of radical scavenging, using the stable radical DPPH [9]. After, 100µl of methnolic solution of flavonoids at different concentrations (4.37, 8.75, 17.5, 26.25; 35) μg/ml was prepared and placed in cuvettes, a volume of 2.9 ml of a methanolic solution of DPPH (0.004%) is added to each cuvette. After incubation for 30 minutes in the dark, and at room temperature, the absorbance of each sample was measured by a spectrophotometer at a wave length 517 nm. For the calibration of the apparatus methanol was used; Ascorbic acid is used as a positive reference The inhibitory percentage of DPPH by the flavonoids extract was calculated according to the following equation:

Scavengin efect% =Ac − As

Acx 100

Where Ac is the absorbance of the DPPH solution, and As is the absorbance of DPPH solution after the addition of the samples.

3. Antifungal activity

3.1. Fungal strains

The fungal strains, A. flavus; A. ochracceus; A. niger and P. Expansum were obtained from durum wheat during our laboratory work. The genus Aspergillus and Penicillium were identified by the micro-culture technique described by Haris (1989) & Barnette (1972). Furthermore, for species identification, the single spore technique is performed using three culture media: Malt Extract Agar (M.E.A) at 25°C; Glycerol Nitrate Agar (G25N) at 25°C and Czapek Yeast Agar (C.Y.A) at 5°C and 37°C. The key of pitt (1973) is used for the identification of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus ochraceus. The key of Ramirez (1982) is used for the identification of Penicillium species. The observation was made after 14 days of incubation. The fungal strains were stored in tubes of PDA acidified at 4 ° C.

3.2. Growth radial technique

The following volumes: 20, 40, 60 et 80 μl of leaves flavonoids of Salvia officinalis were added to 15 ml of PDAac (Potatos Dextrose Agar acidified), in order to have respectively, the concentrations (46, 93, 140, 180) µg/ml, the latter were transferred into a Petri plats, after ensemensing of fangal strains with single spore method, these Petri plats were incubated during 7 days at 25±2°C.A Petri plats containing 15 ml of PDAac medium without extract is inoculated to serve as growth controls for each strain and each series of tests. The diameter of the fungal mycelium is measured from the third day of incubation [40, 24]. The seeding of Petri plats for radial growth evaluation was approved out starting from a previously prepared sporulation suspension, by counting the number of spores in order to obtain the concentration of 105 spores/ml [38]. The inhibition percentage of mycelial growth of each extracts was calculated using the formula of Singh et al., (2009):

IP="#$"

"%x100

Dt: Mean diameter of mycelial growth control D: Mean diameter of mycelial growth in treatment All tests were performed in triplicate for confirmation of results.

4. Statistical analysis

The difference between the control and the various tests, is determined by analysis of variance by one-way ANOVA followed by the Tukey HSD test for multiple comparisons of means and the determination of the significance rates. Value of p ≤0.05 is considered statistically significant. The computer programs used are: - Microsoft Office Excel 2007.Ink. - R version 3.2.2 Copyright (C) 2015 The R Foundation for Statistical Computing (ANOVA).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Flavonoids extraction

The dried leaves of Salvia officinalis gave a yield of 6.96% of flavonoids; this richness of Salvia officinalis in bioactive photochemical compounds is proved by several studies, Yinrong & Yeap, (2002) confirmed the presence of flavonoids in the genus Salvia, Lima et al., (2007) recorded that the most abundant phenolic compounds present in the water extracts were rosmarinic acid and luteolin-7-glucoside. This richness of bioactive and phenolic compounds especially is related to several parameters as, the origin of plant material [17]; the variety, the season of culture, the season of harvest, the climatic and environmental conditions, the geographical location, the different diseases which can affect the plant, the maturity of the plant [33]; the shelf life[30]; and the species and the type of the plant material, the solvents and the extraction technique have an influence on the yield of flavonoids [42].

2. Antioxidative activity

DPPH is a dark purple color radical, his coloring to yellow indicates the degree of reduction of the solution to be tested [6, 43]. DPPH, this stable radical is very used in the assessment of free radical scavenging capacity and antioxidant properties [17, 9, and 44]. The results of scavenging of DPPH by Salvia officinalis flavonoids and ascorbic acid are respectively illustrated in figure 1 and 2, in these study flavonoids from Salvia officinalis leaves are trapped between 75% and 90.27% of DPPH radical with over a range of flavonoids concentrations of 4.375 to 35 μg/ml. In order to trap 50% of free radicals of Salvia officinalis flavonoids, the effective concentration should be equal to 10.60 μg/ml, so that the IC50 concentration of ascorbic acid is 62.6μg/ml. The lower the IC50 value, the higher the antiradical activity [21]. The flavonoids of Salvia officinalis have an IC50 of 10.60 μg / ml, which shows an antioxidant activity greater than that of ascorbic acid. This activity is due to the phytochemical composition of the leaves of Salvia officinalis which is influenced by the difference in terms of culture conditions, geographical location, climatic conditions, mode and extraction time, and techniques used [23, 29]. A strong anti-oxidant activity of Salvia officinalis, equivalent or superior than that of synthetic antioxidants were shown by Dauksas et al., 2001; many studies have established relationships between the chemical structures of flavonoids and their antioxidant capacity [12] The species Salvia officinalis was featured by apigenin, luteolin and 6-OH-lut-6-OMe, while apigenin and luteolin are flavons [42].

According to Cosio et al., (2006) and Dimitrios & Vassiliki (2006) the flavonoids of Salvia officinalis identified are ranked in descending order according to their antioxidant powers as follows: Quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, and their derivatives. The antioxidant activity of flavonoids can take many forms in the regulation of oxidative stress. These components can intervene by directly capturing the free radicals or by inhibiting the generators of the reactive species of oxygen, or by capturing the metal cations [3, 28].

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Nora et al., 2018

3. Antifungal activity with growth radial technique

Different concentrations of flavonoids extracted of Salvia officinalis leaves were tested for their efficacy by growth radial technique against fungi of food stored. The histograms (figure3) and pictures (figure4) show that varying concentrations of flavonoids have diminished the diameters of all the fungal strains, because of inhibition of radial growth of Aspergillus flavus; Aspergillus ochraceus; Aspergillus niger and Penicillium

expansum. The best inhibition recorded is for Aspergillus flavus with a decrease of a diameter of 49.66mm to 37.66mm for the control and to 180μl / ml respectively. The antifungal indexes of fungal strains tested are calculated at the concentration of 180μg/ml, Aspergillus flavus

24.16%, Aspergillus ochraceus 21.61%, Aspergillus niger 20.16, and Penicillium expansum 16.95%.

Figure 3. Results of Antifungal activity of Salvia officinalis leaves Flavonoids with Growth radial technique.

Figure 4. Pictures of Antifungal activity results of Salvia officinalis Flavonoids with Growth radial technique

Statistical analysis

The comparison of the mycelial growth between the control and the different concentrations of the flavonoids was carried out by the ANOVA statistical test (one way) followed by the Tukey HSD test illustrated in figure 5under, which shows a significant difference between the diameters of the control and all tested concentrations; which reflects a decrease in growth as a function of the concentration of flavonoids. In relation to the results obtained by the statistical test (ANOVA) a significant difference characterizes the effects of the different doses of flavonoids on the four fungal strains. The genus Aspergillus is similar in

9


appearance with antifungal index values. It’s the case of A. flavus, A.ochraceus, and A.niger strains. Penicillium has a lower and rather different inhibition.

Figure 5. Statistical analysis.

In case of Penicillium expansum, the concentrations 46-93 μg/ml exhibit similar behaviours, this is the case of concentrations 140-180 μg/ml. This same result was found by Alilou et al., (2016) When talking about antifungal activity, there are two kinds of effects: lethal or fungicidal activity and inhibition of growth or fungistatic activity [12]. According to Beigi Boroujeni & Gholami (2017); Ulanowska et al., (2006), the sage has an effect fungistatic, this activity is mainly due to the ability of flavonoids to inhibit the expression of DNA and the synthesis of certain enzymes and membrane proteins of microorganisms. The inhibitory effect of flavonoids about some enzymes and their antioxidant activity, classified him among the best substances with therapeutic effects. Flavonoids are recommended for use as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents, which are proved by Velikhovic et al., (2007). This activity is probably related to their ability to form complexes with extracellular soluble proteins or with bacterial cell walls [13]. Carolina et al., (2011) indicate that the antifungal action of substances has a predictive target for the cytoplasmic membrane. Nahal & al., (2016) assumed that this membrane is the microbial target for flavonoids with chemical affinity on membrane lipids; this hypothesis is more plausible than that of Cowen (1999), lipophilic compounds which disturb the structure of this membrane; flavonoids are lipophilic agents that can disrupt this target. Phenolic compounds cause damage to the outer membrane of bacteria, resulting in increased membrane permeability to protons and potassium ions, reduced intracellular ATP stores, disruption of proton motive force, and denaturation of cellular proteins [2, 10 and 3]. Chabot et al., (1992) affirmed that flavonoids, characterized by the absence of the hydroxyl group on ring B, have higher antimicrobial activity than those belonging to a -OH group, these have at least one hydroxyl group on cycle B. The number and sites of the hydroxyl groups; are the two factors responsible for toxicity to microorganisms. It is very likely that each constituent has its own mechanism of action, which could explain this divergence of results. Exploration of the antifungal activity of flavonoids could be done by twinning the mechanism of action with the target action and the chemical structure of each bioactive compound.

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Nora et al., 2018

By phytochemical screening we can identify the secondary metabolites accumulated in an organ of the plant, these metabolites are used by the plant to protect against herbivores and pests [34]; flavonoids are known to be synthesized by plants in response to microbial infection [19]. Several authors Grayer & Harborne (1994); have reported that secondary metabolites of medicinal plants have antifungal properties and are capable to inhibit mycotoxin synthesis. It is necessary to explore the chemical structure of flavonoids to try to understand their mode and site of action within the cell, or studies have explored the relationship between the chemical structure of flavonoids and their antimicrobial potency.

CONCLUSION

The richness of Salvia officinalis in phytochemical constituents is identified by their quality and quantity. Flavonoids of sage have a very good power antioxidant where IC 50 is three times higher than that of acide ascorbique As a result, it was represented that Salvia officinalis flavonoids shown antifungal effect on A. flavus, A.

ochraceus, A. niger and P.expansum. The biological activities studied could be an alternative solution to the problem of post-harvest deterioration related to molds as well as a likely path for biomedical research including a solution to antimicrobial resistance with bioactive substances. Conflict of interests

None.

Financial support

This work was financially supported by the Biology Department of, the faculty of the nature and life -sciences –Béchar University - Algeria, for the providing necessary facilities

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*Corresponding Author: Sana Yasin, CS. Department, (CIIT) Sahiwal, Pakistan. Email; [email protected]

Formal Analysis of Malicious Attacks of Ad Hoc Distance Vector Protocol in Mobile

Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks (MAHSNs)

Sana Yasin1, Tariq Ali1, Umar Draz1, Low Tan Jung1, M. Ayaz2

1CS. Department, (CIIT) Sahiwal, Pakistan 2Communication & sensor centre, UOT, KSA

Received: September5, 2017 Accepted: November 18, 2017

ABSTRACT

Mobile ad hoc and sensor networks (MAHSNs) are an infrastructure less network. The nature and organization of such networks

make it attractive to various types of attackers. Attackers use different approaches to degrade the network performances like

minimization in throughput, unnecessary delays, packet delivery ratio etc. The main focus is security issues which are necessary

to provide secure communication not only for intra networks but for internetwork also. Security issues occur due to no central

authority for the supervision of individual nodes. Security is a big challenge for the Ad hoc networks. In this paper, a novel

formalized Attack Detection Model (ADM) is introduced for the security assessment of AODV protocol under malicious attacks.

This model detects the attacks on the data traffic and control system of the network, efficiently. For the verification and validation

purposes, Vienne development Method-Specification Language toolbox is used.

KEYWORDS—MAHSN; ADM; Attacks; VDM-SL, security attacks; Verification & Validation

I. INTRODUCTION

A mobile ad-hoc and sensor network (MAHSN) is a self-schedule network that consists of mobile nodes. In mobile ad hoc

network (MAHSN) each node performs the dual functionality, host and a router to create the secure route to sink. MAHSN is

getting more intension due to their wide range of applications in several areas. Security as a severe problem, the nature of ad-hoc

networks makes them exceedingly defenseless to adversary’s malicious attacks. Wireless links in MAHSN cause to be vulnerable

attacks of various types like a black hole, gray-hole, and jellyfish attacks. These attacks occur on the data of the MAHSN [1-2].

Unlike wired networks where an adversary must gain a physical access to network wires or pass through several lines of defense

at firewalls and gateways, attacks on the mobile ad-hoc network can come from all directions and target at any node. Compared to

traditional wired networks (a network in which network traffic could be monitored at central devices such as switches and

routers), mobile ad-hoc networks have no network concentration points to filter traffic. The use of wireless links, lack of fixed

infrastructure and the characteristic of dynamic topology associated with ad-hoc networks make it impossible to use wired

network security mechanism. Figure 1 represents the layout of MAHSN.

Fig. 1: Representation of Mobile ad-hoc & sensor network.

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Yasin et al.,2018

Every node in the network wants secured communication and reliable data delivery. Therefore, its need to provide the efficient

architecture to secure the possible communication inside the network with the help of novel specifications like VDM-SL. By

reviewing the extensive literature it is found that there is a lot of existing attacks that have similar features to each other’s and

classified into two different types of attacks based on their differentiation. The wicked nodes can attack in MAHSN using diverse

behavior, such as transferring bogus messages for numerous periods of time, false routing information, and promoting bogus links

to disorder routing operations.

In this paper, a formalism approach is introduced to detect and eliminate the attacks that are occurring on the data and control

traffic on the network. In this approach, data control packets are placed in order to detect malicious nodes in a path. By use of

data control packet, this approach detects all wicked nodes in the network and eliminates them by low packet overhead and delay.

Furthermore, it increases network throughput by dividing all malicious nodes. MAHSN have several vulnerabilities that have the

biggest flaw in the mobile ad-hoc network. It occurs due to the unauthorized data manipulation. A specific system may be

vulnerable because it allows the data and control access without verifying the user’s identity. The mobile ad-hoc network is extra

vulnerable than a wired network. Some vulnerabilities of MAHSN are as follows (i). Unavailability of Central Point, there is no

central management to monitor and manage the activities in MAHSN. Due to the absence of the central management, it is too

much difficult to detect the attacks in highly dynamic and large-scale mobile ad-hoc network. (ii). Scalability is a major issue in

MAHSN which causes several security issues in the network. Due to mobility, Topology of ad-hoc network changing all the time

which make the network unsalable. (iii). Limited power nodes in MAHSN consume too much power due to self-scheduling and

self-management which is a very limited resource. It’s a root cause of several other issues in the network. Through the

classification of Attacks, MAHSN attacks can be categorized into two main categories: Data traffic attacks and control traffic

attacks.

Rest of this paper organized as section II describes the literature work. The high-level pseudo code of the proposed model and

its algorithm is a deal in section III. Section IV presented the formal specification of the attacks and its algorithm. The formal

soecification using VDM-SL is disscused in section V. the model anaylsis with proof of correctness and conclusion is discussed

in section VI and VII.

Fig. 2: Classification of MAHSNs Attacks

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

In literature, many techniques for the detection and elimination of attacks in MAHSN are proposed. In [1] MAHSN attacks are

detected by using a secure zone routing protocol (SZRP). This protocol based on competent safe neighbor detection, protected

routing packets, the discovery of malicious nodes, and preventing these nodes from demolishing the network. In [2] combating

resource consumption and byzantine attacks is detected in MAHSN by adding alarm packet in the cooperative based detection

scheme (CBDS) technique and name it Enhanced CBDS technique. In [5] wormhole attack is detected by taking a different type

of protocol like DSDV, SEAD, and DSR. In [6] purposed a new technique that is based on the confirmation of the path. In this

technique, the new best path is established by using the second path. It sends a confirmation packet when source node receives a

route reply packet through the second best path to the goal. If the goal node has no route to these nodes, RREP generator, and its

15


Next-Hop-Node both will be considered as malicious nodes. This technique is very suitable if malicious nodes are less than two

but in the case of more than two malicious nodes, this technique is useless. In [7] according to the survey the MAHSN security

challenges and its countermeasures has been eleabroate in a well deciplined manners. All the efficient and proactive solution that

has been done against these attacks is effectively discussed in this paper. In [8] denial of service attack is mitigating in MAHSN

by incentive packet filling approach. This approach uses digital signatures to verify legitimate and drop packets that do not pass

the confirmation. In [9] historical evidence-based trust management technique is purposed against black hole attack in MAHSN.

Different strategy tries to stable the hope values from diverse neighbor nodes to alleviate the damage by their deceiving. In [10]

author analyze the Black Hole attack by using AODV protocol and observe the packet drop ratio due to this attack. In [11] deal

with the security of the network.

Deals with the comparison of proactive and reactive protocol in the mobile ad-hoc network, it has been observed that all the

MAHSN protocols are based upon routing properties. Detection of sinkhole attack through AODV protocol is done in [13].

Firstly the effect of sinkhole attack is detected on AODV protocol then an efficient mechanism is purposed to remit this issue. In

[14] security is provided to ad-hoc mobile distance vector AOMDV protocol with elliptic curve cryptography. Elliptic curve

technique supplies security that has smaller key size with compared to other public key encryption. Configuration is also done on

three different types of the environment using discrete event network simulator NS-2.35. In [15-17] attack detection techniques

are used that detect the attacks in the network efficiently. In these papers, a different type of attacks are detected and prevented by

using reverse trip time hop count, and link length between the nodes. It firstly detects the presence of malicious attack through

from the hop count actual and then reverse trip time is determined and the comparison is done to calculate the calculated reverse

trip time which provides a base to detect the attacks nodes through link length. The performance of the network is evaluated by

the NS2 simulator which shows the improved value of throughput and packet delivery ratio [18]. Malicious attacks are a very

critical issue in MAHSNs. Several improvements are made to resolve this issue but still, there is a rigorous need to work in this

area. It occurs due to lack of security and flexible nature of the network. It can occur in any place in the network. Due to the

malicious attacks, several problems occur in the network like network lifetime, unnecessary delays, packet drop ratio, throughput

congestion etc that's why conventional attack detection problem requires a formalized solution that resolves this issue more

efficiently.

III. FORMAL SPECIFICATION OF ATTACK DETECTION MODEL

This section represents the new purposed Attack detection model to detect the malicious attacks in the MAHSNs. This model

based on the subnetting technique with actor head nodes that detect the attacks efficiently. After following the specific steps of

the purposed model output will be achieved. In figure 3 the model is described that will be able to detect the attacks efficiently.

Fig. 3: Semi-formal specification of ADM

16

Yasin et al.,2018

IV. ALGORITHM OF ATTACKS DETECTION MODEL

The proposed algorithm against the high-level pseudo code of the security assessment model is presented in Fig. 4. Several

nodes are deployed in the form of subnets (line1) with actor head nodes that are selected through the selected algorithm. Source

node S1 sends the hello message to all the intermediately nodes with actor and destination ID and start the Timer T1 (line 2-

3).When the source node S1 receives the acknowledgment from the destination node it stops timer T2 and calculates the round

trip time (3-5). Source node S1 again send a message to intermediate nodes and after receiving the acknowledgment by the

destination node stop timer T2 (line 6-8). It did the comparison between the expected turnaround time and actual turnaround time.

If the actual turnaround time is less than the expected turnaround time then attack is detected. Source node informs the all actor

head nodes. They stop the packet transfer and established a new path for the transmission.

Fig. 3. The High-level pseudo-code for Security Assessment

V. FORMAL SPECIFICATION USING VDM-SL

In this section formal specification of the security assessment model of AODV protocol is illustrated by using VDM-SL. Several

composite objects, sets, invariants pre postconditions are used for the maturity of the formal specification. The static and vibrant

models are defined for the detection of the attacks in MAHSNs. The static model includes the different types of attacks while the

dynamic model specifies the state and operations that are required to identify properly which attack is on the data traffic of the

network or which is on the control traffic of the MAHSNs network. Figure 5 illustrates the sample connected MAHSNs network.

Table 1 represents the hop to hop connections.

Fig.5: A sample connected MAHSNs

17


Table1. 1-Hop, 2-Hop and 3 Hop Connection list of N1 1-Hop

Connection List

2-Hop Connection

List

3-Hop Connection

List

N1-N2

N1-N3

N1-N5

N1-N2

N1-N3

N1-N5 N2-N3

N2-N14

N2-N4 N2-N10

N3-N14

N5-N4 N5-N6

N1-N2

N1-N3

N1-N5 N2-N3

N2-N4

N2-N10 N2-N14

N3-N15

N3-N14 N5-N4

N5-N6

N4-N5 N4-N6

N4-N7

N4-N9 N14-N11

N14-N15

N14-N13

MAHSNs consist of different type of mobile actor and sensor nodes which have some basic common characteristics and are

described with the help of a composite object. Composite object node contains six fields. Node_id that is the first field indicates

the distinctive identifier of a node. Node mode that is the second field of the composite object shows either node inactive or in

sleep. The third field shows the power of the node whether it is high or low. The fourth field connected is used to find out either a

node is connected or not. Position field that is the fifth field of the composite object report the position of a node. The attack info

field is used for the detection of the attacks in the networks.

types node = token;

Source_id=token;

Destination_Id = token; Sensor Mode = <SLEEP> | <ACTIVE>;

Node _Power = <HIGH> |<LOW>;

Node :: Node_id : node mode : Node power : Power

connected : bool position : int attack info: Attack info;

Connection_Type = <CONNECTED> | <DISCONNECTED>

Link::node1:node

node2:node

The connection between the two nodes is described by a Link and the relationship of the whole network is described by the Link

relation. Two nodes can communicate only if they have a symmetric relation between them. Any two nodes n1, n2 in the network

can do communication if n1 have symmetric relation with n2. In this specification, no node is connected to itself which represent

that there is no circuit or loop in the network.

inv mk_Link (node1, node2) == node1 <> node2;

Infrastructure::nodes:set of node

links: a set of links

inv mk_Infrastructure (nodes, links) == forall links in set links &

li.node1 in set nodes and li.node2 in set nodes and

a forall node in set nodes & (exists li in set links &

(node = li.node1 or node = li.node2));

values

LIMIT:nat=4;

A subnet SBHead is declared with two fields. A subnet the head is assumed as actor head node which is specified by the field

actor. The field s-neighbors show that an actor head node has neighbor nodes. Invariants: (1) A subnet head is identified as a

unique node. (2) A subnet head actor node is connected to the network if and only if the neighbors set are non-empty, otherwise,

it is disconnected.

18

Yasin et al.,2018

SBHead : : actor : Actor

s-neighbours : set of Node

inv mk_SBHead(actor , s-neighbours)

actor . r nd not in set s-neighbours and

actor.r nd.conn «CONNECT» <=> s-neighbours <>

and

actors.r nd.conn «DISCONNECT» <=> s-neighbours

;

The formal specification of a Data traffic attack is specified as a composite object having four fields. The first field behavior

shows the behavior of the nodes when attacks occur. The second field Drop ratio shows the number of packets that are dropped

due to malicious attack. The third field PDR records the delivery time of the packets. The fourth field Delay shows the delay

between the nodes. To detect the attack efficiently, a unique sensor node is attached. The node is active if and only if the attack is

detected. The sensor stops sensing and takes another path for data transmission if the attack is detected. If above indication is not

truly identified, then node remains in the sleeping mode

Data_Traffic_Attack = token; ABehavior = <ABNORMAL> |

<Drop ratio> | <PDR> | <Delay>;

Traffic :: bttaff : int nbtraff : int;

DSensor :: as node : Node

m_sensor : set of malicious sensor traff : Traff

abehavior : ABehavior

inv mk_ASensor(asnode, sensor, traff,

abehavior) == forall an in set m_sensor &

an = asnode.nid and asnode.mode = <ACTIVE>

<=> traff.btraff < traff.nbtraff or

traff.btraff > trff.nbtraff => abehavior =

<ABNORMAL> or abehavior = <Drop ratio> and

Abehavior =<PDR> and

asnode.mode = <SLEEP> <=>

traff.btraff=traff.nbtraff=>abehavior=<ABNORMAL>;

Sensor node that detecting an attack on the control traffic is defined as a composite objects Control _Attack which consist of

three numbers of fields. The first field cdsnode take the control of the node object. The second field cdsdeployed indicate a

number of nodes that are deployed in control area. The field cattack is used to control the attack when an attack occurs on the

control. The control attack sensor is active if and only if the attack occurs otherwise it always remains in sleep mode.

Control_Traffic_A ttack= token; Id = token;

Location :: lug : control-traffic _attacklg : Id;

Control_Attack :: wp : int twp : int;

Control_Detected_Sensor :: cdsnode : Node

cdsdeployed : map set of Id to Location

cattack : Control_Attack

inv mk_Control_Detected_Sensor(wpsnode, cdsdeployed,

cattack) == forall n in set dom cdsdeployed

& n = cdsnode.nid and cdsnode.mode =

<ACTIVE> <=> cattack.cd >= cattack.twp

and cdsnode.mode = <SLEEP> <=>

cattack.wp < cattack.twp;

Three types of MAHSNs nodes is used in this model. These nodes are connected to each other through a wireless connection.

There are some invariants in this model that must be fulfilled throughout the model. Invariants: (1) The cardinality of the nodes

must be less than the pre-defined limit. It does not exceed the defined limit. (2) There must be wireless edges between the actor,

sensor and mobile nodes.

Initializations: MAHSNs nodes should be empty before initialization of the model. There should be not any type of node in the

network before modeling.

19


state MAHSN of

Mobile_nodes:set of nodes

node_edges:set of Edges

sensors: set of Sensor

drop_packects:set of packets

delay_packets:set of packets

sink:set of nodes

subnetId:subnet

inv mk_MAHSN(nodes)== card nodes<=LIMIT

inv mk_MAHSN(mobile_nodes,node_adges,sensors,drop_packet , delay_packet )

== forall edge in set node_edges & edge.node1 in set sensor_node and

edge.node2 in set sensor_nodes and forall kk in set sensors

init mk_MAHSN(nodes)==nodes=

end

There are multiple operations that are done in the purposed model to detect the different type of malicious attacks in MAHSNs.

Detect Data _traffic _Attack function take subnet id as an input writes clause the dropped packet and delay packets and detect the

data traffic attack by fining the ratio of the drop and delay packets within the subnet. Subnet approach provides an efficient way

to find out attacks in the network. If the ratio of the drop and delay packets is less than the actual value then attack will be

detected and actor node eliminates the malicious path and established the new path for the data transmission. Data _control _ also

takes subnet id of type subnet as an input. It writes clauses the drop and delay packets in the network and finds out the attack at

the control traffic of the network. There are some preconditions before the creation of the subnet and sink node.

Pre-conditions: Unique newly created nodes must belong to the set of nodes field before creation and it should be less than the

pre-defined limit.

operations

Detect Data_Traffic_Attacks(subnetIn:subnet)query:bool

ext rd drop_packects:set of packets

ext rd delay_packets:set of packets

pre nodeId in set nodes and nodeId <LIMIT

post query <=>mk_Block(drop_packets,drop_packets) in set datatraffic;

Detect controll_Attacks(nodeIn:nodes)query:bool

ext rd drop_packects:set of packets


pre true

post query <=>mk_Block(drop_packets,drop_packets) in set datacontroll;

Actor nodes play a head node role in Security assessment Model. These nodes are responsible to detect the malicious attacks at

subnet level. Unique actor nodes in the subnets collaborate with each other to find out the attack and to efficient action that will

be taken against that attack in the network. Detect jellyfish Attack take subnet id as an input. It writes clause the delay packet in

the network and detects the attack by identifying the number of delay packets within the subnet. Wormhole attack is detected by

finding the short circuit in the subnet. If any type of short circuit is an exit in the links of the nodes then wormhole attack is

detected.

Detect Jellyfish Attack(subnetId:subnet)


pre true

post query <=> nodeIn in set jellyfish;

Detect wormhole Attack(nodeIn:nodes)

ext rd short_circuit:set of links

pre true

post query <=> nodeIn in set short_circuit;

Detect HelloFlood Attock(subnetIn:subnet)

ext rd drop_packet:set of packets

ext rd pdr:packet ratio

post query <=> nodeIn in set drop_packet and pdr;

20

Yasin et al.,2018

VI. MODEL ANALYSIS

The formal specification of the ADM model has been analyzed and verified by VDM-SL Toolbox. The specification is checked

by the C++ code generator, type checker, and syntax checker. Dynamic checking is used to identify the error at the runtime. The

formal specification of the ADM model is conceded successfully from all the syntax and type checking and the proof of

correctness of the purposed ADM model is shown in figure 6. Table 3 represents all the formal specifications is checked correctly

in terms of syntax and semantics.

Figure 9. Proof of Correctness

Table 3. Analysis of structure, state, and operation Composite object, State,

Function, and Operations

Syntax

Check

Type

Check

Pretty

Check

Integrity

Check

Object Y Y Y Y

Attacks Y Y Y Y

Edges Y Y Y Y

Activation Y Y Y Y

Drop packet Y Y - Y

Delay packet Y Y - Y

Subnetting Y Y - Y

Values Y Y - Y

Invariants Y Y - Y

Execution Y Y Y Y

Pre/post conditions Y Y Y Y

Verification and validation Y Y Y Y

VII. CONCLUSIONS

The malicious attacks can be detected using attack detection model (ADM) and extinguished using subnetting based actor head

nodes. In this paper, new attack detection model and algorithm is purposed for the security assessment of AODV protocol under

data and control traffic attacks in mobile ad-hoc and sensor network (MAHSNs). This model explores the different type of attacks

in MAHSNs. The Purposed ADM is verified and validated through Vienna development method–specification language Tool

Box. The topology of wireless network like MAHSNs is difficult to control due to various attacks. The approach we have used

can be applied and implement any type of algorithm in wireless sensor network. This is because we have observed that all types

of attacks only detected when they are enter the system. Through VDM-SL specifications these types of attacks not only detect

before entering the system but also provide the reliable mechanism to handle the outside attacks. So it has become possible

through large and complex network can easily be handle for all types of attacks that disturb inter and intra communication of the

networks.

VIII. REFERENCES

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Technique.

3. Brar, S., & Angurala, M. (2016). Review on Grey-Hole Attack Detection and Prevention.

21


4. Faisal, M., Kumar, M., & Ahmed, A. (2013). ATTACKS IN MAHSN. International Journal of Research in Engineering

and Technology, 2(10), 273-276.

5. Maulik, R., & Chaki, N. (2011). A study on wormhole attacks in MAHSN. International Journal of Computer

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6. Lo, N. W., & Liu, F. L. (2013). A secure routing protocol to prevent cooperative black hole attack in MAHSN.

In Intelligent technologies and engineering systems (pp. 59-65). Springer, New York, NY.

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9. Yang, B., Yamamoto, R., & Tanaka, Y. (2012, February). Historical evidence based trust management strategy against

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MAHSNs. IEEE systems journal, 7(2), 236-248.

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Control Packets in MAHSNs. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 3(7).

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VANETs. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 16(3), 759-771.

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Ad Hoc Networks. In Advances in Computer and Computational Sciences(pp. 333-343). Springer, Singapore.

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22



ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

Corresponding Author: Nurdina, STIKes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia. Email: [email protected]

Analysis of Lawrence Green Theory Concerning Pregnancy Sexuality

Behavior to Sexual Behavior Change in Primigravida in Kediri

Nurdina

STIKes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia

Received: September 9, 2017


ABSTRACT

Pregnancy in primigravida often gets behavioral changes during intercourse in pregnancy. Behavioral changes

are influenced by predisposing factors, enabling factors, and appropriate reinforcing factors in Lawrence

Green's theory. The purpose of this research was to analyze the influence of Lawrence Green's theory about

the behavior of pregnancy sexuality to sexual behavior change in primigravida pregnant women in Kediri.

The design of this study was observational with cross sectional approach. Sampling technique used purposive

sampling got 38 respondents. Data collected by using questionere. Data collected was processed using

multiple linear regression test with significance level α = 0,05. The results showed that the predisposing

factors influenced the sexual behavior of pregnancy in good category as many as 22 respondents (57.9%).

Possible factors also influence the sexual behavior of pregnancy in the good category as many as 26

respondents (68.4%). While the reinforcing factors affect the sexual behavior of pregnancy in the good

category as many as 33 respondents (86.8%). The result of multiple linear regression test obtained p value =

0,000 <0,05 then H1 accepted mean there is influence of Lawrence Green theory about sexuality behavior of

pregnancy to sexual change at primigravida in Kediri. Lawrence Green's theory consist of predisposing

factors (knowledge, attitudes, beliefs), enabling factors (facilities and health facilities), and reinforcement

factors (support of husbands, parents, friends) is a behavioral theory that greatly influences sexual behavior

change in primigravida women.

KEYWORDS: Lawrence Green Theory, Sexual Pregnancy Behavior, Primigravida

INTRODUCTION

Pregnancy is a process of ovulation and the meeting of the ovum and spermatozoa there is

conception and growth of the zygote and then on the uterus and the formation of the placenta and the final

stage is the growth of conception until term. [1]. Physical and psychological changes in pregnant women

especially in the primigravida may affect affective bond with the husband, especially in sexual activity. [2]

In a research which is conducted by the Population and National Family Planning (BKKBN)

mentioned that basic knowledge of reproductive health is relatively limited as indicated by 57.89% of

respondents did not know the meaning of sexuality. Respondent's attitude to health promotion sexuality based

the mythical in society gives a relatively good indication, but the doubt are also felt relatively. Information on

sexuality is only 58.33% obtained from health worker and 31.6% obtained from other sources. [3]

Based on the preliminary research in Kediri, the number of primigravida women who performed

antenatal examination in January - February 2017 was 46 people. At the time of collecting data on February

15, 2017 there were 10 primigravida women consisting of 4 people trimester I, 3 people trimester II, and 3

people trimester III. Based on interviews 10 primigravida women said they were still afraid to have sexual

intercourse and only do sexual activity without coitus for fear of miscarriage but there are also primigravida

who have sex without worry because according to his belief it can make labor more easy. The results of

interviews with 3 of 4 pregnant women primigravida trimester I said that they still afraid of sexual intercourse

because of the age of pregnancy is young and afraid of resulting miscarriage, so they just do a kiss and hug

with husband.1 people of trimester I said still do sexual intercourse because the mother regularly visits

Antenatal Care (ANC), and counseling about pregnancy sexuality with midwife, so she doesn’t feel worried

during sexual intercourse. In pregnant women primigravida trimester II with 3 people got the results of the

23

Nurdina, 2018

interview that they keep doing coitus relationships during the condition of the fetus there is no problem and

mothers routinely conduct examination and counseling with the midwife. Whereas in pregnant women

primigravida trimester III with 2 of 3 people said that not afraid to do coitus relationship because they believe

that in trimester III can accelerate labor, and 1 of them feel afraid to do coitus because the culture avoid that.

Viewed from medic if the pregnancy doesn’t have problem or have no high risk, sexual intercourse will not

cause any effect on the baby. [4]

Lawrence Green's theories try to analyze human behavior from the health level by making it happen

by health promotion programs. Lawrence Green (1991) also explained that behavior is determined or formed

from predisposing factors (factors from within individuals that include knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, values

and norms), supporting factors (health facilities, access to health facilities, health rule, and skills related to

health), and reinforcement factors (health workers, community leaders, or influential people in decision-

makers). [5] This research aims to know the influence of Lawrence Green's theory about the behavior of

pregnancy sexuality towards sexual behavior change in primigravida women in Kediri.

RESEARCH METHODS

The design of this research was observational with cross sectional approach. Sampling technique used

purposive sampling got sample 38 respondents. Technique of collecting data was using questioner. Data

collected was processed using multiple linear regression test with significance level α = 0,05.

RESULTS

Table 1. Respondent characteristics characteristics N %

Gestational age

Trimester 1

Trimester 2

Trimester 36

11

11

16

29

29

42

Education information

Ever

Never

32 6

84 16

Source of information

None

Health worker.

Brochure, newspaper

Friends

Others

6

25 1

3

3

16

66 2

8

8

Predisposition factors

Good

Enough

Less

22 15

1

57.9 39.5

2.6

Enabling factors

Good

Enough

Less

26

11

1

68.4

28.9

2.6

Supporting factors

Good

Enough

Less

33 4

1

86.8 10.5

2.6

Sexual behavior

Good

Enough

Less

27 10

1

71.1 26.3

2.6

Total 38 100

Source: data analysis, 2017

24


Based on the table above from the total 38 respondents of gestational age in Trimester III there are

16 respondents (42%), had received educational information32 respondents (84%), obtained information

sources from midwives / health worker 25 respondents (66%), had knowledge, behavior and trust are 22

respondents (57,9%) have influence from facilities with good category as many as 26 respondents (68,4%),

influence from husband, parents, and friends with good category as many as 33 respondents (86 ) and had

sexual behavior with good category as many as 27 respondents (71.1%).

Table 2. Summary model data analysis R R square Appropriate with

degree

Standard of error Score Durbin-Watson

.809a .654 .633 4.6497 1.487

Based on Durbin-Watson score of 1.487 means there is no correlation (free of autocorrelation)

between errors in period t with errors in the previous period. It is proved again with the standard error

estimation of 4.96497 which is smaller than the standard deviation of sexual behavior is 8.19100 so that

multiple linear regression model is good used in this research.

Table 3. Summary model data annova Model Sum of Square Freedom of

degree

Average

Square

F count Significant value

1 Regression 1492.313 2 746.157 30.269 .000b

Residual 788.829 32 24.651

Total 2281.143 34

From the data above it can be seen that the significance value of 0.000 is lower than the alpha of

0.05, it can be concluded that this regression model shows that between the predisposing, enabling and

reinforcing variables with pregnancy sexual behavior variable there is a linear relationship.

Table 4. Coefficient model data analysis Model Coefficient not standard Standard Coefficient

Beta

T

count

Significant value

B Standard

error

1 (constant) 53.059 5.587 9.496 .000

Predisposition .391 .265 .251 5.477 .016

Enabling .058 .415 .023 3.139 .004

Reinforcing .195 .478 .069 4.408 .008

The table above shows T count is 5.477 for predisposing, 3.139 for enablers and 4,408 for

reinforcing with significance below 0.05 then this implies understanding of sexual behavior of pregnancy

influenced by predisposing, enabling and reinforcing.

DISCUSSION

Predisposition Factor in The Lawrence Green Theory In Primigravida About Sexual Pregnancy.

The influence of predisposing factors in Lawrence Green's theory of primigravida about sexual

pregnancy is almost in good category as many as 22 respondents (57.9%).

According to Lawrence Green's theory, predisposing factors consist of knowledge gained from one's

own experience or experience from others, so it can change behavior to health, public attitudes to health that

describe a person's likes or dislikes to the objects and beliefs of society related to health. [5]

Age and education of a person will affect one's level of knowledge. With the age of a person, then

there will be physical and psychological changes (mental). The more mature someone will more easily in

25

Nurdina, 2018

receiving knowledge. [6] To realize a behavioral action needs to be preceded by the existence of knowledge,

attitude and influenced by internal and external factors. There are several factors that can influence the

knowledge of education, work, age, interests, experience, culture, and information. [6]

Respondents who more often get information from health workers or from other sources will gain

maximum knowledge so that individuals know better behave in accordance with the information obtained.

Enabling Factors in The Lawrence Green Theory in Pregnant Women Primigravida About Sexual

Pregnancy.

The effect of enabling factors in the Lawrence Green theory on primigravid about sexual pregnancy

is almost in good category as many as 26 respondents (68.4%).

This is supported by cross-tabulation data of respondent's characteristic with the enabling factor that is the age

factor which majority of respondent have influence of enabling factor in good category 20-30 years old that is

14 respondent (36,8%). With the age of a person, it will be different way of thinking. Young women with 20-

30 years of age differ in attitude and behavior when compared with older women or those who are <20 years

old, this is due to the use of health facilities provided by health worker. For example, counseling facilities on

sexuality during pregnancy. [6]

From the results of the research showed that the mother as housewife can obtain information about

the visit of pregnancy examination is more maximized in accordance with the wishes of the mother, for

example the mother prefers the facility where the examination of pregnancy is considered Mother can satisfy

both the services and counseling provided by health workers. In addition, information can also be obtained

from books that discuss about pregnancy.

Pregnancy age which has in good category in third trimester is 11 respondent (28,9%). In the third

trimester more use of health facilities compared to trimester I and trimester II because trimester III

respondents more often doing ANC so that respondents more often also counseling about sexuality during

pregnancy.

Reinforcement Factor In Lawrence Green Theory In Pregnant Women Primigravida About Sexual

Pregnancy.

Influence of reinforcement factor in Lawrence Green theory on pregnant primigravida pregnant

women, is almost in good category as many as 33 respondents (86.8%).

The results showed that the majority of respondents were 15 respondents (39.5%) in good category.

Housewife more easily influenced by their close people. For example, housewives work at home and more

often interact with families, especially with husbands so that more get support from the husband, because

most respondents are more taking the time to talk about sex during pregnancy with a husband.

Respondents who have received educational information in good category as many as 27 respondents

(71,1%), and supported by information source which majority obtained from midwife / health worker is 21

respondent (55,3%). Midwives / health worker are more used for counseling by respondents compared to

other information sources because the respondents trust the midwife / health worker is a good source of

information for his health.

Sexual Behavior Pregnancy in Primigravida Pregnant Women.

Changes in sexual behavior of pregnancy in primigravida women are almost in good category as

many as 27 respondents (71.1%). This is supported by cross-tabulation data characteristic of respondent with

sexual behavior of pregnancy that is pregnancy which have sexual behavior of pregnancy in good category is

in trimester III that is 13 respondent (34,2%), and who ever get educational information there are 23

respondents (60,5 %) and the majority who have good sexual behavior in pregnancy category, and supported

by information source which majority obtained from midwife / health worker is 17 respondent (44,7%).

In the Setyowati research in 2011 it was mentioned that mothers with pregnancy parity primigravida

don’t have experience with pregnancy including with sexuality. Convenient and satisfying sexual intercourse

26


is an important component of marital relationships. Sexual intercourse is said to be fun and rewarding if one

party can give the best erotic pleasure to her partner and also get the best erotic pleasure from her partner. [7].

Sexual intercourse is said comfortable and satisfying when in sexual relations both partners do not

complain about something and at the time of sexual intercourse both couples both get pleasure instead of pain [7]

On the third trimester of a pregnant woman will get changes in body and big, so they feel

unconfident, in addition the movement is also limited. This leads to discomfort and difficulty in sexual

intercourse.

Based on the results showed that the majority of respondents have sexual behavior during pregnancy

in either category. Respondents behave sexually during pregnancy well; this is influenced by various factors.

Improper sexual behavior of pregnancy will have an impact on infants and mothers. Primigravida mothers

who are still taboo for counseling about pregnancy sexuality to health workers, will behave differently

according to the information obtained, may even harm the health of mothers and infants if the mother has a

history of disease. Good pregnancy sexual behavior is a good sexual relationship and do not have a risk.

Analysis of Lawrence Green Theory About Sexuality Pregnancy Against Sexual Behavior Changes In

Primigravida Pregnant Women.

Based on the results of the analysis using multiple linear regression model summary, annova and

coefficient shows p value = 0.000 <α = 0.05 so h0 rejected and h1 accepted which means there is influence of

Lawrence Green theory about sexuality behavior of pregnancy to change sexual behavior in primigravida in

Kediri.

Behavioral changes are influenced by various factors: predisposing factors, enabling factors, and

reinforcing factors. These factors include knowledge, community attitudes, beliefs, and facilities, as well as

support from people around so it is very influential in one's behavior. [6]

Pregnancy has some influence on female sexual behavior. The changes in sexual activity in women

can be affected by the psychological and physiological changes that occur during pregnancy. Physical and

psychological changes that occur during pregnancy make married couples feel afraid of sexual intercourse

during pregnancy, especially in the first and third trimesters. In the third trimester, due to increased body

complaints, breast changes, and body size can cause pleasure and interest in sexual decline [8].

CONCLUSION

1. Predisposing Factors in Lawrence Green theory influenced pregnancy sexuality behavior in primigravida

in Kediri in good category, that is 22 respondents (57.9%).

2. Enabling Factors in Lawrence Green's theory affect pregnancy sexuality behavior in pregnant women

primigravida in Kediri in good category, that is 26 respondents (68.4%).

3. Reinforcing Factors in Lawrence Green's theory affect the behavior of pregnancy sexuality in

primigravida in Kediri in good category, that is 33 respondents (86.8%).

4. Sexuality behavior of pregnancy in pregnant woman primigravida in Kediri in good category, that is 27

respondents (71.1%).

5. There is influence of Lawrence Green's theory about sexuality behavior of pregnancy to sexual change in

primigravida in Kediri which shows p value = 0,000 <α = 0.05 so h0 is rejected and h1 accepted.

REFERENCES

[1]. Manuaba, dkk. (2012). Pengantar Kuliah Obstetri. Jakarta : EGC. 1

[2]. Varney, H. (2008). Buku Ajar Asuhan Kebidanan Edisi 4. Jakarta: EGC. 2

[3]. BKKBN. (2008). “Pengetahuan Tentang Seksualitas”. (http://www.bkkbn.go.id). Diakses 3 September

2016.3

[4]. Suparyanto.(2011).”KonsepKelasIbuHamil”.(http://dr.suparyanto/2011/05/konsep-kelas-ibu -hamil-

1.html), diakses 24 November 2016. 4

[5]. Notoatmodjo, Soekidjo. (2012). Promosi Kesehatan dan Perilaku Kesehatan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. 5

27

Nurdina, 2018

[6]. Mubarak, I. W. (2007). Promosi Kesehatan Sebuah Pengantar Proses Belajar Mengajar Dalam

Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu. 6

[7]. Asmoro. (2009). Theresia Leftew. (2015). Hubungan Penggunaan Kontrasepsi IUD dengan

Kenyamanan Hubungan Seksual pada akseptor IUD di Wilayah Puskesmas Ngemplak.Skripsi.

Universitas Respati Yogyakarta.7

[8]. Bobak, I.M.,Lowdermilk, D.L., & Jensen, M. D. (2008). Buku Ajar Keperawatan Maternitas.Ed. 4.

Jakarta: EGC.

28



ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

Corresponding Author: Syed Asif Ali Naqvi, Department of Economics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Email: [email protected] Phone: +923004691512

Impact of Environmental Degradation on Wheat Production in Pakistan

Sidra Arooj, Syed Asif Ali Naqvi, Muhammad Sohail Amjad Makhdum

Department of Economics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Received: 2017

Accepted: 2017

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the determinants of environmental degradation and analyzed its effect on wheat production

in Pakistan. Time series data was used from the period 1981-2011 for the empirical analysis of study. The data of

the variables; carbon dioxide, fertilizer, population growth, urbanization, energy consumption, wheat production,

area under wheat and wheat price were taken. Autoregressive distributive lag model and co-integration method were

used on the both equations. Error correction model has negative sign for both models. It indicated that models were

converging to their equilibrium from short run to long run. Causality between environmental degradation and wheat

production was also analyzed. It was estimated that the environmental degradation was significantly impacting

wheat production. Cumulative Recursive test for stability of the parameters revealed that parameters were stable at

5% level of significant. The results indicated environmental degradation was causing the yield reduction of wheat.

Study findings suggested the need of proper management to reduce environmental degradation and enhance wheat

production.

KEYWORDS: Environmental Degradation, Fertilizer, Equilibrium, Production, causality

I. INTRODUCTION

Environmental degradation (ED) today is a serious challenge to the life forms on the planet earth. It is adversely

affecting not only the individuals and human societies in various ways and in different degrees, but is also

influencing the changes that are detrimental to the health and growth of all forms of life [1]. The effect is cumulative

in its nature and is in an acceleration mode now. The problem ED is approximately being faced by the whole world

especially in developing countries where not much importance is given on this issue [2]. ED means the degradation

of air, water, soil and distortion of ecosystem [3]. As any country move towards economic growth, results were

started to appear in the form of environmental degradation [4]. So, economic growth is a main factor which causes

ED. The trend of CO2 emission is increasing according to the previous researches and if this situation will continue

then the whole globe have to face the worse results. There is needed of such study that discusses the determinants of

ED comprehensively.

The anticipated large expansion in the demand for its products could lead to an increase in the negative contribution

of agriculture to global environmental quality, for example, loss of biodiversity through the clearing of grassland

and forests, unsustainable pressure on increasingly scarce water supplies or increased water pollution by agro-

chemicals and animal waste [5]. Although CO2 emission leaves negative impact on wheat production but, there are

some other factors that also affect its production. Wheat price and area under wheat production are major factors that

affect the wheat production [6]. But, in Pakistan the wheat production area has decreased 9,138 thousand hectares

during the period of 2015.So, if this situation will continue, then the problem of food shortage have to face, as the

area under wheat production plays an important role in its production. But, during some past years tremendous

changes were seen in the area of wheat production [7]. Previous researches on the wheat production indicated that if

the production area is enhanced, wheat production can be increased [6]. Some previous research explained that not

only ED affects the production of wheat but this can also affects the environment [8].

In Pakistan many factors are causing ED including, increasing population, urbanization, increasing number of

vehicles, excessive use of fertilizer, forest depletion, and energy consumption. As population increases in any

country, it depends more on natural resources and natural resources are depleted as a result and they contribute to

the ED. Moreover, the excessive use of fertilizer also leaves the negative impact on environment and especially on

the crop production. Fertilizer also cause water pollution and affect the production of crops and human health [9].

Due to increase in population areas for cultivation are squeezing gradually. In order to the fulfillment the needs of

food for growing populations, fertilizers are being used heavily in the crop production [2].

29

Arooj et al.,2018

Urbanization is another major factor that is contributing in ED and its rate is increasing day by day. Urbanization

causes to the depletion of natural resources. So, the high depletion of natural resources leaves the biodiversity in

great thread. Rapid growth has led to unplanned urban development, causing major environmental problems and a

severe lack of human contact with nature [10]. ED not only affects the economy of any country but also affect the

agricultural sector [6]. The quality of environment is also affected due to the desire of getting higher production of

food. In order to gain higher production of different crops, farmers use new technologies that are producing higher

quantity of crops but at the same they are polluting the quality of environment [10]. Although agricultural

intensification is giving a big quantity of production but this intensification is causing the loss of nutrients in the

soils. So, if we want to secure our food then we will have to be take some immediate steps to cancel out the negative

effects of the new technologies [11]. Salinity is another factor causing problem of ED and it is usually exacerbated

by intensive irrigation and is one of the most important constraints in agricultural lands. Salinity has a considerable

effect on world agriculture, significantly reducing productivity of agricultural plants [12].

Sustainability is an important factor for the economic growth of any nation because future growth depends on it

[13]. Environmental sustainability is one of the sustainable development goal (SDG), and Pakistan is working to

achieve this it. It can be achieved if Pakistan gives some more concentration on it. So, it is very important for every

country to use natural resources in such a way that will remain sustainable for the coming generation. Fresh water,

air and land are deteriorating due to pollution that can create problem for the next generation [14].

Geographically, Pakistan is included in the top countries that have unpredictable climate condition. But less

capabilities and short resources to cope up with the climatically changes have pushed the Pakistan in worse situation

[15]; [16]. Due to these shortcomings, we are facing extreme and sever events in the form of droughts, floods and

increasing land sliding incidents. Flood events in the years 2012, 2011and 2010 are evidence of these climatic

changes [17]. Now, government of Pakistan is making efforts to combat these disasters at the initial stages. Study is

aimed at describing that how environment degrades due to energy consumption, urbanization, fertilizer, population

growth, gross domestic product (GDP) and other factors. This section was gave the background of study. In the

second section, materials and methods are explained, third part discussed the results and their interpretations and in

the last portion conclusions are drawn in the light of investigated results.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data and sources

The study included the variables of CO2 emission (Matric tons per capita), population density (people per sq.km of

land area), fertilizer (crop wise use total), urban population (annual growth), GDP per capita annual growth (%),

wheat production (000 tonnes), area under wheat production (000 hectares), wheat producer price (Lower currency /

Tons) and energy consumption (kg per kg of oil equivalent energy use). Data were taken from Food and Agriculture

Organization, World Development Indicator, National Fertilizer Development Center and different issues of

economic survey.

Estimation Technique

Different estimation techniques were used in this paper during the whole result estimation. First of all stationarity of

the variables were checked through unit root test. In unit root test ADF test was applied to test the stationarity of the

variables. To investigate the environmental degradation equation and wheat production equation results,

Autoregressive distributive lag model (ARDL) was used in this study on the basis of stationarity of the variables.

But before using ARDL model bound test was applied to check the co-integration existence in the equation [8]. So,

bound test is also used that indicated that there exist long run co-integration in both models of the study. For the

application of ARDL model Eview 9 was used. In the last, cumulative recursive test was applied to check the

stability of the parameters.

To test the stationarity of the variables unit root test was used. Stationarity means variance, mean and covariance

remain constant over the time. In unit root test there were three types of test that were used to check the stationarity

of the variables.

To investigate the both equations results, the study used ARDL method because this method is used for an equation

when all the variables are stationary on different level. ARDL model was introduced by [18]. ARDL was also used

in the studies of [8]; [14] and [19]. Autoregressive means that we can take the lag value of dependent variable. So,

the autoregressive model is:

Y = βo + β1(X1) + β2(X2) + β3 (Yt − 1) + £ (1)

30


In this equation βo is the intercept where β1 is the coefficient of x1 the first independent variable. Β2 is the

coefficient of X2 the second independent variable andβ3 is the coefficient of yt-1 the lag of dependent variable.

Where £ is the error term of the equation 1.

In the distributive lag model means that in this type of equation we can take the lag value of independent variable.

So, the distributive lag equation 2.

Y = βo + β1(X1) + β2 (X2) + β3 (X1t − 1) + £ (2)

So, in equation 2 Xt-1 is the lag of independent variable X1.

ARDL is a model in which we take the lag of both dependent and independent variables. So, autoregressive

distributive lag model can be written as (equation 3)

Y = α 0 + α1 (X) + α2 (Xt − 1) + α3 (Yt − 1) + µ (3)

In the 3rd equation Xt-1 represents the lag of independent variable where Yt-1 represents the lag of dependent

variable. So, Equation is the ARDL model.

After applying ARDL, it is important to check the co-integration of the equation. To check the co-integration in the

long run and short run equation bound test is used. According to [18] ARDL co-integration long run relation gives

unbiased result. For the analysis of Long run co-integrating bound test was used. If the F-statistic value are below

the lower and upper bound test value then result would be inconclusive [17].If there is co- integration in the specific

equation then we move to long run and short run equilibrium relation between the variables [19]. Granger causality

test is also used to test the direction of causality between Ed and WP. To analyze the results of their study [20] and

[6] also used Granger causality test. In the last to check the stability of the models were checked through Cumulative

Recursive test.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section is comprised of two parts, in the first parts impact of macro-economic determinants on ED is discussed,

and in the second part, impact of ED on wheat production is assessed. First the results of bound test are presented,

that explained the existence of long run cointegration between the variables. The estimated bound test value

indicated that there existed long run relationship between the variables. The results of the study are displayed in the

Table 1. In the bound test F-statistic value is compared with the critical values of bound test. On the basis of F-

statistic value the long run cointegration results are estimated.

Table 1 F-Statistic value of Bound test Test Statistic Value K

F-Statistic value 12.90151 5

Critical value of the Bound Test

The critical values of bound test is also presented below table.

Table 2 Critical Bounds Value Significance Level Lower Bound Upper Bound

10% 2.26 3.35

5% 2.62 3.79

2.5% 2.96- 4.18

1% 3.41 4.68

Equitation is significant even at 1% level of significance. So, we reject the null hypothesis that mean there is no co-

integration between the variables. It means that there is existing long run relationship between the variables. On the

basis of bound test result, ARDL long run equilibrium test is used to test the long run equilibrium between the

variables. The results of the study are also similar to the study of [11]; [13] and [16].

Short run results were estimated for determinants of environmental degradation. Here, ED was taken dependent

variable while energy consumption, fertilizer, population density, gross domestic product and urbanization were

taken as independent variables. The Coint Eq (-1) is -0.283 that is negative. The negative value shows that the

model is convergent to its equilibrium. So, this model is a convergent model. The coefficient of ECM is highly

significant and describes, that it will converge to its equilibrium by 28 % each year from short run to long run.

In the long run ARDL co-integration result of energy consumption, fertilizer, population density, urbanization and

GDP are presented (Table 3).

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Arooj et al.,2018

Table 3: Long run ARDL Co-integration result of ED analysis Variables Coefficient Standard Error t-Statistic Probablity

EC 0.027 0.002 13.5 0.000

FER 0.028 0.017 -1.64 0.129

GDP -0.047 0.017 -2.76 0.016

POPDNS 0.102 0.021 4.83 0.000

URBAN 0.145 0.018 8.05 0.001

C -1.123 0.132 -8.498 0.040

ED is the dependent variable. All the independent variables are highly significant except fertilizer variable. The first

variable energy consumption is highly significant and has positive impact on ED. The results of energy consumption

of this study are similar to the results of [21] and [14]. All these results of the study have positive relation with CO2

emission. It means that energy consumption is the important determinants of ED. The co-efficient described, that

one percent increase in energy consumption would lead to 0.027 percent increase in ED.

Fertilizer also has positive and significant relation with environmental degradation. It explained that one percent

increase in fertilizer would cause 0.028 percent increase in ED. Studies of [6] and [9] also indicated that fertilizer

has negative impact on the environment and has positive impact on the agriculture sector.

The next variable GDP has negative and significant relation with ED. The coefficient of GDP revealed that one

percent increase in gross domestic product could contribute 0.047 percent decrease in ED. The results of [21]

explained that as GDP of the county increases, environment degrades first, and then starts to improve. Population

density and urbanization both have also positive and significant relation with ED.

In the second equation, wheat production is the dependent variable and environmental degradation, wheat price, area

under the wheat production and fertilizer were taken as explanatory variables. These variables also showed different

stationarity levels. It is why, ARDL model was used for the analysis here. Before the application of ARDL, bound

test was applied to test the long run cointegration.

Table 4 F-Statistic value of Bound Test Test Statistic Value K

F-Statistic 6.504 4

The F-Statistic value of bond test is 6.504 and 4 degree of freedom level. After the F-Statistic value of bound test the

critical values of bound test are also presented below.

Table 5 Bound Test Critical values Significance Lower bound Upper bound

10% 2.45 3.52

5% 2.86 4.01

2.5% 3.25 4.49

1% 3.74 5.06

The F-Statistic value of bound test was 6.5 that was high from all lower and upper bound. Model was significant at

1% level of significance. F-statistic value indicated that there exists long run relation between the variables. [11];

[13] and [16] studies also used bound test to check the long run relationship between the variables. The value of the

Coint Eq (-1) of this equation was -0.215. The cointegration equation of the model is negative and highly significant

that demonstrated the model is convergent from short run to long run at the speed of 21% each year.

Table 6: Long Run Cointegration Result of wheat production Variable Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Probability

AUW 7.196 0.084 85.541 0.000

ED -1.003 0.014 -71.743 0.000

FER -0.278 0.071 -3.909 0.004

WPRICE 0.016 0.004 3.993 0.005

C -403.832 52.755 -7.765 0.000

Table 6 shows that in the long run, one percent increase in area under wheat production leads to 7.196 percent increase

in the wheat production. The results of area under wheat production are matched to the results of [18] and [19].

32


Mostly previous work explained that CO2 emission has negative relation with wheat production. The results of [22]

and [23] demonstrated that CO2 emission caused to the reduction of wheat production. However, the result of [24]

has quite different results from other studies.

The fertilizer variable is negative and significant at 1%, and 5% level of significance. It revealed that one percent

increase in the fertilizer would lead to 0.278 percent decrease in the wheat production in the long run. The results of

[7]and [25] were similar to this study. The last variable wheat price was positive and significant at 5% level of

significance. The similar results of wheat price and wheat production were found from the study of [18]; [26] and [27].

Granger Causality Test

The result of the causality between the variables is checked through the granger causality test and the result of the

test is given in Table 7.

Table 7 Pairwise Granger Causality Test Null Hypothesis Obs F-Statistic Prob.

WP does not granger cause ED

29

0.15011

0.8614

ED does not Granger Cause WP

5.36239

0.0119

Table 7 indicated that WP does not cause to Ed but ED cause to WP because the probability value of it is 0.0119

demonstrated that we reject the null hypothesis means there is no existed granger causality. So, null hypothesis is

rejected explaining that ED caused to degrade the environment. Causality test were also applied in the studies of

[28]; [11] and [15].

IV. CONCLUSION

This study has two main parts. The first part of this study demonstrated the determinants of ED. All the statistical

analysis of the study’s result indicated that all the included variables in the study were significantly impacting the

environment except GDP. The second part of the study describes that ED is effecting wheat production in Pakistan.

Results described that one percent increase in wheat area would lead to 7.2percent increase in wheat production. It

can be concluded that energy consumption, fertilizer, population density, and urbanization were contributing toward

ED. The results of study are favored with the study of [3]; [7] and [11]. So, on the basis of the result it has been

cleared that all the mention variables in the study highly affect the environment. Effective policies by the

government should be developed that minimize the level of ED from the environment in the presence of above

explained variables. Wheat is the most important variable in the second model. Higher wheat producer price

encourages the producers to increase the production to get more benefits [8]. It can be suggested that government

should devise policies to decrease the CO2 emission level to tackle down the ED. Some alternate ways should be

adopted for energy purpose like energy from renew able source to reduce the burden on environment [11]. Farmers

should be educated regarding the use of suitable quantity of fertilizer in the production to avoid long term losses.

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[25] Avnery, S., D.L. Mauzerall, J. Liu and L.W. Horowitz, 2011. Global crop yield reductions due to surface ozone

exposure: 1. Year 2000 crop production losses and economic damage. Atmos. Environ, 45(13), 2284-2296.

[26] Kimball, B.A., 1983. Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: an assemblage and analysis of 430 prior

observations. Agron J., 75(5): 779-788.

[27] Khan, S. and M.A. Hanjra, 2009. Footprints of water and energy inputs in food production–Global

perspectives. Food Policy, 34(2): 130-140.

[28] Abdulai, A. 2007. Spatial and Vertical price transmission in food staples market chains in Eastern and Southern

Africa: What is the evidence. In FAO Trade and Markets Division Workshop on Staple Food Trade and

Market Policy Options for Promoting Development in Eastern and Southern Africa, Rome (pp. 1-2).

34



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*Corresponding Author: Muhammad Naeem Shahid, Phd Scholar; Bahria University, Islamabad Campus, Pakistan.


Corporate Governance and its Impact on Firm’s Performance:

Evidence from Cement Industry of Pakistan

Muhammad Naeem Shahid1, Dr. Muhammad Ayub Siddiqui2, Muhammad Haris Qureshi3,

Faraz Ahmad4

1Phd Scholar; Bahria University, Islamabad Campus, Pakistan

2Professor; FAST-NUCES, Islamabad 3Lecturer; The University of Faisalabad

4MS Scholar; The University of Faisalabad

Received: August 13, 2017

Accepted: October 18, 2017

ABSTRACT

In the paper the researcher investigate the level of impact of elements of CG (Corporate Governance) system on

firm’s performance. To analyze the causal relationship board size and financial leverages have been taken as

independent variables and CEO duality is considered as control variable, while Return on Equity (ROE) has been

taken as proxy variable to measure the performance of companies. The current study was conducted on the growing

industry of Pakistan i.e. cement, by taking 58 companies in consideration over the period of 2007 to

2010.Generalized least square model was applied with both fixed and random effects to draw inferences. By

reviewing the results we have found that company’s board size has an insignificant but positive relationship with

ROE, while financial leverage has negative but significant relationship with and ROE. In the current study CEO

Duality is taken as a control variable with both independent variables has some crucial influences on the

performance of firms in cement industry of Pakistan.

KEYWORDS: Performance, Corporate Governance, Cement Industry, Return on Equity, CEO Duality, Board Size,

Leverage Ratio.

1. INTRODUCTION

The firm’s performance and value significantly increase by corporate governance [1]. According to [2] firms in order to

contribute to economy must develop them under the pivotal practices of governance system. A system comprises of

good governance structure ensures sales and the profit at the same time [3]. The Organization of Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines corporate governance as “The system by which business corporations

are directed and controlled. The corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities

among different participants in the corporation, such as the board, managers, shareholders and other stakeholders and

spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate affairs. By doing this, it also provides the

structure through which the company objectives are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring

performance”[4].[5]Identify that the CG (corporate governance) focuses on good association between BOG (board of

directors) and management, and also concerns with controlling and monitoring all the stakeholders. But the interests of

all the stakeholders should be handled carefully because no stakeholder has the right to grab the interests of other

stakeholder. The Corporate governance can also be considered as the decisions in the favor of BODs & shareholders

and these decisions are pivotal for performance of an organization. These decisions towards the two directions

(including BODs and shareholders) are contradicting but contributing towards firm’s performance [6].

[7]Claims that the better corporate governance system can ensure a higher degree of access to financing criteria

(from where the finance come), lowering capital cost and build a better relationship with all the stakeholders by

building good relations with them.[8] Identify that the parameters of CG (corporate governance) have positive

relationship with firm’s performance, likewise the good performance can cause firm to change governance

framework. Even a single factor affecting the performance of the firm needs deep understanding and refinement.

Previous studies find significant relationship between CG (Corporate Governance) dimensions i.e. ownership

structure and capital and firm’s performance. But now corporate governance includes a list of factors affecting

performance of firm like dividend amount, size of board, board composition, board compensation, education level of

board, outside directors, ownership structure, block holders, duality of CEO, size of firm and leverages[9]. A

number of studies researches have been conducted to explore the impact of corporate governance on performance of

35

Shahid et al.,2018

the firm in the world but a few in Pakistan, out of which cement industry is slightly ignored. For this purpose

cement1 industry of Pakistanis selected as population of the study.

The literature shows that corporate governance enhances the performance of the firm. Arguments suggested

implementation of good corporate governance strategies reduces flaws in information flow. This also reduces the

risk of wrong information flow. From the above discussion it is concluded that CEO duality have a significant

impact between firm performance and corporate governance because in Pakistan mostly businesses are family

owned and firms having a same person for the position of CEO and chairman. So it is of great need to study the

mediating role of CEO Duality between governance factors and firms performance. From the above discussion,

following are the research question:

Do corporate governance factors impact on the performance of firm in cement industry of Pakistan?

Do CEO duality mediates between corporate governance factors and performance of firm in cement industry of

Pakistan

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The performance of the firm is either positively or negatively can be affected by the Board Size which includes the

number of directors in the board. The Board is highly accountable for performance of the firm [10], and institutional

investors who are usually shows more willingness to pay a premium to BODs just for the making and

implementation of good governance practices [11], as the shareholders always expect from BODs to ensure good

governance practices to govern firms [12]. But it is not easy to justify the relationship between the size of the board

and performance of the firm, because some firms have large board size as compared to the others. According to [13]

the size of the board is not a real measure of performance of the firm. [14] argue that smaller size of board increases

the performance of firm by proposing that the board should consist of ten or fewer members. But [15] finds that as

large as the size of board; the firms can improve the performance and becomes successful. [16]Observe that

performance of the firm goes side by side with the size of board, which means that performance of the firm is

enhanced by largening the size of the board. If the members of the board are in higher number that means that the

company have a good mind to share the ideas and to make better decisions which in turn makes it difficult for the

CEO to influence the decisions making process.

CEO Duality means that head/chairman of the board and the CEO is the same person in the firm. [17] Find CEO

duality slightly impacts performance of the firm.[18]Advocates that those firms chose independent leadership better

perform than those firms relying on duality of CEO. But other school of thoughts believe that firms can derive good

performance by having the same person on the board chair and CEO. According to [19] the previous studies could

not provide an agreed view of the effect of CEO duality on firm’s performance.[20] Shows that there is negative

correlation between CEO duality and performance of the firm. [21] Identifies that those firms having same person as

the chairman and CEO, are more successful than those having different person on these positions. While [22]

identifies that CEO chair separation positively affect return on equity, return on assets, earning per share and profits.

According to [23] over the period of 1999 to 2003 majority of businesses have changed their duality structure to

non-duality structure. [24]Present that policy makers in 15 advanced nations from 1994 to 2003 have recommended

that chairman of board should not be the same with CEO. 84% firms in have separated the working of chairman of

the board with CEO in Europe [25].

Among the important decisions in the firm, leverage2 decisions are those decision which have higher importance in

decisions executives made [26]. Literature supports differently the impact of financial leverage on the performance

of the firm.[27] Describes that the willingness of manager to financing projects of the firm by borrowing, affects the

performance of the firm. Because they use the proceeds of borrowings optimally to maximize the performance of

firm. He finds that the debt ratio is positively related to performance of the firm.[28] Investigates the relationship

between financial leverages and performance of the firm in seven European countries and finds positive and

significant relation in Spain and Italy whereas negative and significant in France, Norway, Belgium and Germany

but insignificant in Portugal. [29] investigate 650 Chinese firms from 2001 to 2006 by using threshold regression

model and find positive relationship between financial leverages and performance of the firm in those firms where

debt ratio is between 53.97 % to 70.48 % and negative relation in firms where ratio is above 70.48 %. On the other

hand, according to (Huang & Song, 2006) firms in china are more dependent on leverages as a result the equity

1Cement industry is vital for economic Growth. Well over Rs. 30 billion revenue comes from cement industry. More than 1.5 million people directly or indirectly related to cement industry. It earned over USD 700 million by exporting Pakistani cement to world market.

http://www.scribd.com/doc/40547184/Final-Report-Cement-Industry-Pakistan, & http://economicpakistan.wordpress.com/2008/02/12/cement-

industry/ 2Proportion of Equity and Debt in the capital structure of Firm

36


market of china is in developing phase, a negative relationship is formed between financial leverages and

performance.

[30]Explore the firms on the basis of growth and find that in high growth firms there is a negative relationship

between financial leverage and performance of the firm and also find a positive relationship in the firms having low

growth between financial leverage and performance. Similarly, [31] find inverse relationship between financial

leverage and return on asset but relationship is positive when measured between financial leverage and return on

equity.[32]Use panel regression trend and find that a negative relation is formed between leverage and firm’s

profitability.

3. METHODOLOGY

The paper attempts to check the effects of corporate governance factors on the performance of the firm in cement

industry of Pakistan. Fifty eight companies (registered companies) from cement industry have been taken as a

sample for this study. From the relevant literature on the topic, some crucial governance factors have been

identified, which have greater effect on the performance of the firm. For the purpose to develop the relationship,

Board size and Leverage Ratio have been taken as independent variables, CEO duality has been taken as control

variable, while ROE (Return on Equity) has been taken as proxy variable to check/measure the Performance of the

firm. The data regarding independent variables is collected from annual reports of the companies from 2007 to 2010.

To measure the performance of cement companies, calculated ROE is taken into consideration from basic BSA3

(Balance Sheet Analysis) released by the SBP (State Bank of Pakistan). Generalized least square model is applied

with fixed and random effects to draw conclusion. By reviewing relevant literature we developed the following

theoretical framework and hypotheses of current study.

[33]Theoretical Framework

H1: There is positive association between Board Size and ROE in cement industry.

H2: There is positive association between Financial Leverage and ROE in cement industry.

Fixed Effect Regression Model

ROEit = 1i + β2 BSISEit + β3 FIN_LEVit +it

Random Effect Regression Model

ROEit = 1i + β2 BSIZEit + β3 FIN_LEVit +it

Where

ROE = Return on Equity

BSIZE = Board Size

FIN_LEV = Leverage Ratio

4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

For testing hypothesis we applied Generalized Least Square model at fixed and random effects models by

employing dependent, control and independent variables. The following tables show the results of proposed model.

3http://www.sbp.org.pk/departments/stats/bsa.pdf&http://www.scribd.com/doc/38301075/Balance-Sheet-Analysis-by-SBP

CEO

Duality

Independent Variables

Governance Factors

• Board Size

• Financial Leverages

Dependent Variable

Firm’s Performance

• ROE

37

Shahid et al.,2018

Table 1. Generalized Least Square (GLS) results of Return on Equity (ROE)at (Random Effect) Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C 16.48054 47.89815 0.344075 0.7311

BSIZE 0.736643 6.474726 0.113772 0.9095

FIN_LEV -7.204730 2.766212 -2.604548 0.0098

BSIZE*DUAL -0.736536 2.221478 -0.331552 0.7405

FIN_LEV*DUAL -0.156645 2.775743 -0.056434 0.9550

R-square is 82.57 %, (F= 268.95), F- statistic (p =0.0000), Durbin Watson = 2

The table(1) represents the results of proposed model by employing random effect model. It is clear that the board

size has insignificant relationship with ROE (dependent variable) in cement industry as its p-value is(0.909), which

remains insignificant (0.740) while taking duality as control variable with board size. Financial leverage has

significant (p-value= 0.0098) but negative relationship with ROE at 1 % which reveals as the financial leverage

increases the return on equity decreases. Similarly financial leverage with duality as control variable becomes

insignificant with ROE (p-value= 0.955) and has negative (t-value= -0.156) relationship. Overall causal relationship

between explanatory variables (with duality as control variable) and dependent variable is insignificant in cement

industry of Pakistan. The value of R-square is 82.57 %which shows that there is 82.57 % variation in performance

(ROE) due to explanatory variables. It is also clear from the values of (F= 268.95) and probability F- statistic

(0.0000) self explains that the under studied model is fit to explain the relationship between discussed variables.

However the value of Durbin Watson is 2 which shows that there is no autocorrelation problem in the model.

Table 2. Generalized Least Square (GLS) Results of Return on Equity (ROE) (Fixed Effect) Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C 25.69846 57.73710 0.445094 0.6568

BSIZE 0.510464 7.590302 0.067252 0.9465

FIN_LEV -8.751331 1.574601 -5.557809 0.0000

BSIZE*DUAL -2.160684 4.861149 -0.444480 0.6573

FIN_LEV*DUAL 1.807513 1.588744 1.137699 0.2568

R-square is 94%, (F= 51), F- statistic (p =0.0000), Durbin Watson = 2.6

The fixed effect panel model of GLS estimation is shown in the table (2). Financial leverage has (p-value= 0.000)

which is highly significant and shows a negative relationship with ROE. It means that as the financial leverage

increases the performance of cement industry decreases. But with duality as control variable the financial leverage

has insignificant (p= 0.2568) and positive relation. We can say that the duality of CEO has influence on financial

leverages and can enhance performance of cement firms. Besides that board size alone and along with duality as

control variable shows insignificant relationship with firm’s performance of cement industry. The value of R-square

(0.94) shows that in cement industry there is 94 % variation in dependent variable due to independent variables. In

fixed effect model there is no autocorrelation problem from the interpretation value of Durbin Watson. The model

shows best fit relationship among the variables as it is clear from value of F- statistics.

Table 3. Correlated Random Affects – Hausman Specification Test. Dependent variable (ROE) Test Summary Chi-Sq. Statistic Chi-Sq. d.f. Prob.

Cross-section random 5.420828 4 0.2468

The table above shows the Hausman test results which are explaining the relationship between the independent

variables and ROE. This test has the following Hypothesis

Ho: Random effect is more Robust then fixed Effect.

H1: Random effect is less Robust than fixed Effect.

From above table it is clear that Ho is accepted because the P-value in insignificant which is (0.2468).It means that

random effect model is more robust to explain the causal relationship of independent variables and ROE in cement

industry of Pakistan.

5. DISCUSSION

It is clear from both tables that size of the board has positive but insignificant relationship on both Random and

Fixed effect models (table 1 and 2 respectively). Positive values of coefficients are consistent with our

prepositionH1. But the p-values are (0.909) and (0.946) at random and fixed effect model respectively demonstrate

38


the relationship between the Board size and ROE is insignificant. These results are consistent with [34]who finds the

same results as in this research that there is a positive relation between board size and firm’s performance. On the

other hand financial leverage has negative (inconsistent with H2) but highly significant relationship (at 1 %) with

ROE at both random and fixed effect models as the p- values indicates the results are (0.0098) and (0.000)

respectively. The findings are consistent with the findings of[35], they investigate the firms registered on Karachi,

Lahore and Islamabad stock exchanges and find negative and significant relationship between the financial

leverages and performance of firms. The same was identified by[36], he studies the engineering sector of Pakistan

and finds that financial leverages has highly significantly but negative relationship with the performance of firm and

many other studies4find similar results. In order to check that independent variables (Board size and financial

leverage) have impact on the dependent variable or not, we applied F-test to test the following hypothesis.

Ho: All independent variables have no impact on dependent variables.

Ho: B1=B2=0

H1:All independent variables have some impact on dependent variables.

H1: B1≠B2≠0

Tables (1 &2) present relationship of independent and dependent variables, at random and fixed effect models

respectively. Both tables show (F-statistic value = 0.000) there is significant relationship between dependent and

independent variables. So, null hypothesis is rejected.

6. CONCLUSION

In this study, firm performance of cement industry of Pakistan, is evaluated by return on equity (ROE) at both fixed

and random effects. From (section 5) it is scrutinized that while discussing the relationship between board size and

ROE the relationship is positive and insignificant, while this relationship becomes negative when estimated along

with CEO duality as control variable. We further infer that there is a negative relationship between financial

leverage and ROE but is significant at both fixed and random effect models. While taking CEO duality as control

variable with financial leverages the relationship becomes insignificant even becomes positive at fixed effect model.

It means that CEO duality has some crucial effects on financial leverages which directly affects the performance of

cement firms in Pakistan. In order to improve the performance of cement industry, this study recommends that the

CEO should not be the same person as the chairman of Board of directors. Which means the responsibilities of the

CEO should not be dual. Similarly, large size of board is better for the performance of cement industry in Pakistan.

Because when a firm has large size of board, each member contributes to decisions on the basis of his own expertise,

thus prevent the decision making process from the dominant opinion of any member, which usually happen in small

sized board. However, the cement companies should have a moderate ratio of leverages to effectively perform.

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Corresponding Author: Sentot Imam Suprapto, STIKes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia.


Post Accreditation Performance on Service Quality of Outpatient in

Gambiran Hospital

Sentot Imam Suprapto*



Accepted: December 2, 2017

ABSTRACT

Performance is the work of someone who describes the quality and quantity of work done. Quality of health

services is the level of perfection of health services held in accordance with the code of ethics and standards

of service. This study aims to identify post-accreditation performance and service quality of outpatient as well

as to analyze the effect of post-accreditation performance on outpatient service quality. The study design was

Cross Sectional Study. Used Proportional Random Sampling technique and analyzed using ordinal regression

test, with the number of respondents as many as 578 respondents. This research was conducted in Gambiran

Hospital Kediri on May 16 to 22, 2017. From the result of data of frequency distribution of performance post-

accreditation of hospital got the highest value of performance that is nurse / midwife performance with

category "A" counted 417 respondents (72,1%), and from the performance that has the lowest value of

performance is the performance of doctors with the category of "A" as much as 220 respondents (38.1%)

while the results of data distribution frequency of service quality of outpatients obtained the highest value of

service quality is nurse / midwife service quality with the category "Very Good "as many as 410 respondents

(70.9%) and from the quality of service that has the lowest value of service quality is the quality of doctors

with the category" bad "as many as 405 respondents (70.1%). Ordinal regression statistic test showed that the

simultaneous test obtained the result that is significant value 0,00 which means there is influence of post

hospital accreditation performance to outpatient service quality in Gambiran Hospital Kediri. From the results

of the research, it is better for the doctors to increase the discipline of time of attendance, for the nurse /

midwife to maintain the time discipline of the present hour which is good and for some nurses should better

maintain the privacy of the patient while performing the action, for non medical worker (laboratory,

radiology, pharmacy) it is advisable to take the results of a supplementary examination there should be a

maximum time limit for the patient to obtain the results, so that there is a clear timeline for the patient to wait

for the outcome and the patient is also treated soon.

KEYWORDS: Performance, service quality, outpatient, hospital

INTRODUCTION

Human resources are the most important asset in an organization to maintain and develop the

organization in globalization era. Good resource performance is important for organizational survival. If

organizations want to grow rapidly, organizations must have human resources capable of performing well.

Performance appraisal is actually an assessment of human behavior in performing the role they play in the

organization because basically the organization is run by humans. In the framework of fostering and

developing human resources elements of welfare need to be considered seriously because the welfare of

employees is a very decisive factor in performance productivity. [1]

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), hospitals are an integral part of a social and

health organization with the function of providing comprehensive services, curative and preventive cures to

the community. The hospital is also a training center for medical personnel and medical research centers. In

an effort to achieve optimal health degree this can’t be separated from the role of the hospital as an

implementing element in the field of health services. Hospitals as the media facing directly with patients

should be able to provide quality services. [2] Hospital accreditation is government recognition at the hospital,

as it provides quality, standardized and patient safety services, and is established by KARS. According to

Permenkes RI No. 012 Year 2012 on hospital accreditation that is, accreditation is the recognition of hospital

42

Suprapto 2018

(RS) which is given by independent accreditation organizational institution stipulated by the Minister of

Health, after assessed that the hospital fulfill the hospital service standard continuously. With the occurred of

service standard, the Hospital is expected to improve employee performance, so that the quality of service in

patients can also increase.

Along with the development of the era, the hospital is currently faced with the era of global

competition in various health sectors. Indonesia health profile data in 2013, states that the number of hospitals

in Indonesia, both general hospitals (RSU) and special type hospitals (RSK) has increased significantly since

last four years. In 2009 it was found that there were 1,523 hospitals then increased by 44.42% to 2,201 in

2013. [3] In order to survive and develop in a rapidly changing and competitive environment, hospitals had to

change the management paradigm of the hospital towards the consumer's point of view. Approach of quality

service and customer satisfaction becomes one important strategy that can’t be ignored. [4]

Through the preliminary research in Gambiran Hospital Kediri on 9 January 2017 from several

wards in Gambiran Hospital Kediri, there are still complaints from some patients because too long queue

waiting for doctors, hours of doctor's presence to check the patient is uncertain, less seating facilities, so some

patients become standing and the situation is hot due to lack of circulation and the absence of air

conditioning, the patient is too crowded to queue up waiting for a call at the registration counter. And

sometimes there are employees who are less friendly to patients. This study aims to determine the effect of

post-accreditation performance on service quality in outpatients in Gambiran Hospital kediri.

RESEARCH METHODS

The study design was Cross Sectional Study. Using Proportional Random Sampling technique was analyzed

using ordinal regression test, the number of respondents as many as 578 respondents. This research was

conducted at Gambiran Hospital Kediri on 16 - 22 May 2017

RESULTS

Characteristics of the Subject

Table 1. Characteristics of respondents in this research include parent age, parent

education, parent occupation, child age and parent role. Characteristics ΣN Σ%

sex

male

female

264

314

46

54

Occupation

Students

Entrepreneur

Private

Civil government

Jobless

Farmer

Etc

66 18

210

95 114

70

5

11.4 3.1

36.3

16.4 19.7

12.1

9

Performance value

The lowest

The higest

220

417

38.1

72.1

Quality servive

Very good/ excellent

Very bad

410 405

70.9 70.1

Total 578 100

Based on table 1 above from total of 578 respondents most of female gender as many as 314 patients

(54%), private sector work as many as 210 patients (36.3%), the results of data distribution frequency

performance post-accreditation hospital got the highest performance value of performance. nurse / midwife

with the category "A" as much as 417 respondents (72.1%) and from the data distribution frequency of post-

hospital accreditation performance obtained the lowest value of doctor's performance with the category "A" as

43


many as 220 respondents (38.1%) and data results distribution of quality of outpatient service quality got the

highest value of service quality that is service quality of nurse / midwife with "Excellent" category as many as

410 respondents (70,9%). And from result of data of frequency distribution of service quality of outpatient got

lowest value of service quality that is service quality of doctor with category "very bad" as many as 405

respondent (70,1%).

Table 2. Statistical Test Results of Doctor's Performance on Doctor's Quality Pseudo R-Square

Cox and Snell .144

Nagelkerke .201

McFadden .124

Link function: Cauchit.

From the result of statistical test of doctor's performance after hospital accreditation to doctor service

quality, there is influence 20,1%, the rest 79,9% because other factor.

Table 3. Statistical Results Performance nurses / Midwife Performance on Quality Nurses / Midwives

quality service Pseudo R-Square

Cox and Snell .215

Nagelkerke .253

McFadden .127

Link function: Complementary Log-log.

From the result of statistic test of nurse / midwife after hospital accreditation to nurse service quality

/ midwife got influence 25,3%, rest 74,7% because other factor.

Table 4. Non-Medical Performance Statistics Test Result on Non-Medical Quality Pseudo R-Square

Cox and Snell .135

Nagelkerke .150

McFadden .062

Link function: Negative Log-log.

From the result of statistical test of non medical performance after hospital accreditation to non

medical service quality, there was an effect of 15%, the rest 85% because of other factors.

From result of ordinal regression statistic test simultaneously got result there is influence of post

hospital accreditation performance to outpatient service quality with significant value (0.00) which mean

there is influence between variable1 and variable2, so there is influence of post-accreditation performance to

service quality of outpatient.

DISCUSSION

Post-Hospital Accreditation Performance

Based on the interpretation of performance data obtained data that shows the highest value of post-

accreditation performance is the performance value of nurses / midwives with the category "A" as many as

417 respondents (72.1%). Performance is the result of work in quality and quantity achieved by an employee

in performing its duties according to the responsibilities given to it. Performance is the comparison of work

achieved by employees with predetermined standards. [5] Performance is a condition that must be known and

confirmed to certain parties to determine the level of achievement of an agency results associated with the

vision of an organization or company and to know the positive and negative impact of an operational policy.

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Based on the interpretation of performance data, it is found that the performance shows the lowest

value of post hospital accreditation performance is the value of doctor performance with the category "A" as

many as 220 respondents (38.1%). Performance is a successful achievement, information about the

performance is very important that is used to evaluate whether the performance process has been so far in line

with what the expected goal yet. [6]

According to the Researcher, performance is the result of work achieved by an individual adjusted to

the role or task of a particular period of time, which is associated with a company for a given period of time,

connected to a certain size or standard of the company in which the individual works. There are several

factors that affect the doctor's performance that many doctors present are not working hours or late, so the

patient becomes long waiting to get medical service from the doctor and there are some doctors who lack

patient privacy during consultation with patients, patient examination, even action on the patient. It should be

a secret between doctors and patients, and patients become less comfortable when consulting about the

disease to the doctor, and also less comfortable when the examination and medical treatment by doctors.

Outpatient Service Quality

Based on the data quality interpretation, the data showed that the highest value of outpatient service is

the quality of nurse / midwife with the category of "Very Good" as many as 410 respondents (70.9%). Quality

is an effort to meet or exceed customer expectations. A product or service is said to be qualified / not qualified

if it can provide full satisfaction to customers / users. Quality includes products, services, people, processes,

and environments where quality is a dynamic condition. Quality of health services is the level of perfection of

health services held in accordance with the code of ethics and standard of service set, thus giving satisfaction

for each patient. [7]

Based on data quality interpretation, the data showed that the lowest value of outpatient service quality

is physician quality value with the category of "bad" as many as 405 respondents (70.1%). Quality of health

services is a health service that can satisfy every user of health care services in accordance with the average level

of satisfaction and the organizers in accordance with standard and professional code of ethics. [8]

According to the researchers, the service of the health is the level of perfection of health services in

causing a sense of satisfaction in each patient. The more perfect the satisfaction, the better the quality of

health services. There are several factors that affect the quality of service physicians in outpatients that

patients do not immediately get the services of doctors because doctors present not on time so that patients

become long waiting, doctors do not explain the therapy given to patients, just write prescription drugs to be

redeemed at the pharmacy , sometimes there are some doctors who pay less attention when invited by the

patient to consult about the illness so that the patient becomes less satisfied and less fully clarified about the

disease he suffered.

Influence of Post-Hospital Accreditation Performance on Quality of Outpatient Patient Services.

Based on statistical test ordinal regression simultaneously shows significant value 0,00 which means

there is influence between variable1 and variable2, so got there influence of variable X (Performance) to

variable Y (Quality of Service), which mean show influence Post Performance Accreditation Quality of

Service Outpatient patients. Quality of Service is any effort held alone or collectively in an organization to

maintain and improve health, prevent and cure diseases and restore the health of individuals, families, groups

and or society. [9] According to the researchers, the performance performed by employees to the patient

affects the quality of service results in patients. There should be regular evaluation and corrective action from

criticism of every patient who complains or complains, in order to create good performance and produce good

quality so that patients will feel satisfied and feel confident in health service agencies.

From the statistical test shows the influence of doctor’s performance on doctor’s quality of 20.1%, the

rest 79.9% due to other factors. Performance describes what an individual has achieved or in other words the

actual result achieved when the individual sets goals and strives to achieve that goal, then individual will gain

and see the results of what he or she has done or done. Performance is quantity, quality, time spent, occupation,

absence and safety in performing job duties, criteria of quality and quantity of work, cooperation, leadership,

prudence, knowledge of position, craft, loyalty, and initiative. [10] Performance is influenced by several factors

namely, quality of work, quantity of work, timeliness, effectiveness and independence in work. [11]

45


Based on data interpretation, the effect of nurse / midwife's performance on nurse / midwife quality

is 25,3%, and the rest 74,7% influenced by other factors. Performance is the work that can be achieved by a

person or group of organizations, in accordance with their respective powers and responsibilities in an effort

to achieve the objectives of the organization concerned legally, not violating the law and in accordance with

the moral or ethical. The performance of nurses is an activity that nurses give to clients in the form of nursing

care to improve adaptation response. [5] Some of the factors that affect performance are effectiveness and

efficiency, authority (authority), discipline at work, and initiatives at work. Quality is an effort to meet or

exceed customer expectations. A product or service is said to be qualified / not qualified if it can provide full

satisfaction to customers / users. Quality includes products, services, people, processes, and environments

where quality is a dynamic condition. Quality of health services is important in healthcare organizations,

raising health awareness, raising public awareness about health and health care services, encouraging every

health care organization to be particularly concerned with the quality of health services. [8]

Based on the interpretation of data showed there is non-medical performance influence on non-

medical quality of 15%, and the remaining 85% influenced by other factors. Performance or performance is

the result or output of a process. [5] According to the researchers, performance is the result of good work both

quality and quantity achieved by a person in carrying out the task according to the responsibility given. Based

on the results of research conducted non-medical performance has an effect on non-medical quality in terms

of health services, there are some things that affect the waiting time to register too long, so the patient

becomes too long wait and become crowded to wait for the registration number, waiting time to the laboratory

is too long, so the patient waits too long and there is no time standard for laboratory results, so sometimes

when the laboratory results are over but the outpatient poly is closed, and the patient has to return tomorrow

to the hospital to consult the doctor in the poly the way to read out the results and determine the action or

therapy for the patient, and it harms the patient into inefficient time and cost. Waiting time in the radiology

room is too long, the patient is too long to wait for x-ray results because doctors who read the results come

not timely because doctors are still open practice outside the hospital, sometimes even the hospital that should

take to the doctor's practice for Rontgen patients immediately can be read out the results and the patient is not

getting older to wait and immediately get the right action.

CONCLUSION

1. Assessing non-medical performance after hospital accreditation in Gambiran Hospital Kediri included

category A that is 365 respondents (63,1%).

2. From 578 respondents, most of the respondents assessed the quality of doctor in outpatient service in

Gambiran hospital Kediri including very bad category, that is 405 respondents (70,1%).

3. As many as 578 respondents know that most of the respondents assess the quality of nurse / midwife in

outpatient service in Gambiran Hospital Kediri including very good category that is 405 respondents

(72,1%)

4. From 578 respondents known that most of the respondents considered non-medical doctors in outpatient

services in RSUD Gambiran Kediri included good category that is as many as 263 respondents (45.5%).

REFERENCES

[1]. Harun, Ainun Najib. 2011. Pengaruh Stress Kerja Secara Partial Tehadap Motivasi dan Kinerja

Karyawan di PT. BPR Syariah PNM Al’Masoem. Skripsi. Malang: Universitas Brawijaya,:49-59.

[2]. Eryanto, Henry. Hubungan Antara Mutu Pelayanan Dengan Kesetiaan Pasien. Econasis-Volume

IX, Nomor 2, Agustus 2011.

[3]. Permenkes RI No. 012 Tahun 2012 Tentang Akreditasi Rumah Sakit

[4]. Adikoesoemo, S. 2011. Manajemen Rumah Sakit. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan.

[5]. Guritno dan Waridin. 2012. Kinerja Karyawan Perusahaan, Manajemen Perusahaan. Bandung:

Alfabeta.

[6]. Hakim, A. (2013). Analisis Pengaruh Motivasi, Komitmen, Organisasi Terhadap Kinerja Pegawai.

Jawa Tengah: JBRI.

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[7]. Muninjaya, Gde.2011. Manajemen Mutu Kesehatan.Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC.

[8]. Wijono, Djoko. 2011. Manajemen Mutu Pelayanan Kesehatan: Teori Strategi dan Aplikasi.

Volume. 2. Cetakan Kedua. Surabaya: Airlangga Press.

[9]. Setiawan. 2009. UU. No. 44. Tahun 2009 Tentang Rumah Sakit. Jakarta: Menteri Hukum dan Hak

Azasi Manusia Republik Indonesia.

[10]. Depkes & KARS. 2011. Pedoman Standar Akreditasi Rumah Sakit. Jakarta: Kementrian

Kesehatan RI.

[11]. Azwar, A. 2010. Pengantar Administrasi Kesehatan, Edisi Ketiga, Bina Rupa Aksara. Jakarta.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

*Corresponding Author: Muhammad Naeem Shahid, PhD Scholar; Bahria University, Islamabad

Investigating Innovativeness and Emotional Intelligence as Mediator to

Explore Enterprenurial Marketing Strategy Focused on Firm Performance:

A Case in Pakistan

Sumaira Aslam1, Muhammad Naeem Shahid2, Muhammad Haris Qureshi3, Dr Amina Muzaffar Qureshi4

1Assistant Professor; The University of Faisalabad

2PhD Scholar; Bahria University, Islamabad 3Lecturer; The University of Faisalabad

4Associate Professor; Bahria University, Islamabad



ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to explore the strategic foundations of SME’s to adopt Entreprenurial marketing as a

framework to achieve higher perfromance. The study tests the mediation of innovativeness and emotional

inteligence and enlighten how both effect the firm perfromace (growth perspective, and customer value creation).

The study uses a cross sectional design to collect the data from a sample of 833 firms in aggregate from two states

(e.g. associate members firms 647 and corporate member firms 186) using startified sampling method. The data was

collected through an e-mail questionnaire survey for the firm having email id the firms with no e-mail addresses

were sent questionnaires through mail from the SME’s registered in Chamber of commerce, Faisalabad. The multi-

item scales were designed to measure the innovativeness, emotional intelligence and Entrepreneurial marketing

strategy. The correlation and regression was used to analyze the variables using SPSS. The findings suggests that

that firm’s strategic choice has positive relationship with innovativeness and emotional intelligence. It also

sugeested that emotional intelligence positively mediates while innovativeness negatively mediates the association

among the strategic-orientation and firm performance in terms of growth perspective, and customer value creation.

The results provides important implications for SME managers to device and implement the Marketing strategies to

enhance firm’s perfromance in pakistan.

KEY WORDS: Entreprenurial Market Strategy, Innovativeness, Emotional Intelligence, SMEs

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In entrepreneurship research, marketing has emerged as key term in recent years. Marketing and entrepreneurship

are conventionally considered two different fields of study. Marketing is a much enriched field and a mountain of

classical research work exists in current literature. Today’s turbulent business environment has forced the

researchers to explore the concept to the current state as marketing consists of numerous approaches aimed to give

companies a growth aspiration in ever changing environment and enhanced Customer value. [1] has contrasted and

compared different marketing approaches (e.g. buzz marketing; expeditionary marketing; convergence marketing;

guerrilla marketing; viral marketing; disruptive marketing; counterintuitive marketing; and radical marketing etc.)

and argued that the alternate methods often confine the interests of marketers considering for fresh traditions to

promote and market the products effectually in a challenging situation. “Marketing is a process by which companies

create value for customers and build strong customers relationships in order to capture value from customers in

return” [2]. Entrepreneurship on the other hand, emerges from the word “Entrepreneur”, a French term with literal

meanings “undertaker” introduced by Richard Cantillon in 1730 for the individuals who commence self-

employment with uncertainty. In the early years entrepreneurship has a very limited scope of an “applied trade” but

later on, extensive research on the concept strengthened its grounds and today it is taught as a subject in business

studies due to its increasing importance. The current business environment is evident of incredible paybacks of

entrepreneurial activities for Small as well as large businesses. Entrepreneurial activities enable a business to

achieve success and to meet with its objectives in an innovative way. [3] defined “Entrepreneurship is one path for

creating superior value in the marketplace by leveraging innovation to create products, processes, and strategies that

better satisfy customer needs.” In marketing, Entrepreneurship is key function that includes innovation and

creativity within the firm [4].

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Aslam et al.,2018

1.2 Background of study:

Entrepreneurs have acknowledged the influence of marketing in their businesses a long time ago and in the similar

way marketers are also aware of essence of entrepreneurship in marketing efforts to get an edge on competitors, thus

rising realization of mutual importance of two disciplines in current age supports the emergence of

“entrepreneurship marketing” as a separate field beneficial for both small and large organizations. [5] argued that

“The interface between business disciplines has been found to be a fruitful focus for research, especially when

applied to the marketing behavior in small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs)”. But there are contradictory views

on the significance of entrepreneurial marketing in large and small organizations as Kotler (2003) argued that

entrepreneurial marketing practices are important for large and established firms however, [6] found large,

traditional firms probably not to be as innovative in marketing efforts as SMEs, and seen more compatibility in

entrepreneurship in SME’s. The scope of paper is limited to Small and medium enterprises (SME’s), so the

upcoming discussion on the entrepreneurial marketing will target SME perspective only. In early years,

entrepreneurship and SME’s were badly ignored by business people and researchers but the economic crunch in last

two decades has broadened the scope of SME’s and resultantly of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial marketing.

Consequently, in 1987 to find out the appropriate marketing form that is applicable in SME’s, AMA (American

Marketing Association) conducted a “Research Symposium on Marketing and Entrepreneurship’’ that later on

identified as an annual event named “Research at the Marketing-Entrepreneurship Interface Conference.”

Entrepreneurial marketing basically deals with the recognition and exploitation of marketing opportunities with

innovative, risk taking and proactive orientation toward customer satisfaction and value creation. SME sector is

considered to be backbone of an economy for its larger input to export growth and employment generation and

poverty reduction. SME sector of Pakistan is contributing 40% in GDP; it has employed 70% people from non-

agricultural part and adds 25% in the export earnings of the country. Conversely, regardless of its worth the progress

of SME sector in Pakistan is facing hurdles due to numerous reasons mutually on the demand and supply side. The

problems consist of energy crisis, skill shortage, political uncertainty, scarcity of capital goods, fiscal indiscipline,

poor management, Reliance on non-tax revenues, lack of data on the sector, lesser domestic as well as foreign

investment, resistance to change, inflation and marketing difficulties mainly for export-concerned SMEs; to date the

major problematic area is absence of suitable financing services.

1.3 Statement of Problem:

The importance of scientific research to facilitate knowledgeable decisions for a country's economic development

cannot be exaggerated. Throughout the world, the SME sector is increasingly using evidence-based solutions to

formulate policies and develop initiatives for sustainable growth and development. For developing countries,

however, the main challenge in this regard is the lack of mechanisms to gather the necessary data; and lack of

expertise to analyze it for the development of policies and projects. In short, developing countries do not have a

strong research culture.

The case of Pakistan is exactly the same. Our economic landscape is dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises

(SMEs), yet there is relative neglect on academic and research institutions in the country to study the characteristics and

challenges of the unique SME sector and to develop scientific solutions to the various groups of interest.

There are not two opinions among the policymakers that the SME sector needs to be strengthened as a driving force for

sustainable economic growth and the launch of SME focused research is an important step in this direction. There is

also the consensus that encouraging this culture always requires cooperation between industry, science, government

and development agencies. This research will highlight the challenges and perspectives of the SME sector in Pakistan

and will give a mechanism to small firms through which the firm level performance can be enhanced.

1.4 Justification of Research

SMEs in Pakistan need to strengthen the concept and applications of intellectual capital in their organizations in

order to achieve the competitive edge in the market. It is indispensable for SMEs in Pakistan to revolutionize and

adopt the concept and applications of intellectual capital in order to dilute the emerging economics challenges.

There is also a call for research in the 1st and 2nd SME conferences organized by SMEDA and UMT in 2016

and 2017 to overcome the SME problems in Pakistan. This study advanced the literature in the field of

entrepreneurship by testing a new model of firm’s strategic choice based on three dimensions i.e.

entrepreneurial orientation, marketing orientation, and learning orientation that links the emotional

intelligence and innovativeness with firm performance. While such perspective is considerably new and

relevant to general marketing literature, the fact that this paper is one of few papers that focus on firms

strategic choice using entrepreneurial orientation marketing orientation and learning orientation in SME

context of Pakistan adds to its originality.

49


1.5 Objectives:

The current study has three main objectives. First, to analyze the firm’s strategic orientation by integrating the

effects of EO (Entrepreneurial-Orientation), LO (Learning-Orientation) and MO (Marketing-Orientation). Second,

explores the entrepreneurial marketing impact on firm performance. Third, it will analyze the way, innovativeness

and emotional intelligence is mediating the relationship between independent variable (entrepreneurial marketing

strategy) and dependent variable (firm’s Performance).

1.6 Significance of study:

The current situation of SME sector of Pakistan requires extensive research to provide entrepreneurs with new

intuition to cope with uncertainties. The study will provide an insight in the field of entrepreneurial marketing to the

SME’s to avail the opportunities at the right time. This will help entrepreneurs to use their explicit and tacit

knowledge to explore the firm’s innovativeness. There is no or limited research on the topic in Pakistan.

1.7 Research Question:

1. How the Entrepreneurial marketing strategy in integration of EO, LO and MO is related with innovativeness and

emotional intelligence of firm?

2. How the firm’s innovativeness influences the firm’s performance with a change in emotions, positive or negative

aspects?

3. How all dependent, independent, mediating and control variables used in conceptual framework are related to

each other.

1.7 Structure of paper:

The chapter two consists of literature review having theoretical framework and development of hypothesis. The

chapter three contains research methodology employed. The proceeding chapter four, data analysis and

interpretation describe the summarized data, table’s graphics to draw results. Lastly, conclusions and

recommendations are given.

2.1 Literature Review and Hypothesis:

The essence of Entreprenurial marketing is robust in today’s businesses as it helps a business to identify the

available opprtunities and also suggests the innovative and unique ways to caputre them. Organizations do not work

in isolation but is in influence of various external turbulent environmental factors and internal organizational climate

indicators. The firms with a strategy more compatible to internal and external organizational factors enable firms to

get competitive edge. As [7] argued that firm owned precious; rare; improperly imitable; and not commutable

resourcefulness and capacities consisting of tangible and intangible assets (e.g. management skills, processes,

procedures, routines, information and knowledge firm controls) can be viewed as foundations of competitive edge.

The idea of strengthening the internal resource has its grounds in resource based view (RBV). RBV can extend the

current research on entrepreneurship from side to side the entrepreneurial development of cognizance, innovation,

considerate marketplace opportunities, and matched knowledge that contributions convert diverse outputs [7].

Researchers view entrepreneurship as opportunity exploitation and define it as the development of value and

combination of unique resources to exploit an opportunity. Thus by focusing and improving the internal resources, a

firm may be able to have unique set of internal resources that facilitates the opportunity exploitation process better

than competitors. Marketing researchers, however, put little efforts to find the way; RBV can be used in marketing

field. [7] discussed that marketing can assist to understand the necessity of exceptional resourcefulness need to view

in from the perspectives of customer requirements whereas ability to imitate can be measured in relation to the

imitation capabilities of rivals and the ability of firm to improve the in-imitation capacity using the cross selling and

bundling. So the theory suggests that RBV has its managerial implication in both fields (entrepreneurship and

marketing). Entreprenurial marketing is a strategy, resources and capabilities serve as foundation to create customer

value. The interface between Entrepreneurship and marketing pressed researchers to draw similarites and

dissimilarities in two fields and tried to refer the effective utilization of marketing strategy with a focus on

innovation to meet with competition. [1] explained entrepreneurial marketing as “proactive identification and

exploitation of opportunities for acquiring and retaining profitable customers through innovative approaches to risk

management, resource leveraging and value creation”. They further argued that Entrepreneurial Marketing robust

with many theoretical backgrounds (e.g. transaction cost theory; resource-based theory; resource advantage theory;

and strategic-adaptation theory). The paper will view Internal organizational factor i.e. entreprenurial orintation

(EO), Learning-orientation (LO) and market-orientation (MO) as resources and will combine these in “firm’s

strategic choice” to see its effect on firm’s growth aspiration and customer value creation by mediating

innovativeness and emotional intelligence.The basic assumption of paper is resource-based view described by [8],

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Aslam et al.,2018

described that according to the view point of firms, sources of competitiveness are the intangible physical assets and

unique competencies that are not easily copied or replaced. Though, RBV considers internal and external resources

of firm to get competitive advantage, the paper will investigate three elements of firm specific resources:

Entrepreneurial Orientation, Learning Orientation and Marketing Orientation. The paper aims to gather information

on role of EO, LO and MO in identifying firm’s strategic option and its reflection on firm’s growth and customer

value creation in presence of mediating role of innovativeness and emotional intelligence. The study will

specifically target the SME’s of Pakistan and all variables will be treated accordingly. The essence of market-

orientation, learning-orientation and entrepreneurial-orientation vary and depending on organizational type.

Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO):

Entrepreneurial-Orientation (EO) represents a firm’s strategy to face the new business challenges in today’s dynamic

business environment. [9] describes EO as a firm's strategic-orientation, obtaining precise facets of entrepreneurial

management styles and methods. Entrepreneurial orientation is essential for resource-based theories (RBT) as it

distinguish which suitable resources are eventually matter of entrepreneurial orientation and required to compete in the

market place. EO focuses on how firm operates rather than what it does. EO leads a company towards being proactive

more than competitors with a consideration of procedures, practices, and decision-making actions to explore new

market opportunities. Thoughtful aspects related to entrepreneurial intentions are vital because intentions are consistent

predictors of entrepreneurial action [10]. According to [9], the EO highlights five dimensions including work

autonomy, risk taking, pro activeness, innovativeness and competitive aggressiveness out of which pro activeness; risk

taking; and innovativeness are commonly used [11, 12]. However, researchers have different perspectives on how these

dimensions work, whether jointly or in isolation increase the degree of firm’s EO. [11] inferred that dimensions of EO

enable the entrepreneurial behavior of a firm. Whereas [9] found the basis of these dimensions on firm’s independent

and varied characteristics that influence the firm’s internal and external factors. Another perspective is presented by

[12] suggests that EO improves the association among the knowledge based resources, a firm have and its performance,

also [13] look EO as a fit with organizational strategy and structure. Entrepreneurial marketing embodies a new insight

to change organizational paradigm as [14] identified that aspects of firm include openness to new ideas. [12] identified

that relationship between the performance of the firm and knowledge based resources is enhanced by entrepreneurial

orientation and it is also linked with learning orientation.

Learning Orientation (LO):

Learning may cause continuous change in behavior of individuals or organizations. Learning generally viewed as a

necessary asset to compete specifically in organizational context. According to a general view about learning

orientation, individuals as well as organizations needs continuous learning and “who stops learning will face

survival problems”. Learning may occur on individual, group and organizational levels. Organizational learning is a

instrument by which individual knowledge of employees can be transferred into social knowledge by organizations

[15, 16]. Organizational learning requires the quick action of managers to face and respond internal or external

change and embedding the outcomes in organizational context. Organizational learning combines the values, market

information, behaviors, processes and actions in form of culture. Research shows reciprocal relations in individual

and organizational learning as both types may cause each other. [17] explained organizational learning is cyclical as

individual arrangements lead to organizational interface with situation and outcomes are understood by individuals

who learn through refreshing their believes around cause effect relationships. Relationship among Organizational

learning, market orientation and organizational performance can be discovered from the resource based view of the

firm [8, 18], Learning orientation may enhance the ability of firm to create value for customers and resultantly

increased firm performance. [19] proposed that learning orientation leads towards heterogeneity in the knowledge

premise in organizations, and enhance market efficiency by providing superior values to end customers.

Marketing Orientation (MO):

According to [20], marketing orientation (MO) is a cultural perspective in which all employees dedicate themselves

to provide superior value to customers. This depicts that insight of marketing determinants and opportunities allows

the firm to create a strategic fit among organizational resources and market opportunities by changing its culture.

Culture is “the pattern of shared values and beliefs that help individuals understand organizational functioning and

thus provide them norms for behavior in the organization” [21]. MO leads organizations toward situation handling in

a way better than competitors to get advantage so it is a sense to handle the contingencies and fluctuations exist in

environment better than competitors and such wisdom require an adjustable culture that supports change. MO can be

studied from two perspectives, behavioral and cultural and it is generally agreed that MO needs to be considered and

understood from cultural perspective rather than behavioral aspect and espouse values since culture intervene

between firm strategy and its implementation decisions. LO is based on MO of firm because first managers get

51


considerations of market challenges and then learning serves as a tool to study the market opportunities and

fluctuations [20] argued that organizational learning takes places on the foundations of market orientation.

Furthermore, [17] offered that a LO is a resource and have an effect on quality of market-oriented behaviors. All

firms have market-oriented behaviors which have direct relation with emotional intelligence of managers, but its

quality may be weak or strong depends upon the firms. The theorists also explored a significant positive association

between MO and emotional intelligence (EI). [22] discussed that MO is “the organization-wide generation of market

intelligence pertaining to current and future customer needs dissemination of the intelligence across departments and

organization-wide responsiveness to it”.

H1: Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial-orientation, learning-orientation and market-

orientation) has a significant relationship with outcome variables (growth aspiration and customer value creation).

Innovativeness:

Innovativeness is the capacity of the firm to launch new ideas, product and processes. Innovativeness is an

orientation, the extent to which a firm exploits the novel ideas to offer innovative products to its customers, degree

to which it wants to lead in stiff competition and also depend on firm’s growth aspiration. [23] define innovativeness

the process of creating differentiations and new solutions to weak the competitors. Literature recognizes

entrepreneurial orientation, learning orientation, and market orientation as key antecedents of innovativeness such as

market orientation is seen to be more important element. [24] and [20] highlighted that learning orientation is the

basic essence in the development of competitive advantage [19], and [9] emphasized the importance of

entrepreneurial orientation for getting competitive edge. Market orientation improves firm’s performance through

quality, customer loyalty and innovativeness [25]. Marketing researchers identified in firm’s culture that learning

orientation is very important element [14] and in an organizational context it has impact on firm’s proclivity to

create new knowledge [26]. Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is closely related with innovativeness because (EO) is

the strategic practices which an organization use to recognize and that organizations use to identify and commence a

new businesses [27].

H2: Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation, learning orientation and market

orientation) has a significant and positive relationship with innovativeness.

H3: Innovativeness will mediate the relationship between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial

orientation, learning orientation and market orientation) and outcome variables (firm performance and value

creation).

Emotional Intelligence (EI):

The concept of Emotional intelligence is derived from the notion of social intelligence [7]. Emotional intelligence

(EI) enables entrepreneurs to study and manage their own as well as other’s emotions. EI is an interpersonal as well

as impersonal construct. EI defines capacity, competency or expertise to observe, measure, and managing the

emotions of self, others, or groups [28]. EI allows perceiving, assessing and conveying emotion to create value.

Emotional intelligence helps entrepreneurial businesses to observe the customer perception and future response of

new offerings. Entrepreneurial marketing emphasis customer equity, intuitive relationship and emotional dimensions

to support marketing efforts of firms (Morris, et al.). EI emphasis on substantial use of emotions in the place of work

by shifting attitudes of managers regarding how well they handle their and each other’s emotions. [28] first

presented the model of emotional intelligence that encompasses four dimensions: first, emotional awareness that

focuses on get awareness of personal and others emotions, (b) second dimension is easing emotion, using emotions

to control thoughts, (c) third is comprehend the emotions, or knowing about behavior related responses to emotion,

and (d) fourth includes the management of emotions in self and in others to improve own growth and relationships.

A firm led by the characteristics of emotional intelligence will be better able to face difficult times, proactively

dealing with stakeholders by managing their emotions to attain achievement more efficiently than the firms lacking

in these critical skills. According to RBV, internal competencies of the company are the main cause behind

differences in success of firms within the same industry [8]. The firms with better emotional intelligence framework

are more in position to achieve their profit and value creation objectives. Emotional intelligence is basically the

capacity to attain and apply knowledge from one’s emotions and those of others to produce beneficial outcomes [8].

This paper will test the mediating role of emotional intelligence with EO, MO and LO as the firms with strong

emotional intelligence can create a competitive edge by understanding that how various emotions affect

entrepreneurial marketing exchanges, we study it across SME sector of Pakistan. Entrepreneurial orientation is

willingness of firm to take risks, being aggressive and proactive to innovate and capture marketplace opportunities.

52

Aslam et al.,2018

[11, 27] and emotional intelligence helps to Understand emotions that are necessary to analyze complex emotional

knowledge [29].

H4: Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation, learning orientation and market

orientation) has a significant and positive relationship with EI.

H5: EI will mediate the relationship between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation,

learning orientation and market orientation) and outcome variables (firm performance and value creation).

Theoratical Framework

Th model is derived from study of Hult, Huerly & Knight, (2004)

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design:

The research is conducted using quantitative method based on primary data. The theoretical support has been

collected from various sources like books, journals, conference papers and to gather primary data a mail survey

method was employed. E-mail survey is becoming famous due to its benefits over postal mail for surveys in terms of

cost, swiftness, easiness and timeliness. [30] stated that e-mail survey offers an easier and more immediate response.

Some researchers have conducted cost benefit analysis of e-mail survey and concluded that the cost of e-mail survey

is less than paper survey and is 5 to 20 percent of the cost of using paper survey [7] and cost of e-mail surveys

significantly reduces with gradual increase in sample sizes [31]. The study focused to measure the degree of

entrepreneurial marketing sense of firms relating to business-to-consumer market. The study employs an e-mail

questionnaire survey approach to collect data and the firms with no e-mail addresses were sent questionnaires

through mail. The questionnaires and a cover letter describing the basic purpose of the study and assurance of

secrecy were e-mailed to firms with e-mail addresses mentioned in lists. However, the firms for which e-mail

addresses were not available on the website of Chamber of Commerce, questionnaire and cover letters were sent

with pre-addressed return postal envelops to the firm owners.

3.2 Population:

The population includes the corporate as well as associated members of chamber of commerce Faisalabad.

According to the lists published on web for year 2012-13 corporate SME’s are 930 and Associate SME’s are 3234

with a total of 4164 in number.

3.3 Sampling Technique/Procedures:

The sample for study has been drawn upon stratified random sampling method referred by [10] The population was

divided into two parts for analysis. Associate members and corporate members registered in chamber of commerce,

Faisalabad and for the both strata systematic random sampling was performed using an estimated fraction of 1/5.

3.4 Sampling Size:

Based upon the stratified random sampling (systematic) method referred by with an estimated fraction of 1/5 a

sample of 647 for associate members were calculated and with the same fraction a sample of 186 was calculated for

corporate members. So the total sample size is 833 for both strata.

53

EO

LO

MO

Innovativeness

Firm

Performance

I

n

d

e

p

e

n

d

e

n

t

D

e

p

e

n

d

e

n

t

Emotional

intelligence


3.5 Research Instrument /Tools:

The questionnaire contains the variables e.g. (entrepreneurial orientation, entrepreneurial capital, Marketing orientation,

innovativeness, emotional intelligence, and firm’s performance), and thirty items are selected from previous researches

to measure them. Total measures are cautiously associated with the theoretical characteristics of each hypothesis. All

independent, dependent and mediating variables require five-point Likert-scale having responses ranges from 1 for

“strongly disagree”, through 3 for “neutral” to 5 for “strongly agree”. The Likert scale was invented by [32]; he defined

it to assess the attitudes. To access market orientation the Deshpande´ et al. (1993) Scale was used that is originally

consisted of 9 items based on three sub dynamics of competitor orientation, customer orientation, and product

orientation but for the analysis seven items were used spreading on all sub dynamics. Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO)

was measured by using the scale of [27] comprising of thirteen items. However, the present study used the six items to

measure the Entrepreneurial orientation. To measure the learning orientation four items were adopted from [33].

Innovativeness was measured by using the five-item scale of [33, 14]. The performance variable was calculated using

subscales like firm’s sales growth, patterns of market share, profitability, and overall performance. The cronbach’s

alpha is a measure to calculate the internal reliability of the items, which was found to be .825 offering measures better

than 0.70 and so are reliable [6]. See Table-1 and Table-2

3.6 Data Collection:

A follow up mail was sent to the firms who haven’t respond the first e-mail or mail using the same procedure

adopted in first attempt approximately after a week, 255 usable questionnaires were returned with a response rate of

nearly 30% from which 178 questionnaires were received from associated members with a response rate of 27.51%

and corporate members returned 77 questionnaires and 41.40% response rate was calculated.

4. Data Analysis:

The H1 was tested by correlation coefficient between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of market orientation,

learning orientation and entrepreneurial orientation,) and firm performance. The Output Value of Correlation

Coefficient r1 = .440 (relationship between MO and firm performance), r2=.423 (relationship between EO and firm

performance) and r3=.462 (relationship between LO and firm performance) is showing a positive and moderate

relationship with firm performance and p- value (Significance) on the second line p = .000 depicts Relationship is

significant. The results are presented in Table 3.

The H2 was tested on proposed relationship between Firm’s strategic choice based on a mix of market orientation,

learning orientation and entrepreneurial orientation,) and innovativeness. This relationship was also tested by

correlation coefficient between both construct. Table 4 contains the Output Value of Correlation Coefficient r1 =

.518 (relationship between MO and Innovativeness), r2=.492 (relationship between EO and Innovativeness) and

r3=.327 (relationship between LO and Innovativeness) is showing a positive and moderate relationship with

innovativeness and p- value (Significance) on the second line p = .000 depicts Relationship is significant.

The H4 was tested on proposed relationship between Firm’s strategic choice based on a mix of market orientation,

learning orientation and entrepreneurial orientation,) emotional intelligence, was also based on the correlation

coefficient. The result presented in Table 5 depicts the Output Value of Correlation Coefficient r1 = .210

(relationship between MO and emotional intelligence), r2=.169 (relationship between EO and emotional

intelligence) and r3=.268 (relationship between LO and emotional intelligence) is showing a weak and positive

relationship with emotional intelligence and p- value (Significance) on the second line p = .000 depicts relationship

is significant.

4.1 Testing for mediation:

H3 and H5 have been tested by using the approach of [34]. This approach is based on several regression analyses in

four steps and it is necessary to examine the significance of coefficients at each of the four steps. The following

steps are involved in this process.

Step 1 Perform a simple regression, in which independent variable predicts dependent variable.

Step 2 Perform a simple regression, in which independent variable predicts mediating variable

Step 3 Perform a simple regression, in which mediating variable predicts dependent variable.

Step 4 Perform multiple regression. In which independent and mediating variables predict dependent variable.

Testing Mediation for the 1st link taking EI as dependent variable

The basic purpose of Steps 1, 2 and 3 is to establish that zero-order relationships among the variables of the study. If

relationship is insignificant in any one or more of these steps, it is usually concluded by researchers that mediation

54

Aslam et al.,2018

is not possible or likely (even though this is not always true, see [11]. So an assumption is that if there are significant

relationships from Steps 1 to 3, then researchers can proceed to Step 4. But from Step 1 to 3, we have got

insignificant results for our model in case of market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation in step 1 and learning

orientation in Step 2. So the first and second conditions of mediation are not proved for the 1st link of our model. See

Appendix-6

Testing Mediation for the 2nd link taking Firm Performance as dependent variable

We have got significant results for the model of study. In the Step 4, mediation is supported if the effect of

Mediating variable remains significant after controlling for independent variable. If independent variable is no

longer significant when Mediating variable is controlled, the finding supports full mediation. If independent variable

is still significant, the finding supports partial mediation. In our model partial mediation is proved because

innovation is still significant while included in regression equation with emotional intelligence.

So for the 2nd link of our model, partial mediation is proved. Hence Hypothesis 5 is proved which means that

emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between frim performance and innovativeness.

5. Findings

5.1 Summary of finding:

The study explored the mediation effect of innovativeness and emotional intelligence between entrepreneurial

marketing strategy and firm’s performance. The study proves that a firm’s strategic choice of entrepreneurial

marketing with three key innovativeness antecedents enhance the organizational performance. All three variable of

firm’s strategic choice have a positive relation with innovativeness the results are same drawn by [14] and emotional

intelligence is also proved to be in positive relation with firm’s strategic choice. The study also demonstrates that

emotional intelligence positively mediates the relationship between innovativeness and firm performance in a

comprehensive suggested model. The other finding shows a negative mediation link of innovativeness between

strategic orientation of firm and emotional intelligence. The most important contribution of this study is that it

explored innovativeness with its antecedents that gives a deep insight in innovation field. The study of emotions is

missing in entrepreneurial marketing research so the study tries to bridge that gap by studying the emotional

intelligence as a mediator. The study suggests the need of emotional intelligence to run a successful SME business.

Next the study takes MO EO and LO as key strategic resources of the firm and recommends to make them

strengthened under the ideology of RBV to meet with external forces successfully.

5.2 Conclusions:

The study stresses the implication of entrepreneurial marketing in the SME’ to increase their performance however

[1] argued that “if a firm decides to take entrepreneurial marketing approach, many existing attitudes, behaviors and

structures have to be re thought as its culture fosters innovativeness”. So the firms with the capacity and strategic

orientation to start with entrepreneurial marketing have to restructure their existing patterns.

5.3 Recommendations:

It suggest the mangers or owners of SME’s to have a deeper look on marketing orientation, Entrepreneurial orientation

and learning orientation to meet with ever changing customer, stakeholders as well as environmental forces.

5.4 Limitations and Future Research:

The study is limited in scope as it is conducted in only one city of Pakistan and sample was narrowed due to limitation

of time. The study can be conducted in other cities of Pakistan. There are more than one hundred thousand SME’s

registered in SMEDA only in city of Faisalabad so the study can be conducted by taking a different population.

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Appendix-1:

Table-1 Reliability of entrepreneurial marketing strategy measure (internal resources) Cronbach’s

alpha

Mean SD Corrected

Item-Total

Correlation

Cronbach's

Alpha if Item

Deleted

Market Orientation (MO) 0.817

We have routine or regular measures of customer service. 3.8000 1.12733 .551 .810

Our product and service development is based on good market

and customer information.

3.9294 .99750 .563 .810

We know our competitors well. 3.8510 1.04681 .501 .813

We compete primarily on the basis of product or service

differentiation.

3.8667 1.13197 .372 .819

The customer’s interest should always come first, ahead of the owners

3.8941 1.07977 .539 .811

Our product/services are the best in the business. 3.8000 1.04768 .225 .825

I believe this business exists primarily to serve customers. 3.6745 1.14325 -.030 .838

Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) 0.818

Owing to the nature of the environment, bold, wide-ranging acts

are necessary to achieve the firm’s objectives.

3.8235 1.06309 .429 .816

Employees have the ability of thinking and self-managing. 3.9412 .98835 .280 .822

My firm stressed full delegation for employees. 3.6471 1.22673 .390 .818

A strong proclivity for high risk projects (with chances of very

high returns).

3.7804 1.10422 .359 .819

My firm encouraged individuals or teams to develop new ideas. 3.8157 .98079 .309 .821

My firm is very aggressive and intensely competitive. 3.6510 1.10107 .462 .814

Learning Orientation (LO) 0.815

Managers basically agree that our organization’s ability to learn is the key to our competitive advantage.

3.6275 1.11116 .451 .815

The basic values of this organization include learning as a key to

improvement.

3.7922 1.03859 .544 .811

The sense around here is that employee learning is an investment,

not an expense.

3.7961 .98691 .277 .823

Learning in my organization is seen as a key commodity necessary to guarantee organizational survival.

3.8039 1.09076 .505 .812

57


Appendix-2

Table-2 Reliability of performance (Functional and overall) Cronbach’s

alpha

Mean SD Corrected

Item-Total

Correlation

Cronbach's

Alpha if Item

Deleted

Performance 0.816

Functional performance

Relative to competitors the firm had a larger market share 0.822 4.1451 .96724 .207 .825

Relative to competitors the firm was growing more faster 4.1569 .86426 .277 .822

Relative to competitors the firm was more profitable 4.0784 1.02033 .344 .820

General or overall performance

performed excellent in general 0.816 3.8980 1.12829 .439 .815

Performed excellent relative to competitors 4.1255 1.04990 .401 .817

Appendix-3:

Table-3 Correlations between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation, learning

orientation and market orientation) and firm performance MO PERFORMANCE

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

255

.440**

.000

255

PERFORMANCE Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

.440**

.000

255

1

255

EO PERFORMANCE

EO Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N

1

255

.423**

.000 255

PERFORMANCE Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.423**

.000

255

1

255

LO PERFORMANCE

LO Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

255

.462**

.000

255

PERFORMANCE Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N

.462**

.000 255

1

255

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Appendix-4:

Table-4 Correlations between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation, learning

orientation and market orientation) and Innovativeness MO INNOVATIVENESS

MO Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N

1

255

.518**

.000 255

INNOVATIVENESS Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.518**

.000

255

1

255

EO INNOVATIVENESS

EO Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

255

.492**

.000

255


Sig. (2-tailed) N

.492**

.000 255

1

255

LO INNOVATIVENESS

LO Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N

1

255

.327**

.000 255


Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.327**

.000

255

1

255


58

Aslam et al.,2018

Appendix-5:

Table -5 Correlations between Firm’s strategic choice (based on a mix of entrepreneurial orientation,

learning orientation and market orientation) and Emotional intelligence MO EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE

MO Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

255

.210**

.000

255

EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

.210**

.000

255

1

255

EO EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE

EO Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N

1

255

.169**

.000 255

EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.169**

.000

255

1

255

LO EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE

LO Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

255

.268**

.000

255

EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.268**

.000 255

1

255


Appendix-6

Step 1:

Coefficients (a) Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta B Std. Error

1 Constant 2.992 .292 10.247 .000

MO .031 .108 .027 .288 .774

EO .043 .085 .039 .501 .617

LO .224 .082 .231 2.740 .007

a Dependent Variable: EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE

Step 2:


Coefficients

t Sig.


1 Constant 1.633 .214 7.625 .000

MO .395 .079 .402 4.999 .000

EO .266 .062 .286 4.272 .000

LO -.074 .060 -.089 -1.237 .217

a Dependent Variable: INNOVATION

EO

Emotional

intelligence Innovativeness LO

MO

59


Step 3:


Coefficients

t Sig.


1 (Constant) 2.609 .270 9.660 .000

INNOVATION .389 .069 .333 5.616 .000


Step 4:


Coefficients

t Sig.


1 (Constant) 2.363 .311 7.586 .000

INNOVATION .385 .083 .330 4.658 .000

MO -.121 .109 -.105 -1.116 .265

EO -.060 .085 -.055 -.709 .479

LO .252 .079 .260 3.205 .002


Appendix-7

Step 1:


Coefficients

t Sig.


1 (Constant) 2.260 .235 9.616 .000

INNOVATION .464 .060 .435 7.685 .000

a Dependent Variable: PERFORMANCE

Step 2:


Coefficients

t Sig.


1 (Constant) 2.609 .270 9.660 .000

INNOVATION .389 .069 .333 5.616 .000


Step 3:

Coefficients (a) Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig.


1 (Constant) 2.167 .206 10.505 .000

EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE .458 .050 .502 9.233 .000


Step 4:


Coefficients

T Sig.


1 (Constant) 1.305 .250 5.220 .000

EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE .366 .050 .402 7.362 .000

INNOVATION .321 .058 .301 5.521 .000


Innovativeness

Firm

Performance

Emotional

intelligence

60



ISSN: 2090-4274



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*Corresponding Author: Ghulam Murtaza Bodla, International Islamic university, Islamabad

Treatment of Mental Health Issues through Positive Psychology Interventions

Ghulam Murtaza Bodla, Muhammad Tahir khalily

International Islamic university, Islamabad

Received: September 15, 2017 Accepted: December 5, 2017

ABSTRACT

The present study aimed to see the predictive effect of positive psychology interventions on mental health of parents

having children with intellectual disability. Purposive sampling techniques was used based on experimental study

design. Data was collected through measuring scales, Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS), Ryff”s Scale of

Psychological Well-Being, Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire, and WHO Quality of Life Scale. Positivity Scale,

Rationality Scale and Interpersonal Skills Questionnaire were used to see the strengths. Study was divided into three

parts, pre-testing and analysis, individual treatment sessions of positive psychological techniques and post-testing

analysis. Three interventional techniques of positive psychology i.e. optimism, rationality and interpersonal skills

were applied on the 30 participants. Results indicates that therapeutic techniques (optimism, rationality,

interpersonal skills) were able to improve the mental health of participants. Results shows 22% variance in lowering

stress level and 22% variance in improving wellbeing and 69% variance in improving the quality of life of

participants. This Study would be helpful for mental health care of the care takers of the children with intellectual

disability in psychological rehabilitation field.

KEY WORDS: Mental health issues: Stress, Wellbeing, Quality of life, Positive Psychology: Optimism,

Rationality, Interpersonal Skills.

1. INTRODUCTION

Major focus in clinical psychology over the last one hundred years has been on the understanding and the

treatment of mental health problems and diseases but few psychologists are interested in working in new field of

positive psychology. A study [1] revealed that positive emotions, traits, and institution are the strengths of

individuals which need to be improved to lessen the mental stress and it is important that using of one's own

potential can help to live meaningful as well as satisfying life. Another study [2] concluded that positive

psychological intervention helps to increase optimistic thoughts, feelings and actions which ultimately enhance the

well-being of groups or individuals. Findings of the study [3] predicted that optimism is indicator of well-being and

quality of life.In many studies of positive psychological treatment on breast cancer patients reflected that long-term

continuity of sessions resulted in high well-being and low level of stress [4]. A post-test treatment study [5] found

that the daily rehearsal of positive statements for 2 weeks led to significantly greater levels of happiness and less

depression. Some researches found that cognitive exercise of counting one’s blessings and optimistic approach is

strongly linked with life satisfaction, well-being [6]. A study [7] explore that interpersonal relationships have an

influential effect on cheerfulness and other aspects of well-being. Good intimacy of relationships between couples

has more positive effect on mental health of their children and it helps for developing children’s well-being [8].

Anothermeta-analysis study explored the effect of positive psychological treatment for psychological issues through

recent randomize control researches [9] and revealed encouraging results. So, this study explored the effect of

positive psychological interventions on mental health of care takers of children with intellectual disability.

2 OBJECTIVE

• To explore the prediction effect of positive psychological interventions (optimism, rationality, interpersonal

skills) on stress, well-being and quality of life among parents having children with intellectual disability.

2.1 Hypothesis

• The positive psychological interventions negatively predict stress but positively predict well-being and

quality of life of parents having children with intellectual disability.

2.2 Sample

30 parents having diagnosed children with intellectual disability were taken from national institute of

rehabilitation medicine Islamabad, Pakistan. Purposive convenient sampling technique was used.

61

Bodla and Khalily, 2018

2.3 Instruments

Eleven items Personal Optimism subscale of Positivity Scale [10], Rationality/Emotional Defensiveness

(R/ED) Scale [11], Interpersonal Skills Questionnaire [12], Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale [13], Ryff

Psychological Well-Being Inventory [14],WHO Quality of Life Scale [15].

2.4 procedure and data analysis

Written informed consent was taken from participants. Pretesting and its analysis was done and after that in

nine sessions (three sessions of each technique) to each parent in individual sittings were given. Post

interventions testing analysis was also done. Data was analyzed by the statistical package for social

sciences (SPSS) 23.0 version.

3. RESULTS

Table 3.1Descriptive statistics and Alpha reliability coefficient of Study Major Variables - Range

Measures No. of

items

Α Min Max M SD Skew. Kurt.

Pre-test

DASS (stress) 7 .82 16 35 26.10 4.99 -.159 -.738

WB 18 .86 37 66 50.60 7.48 .523 -.323

QOL 26 .93 63 111 82.33 13.32 .793 -.088

Optimism 11 .91 29 40 35.57 3.81 -1.29 2.65

Rationality 12 .91 26 60 39.93 8.89 .310 -6.31

IPS 15 .79 38 65 52.53 7.43 -.323 -.925

Table 3.1 showed all scales were reliable measuring the study construct.

Table 3.2 Standard Multiple Regression Predicting low level of Stress from Positive Psychological Interventions Variables B SE B Β

Optimism -0.38 0.14 -0.63*

Rationality -0.33 0.16 -0.50*

Interpersonal Skills -0.12 0.10 -0.22

Adjusted R2 0.22

F 3.68*

*p<.05;

Table 1, shows that optimism, rationality & interpersonal skills were able to account for 22 % of the variance in

lowering stress level, F (3, 26) = 3.68, p<.05. Optimism and rationality except interpersonal skills, made a

significant contribution to the prediction of lowering stress level. Optimism, (Beta = .63, p<.05) and rationality

(Beta = .50, p<.05) made a greater contribution than interpersonal skills (Beta = .22, p>.05).

Table3.3Standard Multiple Regression Predicting Well-Being from Positive Psychological Interventions Variables B SE B Β

Optimism 0.23 0.23 0.24

Rationality 0.33 0.25 0.30

Interpersonal Skills 0.42 0.17 0.48*

Adjusted R2 0.22

F 3.73*

*p<.05;

Table 2 shows that optimism, rationality & interpersonal skills were able to account for 22 % of the variance in well-

being, F (3, 26) = 3.73, p<.05. Interpersonal skills except optimism and rationality, made a significant contribution

to the prediction of well-being. Interpersonal skills (Beta = .48, p<.05) made a greater contribution than rationality

(Beta = .30, p>.05) and optimism (Beta = .24, p>.05).

62


Table 3.4Standard Multiple Regression Predicting Quality of Life from Positive Psychological Interventions Variables B SE B Β

Optimism 0.07 0.04 0.29

Rationality 0.08 0.04 0.30*

Interpersonal Skills 0.10 0.03 0.43**

Adjusted R2 0.69

F 23.27***

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

Table 3 shows that optimism, rationality & interpersonal skills were able to account for 69 % of the variance in

quality of life, F (3, 26) = 23.27, p<.001. Interpersonal skills and rationality except optimism, made a significant

contribution to the prediction of quality of life. Interpersonal skills (Beta = .43, p<.01) made a greater contribution

than rationality (Beta = .30, p<.05) and optimism (Beta = .29, p>.05).

4. DISCUSSION

The hypothesis of this research was supposed that each intervention may predict effects on the participants

of the study and the results show that optimism, rationality & interpersonal skills were able to account for 22 % of

the variance in lowering stress level and made significant prediction effect of interventions. Optimism, (Beta = .63,

p<.05) and rationality (Beta = .50, p<.05). Interpersonal skills made a significant contribution to the prediction of

well-being, and Interpersonal skills (Beta = .48, p<.05). Overall optimism, rationality & interpersonal skills were

able to account for 69 % of the variance in quality of life. Literature related to the management of mental health of

the parents of intellectually challenged children through positive psychological interventions is insufficient.

Researches focused on improving the wellbeing [16]. Management of stress also gained a lot of attention in

positive psychology [17]. Constructive and helping relationships among parents of disabilities can improve their

mental health [18]. [19] Explained that behavior of individual can be changed through already flourished good

examples. [20] studies found that positive reframing of thoughts, optimism, hope, and approach toward situation

may be vital for coping of parents having children with disability. Previous researches supported to this hypothesis

and the results of hypothesis of current study are significant.

5. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study was conducted on only parents of children with intellectual disabilities and data was collected from one

medical rehabilitation set up, so it would not be generalized. Study may be extended on mental health care of the

parents of all type of disabilities and it can be useful for psychological rehabilitation plans working clinical

psychologists.

6. CONCLUSION

The statistically findings of study showed, positive psychological interventions have significant effect for improving

the mental of the parents of children with intellectual disability. Practicing psychologists can include this treatment

approach along with other rehab plans which can be helpful for improving the mental health of the care takers of ID

children. This study has theoretical and clinical significance.

REFERENCES

[1] Ryff, C.D., Keyes, C.L.M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

[2] Lovibond, S. H., &Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. Sydney:

Psychology Foundation.

[3] The WHOQOL Group. (1994b). The development of the World Health Organization quality of life assessment

instrument (the WHOQOL). In J. Orley and W. Kuyken (Eds) Quality of Life Assessment: International

Perspectives. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.

[4] Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life (2nd Ed.). New York:

Pocket Books.

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Bodla and Khalily, 2018

[5] Spielbercer, C.D. (1988). The Rationality/Emotional Defensiveness (R/ED) Scale: Preliminary Test Manual.

University of South Florida, Tampa: Center for Research in Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology.

[6] Hill, R.B (1995). Interpersonal Skills Questionnaire from, http://rhill.coe.uga.edu/workethic/isq.htm#top

[7] Seligman, M.E.P. (1990). Learned Optimism. New York: Knopf. (reissue edition, 1998, Free Press, ISBN 0-

671-01911-2).

[8] Parks, A. C., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2013). Positive interventions: Past, present and future. Bridging acceptance

and commitment therapy and positive psychology: A practitioner’s guide to a unifying framework. Oakland,

CA: New Harbinger. Chicago

[9] Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress.

Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

[10] Helgeson, V. S., Snyder, P., & Seltman, H. (2004). Psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer over

4 years: Identifying distinct trajectories of change. Health Psychology, 23, 3–15.

[11] Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress.

Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

[12] Lichter, S., Haye, K., & Kammann, R. (1980). Increasing happiness through cognitive structuring. New

Zealand Psychologist, 9, 57–64.

[13] Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental

investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

84, 377–389.

[14] Argyle, M. (2001). The psychology of happiness, 2nd. East Sussex, England: Routledge.

[15] Snyder, C.R., & Shane, J. (2007). "Positive psychology: the scientific and practical explorations of human

strengths. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 297–321.

[16] Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well‐being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive

psychology interventions: A practice‐friendly meta‐analysis. Journal of clinical psychology, 65(5), 467-

487.Chicago.

[17] Scott, D. W. (2015). Multivariate density estimation: theory, practice, and visualization. John Wiley & Sons.

[18] Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2014). The science of self-help. European Psychologist.

[19] Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., & Olsson, M. B. (2005). Preschool children with and without developmental delay:

behaviour problems, parents’ optimism and well‐being. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(8), 575-

590.

[20] MacDonald, E. E., & Hastings, R. P. (2010). Fathers of children with developmental disabilities. The role of the

father in child development, 486-516.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

*Corresponding author: Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari, Department of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Airlangga University, Mulyorejo Street, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia,

email: [email protected]

Potency of Probiotics on HDL, LDL, Cholesterol and Total Protein of Egg’s

Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

Widya Paramita Lokapirnasari1*, Sri Hidanah1, Suharsono2, Anisah Fathinah3, Arrifah Ratna Dewi3,

Anita Dwi Andriani2, Balqis Karimah3, Tri Nurhajati1, Koesnoto Soepranianondo1, Mirni Lamid1,4,5

1Department of Animal Husbandry Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Mulyorejo Street,

Surabaya 60115, Indonesia, 2 Department of Anatomy Veteriner, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Mulyorejo Street,

Surabaya 60115, Indonesia 3Agribusiness Veteriner Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Mulyorejo Street, Surabaya

60115, Indonesia 4Faculty of Fisheries and Marine, Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia 5Proteomics Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Disease, Airlangga University,

Surabaya-Indonesia Received: September 12, 2017 Accepted: November 28, 2017

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research was to know the potency of probiotic supplementation to content of HDL, LDL,

Cholesterol and total protein of egg’s quail Coturnix coturnix japonica. This research consist of five treatments,

each treatment consisted of four replications and each replication consisted by ten quail. The treatment were T0:

control (without probiotic), T1: 0.05 gram probiotic/ kg feed, T2: 0.1 gram probiotic/kg feed, T3:0.025 gram

probiotic/L drinking water and T4: 0.05 gram probiotic/L drinking water. The probiotic consisted of combine

Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus rhamnosus of 1.2 x 108CFU/gram. The results showed that the probiotic

supplementation both in feed and water gave a significant impact to reduce of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

and cholesterol, improve of High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) level. Moreover, the quails feed with free antibiotic

feed with free antibiotic feed + 0.025 gram probiotic/L drinking water and 0.1 gram probiotic/kg feed could reduce

(P<0.05) egg cholesterol, LDL and could improve HDL and the total proteins. It can be concluded that using

probiotic contain Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus rhamnosus could improve egg quality by reduced

cholesterol, LDL and increase HDL and total protein of egg’s quail Coturnix coturnix japonica.

KEYWORDS: Probiotic, HDL, LDL, Cholesterol, total protein

INTRODUCTION

Quail has advantageous attributes such as small body size, rapid growth rateand early sexual maturity

[1]. Quail also has cheaper production cost, and don’t need a large land, easy to handle by human. Therefore they

used for commercial rearing, egg and meat production under intensive management[2].

Probiotics are defined as beneficial live microorganisms, when administered in adequate amount may

support a beneficial health on people with specific illnesses[3]. Probiotics, including live yeasts and bacteria, as

feed additive or supplements and known give beneficial effect to the host by improving intestinal microbial

balance, producing several substances that act as antimicrobial, stimulating the immune response, increase the

intestinal microflora balance, modulating the immune response, and lowering cholesterol levels, enhance nutrient

bioavailability, carcas yield and quality of Japanese quail[4, 5].

Lactobacillus spis one of the isolates of bacteria that has a potential as a probiotic from the group of

lacticacid bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria are Gram-positive, coccus or rod, non spore, acid tolerant, catalase

negative, facultative an aerob and the major end product was lactic acid. The use of lactic acid bacteria provides

benefits for animals and humans against pathogenic bacteria. Prolonged and continuous use of antibiotics in

animal feed may result in antibiotic resistance. Probiotics such as lactic acid bacteria can be used as a substitute

for antibiotic growth promoters that have a positive impact on livestock growth and disease prevention. Several

studies have shown that the use of probiotics can decrease triglyceride and cholesterol content in serum and egg

yolks [6-9]. The purpose of this research to evaluate the effect of probiotics supplementation containing

Lactobacilluscasei and Lactobacillusrhamnosus as alternative Antibiotic Growth Promoter to HDL, LDL, cholesterol and total protein of egg’s Coturnix coturnix japonica.

65

Lokapirnasari et al.,2018


About 200 of 14weekold quails were randomized into five treatments with four repetitions,each replication

consisted of ten quails, with this following treatment:T0: control (without probiotic), T1: 0.05 gram probiotic/ kg

feed, T2: 0.1 gram probiotic/kg feed, T3: 0.025 gram probiotic/L drinking water and T4: 0.05 gram probiotic/L

drinking water. Egg’s quail were collected every day. The data collection of this research by taking five eggs

randomly on each repetition in the last week of treatment.

a. Cholesterol, samples and reagents are prepared at roomtemperature after that pipette into tubes as below: Tubes Blank Sample CAL. Standard

R1.Monoreagent 1.0 mL 1.0 mL 1.0 mL

Sample - 10 µL -

CAL Standard - - 10 mµ

Mixingsamples and reagents until homogen and incubate 10 minutes or 5 minutes at room temperature

(37°C). After incubate, record the absorbance (A) of thethe standard and samples at λ500 nm against the

reagent blank.

The color will be stable for 30 minutesand protected it from sun/light.

Calculations of total cholesterol was total cholesterol (mg/dL) = A sample/A standard × C standard

If using samples with concentrations higher than 600 mg/ dL, it should be diluted with saline to be 1:2 and then

assayed again. Multiply the result by 2.

If results are to be expressed as SI units apply:mmol/L=mg/ dL x 0.0259

Cholesterol assay procedure,

Temperature at 25°C- 37°C, Optical path1 cm, λ500 nm and Hg 546 nm

Measurement Against reagent blank Sample Standard

Supernatant 100 µL -

Standard - 100 µL

Reagent 1000 µL 1000 µL

Calculation of cholesterol

Cholesterol in supernatant (mg/dL) = Δ E sample/ Δ Estandard × concentration standard(mg/dL)

The concentration standard is the concentration of the total cholesterol in the cholesterol standard solution.

I. HDL assay procedure: samples and reagents prepare in roomtemperature and pipette into

centrifuge tubes 0.2 mL standard or sample and 0.4 mL precipitating reagent with ratio

sample/reagent = ½ and dilution factor = 3. Vortex and allow to stand at room’s temperature for 10

minutes after that centrifuge at 4000 rpmfor 10 minutes, or at 12000 rpm for 2 minutes. Separate the

clear supernatant within 2 hours. If supernatant triglycerides (>350 g/ dL) the sample should be

diluted with saline (1:2) and then assayed again. Multiply the result by 2.

II.

II. Colorimetry : the cholesterol standard (50 mg/ dL) and the cholesterol MR Monoreagent of the kit prepare in

room’s temperature and pipette into tubes as below: TUBES Blank Standard

Supernatant

Sample

Supernatant

Monoreagent 1.0 mL 1.0 mL 1.0 mL

Supernatant - - 50 µL

Standard - 50 µL -

Mixing and let the tubes at room temperature for 10 minutes or at 37°Cfor 5 minutes and read the

absorbance (A) of the supernatant and the standard at λ500 nm against the reagent blank.The color will

be stable for 30 minutes and protected it from sun/light.

Calculations of HDL:

HDL - cholesterol (mg/dL) = A supernatant/A standard × C standard

The results are expressed as SI units: mmol/L =mg/dL x 0.0259

b. LDL

Assay procedure

Precipitation

Sample 100µL and precipitating reagent1000 µL

Mix and incubate at room temperature for 15 minutes, then centrifuge for 20 minutes at 2500 g. Within one hour

after centrifugation, transfer 100 µL of the clear supernatant to the reaction solution for the determination of

cholesterol.

66


The cholesterol standard has to be diluted 1 + 10 with NaCL (9 g/L). After dilution the standard is treated like the

supernatant.

c. Protein assay procedure

Pipette into tubes: TUBES Blank Sample CAL Standard

R1.Biuret 1.0 mL 1.0 mL 1.0 mL

Sample - 20 µL -

CAL. Standard - - 20 µL

Mixed and incubated the tubes for 10 minutes at 37°C and read the absorbance (A) of the samples and the standard

at λ540 nm against the reagent blank.The color will be stable for at least 1 hour

Calculations of total protein:

Total protein (g/dL) =A sample/A standard × C standard

Samples with concentrations higher than 12 g/ dL should be diluted 1:2 with saline and assayed again. Multiply

the results by 2.

If results are to be expressed as SI units apply: g/ dL x 10= g/L

Statistical Analysis

Data analysis use Analysis of Variant (ANOVA). If the result show different or significantly different then

continue with Duncan Multiple Range Test[10]. Statistical analysis using SPSS for Windows 21.0.

RESULTS

Cholesterol, HDL, LDL of egg’s quail

The results of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that the addition of probiotics through feed and drinking

water have an effect on egg’s HDL, LDL and cholesterol (p<0.05) compare with control (Table 1).

Table 1. HDL, LDL, and Cholesterol Levels of egg quail in 4 week of treatment Treatment Variable

HDL(mg/g) LDL (mg/g) Cholesterol (mg/g)

T0 4.15b ± 0.01 1.38b ± 0.01 19.02d ± 0.02

T1 4.68d ± 0.02 1.49c ± 0.01 16.74b ± 0.01

T2 7.15e ± 0.02 1.27a ± 0.01 22.97e ± 0.02

T3 3.88a ± 0.01 1.74d ± 0.02 10.41a ± 0.01

T4 4.64c ± 0.02 1.38b ± 0.01 17.23c ± 0.02

Total Protein of egg’s quail

The results of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that the addition of probiotics through feed and drinking

water have an effect on egg’s total protein content (p<0.05) compare with control (Table 2).

Table 2. Total Protein of egg quail in 4 week of treatment Treatment Variable

Total Protein(mg/g)

T0 136.43a ± 0.02

T1 215.48e ± 0.01

T2 168.81b ± 0.02

T3 212.62d ± 0.02

T4 194.05c ± 0.02

DISCUSSION

The results of the quail egg cholesterol showed a differences compared to the controls (Table 1).In T3

treatment (0.025 gram probiotic/L drinking water) showed the highest significantly different effect which means

T3 (10.41 mg/g) has the lowest cholesterol content compared with T0 (19.02 mg/g) and the others treatment

groups (Table 1). Treatment T3was the best result that can reduce the yolk cholesterol. To know the most influence

treatment continued with Duncan's Multiple Range Test. The lowering ofcholesterol levels in the egg yolk from

the treatment caused by the amount of probiotics administration through drinking water which more effective to

produce the amount of microbes in the digestive tract. This result in line with the research[11]that

probioticsLactobacillus Plussupplementation with treatment 0, 0.2%, 0.4% and 0.6% consisted by 2.56×108

CFUshowed significantly different in egg cholesterol. Increasing the number of microbes inhibit Hydroxi Metyl

Glutaryil-KoA reductase (HMG-KoA reductase) enzyme work which plays a role in the formation of mevalonate

in the process of cholesterol synthesis so can’t change into cholesterol.

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Lokapirnasari et al.,2018

The research on improving egg characteristics is essential, not only to produce better quality eggs but

also to provide food safety in a balanced diet for poultry industries[12]. Cholesterol is important for health because

it is used as a constituent of hormones and for the production of bile acids[13], but excessive cholesterol

consumption will endanger the health because it can cause atherosclerosis (blockage of arteries).

The results of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in HDL levels of quail eggs showed significance different

(P< 0.05) among treatments. The results of analysis by Duncan’s Multiple Range test showed differencesin HDL

levels among egg yolk T0 with T1, T2, T3 and T4. The highest HDL showed in 0.1 gram probiotic/kg feed (T2)

treatment. This is in line with the study[14] that the fermented synbiotics supplementation affect to the HDL

enhancement or good fats in laying hens. The fermentation synbiotics supplementation to 30% level in feed can

raise blood serum HDL inlaying hens. Supplementation of protexin into the laying hens diet has been shown to

reduce egg yolk and serum cholesterol level. The mean of serum cholesterol level in the study was decrease from

188.50 mg/ dL in the control group to be 186.35 mg/ dL in the probiotic supplementation group. It is possible that

microorganisms in the probiotics can assimilate the cholesterol in the tractus digestivus for cell metabolism, thus

reducing the total absorption [15]. Another reason to reduced the cholesterol in host which fed by probiotics,

suggested by [16] that probiotics could inhibit enzyme hydroxymethyl-glutarylco enzyme A, which it involved in

the gastrointestinal tract. Another mechanism through probiotics can cause hypercholesterolemia action through

bile acids (deoxycholic bile acids and cholic) which produced by hepatocytes and conjugated with taurine and

glycine amino acid. In the small intestine, this acid absorbed and directed to the liver, and lower bile acid recycling

will eventually lower serum cholesterol level. Probiotics can affect the binding of cholesterol and the inhibition

of micelle formation combined with the fermentation effect on short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production is a

proposed mechanism for explaining potential cholesterol effects [17]. Probiotics may change the enzyme, which

is related in the process.

The enhancement of HDL levels usually followed by reduction levels of LDL and cholesterol. The

results of LDL levels showed significant differences (P <0.05) among treatments. The lowest LDL (1.27 mg/g)

and high HDL (7.15 mg/g) showed by 0.1 gram probiotic/kg feed (T2) treatment. The reduction in LDL caused

by the balances between HDL and LDL levels. The statement in line with[18]which states that the feed supplement

can increase HDL levels and directly affect the reduction in LDL levels. LDL that has been formed in the liver

will be sent to the bloodthe over production of LDL will be bound by Lecithin - Cholesterol Acyl Transferase

(LCAT) enzyme in the processof Reverse Cholesterol Transport (RCT). LCAT has a function to bind lipoproteins

or free fat in the blood plasma and send it to the liver. HDL as a lipoprotein that plays a role in the RCT process

will increase the transport of cholesterol from the tissues to be returned to the liver and excreted through bile[19].

Total Protein

Based on the results of statistical analysis (Table 2) showed that the treatment had significantly different effect (P

<0.05) on quail egg yolk protein level. The result showed that the addition of probiotics in feed and drink can

increase protein levels. The highaverage of egg yolk protein showed in T1 (215.48), T3 (212.62), T1 (207.62),

T4 (194.05) and T2 (168.81 mg/g). The lowest total protein content of egg showed in control treatment (T0)

without addition of probiotic. Protein content in feed affects the protein composition in eggs. Protein in feed

mostly used for egg production, only a small portion for basic living higher production level then need higher

protein [20]. The addition of probiotics in feed can increase microbial activity, enzyme activity and protein

digestibility as well as metabolic energy of feed in the quail's digestive tract, so can accelerate the rate of feed

movement, so the absorption of feed substances become larger and impact the enhancement od feed efficiency

and quail production[21]. So that the protein content in probiotics can affect the protein content in quail eggs.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that probiotics 0.1 gram /kg feed and 0.025 gram /L drinking water could reduce cholesterol

level, LDL level, increase HDL level and total protein of egg’s quail Coturnix coturnix japonica.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thanks to Rector of Universitas Airlangga, Dean of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga and

Kemenristekdikti who have provided the fund for this research.

68


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16. Fukushima M., M Nakano, 1995. The effect of probiotic on faecal and liver lipid classes in rats. British

Journal of Nutrition.73:701–710.

17. St-Onge, B., J. Dufort and R. Lepage, 2000: Measuring tree height using scanning laser altimetry. In

Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Canadian Remote Sensing Symposium. Victoria, B.C., 21–25 August,

425–32.

18. Rosadi, I, 2013. Levels HDL (High Density Lipoprotein) and LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) Blood on

a variety of local female ducks whose feeds are supplemented with probiotics. JurnalIlmiah Animal

Husbandry 1(2): 597-605, July 2013.

19. Pusparini, 2006. Low density lipoprotein small solid as a risk factor at erosklerosis. Universa Medicina.;

25(1):22-23.

20. Lamid, M., N.N.T. Puspaningsih, S. Mangkoedihardjo, 2013.Addition of lignocellulolytic enzymes into

rice straw improves in vitro rumen fermentation products. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 3(9): 166-171.

21. Suherman, A.F., M.H. Natsir and O. Sjofjan, 2015.Effect of addition of probiotic lactobacillus plus flour

form as feed additive to production appearance of quail. 1-8.

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*Corresponding Author: Muhammad Nisar, Department of Sociology and Gender Studies, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan. email: [email protected]

Land Ownership Disputes Due to Land Commercialızatıon and Its Effect

on Socıal Structure in Tehsil Dargai Distrıct Malakand

Muhammad Nisar*1, Mussawar Shah2, Asadullah2, Dilkash Sapna1, Anas Baryal1. Zia Ur Rahman3

Department of Sociology and Gender Studies, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan1

Department of Rural Sociology, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, KP, Pakistan2

Department of Computer Science, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan3



ABSTRACT

The main objective of this research study was to ascertain the relationship of land ownership disputes with land

commercialization and its effect on social structure in Tehsil Dargai, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Among

total 291 respondents, a sample of 128 was selected randomly through convenience sampling procedure, used by

Mkwaje (2013) in his study. The dependent variable (social structure) was cross tabulated with independent

variable (land commercialization related disputes). Association of variables was ascertained by using Chi-square

test. The study found that urbanization has significantly affect the social structure (P= .045), the increase in

population and disputes were also significant (P=014), disputes of land was found high where land was

considered a key asset of livelihood in disruption of social structure (P=0.000). However, agricultural

commercialization (P=0.000) and increase in land prices (P=0.000) were found highly significant in relation

with disputes emergence and degradation of social set up. Conversely, a non-significant relationship found

between social structure and migration into an area (P=0.200). The study concluded that the social structure is

becoming weak due to land ownership disputes. People are becoming materialistic in their outlook and adopting

unfair means to sell or force encroachment on other’s land.

KEYWORDS: Land, Land Commercialization, Social Structure, Disputes , Qui-square, Dargai.

1. INTRODUCTION

“

According to Rural Development Institute Report (2009) land is a vital asset, especially in the developing

countries, particularly for the deprived people. Majority of the rural poor depend on agriculture for their

existence. Further, both conventional and formal rights to land act as a structure of economic entrée to important

markets and as a form of social entrance to nonmarket institutions, like family circle and community-level

domination structures. Land possession gives economic contribution to agricultural production, as a source of

revenue from rental or sale, and as assurance for credit that can be used for either utilization or investment

purposes.”

Anwar et al (2004) stated that according to Household Economic Integrated Survey (HEIS) 2001-2002 data,

around 10.36 percent of the rural population of Pakistan is landless; 32.63 percent own under one hectare; 0.046

percent owns between one and two hectares; 0.0309 percent owns between 2-3 hectares and 0.0293 percent own

5 or more hectares of land.

“These disputes of land lead to the devastation of social structure. Radcliffe-Brown (1943) defined social

structure as the network of actually existing social relations. Every person has some roles and responsibilities

inside the social structure. According to USAID (2005) land is an outstanding, valuable, and fixed source of

inadequate amount and is an essential constituent in the diverse and multifaceted social relations of production

and reproduction in which disagreement among persons and groups are bred.”

“Cernea (1988) and Wallerstein (2012) examined that large-scale infrastructure projects necessitate access to

land and need to secure possession. This encourages the people to confront the existing common property, land

establishment, which is categorized by Mexican agrarian law as social property. Therefore, this property regime

is at present viewed by development actors as a barrier to their capital investment purposes. As a result, land is

appropriated by influential private actors through miscellaneous procedures of buying, leasing and illicit means

which sometime lead to the forceful eviction of rural community, bargain resettlements, land-grabbing and force

migration. Platteau (1996) revealed that the issues of migration and identity, therefore, turn into mostly more

important. As examined in numerous African states, the native people resist the shift of customarily hold family

and community land to outsiders by committing acts of destruction, looting, blazing, and stealing of property

and crops of new land proprietors. To the amount that estrangement of land to outsiders breaches social norms,

hatred and pressure aroused in case of immigration, which can transform into unwrap hostility and land

disputes. Migrations across-community, on the other hand, engages amalgamation of different tribes with their

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Nisar et al., 2018

specific values and interior land dealings. This leads to collapse of pre-existing traditional institutions, and

which, in the nonexistence of formal organizations, lead to disputes within the host communities.”

“Some fundamental reasons, like population pressure, agricultural commercialization, as well as urbanization,

have added to the growing number of land disputes, also the present land tenure structures in Africa may

possibly not be well-resourced to decide such disputes. In West African, Ghana usually, disputes over land is

most strict and seems likely to deepen. The bulky migration, population expansion, population pressure, speedy

urbanization, land scarcity, cash-crop led marketization, and increasingly politicized conflict over land have

produced increased competition (Van Donge (1999; IIED, 1999).”

“Wilson (2000) in Bougainvillean revealed that land ownership gives a strong place and voice in local as well as

in national politics to the people. Land also holds an extraordinary importance as the place where the parents

and ancestors of the people are buried. In this extensively statement from 1974, close connection with their land

was expressed by three Bougainvillean students that land is our life. The Land is our physical life and we

depend on land for foodstuff and sustenance. Land is our social life: for matrimony, social position, social safety

and for politics we depend on land. Whilst you take away our land, you cut away the means of our survival. We

have little or no experience of social existence without the land. Zongo (2002) has found that speedy population

expansion, joined with either inadequate chance for non-agricultural employment or, in some other areas,

growing non-agricultural claim for land, is an important factor that causes land prices to be high, resulting in

higher struggle for an inadequate amount of land available. This frequently leads to disputes generation after

generation or between ethnic groups, particularly in situation where threat is high and land is considered as an

important source of livelihood.”

“OHCHR (2005) reported that the most complex land disputes are those that comprise corrupt land

administration in a state. In numerous countries, indigenous population have been evicted at threat of being

evicted because of the failure to be familiar with their rights to land or these rights are suspended by the state,

and or take their property by force for public use or privatization of their lands by the government. In countries

where the indigenous people have been underprivileged in the past for a long time of their land rights, there is

the possibility of more severe land disputes that may arise even after decades or generations afterward. The

communities in Uganda “receiving” and “sending” based on their historical models of migration. Their main

findings revealed that the likelihood of having a dispute over a parcel was 6% points higher in receiving than in

sending communities and that disputes probability were higher in communities with many tribes. Land disputes

by type revealed that where many tribes were in a community, the probability of eviction and inheritance

disputes were higher but not boundary disputes. Under World Bank pressure, mechanized farming has expanded

speedily to those areas which belong to pastoral communities. In 2001, entire area under mechanized

agricultural increased by 60.6 percent.” This brought far reaching implications and imposed severe dangers to

the survival of commercial land rights leading to disputes in diverse parts of the country (Yamano & Deininger,

2005; Egemi, 2006).

“In Mongolia, the privatization of urban land resulted in relatively a number of numerous allotments of land due

to illegitimated declaration and uncreative, ineffectual land administration agencies whose staff is partially

lacking ability, and partly open for unsuitable practices. Resolutions of these disputes not have transparency and

usually favor the wealthy and prosperous people possessing informal associations to particular decision makers.

Another wrongdoing is the allotment of land located in the river bank as well as nearby protected areas of

Ulaanbaatar to the wealthy people by corrupted high ranking civic officers. In Georgia, in the second round of

privatization of agricultural land people faced different illegitimate methods in which during the auctions some

people were excluded and some were given preference over other groups or individuals. This lobbyism and

bribery during the privatization procedure contributed harmfully to the previously low confidence of Georgian

nationals over their government. The Darfur dispute is an example of land dispute resulting due to

miscellaneous changes and leading to a bigger dispute. Shortage of land due to environmental degradation and

population pressure, and privatization are responsible for land disputes which brings negative consequences for

people (Bokeria, 2006; Baatar, 2007; Wehrmann, 2008).”

2. METHODOLOGY

“The study was conducted in Tehsil dargai (District Malakand). The interview schedule was used as tools of

data collection. A detailed interview schedule was designed in the light of the objectives of the study. For

getting accurate information, a concise explanation regarding the rationale of the study was discussed with the

respondents. Before going to the field, the interview schedule was pre tested and addition and deletion was made

where required. Those who have some registered cases to be disposed of by the civil court through civil suit in

Tehsil Dargai, Malakand, were included as a sample of the study.” From Civil Suit/1 Register of Tehil Dargai

the list of respondents was obtained randomly for data collection by following formula adopted by Mwakaje

(2013);

71


Where,

n = sample size

N = the total population size

e = the margin of error

The Collected data was analyzed through SPSS, and results were interpreted into frequency and percentages.

Moreover, the effects of independent variable on the dependent variable was find out with Chi-Square test. In a

cross tabulation the dependent variable (social structure) was indexed and cross tabbed with the independent

variables.

The following formula visualized in the research was adopted:

Where

=Chi-square for two categorical variable

Total of ith row

Total of ith Colum

Oij = Observed frequencies in ith row and jth column

=expect frequencies corresponding to ith row and jth column.

Land commercialization and land ownership disputes

“Table 1 identifies the relationship between land commercialization, land disputes and its effects on social

structure. Almost half of the respondents i.e 62(48.4%) believed that land ownership disputes occur due to

urbanization. 80(62.5%) of the respondents said that population pressure on land is responsible for disputes,

while 95(74.2%) of the respondents were of the view that land ownership disputes occur where land is limited

and considered a key asset of livelihood. Beside this some respondents i.e. 56(43.8%) said that large scale

migration to an area is also responsible for land disputes because of the scarcity of land. Similarly, 95(74.2%) of

the respondents favoured the statement that land ownership disputes increases with the agricultural

commercialization while almost all of the respondents i.e 107(83.6%) agreed that when the land price increases

in an area, the disputes on the land increases.”

Table 1: Frequency distribution and percentages of responses towards land commercialization and land

ownership disputes. S.no Attributes Yes No Total

1 Land ownership disputes occur due to urbanization 114(89.1%) 14(10.9%) 128(100%)

2 Land ownership disputes occur due to population pressure on land. 110(85.9%) 18(14.1%) 128(100%)

3 Land ownership disputes occur where land is limited and consider a key asset of livelihood.

119(93.0%) 9(7.0%) 128(100%)

4 Land ownership disputes occur when large scale migration started to

an area.

98(76.6%) 30(23.4%) 128(100%)

5 Lan Land ownership disputes occur due to agricultural commercialization d ownership disputes occur when cash crop led

marketization increases.

109(85.2%) 19(14.8%) 128(100%)

6 Land ownership disputes occur due to increase in land prices. 93(72.7%) 35(27.3%) 128(100%)

Values in table present frequencies, while parenthesis values represent percentages

Relationship of land ownership disputes with commercialization and its effects on social structure

In the study respondents were asked about land ownership related disputes prevalence in the study area. They

share with the researcher that urbanization has significantly caused many problems in the area which disrupts

the prevalent structure of community. The relationship was found significant (P= 0.045) with social structure.

The results of Van Donge (1999) buttress the findings of the study, in which he opined that agriculture

commercialization, population pressure and urbanization have added to the growing number of land disputes in

Africa. Furthermore, a significant relationship (P=0.014) found between social structure and population pressure

on land. Most of the respondents were of the view that population pressure on certain land leads to the

disturbance of social structure. The results of IIED (1999) report buttress the findings of the study, in which the

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Nisar et al., 2018

report revealed that like West African in Ghana usually, dispute over land is most strict and seems likely to

deepen. The bulky migration, population expansion, population pressure, speedy urbanization, land scarcity,

cash-crop led marketization, and increasingly politicized conflict over land have produced increased

competition.

In Pakistan, the economy is agricultural based, but now a day the concerned commodity is converting to modern

commercialized form, thus have created numerous disputes. The growing commercialized construction on land,

enhanced its value. Therefore, in the study area it was found highly significant (P=.000) in association with the

emergence of disputes and seen as an active factor for disrupting the social structure. The same findings were of

the Zongo (2002) who said that that land disputes continues generation after generation in situations where

threat is high and land is considered as an important source of livelihood.

Migration and land ownership disputes were non-significant (P=0.200) in association. The findings of the study

negate the findings of Yamano & Deininger (2005) who classified the communities in Uganda into “receiving”

and “sending” based on their historical models of migration. Their main findings revealed that the likelihood of

having a dispute over a parcel was 6% points higher in receiving than in sending communities and that disputes

probability were higher in communities with many tribes. Land disputes by type revealed that where many tribes

were in a community, the probability of eviction and inheritance disputes were higher but not boundary

disputes. The utmost important factor, as considered, by the researcher were the rurality of the study area.

Hence, large scale migration occurs here from rural to urban areas, that’s why the issue of land disputes was not

prevailed in the study area due to migration.

Land disputes and agricultural commercialization have a highly significant (P= 0.000) relationship with each

other. Land disputes occur due to agricultural commercialization. As the study area is rural and agricultural

based and now a days agriculture is becoming more and more commercialized which brought disputes among

people. The result confers the findings of Cotula, Toulmin, & Hesse (2004) as well as of Van Donge (1999) who

declares agricultural commercialization as an important contributing factor of land conflicts in Africa. Land is

becoming a valuable commodity and an easy way of high income. Land is selling by people as the price is

becoming high and high. That’s why increase in land prices significantly affected land ownership disputes

(P=0.000). The study of Yamano & Deininger (2005) that land disputes in Kenya occurs due to increase in sales

of land market.

Table 2: Association between land commercialization related disputes and its effects on social structure. S.no Attributes Responses Social Structure Total Chi-square

Yes No

1 Land ownership disputes

occur due to urbanization

Yes 107(93.1%) 7(6.1%) 114(89.1%) X2=4.015

P= .045 No 11(78.6%) 3(21.5%) 14(10.9%)


occur due to population

pressure on land

Yes 104(94.5%) 6 (5.5%) 110(85.9%) X2 =5.991

P=0.014 No 14(77.8%) 4(22.2%) 18(14.1%)


occur where land is limited and consider a key asset of

livelihood

Yes 114(95.8%) 5(4.2%) 119(93.0%) X2=30.399

P=.000 No 4(44.4%) 5(55.6) 9(7.0%)


occur when large scale

migration started to an area

Yes 92(93.9%) 6(6.1%) 98(76.6%) X2=1.645

P=0.200 No 26(86.7%) 4(13.3%) 30(23.4%)

5 Land ownership disputes occur due to agricultural

commercialization

Yes 105(96.3%) 4(3.7%) 109(85.2%) X2=17.362

P= 0.000 No 13(68.4%) 6(31.6%) 19(14.8%)


occur due to increase in land

prices

Yes 91(97.8%) 2(2.2%) 93(72.7%) X2=15.021

P=0.000 No 27(77.1%) 8(22.9%) 35(27.3%)

3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS

It is concluded that the people in the study area has a clear vision that land commercialization leading to the

destruction of social structure. It is found that the powerful people were more involve in buying and selling of

lands. Commercialization indulge more and more people in land’s business. Further they used malpractices due

to which the social structure was getting disturbed. The study suggested that through the computerization of land

and inculcation of moral values, land disputes can be minimized and hence social structure could be saved

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REFERENCES

[1] Anwar, T., Qureshi, S. K., Ali, H., and Ahmad, M. (2004). Landlessness and Rural Poverty in Pakistan

[with Comments]. The Pakistan Development Review, 855-874.

[2] Baatar, B. 2007. Land Conflicts related to Land Privatization in Mongolia. Case Study of Urban and

Peri-urban areas (Master thesis). The Centre of Land Management and Land Tenure, Technische

Universität München.

[3] Bokeria, R. (2006). Ongoing Process of Privatisation in Georgia. Transnational Crime and Corruption

Center, Caucasus Office. Tbilisi.

[4] Cernea, M. M. (1988). Alternative Social Forestry Development Strategies. In J. Ives and D. C. Pitt

(eds) Deforestation: Social Dynamics in Watersheds and Mountain Ecosystems. London: Routledge.

159–190.

[5] Cotula, L., Toulmin, C., & Hesse, C. (2004). Land Tenure and Administration in Africa: Lessons of

Experience and Emerging Issues. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.

[6] Egemi, O. (2006). Land tenure in Sudan: challenges to livelihood security and social peace. In Land

issue and peace in Sudan, edited by Galal-Eldeen El Tayeb. Khartoum, Sudan: Sudan Environment

Conservation Society.

[7] IIED. (1999). Land Tenure and Resource Access in West Africa: Issues and Opportunities for the Next

Twenty Five Years, London: International Institute for Environment and Development

[8] Platteau, J.-P. (1996). The evolution theory of land rights as applied to Sub-Saharan Africa: a critical

assessment. Development and Change, 27, 29-86.

[9] Radcliffe, B. A. R. (1940). Structure and Functiun in Primitive Society. Neu: York: Free Press.

[10] Rural Development Institute Report on Foreign Aid and Development for the World Justice Project.

(2009). Women’s Inheritance Rights to Land and Property in South Asia: A Study of Afghanistan,

Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka

[11] Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2005). Indigenous Peoples’ Right to

Adequate Housing. A Global Overview. Nairobi.

[12] USAID. (2005). Land and Conflict; a toolkit for intervention. Washington, DC: USAID Office of

Conflict Management and Mitigation.

[13] Van Donge, J. K. (1999). Law and Order as a Development Issue: Land Conflicts and the Creation of

Social Order in Southern Malawi. Journal of Development Studies, 36 (2): 48-70.

[14] Wallerstein, I. (2012). Land, Space, and People: Constraints of the Capitalists World-Economy. Journal

of World-Systems Research, 18(1).

[15] Wehrmann, B. (2008). Land conflicts: A practical guide to dealing with land disputes. Eschborn: GTZ.

[16] Wilson, C. Land Management and Conflict Minisation Sub-Project 1.1. The Pacific Islands Forum

Secretariat LMCM project supported by AusAID and UNDP.

[17] Yamano, T. & Deininger, K. (2005). Land Conflicts in Kenya: Causes, Impacts, and Resolutions,

Foundation for Advanced Studies on International Development /National Graduate Institute for Policy

Studies.

[18] Yamano, T., & Deininger, K. (2005). Land Conflicts in Kenya: Causes, Impacts and Resolution.

FASID Discussion Paper, 27.

[19] Zongo, M. (2002). Land Conflict. World Bank Regional Land Workshop in Kampala, Uganda.

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*Corresponding Author: Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch., Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology GC University

Faisalabad, Email: [email protected]

Socio-Economic and Cultural Determinants of Criminal Youth Behavior:

A Case of Faisalabad City in Punjab, Pakistan

1Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch., 2Muhammad Arqam Mushtaq, 3Muhammad Idrees, 4Muhaammad Atif

1Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, GC University Faisalabad

2M.Phil. Scholar in Sociology, Department of Sociology, GC University Faisalabad 3Teaching Assistant in Sociology, Department of Sociology, GC University Faisalabad

4Research Officer in Sociology, Department of Sociology, GC University Faisalabad



ABSTRACT

The present study explores the socio-economic and cultural factors promoting criminal behavior among youth in

Pakistan. The youth are often faced by a number of challenges. Recently, youth deviant behavior has become a

global issue of great concern and requires immediate attention. Currently, a huge number of challenges which

are youth facing in the urban poor settings are varied and unique to the context. The leading determinants which

increases crime rate are joblessness, illiteracy, poverty, injustice and lawlessness, fundamentalism and

politicized law enforcing agencies, political instability. In Pakistan, lower socio-economic to become rich as

well as high socio-economic status holders to become richer are involved in crimes. Literature shows that

mostly criminals commit crimes due to socio-economic inequalities. The main objective of this study is to

explore the factors promoting criminal behavior among youth in Faisalabad, Pakistan. A sample of 150

respondents was taken from two randomly selected towns of Faisalabad through convenient sampling technique.

The analysis was made through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17. On the bases of the

findings it was concluded that there are number of socio-economic and psychological factors that are creating

problems in state and becoming hurdle in the sustainable economic development. Causes of youth crime in

Pakistan are little bit different from that of the western world such as unemployment, corruption and poverty. If

corruption is eradicated and state provides job opportunities to youth, youth crime rate will be fall down. The

corrective measures to stop the illegal actions must rotate around those identified causes. These corrective

measures like corruption in law enforcing agencies, lack of authorities given to the agencies, unsolved issues of

the agencies (provision of modern tools and capacity building trainings and heavy increment in salaries),

technological backwardness in the context of security tools, joblessness and poverty and. Solution of the issues

on priority-wise is the key to success. Visible decrease in youth crime rate can be seen if proper corrective

measures are taken into account.

KEY WORDS: Social and psychological determinates, crime, criminal behavior

I- INTRODUCTION

Crime is a main source of discomfort and in security in every society. Crime, no doubt perpetrates

enormous monetarist and psychosomatic costs on society. Criminal act gives upswing to the feeling of fear and

insecurity and even in those people who have not been victimized. The result in saga city of horror of being

victimized creates adverse effects on happiness. A wrongdoing classified by the parliamentarian body of the

country or the government or law of the state is called crime. Every state makes a number of acts which are

forbidden as crimes and proposes an imprisonment or a fine or both for criminal of these acts. There is no

universal and permanent definition of crime. It differs in different times in different regions. Ahmad defines a

crime as “an act or omission of human conduct shameful to others which the state is bound to prevent. It renders

the deviant person liable to punishment as a result of proceedings initiated by the state organs assigned to

ascertain the nature, the extent and the legal consequences of that person’s wrongness” (1999).

Crime is an activity which is against the law and the fact associated with criminal activities and the

socio-economic development of the society is undeniable. Crime is considered as the unpredicted behavior of

any human being which opposes the law. Normally, aggression and mental stress cause an individual to produce

deviant behavior. A crime is an action of an individual demeanor injurious to others which the country is

inevitable to avert. It purifies the deviant personality accountable to sentence as a consequence of happening

started by the country structures allocated to determine the nature, the extent and the legal penalties of the

individual’s unfairness (Agnew, 1992). Like Pakistan, in Asian countries more than 50% population has income

below the poverty line, and is unemployed, specifically youth (Altindag, 2009).

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Shabbir et al., 2018

In Pakistan, criminality has touched the terrifying level, so insecurity among 180 million citizens has

reached the peak. At a glance, Pakistan’s biggest cities, commercial and industrial hubs such as Karachi, Lahore,

Peshawar, Quetta, and Islamabad are enough to shiver down the backbone of inhabitants. A lot of official claim

are heard that unemployment is going down but unfortunately, unemployment is rising and hence, crime rate is

also high. However, the citizens of less developed areas of Pakistan suffer from severe unemployment and

poverty, which are the main reasons of crimes among youth (Danial and John, 2012). The other major factors

such as backwardness, lawlessness, and dual standards prevailing in the society, fundamentalism, and political

instability are also responsible for high crime rate (Edmark, 2003). In and out migration in Pakistan has an

impact on crime rate as the conditions show that, those who migrate to Pakistan are not subject to any

systematic record and have also a political influence leading to their easy involvement in crimes. In Pakistan,

lower as well as high socio-economic status holders are involved in crimes because they want to accumulate

more wealth through illegal ways. Literature shows that political leaders of different parties, various law

implementing departments are pushing criminal to commit crime to fulfill their own political and official

interests in Pakistan. The statistics of crime in Pakistan show that Pakistan is not performing well in social,

economic, cultural and technological environment (Anderson, 2003).

There are many social problems which are universal and crimes are one of them. Crime is social

problem which affects and influences all societies. There is no society in any part of the world, which is without

crime. Crime is looked upon primarily as a social problem, although there are certain many other aspects. Crime

causes public concern; they occupy a priority position among social problem because they challenge the ability

of modern society’s institutions and recourses to control. Social control and value orientation are among the

chief components of social problems. Practically all societies look upon crime as a social phenomenon, no

matter how infrequently it occurs. It usually causes some injury or harm to others. It is looked upon as asort of

threat to society’s ability to function. It violates sacred customs, laws and values and interrupts the smooth

operation of the social and political order. However, crime and delinquency usually have a very low priority, if

you are rating the major problems of United States. Problems such as security, food, economic development,

migration, health, population, infrastructure and education generate a much greater sense of urgency and

importance (Walter, 2007).

Pakistan is no exception as compared with the other societies of the world and is also facing the

problem of crime, which ranges from petty theft to robbery, raping, burglary, and murder. There are, however,

certain crimes which are condemned by the people of all races and colors. Such crimes are universally and

equally viewed as serious delinquency and deviancy. Murder is one of such crimes (Jamil, 2003).

In Pakistan, the rate of crime is increasing gradually particularly in urban sections of the population.

The processes of industrialization and urbanization have created so many big cities and towns. It is reported that

the industrialized cities like Karachi, Faisalabad, etc. are producing a very high rate of disorganized elements.

As the population is increasing rapidly, the cities are becoming overcrowded leading towards density of the

population. This factor is creating problem of housing, due to which slums have developed. All of us know that

most of the industrial labor belongs to the villages. They come down to the cities to earn their livelihood. They

have the idea to earn money to send back to their families in the village but when they get wages insufficient for

their requirements, the entire dream is destroyed. Further they are greatly affected by artificial and attractive

surroundings. Besides this, anti-social elements drag them into different bad habits like drugging, drinking,

gambling, prostitution. If once they are involved in these habits they find it hard to get rid of them and dwindle

down into starvation and poverty. Starvation and poverty along with bad habits picked up compel them to

commit suicide or engage in crimes. This is the real picture of most of our Pakistani laborers engaged in

industry in different cities (Ghani, 2007).

There are number of social, economic, psychological and environmental risk factors that promote

crimes in society. These range from family disorganization to the economic crisis and vary from peer

association to loneliness and feeling of isolation to aggression and frustration that leads individual towards

crime. Population growth is also an important indicator of enhancing crime rate. Geographically congested and

over-populated areas have more vulnerable environment for the crime (Idrees, et al. 2015).

II- Statement of the problem

Present study has been designed to explore the factors promoting criminal behavior among youth in

Pakistan. Pakistan is the 6th largest country of world that has more youthful population. The large youth cohorts

are very useful for the development of a country but unfortunately these youth cohorts are involved in criminal

activities for the lack of counseling and job opportunities. In Pakistan, socio-economic and psychological risk

factors are higher as compared to the development opportunities. Some geographical areas provide easy

opportunity to commit crime. All these factors promote crime rate in the world as well as in Pakistan. Pakistani

society is facing high level of crimes because of higher intensity of social, economic, environmental and

psychological risk factors that push youth towards crime. Review of Different studies shows that mostly

criminals commit crimes on bases of socio-economic inequalities. The huge statistical data of crime show that

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Pakistan is going down in economic, cultural, social, and technological environment which is very alarming for

the bureaucracy as well as for the political leadership of Pakistan.

III- Objectives of the study

The overall objective of the study is to explore the factors promoting criminal behavior among youth in

Pakistan and to suggest some drastic measures to control the crime rate.

However detailed objectives are to:

• Study the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents

• Identify the social dimensions of criminal behavior in Pakistan

• Probe the economic determinants responsible for increasing crime among youth

• Dig out the psychological motives/conditions promoting criminal behavior

• Investigate the role of environment/geography in the promotion of criminal attitude

• Suggest some drastic measures to control the crime

IV- Theoretical framework

This study was conducted under the frame work of social process theory, follower of this theory

believed that criminality is a “function of individual socialization, and the interactions people have with

organizations, institutions, and processes of society”. Learning theory is the most common approach to the

social process theory (Barlow & Durand, 2006).

Social control theory and social reaction theory are two important approaches of social process theory. When

one’s behavior is groomed with the tied environment of other individuals and associations of institutions, it

refers by social control theory approach. While the second approach is social reaction theory which reflects that

if an individual is already viewed (labeled) as a criminal, it is more likely that this person will become start

criminal activities again (Hopkins, 2001). In the present study, researcher observed the aspects of above theories

were observed through different angles by evaluating the social, psychological and geographical factors among

youth in district Faisalabad

V- MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study was conducted in the Faisalabad City. Multistage sampling technique was applied to

draw the sample. At first stage two towns namely Jinnah Town and Lyallpur town were taken as population. At

second stage the two union councils (one from each town) was selected. At third stage 150 respondents (75 from

each UC) were selected by using simple random sampling technique. Moreover, data was collected with the

help of a well-structured interview schedule. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to check the

central tendency and measure/verify the hypothesis.

VI- RESULTS

Majority 67% of the respondents were male with age range of (29-38), living in joint family system with SSC &

HSSC level of education.22.7% of the total respondents were run their own business and having Rs. 25001-

30000 as monthly household income.29.3% of the respondents reported that poverty is a reason for high

incidence of crime in Pakistan with 68% were agreeing that un-equal educational system is responsible for

deviant acts. Large proportion of respondents i.e. 54% were agreed that low income, 69.3%told agreed that job

backlogs leads youth towards crime while 41.3%t claimed that Nepotism/lack of meritocracy is the main

reasons that alternatively push youth towards deviance.51.3% were agreed to great extent that inequalities in the

society responsible for increasing crime rates. Lack of justice in society is also is one cause of promoting

criminal youth behavior told 56.7% while majority i.e. 71.3% were agreed that political; instability in the

country promote crime among youth in Pakistan.48.6% told that people learn deviant acts from the peers, 35.3%

told this is due to weak socialization and 44.7% shared that media is responsible for aggression among

youth.56.6% told that frustration among youth leads them towards crime, 43.3% were agreeing to some extent

that relative deprivations among youth push them into deviance. Most of the respondents i.e. 45.3% were agreed

to some extent that geographically congested areas are responsible for high crime rate and 46% were agreeing

that overpopulated environment enhance criminal activities.

Testing of Research Hypotheses

The purpose of this part is to present analysis and interpretation of data relating to the research problems under

investigation. The relationship between variables was evaluated by bivariate analysis which analysis explains

the interaction between explanatory and response variables. The strength of relationship has been checked by

77


the chi-square and gamma statistics. This relationship might be significant or non-significant at 0.5 (level of

significance).

The Chi-Square test of Independence is used to determine if there is a significant relationship between two

nominal (categorical) variables. The frequency of one nominal variable is compared with different values of the

second nominal variable. The data can be displayed in an R*C contingency table, where R is the row and C is

the column. For example, a researcher wants to examine the relationship between gender (male vs. female) and

empathy (high vs. low). The chi-square test of independence can be used to examine this relationship. If the null

hypothesis is accepted there would be no relationship between variables. If the null hypotheses is rejected the

implication would be that there is a relationship between both variables. The manual way to calculate the chi-

square statistic is that first expected value of the two nominal variables is calculated than; the expected value of

the two nominal variables is calculated by using this formula:

Where

= expected value

= Sum of the ith column

= Sum of the kth column

N = total number

After calculating the expected value, we will apply the following formula to calculate the value of the Chi-

Square test of Independence:

= Chi-Square test of Independence

= Observed value of two nominal variables

= Expected value of two nominal variables

Degree of freedom is calculated by using the following formula:

DF = (r-1)(c-1)

Where

DF = Degree of freedom

r = number of rows

c = number of columns

Hypothesis:

Null hypothesis: Assumes that there is no association between the two variables.

Alternative hypothesis: Assumes that there is an association between the two variables.

Hypothesis testing: It is the same for the Chi-Square test of Independence as it is for other tests like ANOVA,

t-test, etc. If the calculated value of the Chi-Square test is greater than the table value, we will reject the null

hypothesis. If the calculated value is less, then we will accept the null hypothesis. In present research categorical

variables are arranged that are fit on the assumption of Chi-Square test therefore, researcher applied the chi-

square test due to its reliability.

Bi-variate analyses showing the relationship between two variables were described as under;

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Research Hypothesis 1: Frustration among youth leads them towards criminal behavior

Table 1: Association between frustration among youth and criminal behavior

For chi-Square test, the assumed statistical hypothesis is as under:

H0: There is no association between frustration among youth and criminal behavior

H1: There is an association between frustration among youth and criminal behavior Frustration among Youth Criminal Behavior Total

To great extent To some extent Not at all

Agree Count 58 10 24 92

% of Total 38.7% 6.7% 16.0% 61.3%

No opinion Count 3 5 4 12

% of Total 2.0% 3.3% 2.7% 8.0%

Disagree Count 7 33 6 46

% of Total 4.6% 22.0% 4.0% 30.7%

Total Count 68 48 34 150

% of Total 45.3% 32.0% 22.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square=71.95 D.F. =4 P-value (Significance level) =0.000** Gamma=0.37 P-value (Significance level) =0.000** **=Highly Significant

Table 1 illustrates the association between frustration among youth and criminal behavior. The value of

chi-square shows that there is a highly significant association between the variables. Therefore, the null

hypothesis “There is no association between frustration among youth and criminal behavior” is rejected and

alternative hypothesis is accepted. The value of Gamma statistics also shows strength of positive relationship

between variables.

Research Hypothesis 2: Poverty in the state is responsible for promoting criminal behavior among youth

Table 2: Association between Poverty and Criminal Behavior

For chi-Square test, the assumed statistical Hypothesis is as under:

H0: There is no association between poverty and criminal behavior

H1: There is an association between poverty and criminal behavior Poverty in state Criminal Behavior Total

To great extent To some extent Not at all

To great extent Count 35 12 8 55

% of Total 23.3% 8.0% 5.3% 36.7%

To some extent Count 10 44 9 63

% of Total 6.6% 29.3% 6.0% 42.0%

Not at all Count 14 11 7 32

% of Total 9.3% 7.3% 4.6% 21.3%


% of Total 39.3% 44.6% 16.0% 100.0%

Chi-Square=74.66 D.F. =4 P-value (Significance level) =0.000**

Gamma=0.53 P-value (Significance level) =0.000** **=Highly Significant

Table 2 describes the association between poverty and criminal behavior. The value of chi-square

depicts the highly significant association between variables. Therefore, the null hypothesis, “There is no

association between poverty and criminal behavior” is rejected and its alternative hypothesis is accepted i.e.

there is an association between poverty and criminal behavior. The value of gamma also shows the positive

relationship between variables. Results Coincide Jua (2003) who concluded that Poverty is an important factor

associated with increased crime and violence. While crime may be seen as a survival alternative in the face of

grinding poverty, there are poor communities where crime levels are low because behavior is constrained by

informal social and cultural values.

Moser and Rodgers (2005) concluded that there is a link between violence and unequal access to

employment, low income, education, health and basic physical infrastructure. They argue that situations of

widespread, severe inequality heighten the potential for alienated, frustrated and excluded populations

(particularly younger men) to engage in different forms of violence, including economic-related gang violence,

politically motivated identity conflict and domestic violence.

ILO (2009) reported that in many countries, millions of young people are unable to access economic

opportunities and under paid. Without access to employment or livelihood opportunities, most young people

cannot afford a house or a dowry, cannot marry and their transition to adulthood is effectively blocked. Menial

jobs with little prospect for advancement may also be a cause of youth frustration, embarrassment and social

separation and push them towards negative activities like crime conflict and other type of deviant behaviour.

Shah (2010) found that Unemployment is a main challenge to the youth in Pakistan. He said that youth have few

job opportunities after graduation, much to the adverse effect on households and in turn on the whole society

and the country. Unemployment raises many questions in the young minds that can be exploited by extremist

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groups. Skilled youth usually leaves the country for want of adequate opportunities. The government has failed

to undertake major steps to address unemployment as its rate is rising day by day.

Idrees et al. (2015) reveals that unemployment in Pakistan is increasing and people facing income insurgencies.

The reason is that unemployment rate in a country is a complementary indicator of income opportunities in the

legal labor market. Therefore, when, unemployment rate increases the opportunities for earning income

decreases which instigate the individuals to commit crime. The costs of committing crime go down for

unemployed workers. The results of causality support this proposition that unemployment causes crime. The

results show that poverty is also a major indicator of crime. The poor have limited income and resources to

satisfy their desires and wants. In Pakistan the poverty statistics show dismal picture besides increasing income

inequality. The low income means low saving potential which results in low standard of living. The low income

in relation to increase prices has crime instigating effect by reducing individual’s moral threshold. Therefore, it

can be concluded that people in poverty are induced to commit crime.

Research Hypothesis 3: More economic investment subsequently reduces the crimes

Table 3: Association between investment in economy and reduction of crime

For chi-Square test, the assumed statistical Hypothesis is as under:

H0: There is no association between economic investment and reduction of crime

H1: There is an association between economic investment and reduction of crime Economic Investment Reduction of Crime Total

Agree No opinion Disagree

To great extent Count 40 6 9 55

% of Total 26.6% 4.0% 6.0% 36.7%

To some extent Count 21 11 28 60

% of Total 14.0% 7.3% 18.6% 40.0%

Not at all Count 15 13 7 35

% of Total 10.0% 8.6% 4.6% 23.3%


% of Total 50.6% 20.0% 29.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square=131.51 D.F. =4 P-value (Significance level) =0.000**

Gamma=0.50 P-value (Significance level) =0.000** **=Highly Significant

Table 3 illustrates the association between economic investment and reduction of crime. The value of

chi-square depicts the highly significant association between variables. Therefore, the null hypothesis, “There is

no association between economic investment and reduction of crime” is rejected. The alternative hypothesis

“There is an association between investment in economy and reduction of crime” is accepted. The value of

gamma also shows the positive relationship between variables.

VII- DISCUSSION

Generally crime is treated as the unexpected behavior of an individual which goes against the law.

Crime is a major source of insecurity and discomfort in every society. There is no doubt that crime inflicts

enormous monetary and psychological costs on society. In every society, there are many social problems which

are universal crime are one of them. Crime is social problems, which affect and influence all societies. There is

no society in any part of the world, which is without crime. Pakistan is no exception as compared with the other

societies of the world and is also facing the problem of crime, which ranges from petty theft to robbery, raping,

burglary, and murder. In Pakistan, the rate of crime is increasing gradually particularly in urban section of the

population. The process of industrialization and urbanization has created so many big cities and towns. It is

reported that the industrialized cities like Karachi, Faisalabad, etc. are producing a very high rate of

disorganized elements. There are number of Social, Economic, Psychological and environmental risk factors

that promote the crimes in Society. These all range from family disorganization to the economic crisis and vary

from peer association to the loneliness and feelings of isolation to the aggression and frustration that leads

individual towards crime. Population growth is also an important indicator of enhancing crime rate.

Geographically congested and over populated areas have more vulnerable environment for the crime. In

Pakistan, Socio-economic and psychological risk factors are higher as compared to the development

opportunities. There are geographical areas where youth easily find opportunity to commit crime. All these

factors promote the crime rate in the world as well as in Pakistan. Pakistani Society facing high level of crimes

due the higher intensity of social, economic, environmental and psychological risk factors that pushes youth

towards the crime. In Pakistan, lower socio-economic status holders are involved in crimes as well as high

socio-economic holders are also involved, hence they want to accumulate more wealth through illegal ways.

Literature shows that mostly criminals commit crime on bases of socio-economic inequalities. The statistics of

crime in Pakistan shows that, Pakistan is not performing well in social, economic, cultural and technological

environment.

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VIII- CONCLUSIONS

The results from study provide strong evidence in favor of a model of criminal behavior. Conclusion

has been made on the bases of analysis and results that no single factor is responsible to make the youth

criminal, multiple risk factors were observed which disturb the lives of youth, whereas significant protective

factors are absent. Causes of crimes are directly related to the environment of the surroundings. These

surroundings can be of neighborhood, school, playground and home. It was also observed that causes of youth

crime in Pakistan are little bit different from that of the western world such as unemployment, corruption and

poverty. If corruption is eradicated and state provides job opportunities to youth, youth crime rate will be fall

down. The corrective measures to stop the illegal actions must rotate around those identified causes. These

corrective measures like corruption in law enforcing agencies, lack of authorities given to the agencies, unsolved

issues of the agencies (provision of modern tools and capacity building trainings and heavy increment in

salaries), technological backwardness in the context of security tools, joblessness and poverty and. Solution of

the issues on priority-wise is the key to success. Visible decrease in youth crime rate can be seen if proper

corrective measures are taken into account.

IX- RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations must be addressed to overcome the issues as under;

• Upgrade the overall quality of population program documentation, and youth empowerment programs

in particular.

• Governments should focus on small industries and pay attention to private enterprise.

• Collaborated initiatives for youth development between donor agencies and government should be

encouraged.

• Youth focused skills and training initiatives will empower the youth.

• Proper socialization is the key to control youth from criminal activities so government should arrange

workshops, seminars and informal sessions for parents and well as for youth regarding strong

socialization.

• There should be equality in society, socio-economic and gender inequalities should be vanished.

• People have easy and proper access to justice and equally treat all the people in front of law.

• Government should bring institutional stability and meritocracy in all sectors.

• Government should provide equal curriculum and technical and vocational training to the youth.

• Sports and games should be promoted at large to engage youth in positive initiatives.

REFERENCES

1. Ahmed, M. A. (1999). Prison administration in Pakistan. Lahore: S and S Publishers.

2. Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Paris: France

3. Altindag, D. T. (2009). Crime and unemployment: Evidence from Europe.

4. Anderson, A. (2003). The aggregate burden of crime in Journal of Law and Economics (Vols. 42-2).

5. Barlow, D. H. &Durand, V.M. (2006). Essentials of abnormal psychology. California: Thomas

Wadsworth.

6. Daniel L. H. and Joan, H. (2012). Jealous of the joneses: Conspicuous consumption, inequality and

crime.

7. Edmark, K. (2003). The effects of unemployment on property crime: Evidence from a period of

unusually large swings in the business cycle.

8. Ghani, M. U. (2007). Women international day 8th March 2007 Freedom Gate Pakistan.

9. Hopkins, B. R. (2001). An introduction to criminological theory. Criminal Justice Review, 377-381.

10. Idrees, M., Batool, Z., and Roman, M. (2015) Assessing the Determinants and Governance Over Crime

in Pakistan, International Journal of Contemporary Applied Sciences; Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2015

11. ILO. (2009). The Youth Employment Challenge. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/

english/employment/yen/about/youthchallenge.htm (Accessed on 12 March 2015).

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12. Jua, N. (2003). ‘Differential responses to Disappearing Transitional Pathways: Redefining Possibility

among Cameroonian Youths’, African Studies Review.

13. Jamil, A. (2006). A Sociological Investigation of criminal behavior of the murder in district jail Jang.

An unpublished thesis of M.Sc. Rural Sociology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad.

14. Moser, C., and Rodgers, D. (2005). Change, Violence and Insecurity in Non-conflict

Situations, Working Paper no. 245, Overseas Development Institute, London Available at:

http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/200503moser.pdf

15. Nachmias, C. F. & Nachmias, D. (1992). Research methods in the social sciences. Ed 4th. Ch. 1; The

scientific approach. St. Martin’s press, Inc. pp.3–27.

16. Shah, S., S. (2010). “National Youth Conference on Risks and Dividends of Youth Bulge in Pakistan”

BARGAD, Gujranwala – Pakistan, 2010.

17. Walter, G., D. (2013). The trouble with psychopath as a general theory of crime, International Journal

of offender 2004; Vol. 2: 133-148.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



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*Corresponding author: Humaira Gul, Department of Botany, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan. Email: [email protected] Cell #: +92 333-3319651

Interactive Role of Potassium Nitrate and Sodium Chloride on Growth and

Biochemical Constituents of Brassica Junceal.

Humaira Gul*1, Seema Gul, Husna, Aqib Sayyed, Naeema Begum, Sheheryar and Zahida Parveen2

1Department of Botany, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan.

2Department of Biochemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan.



ABSTRACT

In semi-arid and arid zones of the world, salinity act as important adverse factor that can lower leaf water

potential, reduced turgor and other responses and finally results in lower crop productivity. Many workers

indicate that nutrient’s foliar application increases tolerance to salinity. In present paper experiment was carried

out in pots to study the response of foliarly applied potassium on Brassica juncea grown under sodium chloride

stress. Brassica juncea plants were grown under four salinity levels (0, 50, 100 and 150ppm NaCl) and three

concentrations of potassium nitrate (0, 2% and 4%).Salinity treatment decreased plant height, root length,

number of leaves, fresh and dry biomass, number of pods/plant, chlorophyll contents, carotenoids and total

proteins while showed increase in reducing, non-reducing sugars and total carbohydrates of plant. Increase in

potassium concentration from 2% to 4% counteracted the deleterious effect of salinity on above mentioned

parameters.

KEYWORDS: Salinity, chlorophyll, proteins, Reducing sugars, Carbohydrates, Biomass

INTRODUCTION

Negative effect of any non-living and living factor on the living organisms in a definite environment is known as

abiotic stress[1]. Abiotic factors are uneven and control the environment away from its normal deviation range to

the extent where it severely and badly affect the individual physiology of any organism and the population act in a

significant way [2]. Salinity is the saltiness or melted salt content of water. Presence of salt in lakes, ponds, rivers,

sea and ocean is very simple phenomenon but its definition and precise calculation is technically challenging.

Some definition presented salinity as presence of melted salt content in water. In most agricultural land of the

world presence of salt in water and soil adversely affect the plant growth and decrease crop production. More than

76 M ha of the world’s land has been salt affected as a result of human causes and this figure confirmed by [3] and

[4]. Dubey [5] and Yeo [6] explained that salt in soil and water causes both osmotic and ionic and effects on plants.

Ghoulam et al., [7] (2002) confirmed reduction in plant growth as general response of plant to salinity in their

studies. Photosynthesis is a major process responsible for growth and improvement of plants and most of the

stresses affect this process and ultimately reduce growth of plant [5, 8].

Potassium supply to plant in the form of foliar application is an efficient method to avoid interaction with

essential macro and micro elements both antagonistically and synergistically. This method also acts as

supplemental nutrient management practice under any stress condition where potassium uptake from soil

becomes reduce. So this method may act as possible management tool to alleviate reduce yield under potassium

deficiency under saline soil and saline irrigation. This nutrient play major role in biochemistry and other

processes of plants such as leaf movements, opening and closing of stomates and other plant tropisms that are

driven by potassium generated potentials [9, 10].

Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. belongs to the Cruciferae (old name Brassicaceae) family which is also known as

the mustard family and with its unclear origin. Spect and Diederichsen [11] support the view

that B. juncea probably evolved somewhere between Eastern Europe and China, where the progenitor species

are sympatric. Shape of the flowers that have four obliquely opposed petals forming a cross is the main sign to

give this family the name Crucifer. Fertilization of ovules normally done by self-pollination, although inter-

plant out crossing rates of 20-30% have been reported [12]. This family is used for the treatment of muscular,

skeletal and bronchitis pains. Members of this family stimulate circulation in pain area and help to relieve pain.

The seeds of most of the members are used for tumor treatment in China. The main purpose of such researches

is to use such salts to improve growth and productivity of crops under saline soil and saline irrigation water. So,

this research was undertaken with the aim to observe the effects of foliar application and different concentration

of nutrients (KNO3) on growth and biochemical aspects of Brassica juncea plant grown under different sodium

chloride concentrations.

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Gul et al.,2018

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Seeds of Brassica juncea were obtained from Agriculture Research Institute Tarnab, Peshawar, Khyber

Pukhtunkhwa. This experiment was comprised of 36 pots which were divided into three sets.

1st Set: Without potassium, comprising of non-saline control and three salinity treatments of (50, 100 and

150 ppm NaCl irrigation).

2thSet: Potassium provided as potassium nitrate @ 2%, the set comprises of non-saline control and three

salinity treatments of (50, 100 and 150 ppm NaCl irrigation.

3th Set: Potassium provided as potassium nitrate @ 4%, the set comprises of non-saline control and three

salinity treatments of (50, 100 and 150 ppm NaCl irrigation).

Plastic pots used in this experiment were of 17.5 cm in diameter and 6.5 cm deep having basal outlet for

drainage. Out of 36 pots 12 pots present in each set and 3 replicates were maintained for each treatment i)

control (non-saline), ii) 50 mM, iii) 100 mM and iv) 150 mMNaCl concentrations. Every pot was filled with 1

Kg of thoroughly washed sandy loam soil. Soil in each pot was saturated with full strength Hoagland’s solution.

Approximately uniform size and equal number of seeds were surface sterilized with 0.1% HgCl2 for 1 minute

and then washed with distilled H2O. 5 seeds were sown in each pot. Pots were then daily irrigated with an equal

amount i.e., 50 ml of tap H2O. When seedlings were reached at 3 leaves stage they were thinned out as one

seedling per pot. 36 pots were then arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD) in the Botanical Garden

of Department of Botany, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan. NaCl treatment was started at this stage and

concentrations of NaCl were gradually increased in irrigation water till it reached to the desired salinity of each

treatment. Each pot was irrigated with 1.5L of tap water / NaCl solution twice a week. When sodium chloride

salinity was maintained in pots different concentrations of potassium nitrate and were applied foliarly in

different sets.

GROWTH ANALYSIS

At termination of experiment plant harvested and height of plant, root length, number of leaves, fresh and dry

biomass, number of pods per plant was recorded.

BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Chlorophyll content:

Chlorophyll concentration (Chl) was determined in fresh leaves following the protocol of Maclachlam, and

Zalik, [13].

Reducing Sugars Estimation:

The reducing sugars were estimated by employing arsenomolyb date reagent[14] for cuprous oxide

determination formed in oxidation process of the reducing-sugars by alkaline cooper tartarate reagent.

Total Carbohydrate Content:

Determination of total carbohydrate was carried out according to modified anthrone reagent [15].

Analysis of Total Protein:

Total protein was extracted and analyzed by Bradford method [16].

Total Phenol Estimation:

The total phenols present in leaves were determined according to the method described by Malik and Singh

[17].

Statistical analysis

In present project experiment was maintained with three 3 salt levels and 3 replicates. Experimental design was

completely randomized Design (CRD). Data collected and analyzed statistically by using SPSS version 21 for

analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the means compared by Duncan’s multiple range test (P < 0.05).


Plant height

Brassica juncea plant height markedly decrease (P<0.0001) under different salinity regimes which correspond

with the findings of [18] (Figure 1). Munns [19] explained that increase in salinity cause decrease in plant height

and common cause of this reduction is the accumulation of toxic ions in cells which adversely affect cell

division and expansion. Foliar application of KNO3proved to be very effective and showed significant (P<0.05)

increase in plant height in this study and showed resemblance with the result of [20], who observed the same

phenomenon in pepper plants.

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Root length

Root length in present investigation showed marked and significant (P<0.0001) decrease in salt stressed

Brassica juncea plants (Figure 2). Asif et al.,[21] observed significant reduction in root length as a result of salt

concentrations increase as well as significant difference in absolute and relative root lengths of maize accession.

Exogenous application of KNO3had synergetic effect in terms of significant(P<0.0001) increase in root length.

Our observations showed resemblance with the result of Jason and Menzies[22] who observed and stated that

when potassium was applied, there was no significant difference in the plant uptake. They also explained that

applied treatment had a smaller root length and a lower root length density in the concentrated soil section than

the other treatments.

Number of leaves

Number of leaves under salinity was significantly (P<0.0001) reduced when compared with control plants

(Figure 3). Cuartero et al., [23] observed measures of ion contents and water relations in their study and stated

that highest heritability exhibited in leaf area showed as compared to shoot dry weight. Yasar et al.,[24] also

observed that application of elevated salt treatment showed significant decrease in leaf area of tomato leaves.

Foliar application of different levels of KNO3exhibited marked improvement and showed significant (P<0.0001)

increase in number of leaves. This phenomenon was previously studied by Hegazi et al.,[25] and stated that

potassium content in leaves increased markedly when potassium nitrate applied foliarly.

Number of fruits

Salt presence in saline irrigation water caused a significant (P<0.0001) decrease in number of fruits (Figure 4).

Navarro [26] observed the same phenomenon and stated that increased salinity caused significant decrease in

fruit size of plants. Salt stress cause reduction in fruit size and ultimately reduces total yield of a plant[27].

Values of above mentioned parameter were enhanced due to foliar application of KNO3. Our observation

showed resemblance with the result of Bhuvaneswari et al., [20] who observed non-significant enhancement in

fruit number/plant with the increase of potassium application. Potassium fertilizer application is responsible for

highest fruit number/plant [28].

Biomass

Salinity exhibited significant (P<0.0001) and considerable reduction in both fresh and dry weights of plants

(Figure 5-6). Misra and Dwivedi[29]observed the same finding as did in our experiment length, fresh and dry

biomass showed decrease as salt concentrations increased in the experiment. Misra and Dwivedi [29] also

observed remarkable decrease in germination of seed and ultimately pronounced reduction in seed vigor and

growth of mung bean Foliar application of KNO3partially mitigate salt effect and showed significant (P<0.0001)

increase in biomass in our observations. Salt stress exhibited non-significant reduction in leaf area, fresh and dry

weight of leaves of plants. Fresh and dry biomass of leaves and leaf area of both the plants was markedly

promoted by foliarly appliedKNO3 irrespective to the plant growth under non saline or saline conditions [30].

Total chlorophyll

Plant pigments (chl a, chl b and total chlorophyll) were significantly (P<0.0001) decreased in Brassica juncea

plants due to salinity (Figure 7-10). Our observations having similarity with the findings of Mitra and Banerjee

[31] they observed chlorophyll content decrease under high salinity. According to Iyenger and Reddy [32] the

reason for decreased chlorophyll content under high salinity might be changes in protein lipid ratio of pigment-

protein complexes. Plant pigments were generally increased after exogenous application of KNO3 in our

observation. Mohsen Kazemi[33] observed potassium application caused significant (P<0.001) increase in

chlorophyll of tomato leaves as compared to control. These findings have similarity with the previous

investigations by different researchers[34, 35]. Potassium affects chlorophyll development was studied [36]. Our

observations are in correspondence with the findings of Dhanapackiam and Ilyas[37]. Chlorophyll a content is

predominated over chlorophyll b content which is clear from the results. Another phenomenon confirmed that

chlorophyll a/b ratio reduced under increasing salt concentrations. It is reported that causes of chlorophyll

content decrease under salt stress are different and it may be due to deterioration of membrane

contents[38].KNO3 showed non-significant increase in chlorophyll in our observation that show resemblance

with the findings of Mitra and Banerjee[31], who observed that potassium application caused a non-significant

increase in chlorophyll a:braio.

Carotenoids

Salt stress cause marked and significant (P<0.0001) reduction in carotenoids in Brassica juncea plants (Figure

11). Our observations are in correspondence with the findings of Mitra and Banerjee, [31] who observed

significant decrease in carotenoids under increasing salinity. The reduction of the different pigments with

aquatic salinity is significant when analyzed statistically. Exogenously applied varying levels of KNO3slightly

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Gul et al.,2018

enhance the carotenoids in plants. Aslam et al., [39] stated that carotenoids of different lines of wheat were also

promoted after foliar application of potassium with different concentrations.

Carbohydrates

Salinity regimes in the root zone caused significant (P<0.0001) decrease in carbohydrates in Brassica juncea

leaves (Figure 12). Our observations are in correspondence with the findings Wttana and Maysaya [40] who

observed that carbohydrates composition were differently altered by salinity stress. Significant (P<0.05)

improvement in total carbohydrates with enhanced levels of exogenously applied KNO3was observed in present

investigation. Effects of different nutrients (e.g. Mg, K and Ca) deficiencies on carbohydrate metabolism has

been investigated in Citrus leaves by Ruth et al., [41] and under their observations K nutrient deficiency strong

effects as compare to other nutrients. Its deficiency results less starch and more soluble sugars.

Reducing sugar and non reducing sugar

Values of reducing and non-reducing sugars were significantly (P<0.0001) increased in leaves of Brassica

juncea under salt stress (Figure 13-14). Beltrano[42]studied rice leaves and observed significant influence on the

reducing and non-reducing sugars under different salinity levels. Polynomial response was observed in reducing

sugars with increasing salinity. Exogenous application of KNO3partially alleviate deleterious effect of salt and

showed non-significant promotion in reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar indicated by improvements under

both non-saline and saline conditions. Application of nitrogen through soil showed better results because

application of high amount of nitrogen fertilizers reduced the reducing sugar and non-reducing sugars or

sometimes it exhibited nearly similar values as compared to those applied with low concentrations of nitrogen

fertilizer. Another study on spinach plants [43] reported that application of low concentration of nitrogen

showed increased concentrations of total sugars and reducing sugars.

Total protein

The values of total proteins in the leaves of Brassica juncea showed significant (P<0.0001) decrease under

different salt regimes (Figure 15). Our observations are in correspondence with the findings of Rajakumar [44]

who observed that after increasing salinity plant showed reduced protein content. It is also observed that at low

concentrations of sodium chloride plants exhibited higher protein content. Protein content significantly

decreased in plant treated in different concentration of sodium [45]. Foliar treatment of KNO3had a small

positive effect and showed non- significant increase in protein in present investigation. Barneix and Causin, [46]

stated that generally NO3- assimilation in plants formed plant proteins. In both sunflower and safflower leaves

soluble protein concentrations decreased under high salinity. Reasons for this phenomenon may be i- change in

the balance between proteins and soluble aminoacids, ii- Increased breakdown of proteins through proteolytic

process. Different researchers [47, 48, 49, 50] also reported this phenomenon in different plant leaves that high

salinity impose reduction in protein contents. Foliar application of potassium nitrate showed increase in soluble

protein concentrations in plants grown under normal and saline conditions.

Figure 1. Effect of potassium on plant height (cm) of Brassica junceae grown under different

concentrations of sodium chloride.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Control KNO3 (2%) KNO3 (4%)

Pla

nt

Heig

ht

Treatments

Salinity = (P<0.0001) Potassium = (P<0.0001)

Control 50mM NaCl 100mM NaCl 150mM NaCl

86


Figure 2. Effect of potassium on root length (cm) of Brassicajunceae grown under different concentrations

of sodium chloride.

Figure 3. Effect of potassium on number of leaves/plant of Brassica junceae grown under different


0

5

10

15

20

25

30


Ro

ot

Len

gth

Treatments



0

5

10

15

20

25

30


Nu

mb

er

of

Lea

ves/

Pla

nt

Treatments



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Gul et al.,2018

Figure 4. Effect of potassium on number of fruits/plant of Brassica junceae grown under different

concentrations of sodium chloride

Figure 5. Effect of potassium on fresh biomass (gms) of Brassica junceae grown under different


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40


Nu

mb

er o

f F

ru

it/P

lan

t

Treatments

Salinity = (P<0.0001) Potassium = Non-significant


0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20


Tota

l F

resh

Bio

mass

Treatments



88


Figure 6. Effect of potassium on dry biomass (gms) of Brassicajunceae grown under different

concentrations of sodium chloride

Figure 7. Effect of potassium on chlorophyll a (mg/gmfr.Wt) of Brassicajunceae grown under different


0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5


Tota

l D

ry B

iom

ass

Treatments



0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2


Ch

loro

ph

yll

a

Treatments



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Gul et al.,2018

Figure 8. Effect of potassium on chlorophyll b (mg/gmfr.wt) of Brassicajunceae grown under different


Figure 9. Effect of potassium on total chlorophyll (mg/gmfr.wt) of Brassicajunceae grown under different


0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3


Ch

lorop

hyll

b

Treatments

Salinity = Non-significant Potassium = Non-significant


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1


Tota

l C

hlo

rop

hyll

Treatments

Salinity = P<0.0001 Potassium = P<0.001


90


Figure 10. Effect of potassium on chlorophyll ab ratio of Brassicajunceae grown under different


Figure 11. Effect of potassium on total carotenoids (mg/gmfr.wt) of Brassicajunceae grown

under different concentrations of sodium chloride.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7


a/b

Treatments

Salinity = non-significant Potassium = Non-significant


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6


To

tal

Ca

rote

no

ids

Treatments



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Gul et al.,2018

Figure 12. Effect of potassium on reducing sugars (mg/gmfr.wt) of Brassicajunceae grown

under different concentrations of sodium chloride.

Figure 13. Effect of potassium on non-reducing sugars (mg/gmfr.wt) of Brassicajunceae

grown under different concentrations of sodium chloride.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3


Red

ucin

g S

ug

ars

Treatments



0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3


Non

-Red

ucin

g S

uga

rs

Treatments



92


Figure 14. Effect of potassium on total carbohydrates (mg/gmfr.wt)

Of Brassicajunceae grown under different concentrations of sodium chloride.

Figure 15. Effect of potassium on total proteins (mg/gmfr.wt)

Of Brassicajunceae grown under different concentrations of sodium chloride.

CONCLUSION

Brassica junceae plant showed reduced growth under salt stress condition and increase in potassium

concentration from 2% to 4% counteracted the deleterious effect of salinity when applied foliarly.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



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Corresponding author: Muhammad Nisar, Department of Sociology and Gender Studies, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan. *[email protected]

Effects of Mothers Employment on Chıldren Socıalızatıon

(A Case Study of Dıstrıct Charsadda)

Muhammad Nisar*1, Dilkash Sapna1, Anas Baryal1, Ejaz Ahmad 1, Zia Ur Rahman2





ABSTRACT

This study was conducted in District Charsadda to know how the job of mother effects her children

socialization. The data was collected from 50 respondents through convenience sampling. Questionnaire was

used as a tool of data collection. Socialization is learning process through which children learn their cultural

norms, values, and beliefs. Family is the prime institution where child’s socialization takes place and where the

parents play a vital role especially the mother’s role is inevitable. As the child spends most of his/her time in

home with mother, so she has great influence on child. Usually the father has outside responsibilities and the

caring and rearing of children is the duty of mother. But nowadays mothers are also working outside home due

to which they cannot give proper time to their children. Children are socialized either by the other family

members which have negative effects on children. Employed mother have less time and do not give full

attention to their child. The mother job causes negative effects on child-mother interaction. The study suggests

that after the duty, mothers should spend remaining whole time with their children. They should prioritize the

company of their children and should windup all their extra activities and women of high families whose job is

not necessary for their survival should not go to work, in case they have small children.

KEYWORDS: Children, Effects, Family, Mother, Socialization.

1. INTRODUCTION

Hatami (1983) said that socialization is the process through which parents transmit cultural values, customs and

beliefs to their children and the extent to which the children internalize their culture. Alizade (1990) stated that

recent socio-economic evolutions in various countries, “employment status have been evolved significantly that

increased required labor and human resources. Diversity of occupations and the need to relevant suitable human

resources as well as increase in service companies and administrative made planning officials to utilize women

potentials as much as possible in the labor market. Therefore, increasing trend of women participation in the

career market accelerated and became strengthened. Danesh (1995) concluded that women enhance their

educational level and spend more time outside the home to find a suitable market for them. Hence, following the

women progress in science and technology, a large number of women involved gradually in economic activities

outside house and make their effort in socio-economic occupations in the society while they are still accountable

for lots of household responsibilities and taking care of children. Lafran (2002) stated that children care about

adults’ behavior more than their word. Besides, children’s values and beliefs are the same as what parents do,

and not what parents say. The point is; parents are required to take part actively, consistently and systematically

in their children’s life, because children are used to learn values through mutual actions and reaction with their

parents and sampling them as pattern. Mutual acts require physical, sentimental, reasonable and spiritual

contribution of parents in their children’s life. Such efficient and valuable contribution of parents along with

their children enforces sentimental bonds among them, teaches children proper public behavior in the society

and brings about a sense of respect in them so that such moral values and personality would be rooted in

children trait.”

Valas (2006) said that mother is the person who can satisfy a small wish from children because of mother’s love

which is the basic human instinct exist in every part of human’s culture and society. “If people live against these

human are instincts, such as if mother go outside, and so she will have not enough time to stay with her child

which will cause problems. Therefore, working mothers may have effects on their children. “Employment of

women is one of the indicators illustrating progress of society toward modern civilization’s gift. However such

phenomenon has influenced the society and specifically families in a variety of point of views.

MohammadiAsl (2010) stated that how employed mothers could identify their children’s mental and personality

traits and take appropriate measures for a suitable training procedure while these mothers spend most of their

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Nisar et al.,2018

time outside the house and pattern recognition and emulation of children from their parents as well as required

attempts to meet children’s mental and sentimental needs along with their parents are neglected or ignored.”

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Kagan (1978) stated that if the child spends most of the time without mother with other people, so there will be

lack of communication and interaction between the mother and child and consequently there will be high risk

factors for child.“Lee (2003) analyzed that women tendency towards employment has influenced the

relationship among husbands, wives and children that would bring about a significant decrease in sentimental

aspects of relationship with children. Role of women in house could be categorized as wifehood, motherhood

and housewife each of which require specific type of management, discipline and enough time. Motherhood

obligations, babysitting, being a housewife and at the same time taking care of wifehood responsibilities are in

contradiction to women’s personality and identity in the society.”

Riters (2004) concluded that a good mother give sacrifices for the success of her children. As the fathers have

outside responsibilities, that’s why the child relationships in later life solely depends upon how the mother

prepare her child for socialization in first three years. Mother Child bond is inevitable for socialization. It is not

the physical contact but the intensity of effection which develop between the mother and child.

Hallinan (1979) said that employed mothers most of the times forget the basic needs of their offspring because

of their burden due to jobs. Children feel loneliness and lose their confidence when their mother goes outside for

job. This makes children feel insecure and they develop mistrust in the world around them. Unfortunately, these

way outs are not possible easily because risk factors are always involve and positive factors are not easily

available. Usually low paid jobs are highly stress oriented and in many countries there is lack of availability of

high quality child care as well as the low educated and poor mothers not have the ability how to make safe and

sound relationship with her child.

John (1985) stated that a mother who wants to make a reputation in the society has almost certainly

misunderstood the significance of her role in home. A wise woman evaluates the rewards possible from caring

for children while staying at home versus the rewards from other efforts outside of home. Her entire situation

should be considered, weighed, and discussed responsibly with her husband, keeping in mind the needs of the

individual family members and the total family group.

“Au, K (1993) concluded that people may also have psychological illness or make light of their own life. People

cannot succeed without self-confidence and courage, but these two important identities are the expressions of

people in love, especially in the great mother’s love. Therefore, the children with working mothers will get much

less love than the children whose mother can always stay with them. This will influence the whole life of a child.

Safiri (1998) concluded that working mothers have the effects of psychological damage for children. Children

are very weak mentally and physically, and mother is the dearest one of her children. There was an experiment

which shows that when people face massive a problem, especially the problem is threatened to life; the first

person they think is always their mum. This is an expression of human’s instinct of belong to and trust in

mother’s love. Therefore, if mother always working outside and do not have time to stay with her children, this

will easily cause children feeling helpless and become unsociable, eccentric and have an inferiority complex.

Barrera (2002) concluded that “Peace cannot be kept by force. It can only be achieved by understanding” is a

well-known saying by Albert Einstein, but the understanding between people needs time and patience. Working

mothers do not have enough time to communicate with their children and build this understanding, so barriers

may easily be created.”

Priyanka (2010) analyzed that being a mother the role of woman is very important no because she has the

specials but because the children spent most of the time with their mother. That’s why her instructions have

greater influence on their attitudes and abilities as compare to other people. Those children who are well-

adjusted and successful come from homes wherever parental attitudes are favorable and a healthy association

existed among children and parents.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted in District Charsadda. Primary data was collected from 50 respondents who were

selected from population through Convenience sampling method. All of the respondents were females and

married because the socialization of children is the prime responsibility of mothers. Closed ended questionnaire

was used as tool of data collection as all the respondents were educated and interview was not possible as the

cultural barriers were there due to which direct face to face interaction was not permitted. Data was analyzed

through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

97


4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TABLE I: Is Mother effects child socialization? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 40 80.0

No 10 20.0

Total 50 100.0

Source: Field Survey

The data shows that majority i.e 80% of the respondents agreed that job of mother effects child socialization.

Other 10% replied that mother job does not effect child socialization. The same finding was concluded by

Kagan (1978) from his study that if the mother works for longer hours, the child will spend most of the time

with other people and the interaction between child and mother will be less and consequently the risk will be

higher for the child. Such effect is higher when the work is started in the first year of life

TABLE II: Is mother the center for child socialization? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 45 90.0

No 5 10.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table shows that mother is basic center for child caring and socialization. Out of total 50 respondents

90% of the respondents said that mother is the basic center for child caring and socialization, while 10%

reported that mother has no concern with children’s socialization. The same finding was concluded by Riters

(2004) he said that a good mother is one whose responsibility is to her child and who views her child's success

as a reflection of her own identity and require sacrifices willingly from mothers for the sack of the child’s

accomplishment. Child learn socialization through mother-child bond which is based on mutual dependency.

TABLE III: Do employed mothers have time to socialize their children? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 20 40.0

No 30 60.0

Total 50 100.0


Table II indicates that 40% of the respondents were of the opinion that the employed mothers have the time to

socialize their children. The other 40% of respondents did not agree to this view. They reported that the

employed mothers have enough time for their children. These findings supported the study of Valas (2006) that

said if people living in the way that is against the human’s instinct, such as mother usually go outside so, they do

not have enough time to socialize their children, it will cause problems.

TABLE IV: The absence of mother effects the child. Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 35 70.0

No 15 30.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table shows that the absence of mother effects the child. Out of total 50 respondents 70% of the

respondents were agreed that the absence of mother effects the child. The other 30% of respondents said it

didn’t effect. The same finding was concluded by Basow (1980) who said mother is everything for child. She

knows child very well. Mother’s job brings disorders in child’s creativity. In the absence of mother, child care

becomes a group activity which detach child from mother and effect him/her.

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Nisar et al.,2018

TABLE V: Do employed mothers give full attention to their children? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 20 40.0

No 30 60.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table indicates that 60% of the respondents confirmed employed mothers cannot give full attention to

their children. 40% of the remaining respondents did not agree to the above statement. These findings are

similar to the findings of Belsky (1984) who said that possible negative effects of maternal employment can be

overcome by a high quality alternative care and also with much attention given to the child in the restricted

amount time. An employment mother can’t give full attention to her child.

TABLE VI: Do Mother’s job cause negative effect on child-mother interaction? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 34 68.0

No 16 32.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table explains that 68% of the respondents replied that mother’s job causes negative effect on child-

mother interaction, while the remaining 32% said there is no negative effect of mother’s jobs on children. The

same finding was concluded by Jacobvitz (1987) who stated that mother jobs have negative effects on mother-

child interactions.

TABLE VII: An employed mother's children are spoiled because in the absence of mother there is no one

to polish his/her skills? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 32 64.0

No 18 60.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table indicates that 64% of the respondents were of the opinion that employed mother’s children are

spoiled because in the absence of mother, there is no one to polish his/her skills. The remaining 36% said that

employed mother have the time and can polish the skills of their children. The same finding was concluded by

Barbarin (1993) he said that working mothers have less time to control their children because they work outside

for long time. For example those children whose parents are too much busy, these children leave their home and

begin to live by their own. They become extravagant and finally break up the whole family and forfeit their

career.

TABLE VIII: Children of employed mothers suffer from Psychological disorder because of the

suppression of emotion in the absence of their mother Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 31 62.0

No 19 38.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table shows that 62% of the respondents confirmed that the children of employed mothers suffer

from psychological disorders because of the suppression of emotions in the absence of mother. The other 38%

were of the contradictory opinion. The same finding was concluded by Safiri (1998) who said that working

mothers have the effects of psychological damage on children. Children are very weak both physically and

mentally, and mother is the closest one to her children if mother always work outside and do not have time to

stay with her children, due to which children feel helpless and become unsociable, eccentric and fall in

inferiority complex.”

99


TABLE IX: Is it fair to carry the children in baby housing units? Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 27 54.0

No 23 46.0

Total 50 100.0


The above table shows that the majority i.e 52% of the respondents did not agree to keep the babies in baby care

centers because it has negative impacts on children socialization while 48% of the respondents told that these

care centers are the need of the time and have no such negative effects on children. This negates the findings of

Trager and James (1982) who said that in the day care center’s environment the children learn those things

which cannot do the other children who are at homes, and also it prepare the children for competition in schools.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Mother is the person with whom children is attach. She is to be considered as the whole world of children. They

spend most of their time with mother and learn things. She is the prime agent of socialization for her children.

When mother goes for job, children feels loneliness and feel hesitation. The mother and child relation is made

stronger by the quality of time they spend together. If mothers are working outside for long time, then the child

has nobody to imitate so there are less chances to learn. Work outside for long time causes mothers’ over-

burdening and they cannot control their children. Due to which children spend the money lavishly and forfeit

their career. Children of employed mothers suffer from psychological disorders because children are very weak

mentally. Children feel helpless and become unsociable, when their mothers have less time for them. Many

people who feel insecure, fall in inferiority complex and developed mistrust towards the people because of the

reason that their parents were too busy in their childhood and did not care of them. It is only mother who can

build a strong foundation of a child. The mother plays a vital role in child development but due to the poverty of

husband, wives earn money for their families to fulfill the basic needs.

REFERENCES

[1] Alizade, P., 1990. Aiming at employed women’s viewpoint toward employment influence on children’s

education, health and training, off spring level, coping with responsibilities at home. MA Thesis, Azad

University.

[2] Au, K. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

[3] Barbarin, O. A. (1993). Coping and resilience: Exploring the inner lives of African American children.

Journal of Black Psychology, 19, 478–492.

[4] Barrera, I. & Corso, R. (2002). Cultural competency ass killed dialogue. Topics in Early Childhood

Special Education, 22(2), 103–113.

[5] Basow, S. A. (1980). Sex-Role Stereotypes: Traditions and Alternatives. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole

Publishing Company.

[6] Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender Stereotypes and Roles. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

[7] Belsky, Jay (1984). Two waves of day care research: Developmental effects and conditions of quality. Pp.

1-34 in. R. Ainslie (ed.) the Child and the Day Care Setting. New York: Praeger

[8] Danesh, P., 1995. Influence of Women’s Employment in Economic and Cultural Changes of Families.

Provincial Organization, Boushehr.

[9] Hallinan, Maureen T. 1979. "Structural Effects on Children's Friendships and Cliques." Social Psychology

Quarterly 42:43-54.

[10] Hatami Akhavirad, A. and F, 1983. Analysis of Employed Women’s Viewpoints toward the Employment

Influence on Children Training, Health and Education, Efficiency and Meeting the Responsibilities at

Home. Research Study, IRIB,

[11] Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1987). The early caregiver-child relationship and attention deficit disorder

with hyperactivity in kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 58, 1488 1495.

[12] John Bowlby, ‘Mother is the whole world’, Home Companion, 17 January 1985, pp. 29–30.

[13] Kagan, Jerome; Kearsley, Richard and Zelazo, Phillip (1978): Infancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press

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Nisar et al.,2018

[14] Lafran, R., 2002. Psychological and Behavioral Roots of Child. Sorouri, M.H. (Ed.), Janzadeh

Publications, Tehran.

[15] Lee, RM. The transracial adoption paradox: History, research, and counseling implications of cultural

socialization. The Counseling Psychologist. 2003; 31:711–744.

[16] Maccoby, EE. The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press; 1998.

[17] Mohammadi Asl, A., 2010. Sociology of Iranian Family. Nashre Nay Publications, Tehran.

[18] Priyanka, Aeri and Devina Jain (2010), Effect of Employment Status of Mothers on Conceptual Skills of

Preschoolers, Department of Human Development, Guru Nanak Girls College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana,

India © Kamla-Raj 2010 J Soc Sci, 24(3): 213-215 (2010).

[19] Riters, G, 2004. Sociology Theory in the Contemporary Era. Mohsen, S., (Ed.), Nashre Elm Publications,

Tehran.

[20] Safiri, K., 1998. Sociology of Women’s Employment. Tebian Cultural Institute Publications, Tehran.

[21] Trager, James.1982 Letters from Sachiko. New York: Atheneum

[22] Valas, 2006. Women’s Sociology. Manihe, N.A. (Ed.), Nashre Nay Publications, Tehran.

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*Corresponding author: Yung Savitri, Post Graduate Program Environmental Sanitation Engineering, Environmental

Engineering Department, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia.

email: [email protected]

Technical Evaluation of Residential Wastewater Treatment Plant in West

Lombok Regency

Yung Savitri*and Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo

Post Graduate Program Environmental Sanitation Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department,

Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia



ABSTRACT

This study aimed to determine the technical performance of Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) in residential

scale in West Lombok regency. Wastewater samples were taken at the WWTP and existing piping networks, with

repetitions three times each sample point. Wastewater quality testing followed Indonesian Nasional Standard,

which consisted of biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total suspended solid

(TSS). The results were compared with the domestic waste quality standard by using Minister of Environment

Regulation no. 68 year 2016. From the results of research at six WWTPs showed there were four WWTPs in

which the quality of wastewater was below the quality standard. However, based on the calculation for the six

WWTPs, the removal efficiency for BOD was higher than COD, resulting in effluent stabilization. Factor

influencing performance was the existing inflow of wastewater, which was smaller than the planned inflow. KEYWORDS: domestic wastewater, removal efficiency, quality standard

INTRODUCTION

Wastewater from households was one of the most directly related sanitation issues to the community.

According to Regulation of the Minister of Public Works No. 16 / PRT / 2008 on National Policy and Strategy of

Development of Wastewater Management System of Settlements [1] in Indonesia, handling domestic household

waste was important in the handling of local environmental sanitation. Wastewaters were produced in all types

of economic and domestic activities, having specific characteristics dependent on technological production

process, collecting system, transport, and also on-site treatment facilities.All were requiring well operating

systemand/or high efficient integrated management systems[2].The effluent management system from wastewater

treatment plant (WWTP) was an affordable way for people to maintain health while managing wastewater in the

settlements. In order to run on a long-term basis, the management system required effective management. This

management was a functioning technology, on-going financing, effective governance and sustained demand [3].

The current condition of West Lombok Regency did not yet have centralized urban wastewater treatment

facilities. Topographic conditions were quite diverse causing different needs in each region, but the local

government seeks to meet the provision of domestic scale communal wastewater treatment facilities or residential

scale with the construction of WWTP in some villages. Others used public toilets or disposed of directly in

gardens, rivers or beach. The local government of Lombok regency targeted sanitation services to reach 72% in

2019[4]. To target service with WWTP, one of West Lombok Regency's mission was to seek the service of WWTP

to unreached people with existing network, so there was an increase in WWTP services from 0.84% in 2016 to

25% served by 2019. In the year 2016 has been built 6 WWTP spread across 4 districts in West Lombok regency.

This number will continue to grow until later in 2019.

Based on Minister of Public Works Regulation no. 04 of 2016 [5],sanitation facilities that have been built

must be evaluated periodically. To our knowledge, the current state of the WWTP has never been known or tested

for the quality of the effluent coming out of the WWTP building in all locations.Viewed from environmental

aspects, it was not yet certain that the effluent from WWTP was safe to be discharged into water bodies. And in

terms of institutional aspects, community organization of communal wastewater treatment had not functioned

optimally. The willingness of the community to play an active role in the use and maintenance was needed so that

sanitation facilities could be sustainable. This research was conducted to know the performance of WWTP of

residential scale in West Lombok Regency in terms of technical aspects.

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Savitri and Mangkoedihardjo, 2018

METHODS

Study Area

By the end of 2016, six WWTPs had been built in West Lombok regency. The research location was in 6

locations of WWTP spread over 4 sub-districts in West Lombok regency, namely Pelangan Dalem in Pelangan

Village, Sekotong Subdistrict, Dasan Geres Tengah Kelurahan Dasan Geres Subdistrict Gerung, Batukuta Utara

Narmada Subdistrict, Batukuta Paroa, Narmada Subdistrict, Sigerongan Village of Lingsar Subdistrict and Karang

Bayan Barat Village Karang Bayan Village. WWTPs location spread in West Lombok Regency can be seen in

the Figure 1.

Figure 1. Six WWTPsites in West Lombok regency

Methods

Research methodscarried out by means of quantitative research method through survey and interview.

Technical analysis in this study used descriptive analysis techniques to identify the conditions of building WWTP

that treats waste from user through the piping network. The evaluation phase on technical aspect was done by

analyzing the quality of wastewater entering and processed in WWTP and wastewater produced by WWTP with

BOD, COD and TSS parameters. Samples were taken 3 times at each location of WWTP and the highest level

would be compared to the quality standard as per Regulation of Minister of Environment and Forestry No. 68

Year 2016[6]. Laboratory analysis was conducted at the Laboratory of Environment Department of West Lombok

Regency with testing method according to Indonesian Nasional Standard (SNI). Then it compared the existing

discharge plan to calculate the efficiency removal and BOD COD ratios. Environmental aspect was done by

analyzing contamination of contribution from WWTP waste to nearby river. The analysis of the effect of WWTP

on the environment was done by analyzing the quality of wastewater and surface water from the measured

parameters test in the laboratory. The contribution of household waste pollution load from the WWTP channel on

the receiving water body was calculated using the concept of mass balance.The test results of river water from the

laboratory would be compared toGovernment Regulation no. 82 Year 2001Water Quality Management andWater

Pollution Control[7].


The results showed that the WWTP built in 6 locations using the pipeline network was built by connecting

the wastewater channel in the form of Gray Water and Black Water from every home connection. The technology

Sigerongan

Dasan Geres Tengah

Pelangan Dalem

Karang Bayan

Barat

Batukuta

Parua

Batukuta

Utara

103


used was a combination of Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) and Anaerobic Filter (AF) systems. ABR technology

was a septic tank technology that uses bulkheads so that wastewater through the bulkhead will flow up and down.

AF technology was a septic tank with filters made from plastic bottles of mineral water.

Based on secondary data in the planning document called the Public Activity Plan book and based on

survey results, it was known that the number of home connections in all locations were still under planning in the

initial design. This condition was due to the budget available from the Local Government was still limited, and

the ability of the community had not been able to install the connection at its own expense. The number of home

connections that did not match the number of plan connections certainly affects the waste discharge that went into

the WWTP.

In all locations of WWTP, there was a difference of plan flowrate with significant current discharge. The

biggest difference was in the location of Batukuta Paroa where the discharge plan was 25.60 m3/day with the

existing flowrate of 4.61 m3/day. The approaching discharge capacity was in Karang Bayan Barat with a plan

flowrate of 12.80 m3/day with the existing flowrate of 9.22 m3/day.

Installation of WWTP was a unit in which biological processes occur. If this biological process went well,

there would be a quality improvement on the effluent. It was characterized by relatively clear water, no particles

in the flow and no excessive odor. The quality of influent and effluent could show the efficiency of WWTP until

it could be known whether the WWTP works properly or not. Table 1 showed that from the results of laboratory

tests it was found that the quality of wastewater in all locations was still above the quality standard so that further

processing was required before discharged to the water body. As for the quality of wastewater processing results

showed different results. For BOD parameters at the North Batukuta and Batukuta Paroa. For TSS parameters,

the quality of wastewater that meets was in Dasan Geres Tengah, Batukuta Utara and Batukuta Paroa and Karang

Bayan Barat. Unlike the COD parameters, in all WWTP locations, the quality of the wastewater meets the standard

quality standards. This was because wastewater that enters pure processing from households.

Table 1.Value of domestic wastewater parameters before and after processing Influent Effluent

Location BOD COD TSS BOD COD TSS

(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Pelangan Dalem 140.7 197.6 153.2 55.7 87,2 66.2 Dasan Geres Tengah 158.1 222.8 89.9 41.6 80.5 29.0

Batu Kuta Utara 109.4 204.3 35.6 28.8 70.4 15.4

Batu Kuta Paroa 92.4 148.3 41.5 26.4 50.7 14.7

Sigerongan 180.5 220.8 85.3 58.2 76.1 37.1

Karang Bayan Barat 159.6 190.4 51.3 50.2 65.3 22.3

Pelangan Dalem 140.7 197.6 153.2 55.7 87.2 66.2

Quality standard 30 100 30 30 100 30

Analysis of the removal of the treatment efficiency was carried out to find out how much the ability of the

reactor in reducing the content of pollutants entering the reactor. The efficiency of decomposition of organic

materials would increase in accordance with the number of compartments passed. This occured because the longer

the contact time between the substrate with the biomass contained in the reactor, it would give bacteria a chance

to degrade more organic matter in wastewater. The total processing efficiency was calculated based on the quality

of the first influent and the effluent quality of the final processing as shown in Table 2.

Table2. WWTP Efficiency Eficiency

Location BOD COD TSS

(%) (%) (%)

Pelangan Dalem 60.4 55.9 56.8

Dasan Geres Tengah 73.7 63.9 67.7

Batu Kuta Utara 73.7 65.5 56.7

Batu Kuta Paroa 71.4 65.8 64.6

Sigerongan 67.8 65.5 56.5

Karang Bayan Barat 68.6 65.7 56.5

Pelangan Dalem 60.4 55.9 56.8

From Table 2, it can be seen that the BOD efficiency removal that meets the Sasse design criteria [8] was

at the location of Dasan Geres, Batu Kuta Paroa. In the parameters of COD removal efficiency that meets the

design criteriawas at the location of North Batukuta WWTP, Batukuta Paroa, Sigerongan and Karang Bayan Barat.

The high value of BOD efficiency indicates that ABR technology can still run well. For COD Efficiency, which

was still under the design criteria was on Pelangan Dalem and Dasan Geres. ForWWTP Batukuta Utara, Batukuta

Paroa, Sigerongan and Coral Bayan West already met the criteria. For the efficiency of TSS had decreased. This

shows the ability of flocculation and precipitation of anaerobic sludge quite well [8, 9].

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Savitri and Mangkoedihardjo, 2018

The efficiency values of laboratory test results on BOD parameters ranged from 60-70%, on COD

parameters ranged between 55-65% and on TSS parameters ranged from 56-67%.Based on design criteriaBOD

efficiency removal: 70-95% and COD efficiency removal: 65 - 90% [10,11]. Long stay in the WWTP

compartment would give longer time to microorganisms to decompose organic substances.

The calculation of BOD and COD ratios was intended to determine the level of biodegradable waste. The

results of the ratio of BOD/COD ratio in each location ranges from 0.4 to 0.7. This condition was biodegradable,

that wastewater could still be treated biologically [12, 13].

CONCLUSIONS

Technically it was concluded that all communal wastewater treatment plantrequired treatment

improvement. Biodegradable properties of the wastewater suggested the biological treatment would be

appropriate to meet Indonesian standard for effluent.

REFERENCES

1. Regulation of the Minister of Public Works No. 16 / PRT / 2008 on National Policy and Strategy for

Development of Wastewater Management System of Settlements.

2. Zaharia C. 2017. Decentralized wastewater treatment systems: Efficiency and its estimated impact against onsite

natural water pollution status. A Romanian case study, In Process Safety and Environmental Protection

108: 74–88.

3. Ministry of Public Works and People's Housing. 2016. In Domestic Wastewater Treatment Systems -

Centralized Settlement Scale (Book 3)

4. BAPPEDA of West Lombok Regency. 2016. City Sanitation Strategy (SSK) year 2017-2021. West

Lombok Regency

5. Ministry of Public Works and People's Housing. 2017. Regulation of the Minister of Public Works and

People's Housing No. 04 / PRT / M / 2017 on the Implementation of Domestic Wastewater Management

System). Jakarta.

6. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Regulation of the Minister of Life and Forestry No. 68 of 2016 on

the Standards of Domestic Waste

7. Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia No. 82/2001 on the management of water quality and

water pollution control.

8. Nizami, A.-S. 2012. Anaerobic digestion: Processes, Products, and Applications. Anaerobic Digesrion.

https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4550.7529.

9. Bratby, J. 2006. Coagulation and Flocculation in Water and Wastewater Treatment - Second

Edition. Coagulation and Flocculation in Water and Wastewater Treatment (pp. 1–400).

https://doi.org/10.2166/9781780402321.

10. Sasse, L. 1998. Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries, DEWATS. Bremen: Borda.

11. Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R. & Tchobanoglous, G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. Singapore: McGraw-Hill

Book Co.

12. Bhat, M. R., Roopali, Hiremath, S., & Kulkarni, V. R. 2004. Correlation between BOD, COD and

TOC. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control, 20(1), 187–191.

13. Katie Allan. 2014. COD & BOD. Igarss 2014 (pp. 1–5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2.

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*Corresponding Author: Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch., Assistant Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, GC University,

Faisalabad. Email: [email protected] 00 92 3216678880

Socio-Economic and Cultural Problems of Brick Kiln’s Working Families:

(A Case Study of District Faisalabad)

Uzma Niaz1, Zunera Jamil2, Dr. Muhammad Shabbir Ch.3, Shazia Nasim4

1Visiting faculty member, Department of Sociology, GC University, Faisalabad

2PhD Scholar in Sociology 3Assistant Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, GC University, Faisalabad

4Psychologist at SFARI-Pakistan



ABSTRACT

In Pakistan large numbers of families are associated with this industry in towns and cities. Families working at brick

kilns make important contribution in the economy of Pakistan but at the other end they are suffering in different social,

economic, cultural and psychological issues. Even their children and females worked hard to get rid of such issues. So,

giving the importance to this portion of community it would be the responsibility of social scientists that the issues faced

by them would be identified and highlighted. The whole study was gone through the detailed investigation of social,

economic and cultural problems of families working at brick kilns in district Faisalabad. Objectives of the Study were; to

discover the socio-economic and cultural problems faced by the workers working at brick kilns and this study has

following general objectives; to assess the socio-economic status of the working families serving at brick kilns, to

investigate the economic issues of the working families, to find out the social problems (living, health, education, water

and sanitation) faced by the working families, to evaluate the cultural problems (security, harassment, discrimination and

exploitation) of the families working at brick kilns and to suggest reforms regarding policies about the labor working at

brick kilns. District Faisalabad was the universe and families working at brick kilns were the target population. Out of

265 registered brick kilns 12 brick kilns were selected by using convenient sampling technique for this research. 220

working families were the sample size for this study covering 100% data collection. Head of the family was the

respondent for this study. A structured interview schedule was developed for data collection and collected data through

interview schedule was analyzed by applying Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).

KEY WORDS: Socio-economic, cultural, brick kilns, exploitation, discrimination

I- INTRODUCTION

The Pakistan brick kiln industry is one of the biggest in the Continent Asia. It is an old-style, disorganized

factory restricted to rural and peri-urban zones. People working at brick kilns have their own traditions, norms, values

which constitute a distinct culture. Lahore and Faisalabad are big brick making areas of Punjab. Brick kilns having a

specific culture, owe a malicious tradition of bounded and forced labor. While child labor prevalent at high level in both

of these metropolitan cities of province Punjab, Lahore and Faisalabad. The intended study is an attempt to explore the

socio-economic conditions of families working at brick kilns. It examines the cultural traditions and norms of children

and these families. The inferences of the study will help in suggesting some measures improving the lives of these

families. It will also contribute to design steps to eradicate this social evil (Asian Development Bank, 2011).

A study carried out by Turkpak International (Pvt.) limited in 1991 on “Wood use in the brick kiln industry of

Pakistan”. Today, the world is facing serious socio-economic and political as well as cultural challenges, which are

getting intense with time due to increased population growth and poverty. Among these issues, one of the most

challenging subjects is of bounded and forced labor. The developing and under-developing countries in particular, are

much affected by this issue. In Pakistan, the brick kiln industry is known to be one of the biggest in Asia. According to

study conducted jointly by the Government of Pakistan and USAID 2004, calculated that there are over 3,000 brick

making units in the country with over 50 % located in Punjab province. With the annual increase of 3 % per year, by

2009 the brick industry is estimated to be over 5,000 units.

Out of 177 nations, Pakistan is placed 136th on the Human Development Index. In Pakistan, the negative

effects low human improvement speculations are borne by poor people, particularly specialists in the casual segment,

which utilizes 71.9 percent of work power (barring non-horticulture laborers). The liabilities of casual division laborers

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Niaz et al.,2018

are primarily connected to absence of financial and lawful assurance. Like other creating nations, local casual division

job is likewise described by laborers' abuse regarding substandard states of work, for example, extended periods of work,

and low wages. The work power focus in casual parts includes both instructed/prepared and un-taught and un-talented

vagrant laborers from country zones. Other than female support, tyke work is additionally a key a portion of Pakistan

casual areas. The casual area is supportive the formal division in Pakistan economy, yet the viable front of the country

administrative components is for the most part not relevant to the casual segment, particularly the accompanying are not

connected. Block ovens are a part of the casual area, where both managers and workers need access to official formal

bolster, similar to fund, checking and so on (PILER, 2001).

In Pakistan, the block creation segment relies on fuel squandering elements and strategies, which add to air

contamination and outflow of nursery gasses, in this way producing negative monetary and ecological effects.

Moreover, inside the area there are social difficulties, for example, fortified work, tyke work, working antagonistic

residential infrastructure, unclean water and sanitation environment, poor instruction and unfavorable word related

wellbeing conditions and so forth., these issues need genuine thought. The area is one of the significant performing

artists in the development business but because of its unconventional attributes is rebuked as a non-citizen and is not

perceived as an industry. In spite of the fact that the utilization of other propelled fabricating materials, both privately

produced and imported, has expanded as of late, blocks remain the fundamental and significant element of the extending

development area. It is fascinating to watch that block making innovation embraced and being utilized as a part of

Pakistan has yet to see any change not at all like the contending areas like earthenware production, tiles, concrete and

marble business which have received cutting edge systems and gain sensible benefits from the all the partners, having

been sharpened toward their social obligation by giving better word related environment (Gujarati, 2003).

Statement of the Problem:

The absence of basic facilities can affect the functioning of the individuals and then over all smooth running of

society. Manual labor at Brick Kilns portrays stratum of population which is living below the standard line of minimum

life requirement. Still they are living and doing the same job and own their work. They have a distinct way to live life,

their own traditions, values and aspirations. Economically they are very poor because they are captured in the nasty cycle

of bonded labor. People are bound to work on low wages according to the will and wish of those who control their means

of sustenance. Workers at kilns are at the margins of Pakistani society. The whole family of a worker offers their services

and even then hardly lives from hand to mouth. The present study will probe the problems & vulnerability of the workers

at brick kiln.

Objectives of the Study:

To assess the socio-economic status of the working families serving at brick kilns.

To investigate the economic issues of the working families.

To find out the social problems (living, health, education, water and sanitation) faced by the working families.

To evaluate the cultural problems (security, harassment, discrimination and exploitation) of the families

working at brick kilns.

To suggest reforms regarding policies about the labor working at brick kilns.

Scope of the Study:

It is a well-known fact that there are thousands of families and their children engaged in brick making industry

and majority of them work in bounded environment. Since, they live in isolation from the main population, there living

conditions and wellbeing are largely dilapidated. Certainly, the in-depth knowledge about these factors is almost not

existent. Thus, this study explores the problems and threats faced by the workers, working at brick kilns in District

Faisalabad. This study is expected to provide answers to some of the questions; basis of which a concrete strategy and or

action plan to address their problems and to get rid of the expected threats with alternative opportunities to improve their

livelihood and wellbeing.

II- MATERIALS AND METHODS

Locale of the study was the district Faisalabad situated in Province Punjab, Pakistan. District Faisalabad was the

universe for the current study and families working at brick kilns were the target population. A Survey research design

was used to complete this study. Total brick kilns are 373 in district Faisalabad (According to the study conducted by

Hayat Foundation, 2016). Out of 373 brick kilns, only 265 are registered under Government Act. Total numbers of

families working at brick kilns are 5026 and average 20 families are working at each kiln (Hayat Foundation, 2016).

These brick kilns are located at different locations in District Faisalabad. Out of 265 registered brick kilns 12 brick kilns

107


were selected by using convenient sampling technique for this research. As the researcher selected 12 brick kilns as

sampled kilns and 220 are working at these selected kilns. Therefor all the families working at selected kilns were

sample size for this study i.e. covering 100% data collection. Head of the family was the respondent for this study. Both

male and female household heads were involved in this research. A structured interview schedule was developed for data

collection. Descriptive data analysis was done through Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS).

Conceptual Framework of the Study:

The research was conducted based on the established conceptual framework based on literature review. The

conceptual framework indicating the nature of variables and concepts and its conceptualization are given below.

Nature of the variables/conceptual Framework and Indicators for the Research Independent Variable/

Background variables

Intervening/intermediate Variables Dependent Variables

• Age

• Income

• Sex

• Marital Status

• Family size

• Economic status

• Educational status

• Health status

• Bondage

• Lawlessness

• Exploitation

• Discrimination

• Social acceptance

•

Social, economic and cultural problems

• Poor health

• Living standards

• Children’s education

• Children’ Socialization

• Harassment

• Women discrimination

• Child labor

• Security

III- RESULTS

Following are the major results after the analysis, males are interviewed at large i.e. (83.63%) while (16.37%)

females were interviewed, which intimated that women are also associated with this profession with different working

categories moudler/sanchiwala (63.18%), baker/fireman (20.45%) and kharkar/carriage (16.37%). Out of 220

respondents, 52.72%) respondents have PKR 6001-9000 as their monthly income. Majority (87%) of the respondents

told that they do not have any kind of property (residential or agricultural).100% of the respondents said they have

drinking water through hand/electric pump/stream at work places but (94%) told they have no knowledge purity of the

water either this water is pure or not. Sanitation issues also putting them more troubles, (76%) respondents told that they

are using outdoor toileting whereas, majority i.e. (90%) respondents denied regarding proper drainage system and (91%)

told they are using wood as fuel for cooking. As for as basic facilities are concerned, (96%) told that there were no play

grounds for any recreational or supports activity and 65.46% told they have no basic education facility at their work

places. Children and women were found vulnerable facing different diseases like fever, eye/ear infection, chest problems

and skin infections. No dispensary or first aid box is available at the kiln. (70%) told they have taken advances/loans

from the kiln owners and they are bound to do this work because they have signed a contract with them. Due to such

contracts, they have to work more than 14 hours a day. (52%) respondents told about rubbish attitude of the

managers/munshi towards workers while majority of the respondents i.e. (94%) told that they have no any unity to report

negative incidents/issues facing by them therefore (65.45%) told that all the decisions or solutions of their issues were

made by the munshi/manager of the kiln. (49%) respondents told that their women and children are facing harassment

issues at work places, like facing physical and verbal harassment. They are found fearful regarding their future, only

(24%) of the respondents agreed that process of bricks making should be mechanized. (94.55%) of the respondents told

that they have their identity cards (CNICs) and registered as voter and majority (92%) of the respondents told that they

have no familiarity towards labor laws.

Testing of Hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Lower the income of the respondents higher will be the socio-economic challenges

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Niaz et al.,2018

Table: 1. Association between income of the respondents and social-economic challenges faced by the worker Income (Rs.) socio-economic challenges Total

Yes No

Up to 7000

52 78.7%

14 21.2%

66 100.0%

7001-9000

38

65.5%

20

34.4%

58

100.0%

9001-11000

35

70.0%

15

30.0%

50

100.0%

11001 or above 25 54.3%

21 45.6%

46 100.0%

Total 150

68.1%

70

31.8

220

100.0%

Chi-square = 14.07 d.f. = 3 P-value = 0.029* Gamma = 0.142

* = Significant

Table 1 represents the association between incomes the respondents and the socio-economic challenges. Chi-

square value shows a significant association between incomes of the respondents and socio-economic challenges.

Gamma value shows a positive relationship between the variables. So the null hypothesis “there is no association

between income and socio-economic challenge” is rejected.

Hypothesis 2: Female workers will be faced more cultural problems (security, harassment, discrimination) at

workplace

Table: 2. Association between gender and cultural problems at workplace Gender cultural problems at workplace Total

Yes No

Male 83

83.0%

17

17.0%

100

100.0%

Female 90 75.0%

30 25.0%

120 100.0%

Total 173

78.6%

47

21.3%

220

100.0%

Chi-square = 52.12 d.f. = 1 P-value = 0.000** Gamma = 0.832

** = Highly significant

Table 2 represents the association between gender of the workers and cultural problems (security, harassment,

discrimination) at workplace. Chi-square value shows a highly significant association between gender and cultural

problems (security, harassment and discrimination), they are faced. Gamma value shows a strong positive relationship

between the variables. It means female facing more cultural problems (security, harassment and discrimination) at

workplace. So the null hypothesis “there is no association between gender and cultural problems (security, harassment

and discrimination) at workplace” is rejected.

IV- DISCUSSIONS

The absence of basic facilities can affect the functioning of the individuals and then over all smooth running of

society. Manual labor at Brick Kilns portrays stratum of population which is living below the standard line of minimum

life requirement. Still they are living and doing the same job and own their work. They have a distinct way to live life,

their own traditions, values and aspirations. Economically they are very poor because they are captured in the nasty cycle

of bonded labor. People are bound to work on low wages according to the will and wish of those who control their means

of sustenance. Brick kiln workers are at the margins of Pakistani society. The whole family of a worker offers their

services and even then hardly lives from hand to mouth. The present study will probe the problems & vulnerability of the

workers at brick kiln.

It is a well-known fact that there are thousands of families and their children engaged in brick making industry

and majority of them work in bounded environment. Since, they live in isolation from the main population, there living

conditions and wellbeing are largely dilapidated. Certainly, the in-depth knowledge about these factors is almost not

existent. Thus, this study explores the problems and threats faced by the workers, working at brick kilns in District

Faisalabad. This study is expected to provide answers to some of the questions; basis of which a concrete strategy and or

109


action plan to address their problems and to get rid of the expected threats with alternative opportunities to improve their

livelihood and wellbeing is designed.

Brick making is one of the primitive manufacturing industries in the world and this skill is as ancient as the

Indus valley Civilization. In Pakistan, large numbers of families are associated with this industry in towns and cities.

Families working at brick kilns make important contribution in the economy of Pakistan but at the other end they are

suffering in different social, economic, cultural and psychological issues. Even their children and females worked hard to

get rid of such issues. So, giving the importance to this portion of community it would be the responsibility of social

scientists that the issues faced by them would be identified and highlighted. In this study, multiple aspects of families

working at brick kilns would be discussed like to assess their socio-economic status, to find out in depth information

about their daily living patterns, to find out their social, economic and cultural problems. Moreover, parent’s desires and

wishes towards their children’s social lives and future and multi directional harassment issues in gendered perspective

and exploitative domains would be investigated. The whole study was gone through the detailed investigation of social,

economic and cultural problems of families working at brick kilns in district Faisalabad.

V- CONCLUSIONS

The primary data indicates that the living standards of the workers require urgent improvement as basic

facilities are lacking whether in terms of housing needs, or access to social services. Most of the workers are poor and

they are earning less than their monthly incomes and they have to borrow money to manage their monthly budgets.

Access to education and health are the bigger issues of the area and access to health care facilities provided by the

public sector or employer is non-existent. Mostly families are living rent free katcha houses provided by the owners and

they have no convenience to move even in emergencies. As the basic facilities are concerned drinking water is available

at workplaces but no one knows about its purity. The source of this availability is the employer or the welfare

organizations. Mostly brick kiln residents are using outdoor toileting for defecations. There is no drainage system and

they are using wood as fuel for cooking. No play grounds for any recreational or supports activity and no basic

education facility at their work places and neither vocational institutes nor training school for them and children at their

work places. Majority facing health issues due to the hazards nature of work and children’s and women are also facing

different diseases like fever, eye/ear infection, chest problems and skin infections. There was no dispensary available for

them at work places or first aid box facility to cater emergencies. Mostly people are doing brick kilns because their

parents involve in this profession while some adopted this profession because they have taken loans or advances from

the brick kilns owners. Families working at kilns are ready to skip this profession if replacement opportunities were

available to them. Brick making is a time taking profession and people are doing 14 hours working in a day and they are

doing work at night times also and this practice is continued round the year at brick kilns. More teasing situation for the

families working at kilns is when they are facing rubbish and harsh attitude from the manager’s/munshi’s. Moreover,

there is no any facility to report any sort of incident at brick kilns. Women and children of brick kilns working families

facing continues harassment issues at workplaces. People working at brick kilns were not happy that this profession

should be mechanized. There is no any platform for raising the issues or conflicts of working families and all the

decisions or solutions of their issues were made by the mushi/manager at the kiln. They have their identity cards

(CNICs) and get registered as voter.

Testing of hypotheses results also showing the associations between the variables and the intensity of the

problem discussed in the research. Chi-square value shows a significant association between incomes of the respondents

and socio-economic challenges. Gamma value shows a positive relationship between the variables. So the null

hypothesis “there is no association between income and socio-economic challenge” is rejected and alternative

hypothesis accepted. Chi-square value shows a highly significant association between gender and cultural problems

(security, harassment and discrimination) they are faced. Gamma value shows a strong positive relationship between the

variables. It means female respondents facing cultural problems (security, harassment and discrimination) at workplace.

So the null hypothesis “there is no association between gender and cultural problems (security, harassment and

discrimination) workplace” is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted.

VI- SUGGESTIONS:

Researcher proposes the following recommendations;

• There should be schooling for children and provision of non-formal schools in the area. There should be adult

Literacy and/or Vocational Training with compensation for the working families and their children.

• Alternative skills training can be initiated.

• Better quality health facilities should be provided by the government at brick kiln’s working families with

suitable stipend.

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Niaz et al.,2018

• Health insurance schemes for the poor should be launched.

• Availability of pure drinking water and first-aid box should be the compulsory at every kiln, and it should be

monitored by the government authorities.

• There should workers union to raise their voice for dispute resolution and associations for articulating workers’

demands.

REFERENCES

1. Asian Development Bank (2011). “Economic trends and prospects in Developing Asia: South Asia,” chapter from

Asian Development Outlook2011: South‐South Economic Links, Asian Development Bank, p.143‐146.

2. Kamber, M. (2011). “In Afghan Kilns, Cycle of Debt and Servitude,” the new York Times,15 March2011.

3. Sultam M. (2011). Socio-economic conditions of workers working at Kilns, Research for human Development

Research Paper, UNDP.

4. Pavgi, &Kedar (2011). “The7Fastest‐GrowingCitiesintheWorld,” Foreign Policy, 26 October, 2011.

5. Federal Bureau of Statistics (2007). Government of Pakistan. “Labor Force Survey”2006-2007”. Islamabad

6. Kumar (2010). “Socio‐economic conditions of child labor: A case study for the fishing sector on Baluchistan coast,”

International Journal of Social Economics, Vol.37, No.4,p 316‐338.

7. Thomas (2008). Rural bonded labor: A review of the definitions of child labor in policy research, ”Working Paper,

Geneva.

8. Labor Force Survey (2007). Labor Force Survey 2006-2007. Annual Report. Islamabad, Government of Pakistan.

9. International Labor Organization (2007). Multi-Bilateral Programme of Technical Cooperation. Progress Report.

International Labor Organization- Pakistan.

10. Panneerselvam, R. (2005). “Research methodology”, Prentice-Hall of India private limited New Delhi.

11. SPARC (2004). The State of Pakistan’s Children Annual Report. Islamabad, Society for the Protection of the Rights

of the Child.

12. Gupta, J. (2003). “Informal Labor in Brick Kilns: Need for Regulation,” Economic and Political Weekly, 2 August:

3282–92.

13. Gujarati, D. N. (2003). “Basic Econometrics” fourth edition McGraw Hill, New York.

14. Ercelawn, A. & Karamat (2002). Bonded Labor in Pakistan: Impact of Policy, Law and Economy. The Journal,

NIPA, Karachi, vol. 7, No.1.

15. Bales (2002). “Bonded Labor and Serfdom: A Paradox of Voluntary Choice,” Journal of Development Economics,

Vol.67, Issue1,101‐127.

16. Naisr (2001), Bonded labor at kilns in Sothern Punjab. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.17, No.2, p.147‐173.

Multan, Pakistan.

17. Nauman, M. (2000) Bonded Labor in Pakistan: An Overview. Karachi, Pakistan Institute of Labor Education and

Research.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

*Corresponding Author: Itbar Khan, Ph. D Scholar, International Islamic University Islamabad,

Email:[email protected]

The relationship of Instructional Beliefs of Teacher Educators with their

Classroom Practices in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

*Itbar Khan1, Azhar Mehmood**, Nabi Bux Jumani****

*Ph. D Scholar, International Islamic University Islamabad

**Associate Professor, International Islamic University Islamabad ***Professor of Education, International Islamic University Islamabad



ABSTRACT

This study examined the relationship between teacher educators’ instructional beliefs and their classroom practices

and explored the difference in the observed and self-reported practices of teacher educators. A self-developed 21-

item questionnaire, measuring constructivist and traditional beliefs and a 22-item self-reported classroom practices

questionnaire measuring constructivist and traditional practices, were administered to 140 randomly selected teacher

educators from 09 departments of education in Universities and 20 Regional Institutes of Teacher Education

(RITEs). Mean values were measured to find out the beliefs and practices; paired sample t-test was used for

calculating the difference in observed and self-reported practices and Pearson r was calculated to find out the

relationship between the instructional beliefs and classroom practices of teacher educators. It was found that the

instructional beliefs of the teacher educators were significantly correlated with their classroom practices. As a

whole, teacher educators believed in constructivist beliefs and practices. They also used and believed in some

traditional practices and beliefs respectively. There were significant differences in the self-reported and observed

instructional practices and no significant difference was observed in the self-reported and observed traditional

practices. The study recommends teaching of instructional beliefs and training through constructivist classroom

practices for teacher educators.

KEYWORDS: Teacher educators, instructional beliefs, classroom practices, traditional classroom practices,

constructivist practices.

1. INTRODUCTION

Research in the field of teacher education suggests that teachers’ classroom behaviors predicate on their beliefs,

which they hold about teaching, learners, learning and knowledge. Pajares (1992) identified many terms for

teachers’ beliefs, which include, attitudes, values, judgments, opinions, ideology, perceptions and so on. Kagan

(1992) opines that “most of the professional knowledge of a teacher can be considered as beliefs” (p.73). Nespor

(1987) and other researchers (Griffin &Ohlsson, 2001; Kagan, 1992; Pajares, 1992) have concluded that beliefs have

greater influence than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems which

mold them into stronger foretellers of behavior.

Fives and Buehl (2012) contend that the understanding of reality by an individual is always seen through their

current beliefs; they can work as filter in teacher education. Beliefs shape what teachers know and how they have

learnt. And there is a possibility that such beliefs have an important relationship with teacher knowledge and

practices. Similarly, according to Kagan (1990) teachers’ beliefs are “at the very heart of teaching” (p. 85).

Teachers’ beliefs researchers take keen interest in what teachers’ think about knowledge, how students become

proficient in learning and knowledge and what teachers do to facilitate the development of such proficiency. This

also answers how these beliefs develop and the role it plays in classroom practices (Jeff, 2015).

2. Instructional Beliefs

Instructional beliefs refer to the beliefs about teaching and learning, role of teacher and students. These are mainly

divided into 2 major beliefs: constructivist beliefs (CB), and traditional beliefs (TB). Constructivist teaching

typically involves more student-centered, active learning experiences, more student-student and student-teacher

interaction, and more work with concrete materials and in solving realistic problems (Berliner & Calfee, 1996).

Traditional beliefs involve teacher centered approaches, transmission type of teaching and learning.

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Khan et al.,2018

3. Relationship of Beliefs and Classroom Practices

Bandura (1997) posits that beliefs, more than truth, guide our goals, emotions, decisions, actions, and reactions.

Kagan (1992) argues that there is a significant relationship between beliefs and the type of classroom practices. The

relationship between beliefs and classroom practices is found across different classes and levels. Ertmer,

Gopalakrishnan and Ross (2000) concluded that if we want to integrate technology in such a way which benefits the

learning of students, we must consider how the current practices of teachers are traced to and organized by the

pedagogical beliefs of teachers.

In real classroom situation, teachers’ beliefs and their classroom instructions are often inconsistent due to a variety

of variables such as the pressure to adapt to a particular school philosophy and government instructions. Liu (2011)

posits that elementary teachers, who have constructivist beliefs about instruction, believe in constructivist practices,

but in real classroom s they do not practice it. The main factor which the teachers showed was the achievements of

students. Khader (2012) investigated the stated beliefs of social studies teachers and their classroom practices and

found no statistically significant correlation between the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their actual classroom

practices of such beliefs. This inconsistency was due to overcrowded classrooms, teachers, busy schedule and other

assignments.

There are contradictions between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices. Calderhead (1996), Ertmer,

Gopalakrishnan, & Ross (2000) and, Fang (1996) described a number of studies in which researchers found little

relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their instructional reading practices, and suggested that contextual factors

affected the teachers’ ability to constantly apply their beliefs in practice. Results from a study of technology-using

teachers supported this as well. Ertmer, Gopalakrishnan and Ross (2000) reported that teachers’ visions for, or

beliefs about, classroom technology use did not always match their classroom practices. Nevertheless, the findings

confirm that these beliefs serve as the key evaluator of their students’ literacy development (Powers, Zippay&

Butler, 2006).

The role ascribed to teachers’ beliefs is of particular interest in relation to the implementation of curriculum reform.

Fenstermacher (1978) suggested that if “our purpose and intent are to change the practices of those who teach, it is

necessary to come to grips with the subjectively reasonable beliefs of teachers” (p. 174). More specifically,

teachers’ beliefs are considered as a filter, interpretive device, and transformer of curricular intentions established

elsewhere (Bryan, 2012; Griffin &Ohlsson, 2001; Kagan, 1990; Pajares, 1992).

4. Purpose of the Research Article

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between teacher educators’ instructional beliefs and their

classroom practices and to find out difference in the observed and self-reported instructional practices. Other

researchers have investigated the influence of teachers’ pedagogical beliefs on classroom practices related to science

(Czerniak & Lumpe, 1996), history (Wilson & Wineburg, 1993) and literacy. Most of the studies had investigated

the beliefs of students in teacher education; few studies had looked into the instructional beliefs of teacher

educators’ and their relationship with classroom practices in teacher education institutions. Moreover, less attention

has been paid to teachers’ beliefs in Pakistan and less to the beliefs of teacher educators in the world. Furthermore,

recently teacher education curriculum has been changed in Pakistan. The changed curricula for 4 year and 2 year

degree in education in Pakistan demands constructivist practices. This study investigated the instructional beliefs of

teacher educators and their practices in classroom.

5. The current research aimed to investigate the following questions

1. What are the instructional beliefs of teacher educators in Khyber Pakhunkhwa, Pakistan?

2. What are the instructional practices of teacher educators in Khyber Pakhunkhwa, Pakistan?

3. What is the relationship between instructional beliefs and instructional practices of these teacher educators?

4. Is there any difference in the self-reported and observed instructional practices of teacher educators?

6. Methodology

As a co-relational research, the study aimed to examine the relationship between instructional beliefs and classroom

practices of teacher educators in teacher education institutions. Data were collected from the participants without

any manipulation. Mean and standard deviation was calculated to measure the beliefs and practices; Pearson r was

calculated to examine the relationship between the instructional beliefs and instructional practices of teacher

educators and paired sample t- test was used to find out the difference in the observed instructional practices of

teacher educators.

113


6.1 Participants

The participants for the study were randomly selected from both the strata of the population, RITEs and universities.

There are total 149 teacher educators in RITEs and 62 teacher educators in universities. So, 111 teacher educators

from 20 RITES and 47 teacher educators from 09 universities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were selected through

stratified random sampling. The age of 5 educators ranged from 24-33 (3%), 43 were from 31-40 (30%), 50 were

from 41-50 (40%) and 50 (25%) teacher educators were above 50 years old. All the teacher educators have master

degrees along with professional qualification. There were 21 (15%) teacher educators who held bachelor degrees in

education, 72 (51%) held master degrees in education, 18 (12%) had Master of Philosophy degrees and 28 (20%)

teacher educators had Doctor of Philosophy in education.

6.2 Data collection tool and Analysis

Self-developed questionnaire for instructional beliefs, consisting of two main dimensions, one covering

constructivist instructional beliefs and another covering transmission instructional belief were administered.

Similarly, the instructional beliefs questionnaire was modified in a way to find out the classroom practices of

teachers. The instructional beliefs questionnaire used Likert Scale (Strongly Disagree =1, Disagree=2, Not sure=3,

Agree=4, Strongly Agree=5) for measuring the beliefs. The classroom practices questionnaire also used Likert Scale

(never = 1, rarely= 2, sometimes=3, often= 4, always=5). Scores on both the dimensions of the questionnaire was

summed up and means were found out. The more the score, the more the dimension in the respective questionnaire.

The Cronbach alpha of the constructivist dimension in instructional practices scale was .741 and the alpha value of

the traditional practices items was .611. Cronbach Alpha of the Instructional beliefs questionnaire was .661, the

Alpha of the constructivist beliefs was .687 and Alpha of the traditional beliefs was .757

7. Data Analysis

Figure 1: Constructivist Beliefs of teacher Educators

Key: SD: Strongly Disagree D: Disagree NS: Not Sure A: Agree SA: Strongly Agree

Figure 1 shows that 35% teachers ‘Strongly Agreed’, 55% ‘Agreed’, 3% were ‘Not Sure’, 5% ‘Disagreed’ and 2%

‘Strongly Agreed’ that constructivist instructional practices should be used. Means value of the constructivist

instructional beliefs show that a majority of the teacher educators believed in the constructivist instructional beliefs.

2 5 3

55

35

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

SD D NS A SA

pe

rce

nt

category

Constructivist Beliefs Mean:4.7

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Khan et al.,2018

Figure 2: Traditional Beliefs of Teacher Educators

Figure 2 indicates that, 9% teacher educators “Strongly Agreed”, 26% “Agreed”, 9% were “Not Sure,” 48%

“Disagreed” and 11% “Strongly Disagreed” that teacher educators should use traditional instructional practices. The

mean value (2.76) of traditional instructional beliefs shows people have less traditional instructional beliefs.

However, the value is just below average. Mean value of the statement (Teacher educator is to impart knowledge) in

the questionnaire is 3.95, which shows that educators impart knowledge. They do not allow the learners to create

knowledge. Similarly, educators prescribe certain methods and they correct misconceptions. The data shows that

35% teacher educators agreed with the traditional instructional beliefs which is a huge number.

Figure 3: Traditional Instructional Practices

Key: N: Never R: Rarely S: Sometimes O: Often A: Always

In response to traditional instructional practices, Figure 3 provides percentage responses of the teachers i.e. 15%

“Always,” 22% “Often,” 29% “Sometimes”, 19% “Rarely”, and 14% “Never” used traditional Instructional

Practices. Mean value of traditional Instructional Practices (2.91) shows that it is just below average, which means

that teacher educators used traditional instructional practices. A majority of the teachers used researched based

material, delivered lectures and corrected misconceptions, which are traditional classroom practices.

11

48

9

26

9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

SD D NS A SA

pe

rce

nt

Category

Traditional Instructional Beliefs Mean: 3.31

StD: 1.16

14

19

29

22

15

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

N R S O A

pe

rce

nt

Category

Traditional Instructional Practices

Mean:2.91

StD: .61

115


Figure 4: Constructivist Instructional Practices of Teacher Educators

In response to self-reported constructivist practices of teacher educators, Figure 4 provides percentage responses of

the teachers i.e.40% “Always”, 40% “Often,” 13% “Sometimes,” 2% “Rarely,” and 3% “Never” used constructivist

instructional practices. Mean value (4.28) of constructivist instructional beliefs shows that most of the teacher

educators practiced constructivist practices in classroom.

Table 1 Relationship between Instructional Beliefs and Instructional Practices Traditional

beliefs

Traditional

practices

Constructivist

Beliefs

Constructivist

Practices

Instructional

Beliefs

Classroom

Practices

Traditional

Beliefs

1

Traditional

Practices

.521**

.000

Constructivist

Beliefs

-.116 -.071

.173 .403

Constructivist

Practices

-.035 -.120 .333**

.685 .157 .000

Instructional

Beliefs

.761** .390** .556** .189*

.000 .000 .000 .026

Classroom

practices

.420**

.000 .771**

.000 .153 .071

.539**

.000 .452**

.000 1

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **.

Table 1 shows the results of interrelationship between instructional beliefs and instructional practices of teacher

educators. The results show that there is positive significance correlation between traditional practices and

traditional beliefs (r: .521**, p: .000). There is a negative correlation between constructivist beliefs and traditional

beliefs and traditional practices with r: -.116, p: .173, r: -.071, p: .403, respectively. There is also negative

correlation between constructivist practices and traditional beliefs (r: -.035, p: .685), traditional practices (r: -.120, p:

.157); there is significant positive correlation between constructivist practices and constructivist beliefs (r: .333**, p:

.000).Moreover, Instructional Beliefs as a whole had significant positive correlation with traditional classroom

practices (r: .390**, p: 000) and insignificant positive relationship with constructivist classroom practices (r: .189*,

3 2

13

40 40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

N R S O A

pe

rce

nt

category

Constructivist Practices

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Khan et al.,2018

p: .026). Similarly, instructional practices as a whole had significant positive correlation with Traditional Beliefs

(r:.420**, p: .000) and insignificant positive correlation with constructivist beliefs (r: .153, p: .071).

8. DIFFERENCE IN THE OBSERVED AND SELF-REPORTED CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL

PRACTICES

Table 2. Difference in the Observed and Self-Reported Traditional Practices Paired Samples Statistics Mean N S. D Std. Error Mean t Sig.( 2-tailed)

Observed Traditional Practices 3.31 34 .42 .073 1.049 .302

Self- Reported Traditional

Practices

3.18 34 .63 .10

Mean Difference is not Significant at P<0.05

Table 2 shows the comparison of observed traditional instructional practices and self-reported traditional

instructional practices. The mean value of observed traditional instructional practices was 3.31 with S.D .42 and the

mean value of self-reported instructional practices was 3.18 with S.D. 3.18. But paired t test showed no significant

difference as p> 0.05.

Table 3 Difference in the Observed and Self-Reported Constructivist Instructional Practices Mean N S.D. Std. Error Mean t sig.(2-tailed

Observed Constructivist

Practices

3.4251 34 .48556 .08327 -7.832 .000

Self- Reported Constructivist Practices

4.2567 34 .41174 .07061

Mean Difference is Significant at P<0.05

N= Number of observed teachers, S.D= Standard Deviation

Table 7 depicts that the mean value of observed constructivist practices was 3.42, S.D .48 and the mean value of

Self- Reported Constructivist Practices was 4.25, S.D .41. The mean difference between the observed constructivist

instructional practices and self-reported constructivist practices was significant as p< 0.05.

9. Discussion

Based on the relative mean score values, there was a greater tendency of the teacher educators to hold constructivist

beliefs but at the same time they also believed and practiced some traditional beliefs and practices, like, lecturing,

providing information, correcting misconceptions. It means that there is no consistency in their beliefs and practices,

which also showed they were not fully cognizant of constructivist practices. Above average teachers delivered

lectures but below average teacher educators believed in lectures. In this case, beliefs have not effected practices. It

seems that the prevailing practice of lectures in higher education is dominant in Pakistan. As a whole, traditional

beliefs and traditional practices are positively correlated; similarly, constructivist beliefs and constructivist practices

are positively correlated. The study also found significant relations between traditional beliefs and traditional

practices and between constructivist beliefs and constructivist practices. It showed classroom practices as a whole

were driven by beliefs. The study also showed that teachers believed in constructivist beliefs but there was a

difference in the self-reported and observed constructivist practices. It showed that teachers have some contextual,

institutional or other reasons due to which they could not practice what they believed. The study extends the findings

of Khadar (2012), Powers, Zippay& Butler, (2006), Calderhead, (1996), Ertmer, Gopalakrishnan, & Ross (2000),

Fang (1996), Ertmer, Gopalakrishnan and Ross (2000), Liu (2011). This study highlights the important influence of

instructional beliefs on the classroom practices of teacher educators. Teacher educators should especially think about

their espoused beliefs and think about their practices if they conform to the curricular needs of teacher educators.

10. Implications for Teacher Education

1. Instructional beliefs and classroom practices have significant positive co-relationship. It means that

educators may be given training on constructivist beliefs so that they think over their beliefs and form right

sort of beliefs.

2. Teacher educators, according to reported beliefs and practices, believed and practiced constructivist beliefs

and practices. However, it was also found that they did not have consistency in their beliefs. This means

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that teacher educators might not have clear idea about constructivist practices and beliefs. Again, they need

to ponder over their beliefs and practices in the classroom. In observation, it was found that teacher

educators need proper training in constructivist practices. There may be courses in teacher education

curriculum on the beliefs. Most of the courses in the earlier curricula for teacher education did not have

content on beliefs system. Even, the innovated curricula for 4 year degree in education did not have content

on beliefs and their importance in teaching and learning.

3. These teachers have been educated in teacher centered classrooms and teacher education courses in

universities and RITES do not have enough material on beliefs; therefore, these teacher educators have

simple beliefs or they do not clear ideas about instructional beliefs. And this is a cycle which will continue

until stopped by teacher education institutions. Teacher educators may be given training and reading

material and then they may question their beliefs if they have such beliefs which promote teacher centered

beliefs or otherwise. Once the beliefs of teacher educators are reframed, they should ask the prospective

students to reflect upon their beliefs. As Chi-Kin Leo, Zhang, Song, Huang (2013) have posited that teacher

educators may make prospective teachers conscious about their beliefs.

4. Teachers in primary and high schools may be given intensive training on constructivist beliefs and

instructional practices because these teachers did have necessary knowledge about students’ centered

beliefs and practices.

REFERENCES

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planning 13, no. 1 (1990): 9-17.

Berliner, David C., and Robert C. Calfee, eds. Handbook of educational psychology. Routledge, 1996.

Bryan, L. A. (2012). Research on science teacher beliefs Second international handbook of science education (pp.

477-495): Springer.

Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge.

Creswell, J. W. (2015). Revisiting mixed methods and advancing scientific practices The Oxford handbook of

multimethod and mixed methods research inquiry.

Czerniak, C. M., &Lumpe, A. T. (1996). Relationship between teacher beliefs and science education reform.

Journal of Science Teacher Education, 7(4), 247-266.

Ertmer, P. A., Gopalakrishnan, S., & Ross, E. (2000). Technology-using teachers: Comparing perceptions of

exemplary technology use to best practice: Citeseer.

Ertmer, P. A., Gopalakrishnan, S., & Ross, E. (2000). Technology-using teachers: Comparing perceptions of

exemplary technology use to best practice

Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational research, 38(1), 47-65.

Fenstermacher, G. D. (1978). 4: A Philosophical Consideration of Recent Research on Teacher Effectiveness.

Review of research in education, 6(1), 157-185.

Fives, H., & Buehl, M. M. (2012). Spring cleaning for the “messy” construct of teachers’ beliefs: What are they?

Which have been examined? What can they tell us.APA educational psychology handbook, 2, 471-499.

Griffin, T. D., &Ohlsson, S. (2001). Beliefs versus knowledge: A necessary distinction for explaining, predicting,

and assessing conceptual change. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference of the

Cognitive Science Society.

Grossman, P. L., Wilson, S. M., & Shulman, L. S. (1989). Teachers of substance: Subject matter knowledge for

teaching. Profesorado, Revista de Currículum y Formacióndel Profesorado, 9(2), 1-25.

Kagan, D. M. (1990). Ways of evaluating teacher cognition: Inferences concerning the Goldilocks principle. Review

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of educational research, 60(3), 419-469.

Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implication of research on teacher belief. Educational psychologist, 27(1), 65-90.

Khader, F. R. (2012). Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and actual classroom practices in social studies instruction.

American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(1), 73-92.

Liu, S.-H. (2011). Factors related to pedagogical beliefs of teachers and technology integration. Computers &

Education, 56(4), 1012-1022.

Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of curriculum studies, 19(4), 317-328.

Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of

educational research, 62(3), 307-332.

Powers, S. W., Zippay, C., & Butler, B. (2006). Investigating connections between teacher beliefs and instructional

practices with struggling readers. Reading Horizons, 47(2), 121.

Skott, J. (2015). The promises, problems, and prospects of research on teachers’ beliefs. International handbook of

research on teachers’ beliefs, 13-30.

Wilson, S. M., & Wineburg, S. S. (1993). Wrinkles in time and place: Using performance assessments to understand

the knowledge of history teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 30(4), 729-769.

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*Corresponding Author: Erma Retnaningtyas, STIkes Surya Mitra Husada Kediri, Indonesia

e-mail: [email protected]

The Role of Midwife on the Use of Poedji Rochjati Score Card with

Knowledge of Cadres in Early Detection of Pregnant Women Risk in

Working Area Sidomulyo Health Center

Erma Retnaningtyas




ABSTRACT

In general, pregnancy is developing normally and produce enough babies and healthy month. However,

sometimes these developments are not as expected. Is difficult to know in advance that a pregnancy would

be an issue or not. The aim of research to determine the relationship of the role of the midwife about using

scorecards Poedji rochjati with knowledge of Cadres to detect high-risk pregnancies in the working area

Sidomulyo health centers. The study design was observational analytic with cross sectional approach.

Respondents were taken using simple random sampling. The population of all Cadress of health centers in

the region of Sidomulyo, a sample of 85 respondents. The independent variable role of midwife about using

scorecards Poedji rochjati, the dependent variable knowledge Cadres to detect high risk pregnancy. The

results are analyzed using Spearman's test-Rho. The results of research into the role of midwives about

using scorecards Poedji Rochjati known to most Cadres said the midwife had a role quite as many as 51

respondents (60%), results of research knowledge Cadres to detect high risk pregnancy known to most

respondents knowledgeable enough of 52 respondents (61,2%). The results of data analysis showed a

significant value of p = 0,000 <α = 0,05 so that H0 rejected and H1 accepted as such there is a relationship

role midwife about using scorecards Poedji rochjati with knowledge of Cadres to detect high-risk

pregnancies in the region of working area Sidomulyo health centers. Midwives have an important role in

guiding Cadres, where the better the midwife's role then the better the knowledge of Cadres.

KEYWORDS : Role Midwives, Score Card Poedji Rochjati, High-Risk Pregnancy

INTRODUCTION

A high-risk pregnancy is a pregnancy that can cause pregnant women and babies to become sick

or die, before a mother gives birth [1]. High-risk pregnancies in pregnant women include: age (too young

ie less than 20 years old and too old over 35 years), distance less than 2 years, height less than 145 cm,

upper arm circumference less than 23.5 cm , hemoglobin less than 11 g / dl, pregnant more than 4 times,

family history of diabetes or diabetes mellitus, hypertension and history of congenital defects, body

abnormalities, eg spinal or pelvic disorders [2].

The achievement of high-risk early detection conducted by health workers in March 2016 was

65%, still below the government's target of 80% [3]. According to preliminary survey on April 26, 2016 at

Sidomulyo Public Health Center, it was found that pregnant women aged about 16 years were 35% and

number of children> 4 by 20%, 15% soon pregnant (<2 years). Interviews on five Cadress found 3 Cadress

had never received an explanation of the Poedji Rochjati score card. While 2 Cadress who have been getting

an explanation from midwife about KSPR never do early detection of high risk in pregnant mother because

do not feel confident. Kader only conducts posyandu activities regularly.

High-risk pregnancies can result in risk in labor, approximately 40% of pregnant women have

health problems associated with pregnancy and 15% of all pregnant women suffer long-term life-

threatening complications and even lead to death [4]. One of the Government of Indonesia's efforts to

anticipate complications in pregnancy is by early detection using the Poedji Rochjati Score Card (KSPR)

issued by the Department of Save Motherhood at Soetomo General Hospital Surabaya with the help of

Cadres personnel trained by the midwife to monitor the development of maternal health conditions from

pregnancy to birth. [5]

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the role of midwife about the

use of poedji rochjati score card with knowledge of Cadress to detect high risk pregnancy in the working

area of Sidomulyo health center.

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Retnaningtyas, 2018

METHODS

The research design used observational analytic with cross sectional approach. This research was

conducted at integrated service post at Working Area of Sidomulyo Public Health Center on 11th to 15th

October 2016 with the number of respondent 85 Kader. The independent variable in this research is the role

of midwife about the use of poedji rochjati score card. Dependent variable knowledge of Cadres in early

detection of risk of pregnant mother. The results were analyzed using Spearman-Rho test.

RESULTS

Table.1 Distribution of Respondent Characteristics Karakteristik Frekuensi Presentase

Long become Cadres (Year)

<1 Year

1-2 Year

>2 Year

Total

14

31

40 85

16,47

36,47

47,05 100

The Role of Midwives on the Use of KSPR

Less

Enough

Good

Total

19

51

15

85

22,4

60

17,6

100

Cadres Knowledge in Early Detection of Risk of Pregnant Women

Less

Enough

Good

Total

12 52

21 85

14,1 61,2

24,7 100

Source: Results of data analysis, Year 2016.

Based on Table 1, it is known that almost half of the respondents have become Cadres> 2 years as many as

40 respondents (47.05%), The role of the midwife on the use of poedji rochjati score cards is quite a lot of

51 respondents (60%), Knowledge of Cadress in Early detection risk of pregnant mother mostly have

enough knowledge as much 52 respondents (61,2%).

The Role of Midwives on the Use of the Rochjati Poedji Card Score With Cadress Knowledge In

Early Detection Risk of Pregnant Women

Table. 2 Relationship of Independent Variables and Dependent Variables Role of Midwives Cadress Knowledge Total

p value

Kurang Cukup Baik

N % N % N % N %

Less 10 11,8 9 10,6 0 0 19 22,4

Enough 2 2,4 40 47,1 9 10,6 51 60,0 0,000

Good 0 0 3 3,5 12 14,1 15 17,6

Total 12 14,2 52 61,2 21 24,7 85 100

From Table 2, the results obtained are Knowledge Cadres Both in detecting high risk pregnancy

has role enough midwife that is as much as 9 respondents (10,6%). Cadres who have good knowledge in

detecting high-risk pregnancy have a good midwife role as many as 12 respondents (14.1%). From Test

From the test of the relationship obtained p value of 0.000. From the result, it can be concluded that there

is a correlation between Cadres knowledge about early pregnant women's risk detection with midwife role

in poedji rochjati score card score (p value ≤0,05).

Test Statistics The Role of Midwives About the Use of the Rochjati Poedji Card Score With Kader

Knowledge In Early Detection Risk of Pregnant Women

Table. 3 Statistical Test Results Variabel Sig. (2-taile) Correlation Coefficient

The role of midwife on the use of poedji rochjati score card with

knowledge of Cadres in early detection of pregnant women risk in

Working area Sidomulyo Health Center

.000 .679**

121


Based on the results of statistical tests that have been done is known that the value of p = 0,000 with

correlation coefficient value of 0.679 which means there is a strong relationship between the role of midwife

about the use of poedji rochjati score card with Cadres knowledge about early detection of pregnant women

risk in Work Area of Sidomulyo Health Center.

DISCUSSION

The Role of Midwives on the Use of the Poedji Rochjati Score Card In the Working Area of the

Sidomulyo Health Center

The role of the midwife on the use of poedji rochjati score cards In the Working Area of the

Sidomulyo Health Center, it is known that most cadres say that midwives have an adequate role of 51

respondents (60.00%) of the total 85 respondents. The role of midwives in midwifery services is as

executors, managers, educators, and researchers. As midwife educators should provide education and health

education to individuals, families, groups, and communities on the prevention of health problems especially

those related to maternal, child and family planning related parties [5].

Most of the cadres In the Working Area of Health Center sidomulyo said that midwife has enough

role as many as 51 respondents (60.00%) from total 85 respondents, this shows that the role of midwife in

guiding cadre about poedji rohcjati score card is enough, but still there are cadres who say that the role of

the midwife is still lacking, this can be seen from the number of cadres who say that the role of midwives

is less that as many as 15 respondents from a total of 85 respondents.

It is said that the role of midwives is less because based on the answers from the questionnaires

distributed to the respondents found that the result of the number of answers distributed the total number

of questionnaires, as many as 15 respondents have the number of answers are below 55%. Kader is a health

worker closest to the community, Kader also has a big role in efforts to improve the community's ability to

help himself to achieve optimal health. For that it is necessary role of a midwife as an educator to guide

and educate cadres, so as to provide services in the community, especially in guiding cadres in the learning

of filling of poedji rochjati score card so as to improve the ability of cadres in using card Poedji Rochjati

[6].

Knowledge of cadres in Early Detection of Risk of Pregnant Women in Work Area of Sidomulyo

Health Center

Knowledge of cadre about the use of poedji rochjati score card In the Working Area of Sidomulyo

Public Health Center, it is known that most of the respondents have enough knowledge that is 52

respondents (61,2%) from total 85 respondents. Knowledge (knowledge) is the result of human sensation,

or the result of knowing a person to the object through the senses possessed (eyes, nose, ears, and so on).

At the time of sensing until the results of knowledge is strongly influenced by the intensity of attention and

perception of the object. Health volunteers are volunteers selected by the community and are tasked with

developing the community. In this case the cadre is also called as a promoter or health promoter [5].

it was found that the majority of cadre knowledge respondents about the use of poedji rochjati

score card In the Working Area of the sidomulyo health center has knowledge of 52 respondents (61.2%)

of the total 85 respondents. Resulted knowledge of cadre enough because based on answer from result of

questionnaires distributed to respondents got that result of amount of answer distributed amount of all

questionnaire data, as many as 52 respondents have answer number is stretched 56-75%.

This shows that cadre knowledge about the use of poedji rochjati score cards and high risk

pregnancies is sufficient, but there are still cadres who have knowledge about the use of poedji rochjati

score cards and high risk pregnancies that are still lacking, this can be seen the results of research showing

that 12 respondents have inadequate knowledge about the use of poedji rochjati score cards and high-risk

pregnancies.

Cadre is a health officer that is not less important in the community, so it is necessary the ability

of adequate cadres in carrying out health services. Therefore, it is necessary for the role of health officer in

this case the midwife to guide and educate the cadres with the ability of the midwife to have especially in

filling the poedji rochjati score card and the introduction of high risk pregnancy signs so that cadre

knowledge can be improved in supporting the service they provide, can assist midwives in recognizing

high-risk pregnancies so that when high-risk pregnancy cases are found to be immediate, thereby helping

pregnant women with high-risk pregnancies to overcome the health problems that natural pregnant women

seek to improve their health status [7].

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Retnaningtyas, 2018

Relationship Role of Midwife About Usage of Poedji Rochjati Card Score With Cadres Knowledge

In Early Detection Of Risk Of Pregnant Mother In Working Area Of Sidomulyo Public Health

Center.

From the results of statistical tests that have been done is known that the value of p = 0,000 means

there is a relationship between the role of midwife about the use of poedji rochjati score card with

knowledge of cadres to detect high-risk pregnancy in the Work Area of health center Sidomulyo, with

correlation coefficient value 0.679 which means there is a relationship strong between the role of midwife

about the use of poedji rochjati score card with knowledge of cadre to detect high risk pregnancy in Working

Area of Sidomulyo Public Health Center.

The role of midwives in midwifery services is as an implementer, manager, educator, and

researcher in the role of midwife educator providing health education and counseling to individuals,

families, groups and communities, training and guiding cadres, reviewing training needs and cadre

guidance, materials for the training of cadre guidance, conducting cadre guidance training by involving

related elements, assessing the results of cadre guidance and documenting all guidance activities [6].

The Poedji Rochjati Score is a way to detect early pregnancies that have a greater risk than usual

(for both mother and baby), the occurrence of illness or death before or after childbirth. The amount of risk

can be poured in the form of numbers called scores. Scores are the weight of forecasts of the weight or

severity of risk or danger. The number of scores provides an understanding of the level of risk faced by

pregnant women. Function score according to Rochjati Poedji is information and educational

communication tool / KIE for client / pregnant mother, husband, family and society, Warning tool for health

officer.

Based on the result of the research, it is known that the role of midwives is sufficient and the

knowledge of cadre about Poedji Rohjati score card and pregnancy risk is sufficient, it shows that midwife

role of midwife role and knowledge of cadre are in line, where the better the midwife role the better the

cadre knowledge, both midwives perform their role in this case as educators the more knowledge is

explained to the cadres so that more knowledge received by the cadres can thus increase the knowledge of

the cadres.

The role of the midwife greatly influences the knowledge of the cadres, therefore the midwife as

a health officer close to the cadre must perform its role as an educator to guide and educate the cadres

especially in this case guide and educate cadres to better understand and understand how to use poedji

rochjati score card. Thus, it can improve cadre understanding, especially about poedji rochjati score card,

so that cadres can do assessment on pregnant women. Therefore, the health of pregnant women will be

controlled, and if there are health problems presented by the cadres based on the assessment by using poedji

rochjati score card, pregnant women will quickly get handling so that pregnant women and the fetus they

conceived quickly helped, and can improve health status [9].

CONCLUSION

1. The role of midwife about the use of Poedji Rochjati score card In the Working Area of Sidomulyo

Public Health Center, it is known that most of cadre said that midwife has enough role as 51 respondents

(60%) from total 85 respondents.

2. Knowledge of cadre about early detection of pregnant women risk In Work Area of Health Center of

sidomulyo known that most of respondent have enough knowledge that is 52 respondents (61,2%).

3. There is a relationship between the role of midwife about the use of Poedji Rochjati score card with

cadre knowledge for early detection of pregnant women risk in Working Area of Sidomulyo Public

Health Center with correlation coefficient 0,679.

REFERENCES

1. Nakamura, Yasuhide. 2010. Maternal and Child Health Handbook in Japan. JMAJ 53 (4):259- 265.

2. Irwan A. Comparison of Determinant Influence Near, Among and Deep to Maternal Death In Surabaya

City Year 2011-2012. Research to achieve SpOg title. 2013.

3. Kediri Regency Health Office Profile.

4. Ministry of Health RI. 2008. Book of Mother and Child Health of East Java Province. Jakarta: Ministry

of Health and JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency)

5. Yulifah, R., Yuswanto, A,. Johan T., 2009. Community Midwifery Care. Jakarta: Salemba Medika.

6. Nugroho, H.A, Nurdiana, D. 2008. Relationship Between Knowledge and Motivation of Posyandu

Cadres with the Activity of Posyandu Cadres in Dukuh Tengah Village District of Brebes District.

Journal of Care, 2 (1): 1-8

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7. Ghebrehiwet M, Morrow RH. Delay in Seeking And Receiving Emergency Obsteric Care In Eritrea.

Journal of Eritrean Medical Association. 2007: 9 (1): 8-13

8. Rochjati P. Antenatal Screening on Pregnant Women: Introduction of Risk Factors. Surabaya:

Airlangga University Press: 2003

9. Singh Suman. 2010. Determinants of The Utilization Of Maternal and Child Health Services In A Rural

Of Uttar Pradesh (India). Indian Journal of Maternal and Child Health, 12 (4)

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*Corresponding Author: Lailan Ni’mah, Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Lambung Mangkurat University.


Lightweight Concrete Production by Gypsum from Waste Materials of

Clamshell and Eggshell

Lailan Ni’mah1*, Fidelis Boy Manurung2, Eka Pramita3

1,2,3Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru 70714, Indonesia



ABSTRACT

Lightweight concrete is the most widely used in civil construction material. Lightweight concrete has a lighter volume weight and

lower density. To form a lightweight concrete required the addition of gypsum. This research is done by calcination process with

the material used is shell and egg shell waste in order to get the best composition from CaO as gypsum composer in making light

concrete. CaO can be produced from the decomposition of CaCO3 contained in the shells and egg shells. The process for

obtaining CaO is shell waste and washed eggshell, dried with oven at 100ºC for 2 hours, then mashed with and sieved to reach

355 micron size. 500 grams of shell waste and eggshells were calcined at 900ºC for 6 hours using furnace. In the calcination

process will be obtained CaCO3 to be reacted with H2SO4 and H2O to form gypsum. Gypsum is used as a raw material in the

manufacture of lightweight concrete. The obtained gypsum was analyzed by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) test to observe

the material surface and XRD (X-Ray Difraction) for analyzed mineral structure. For making gypsum done by mixing eggshells,

clamshell, H2SO4, H2O with variation 40: 0: 20: 40; 30: 10: 20: 40; 20: 20: 20: 40; 10: 30: 20: 40; and 0: 40: 20: 40. To obtain

lightweight concrete is done by mixing gypsum, white cement, styrofoam and H2O with variation of 30: 15: 5: 50: 30. The results

obtained were the best composition of gypsum composition of eggshell and eggshell in the BRG3 samples with ratio of 20%

eggshell, 20% clamshell, 20% sulfuric acid and 40% H2O result 269.9 gram from mass total 450 grams. For the best composition

of lightweight concrete made from gypsum raw is found in BRG3 sample with water absorption of 5.08% and compressive

strength 16.840 kg / cm2. Seangkan, the smallest water absorption is in variable 1 of 2.18%. The result of SEM analysis for the

best gypsum structure is found in gypsum 3. XRD analysis shows that gypsum contains CaSO4.H2O; CaSO4; CaO; SiO2; and

MgO.

KEYWORDS: Gypsum, lightweight concrete, clamshell, eggshell, compressive strength, water absorption.

INTRODUCTION

The development of the world of construction is never separated from the use of concrete as a material reinforcement

structure. Concrete is a very popular building material used in the world of construction services because the concrete is easy to

form and will not change shape when it has reached a certain time. Research on concrete will continue to grow to meet the

demands of the times and conditions of the environment and modernization also encourages the rapid growth of development in

various countries. Knowledge and technology in the field of construction[3,4,5,6,7,8] continue to grow as the development

increases. The high level of development in various countries has impacted on the use of improved light construction materials.

One of the most widely used construction[3,4,5,6,7,8] materials is lightweight concrete. Lightweight concrete[9,10,11] requires a

mild aggregate in its manufacture. The lightweight aggregate is gypsum[1]. Gypsum[1] has been obtained through the mining

process. Continuous exploitation of mining materials[4,5,7,8,12,13,14] makes the quantity of minerals less and can have an

impact on the environment. Given the current mining situation the use of construction[3,4,5,6,7,8] materials should be done

effectively. Center of TEKMIRA LITBANG in 2013 recorded in 1997 gypsum[1] requirement increased sharply that is equal to

2,623,857.22 ton while production amount only 2,110,000.00 ton, production amount less than the amount of consumption so that

required gypsum[1] import equal to 513,603.56 ton for Meet the needs of gypsum[1,2]. Utilization of waste[1,6,7,8,10,11,15,16]

is one of the right solutions to overcome the problem of the scarcity of mining materials[4,5,7,8,12,13,14], for example the

utilization of clamshell waste and eggshell into the basic ingredients of gypsum[1]. Besides obtained from nature, gypsum[1] can

also be made from organic materials[4,5,7,8,12,13,14] containing CaCO3 compounds such clamshells and egg shells.

Clamshell is one of the organic materials that contain the compound CaCO3[17]. Shellfish is also one of the commodities of

Indonesian fishery products that are widely used as processed seafood. Shellfish cultivation is not difficult to make a lot of

commodity shells traded. Shell yield per hectare per year can reach 200-300 tons of whole shell or about 60-100 tons of clam

meat. Part of the shell that is widely used is the meat or aduktor muscle only while the shell is removed and become waste

[1,6,7,8,10,11,15,16]. During this time, clamshell waste is used as a craft materials [4,5,7,8,12,13,14] such as home wall hangings

or accessories.

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Ni’mah et al.,2018

According to[18], another source of CaCO3 that has not been utilized as is eggshell waste. Based on egg production data from

the Directorate General of Animal Husbandry in 2012-2016[19] presented in Table 1. as follows:

Table 1 Production Data of Eggs in Indonesia Egg Type 2012 (ton) 2013 (ton) 2014 (ton) 2015 (ton) 2016 (ton) Increase

(%)

Native chicken 197,084 194,620 184,637 190,739 196,138 2.83

Laying Chickens 1,139,946 1,224,400 1,244,312 1,372,829 1,428,195 4.03

Total 1,337,030 1,419,020 1,428,949 1,563,568 1,624,333 6.83

Based on Table 1, the number of egg production in Indonesia shows the number of egg production in Indonesia each year

increased with the percentage increase reached 6,83%.

Clamshell and eggshell can be used as a source of CaO. CaO can be produced from the decomposition of CaCO3 or

Ca(OH)2[17]. Based on the literature, it is known that the content of CaO in clamshell is about 66,7%[20] and the content of CaO

in eggshell is about 56,89%[21]. This research was conducted to make lightweight concrete[9,10,11] made from gypsum[1] raw

from clamshell and eggshell shell. If this technology can be developed it will increase the use value of clamshell and egg shells so

that the waste is not only a household waste[1,6,7,8,10,11,15,16] but can be utilized into something more economical value.

Concrete

Concrete is the most widely used construction[3,4,5,6,7,8] material. Concrete has several advantages such as relatively

cheap price, easy to form, able to withstand high compressive forces, and resistant to changes in weather and the environment. But

in addition to these advantages, concrete[9,10,11] has a deficiency such as heavy structures due to the weight of the concrete. To

overcome the shortcomings of the concrete[9,10], the use of conventional concrete is replaced with lightweight concrete. Light

concrete[9,10,11] has density variation between 300-1850 kg/m3[22]. Lightweight concrete[9,10,11] has a lighter weight volume

and lower density, lightweight concrete also has the same mixture as conventional concrete, only rough aggregate weight on

lightweight concrete needs to be reduced[23].

Gypsum

Gypsum is one example of minerals with high levels of calcium. Gypsum is the most commonly found with type dihydrate

calcium sulfate and chemical formula CaSO4.2H2O[24]. One of the ingredients of concrete is Gypsum. Gypsum is a white stone

formed due to sea water contamination and heating at 175°C. Gypsum is one of the most sedimentary minerals and is produced on

a large scale with persitilation of saltwater. Gypsum can be used as a natural adhesive and feels warm to the touch. Gypsum

contains 23.28% calcium; 2.34% hydrogen; 32.57% calcium oxide; 20.93% water; and 18.62% sulfur[25].

Compressive Strength

Concrete is a construction[33] material[4,5,7,8,12,13,14] having a characteristic compressive strength[9,10,11], that is,

when examined by a large number of test objects, its value will spread around a certain average value. Based on the collapsed

loads that can be received by the specimen, the value of the compressive strength of the lightweight concrete[9,10,11] can be

calculated using the following formula[26] :

=

Description :

fc = compressive strength (kg/cm2)

P = Collapse load that can be accepted by the test object (kg)

A = Width of press field (cm2)

The formula for water absorption is :

WB =

100%

Description :

WB = Concrete water absorption (%)

Mj = Density of water (g)

Mk = Dry sample mass (g)


Raw Material Preparation

Waste of clamshell and eggshell was washed using aquadest. Then the shells and shells of eggshells are dried by oven at

100ºC for 2 hours. After drying, the shells and egg shells are smoothed using porcelain mortar and sieved up to 355 micron.

Gypsum Production Process

Waste of shell shells and shell sieves of 500 g per raw material were calcined at 900ºC for 6 hours using furnace. After shell

wastes and eggshell shells are calcined, a variable composition is used. Then diluted with distilled water[32] with a composition

126


based on fixed variables, then added sulfuric acid solution based on fixed variable. Previously 97% sulfuric acid to be used was

diluted to a concentration of 30% using aquadest. The third mixture of the material is stirred using a stirring motor at a speed of

600 rpm to homogeneous. Homogeneous slurry is introduced into an anti-heat container to be dried using an oven at 100ºC for 2

hours and weighs the weight.

Table 2 Mixing ratio clamshells, eggshells, sulfuric acid solution, and distilled water Sample Compositions

Eggshell (%) Clamshells (%) H2SO4 (%) H2O (%)

G1 40 0 20 40

G2 30 10 20 40

G3 20 20 20 40

G4 10 30 20 40

G5 0 40 20 40

Table 3 Mixing ratio of lightweight concrete samples made from gypsum Sample Compositions

Gypsum

(%)

White Cement

(%)

Styrofoam

(%)

H2O (mL)

BRG1 30 15 5 50

BRG2 30 15 5 50

BRG3 30 15 5 50

BRG4 30 15 5 50

BRG5 30 15 5 50

BRGK 30 15 5 50

Characterization and Sample Analysis

Analysis of Clamshells, Eggshells, and Gypsum

Analysis of the levels of CaCO3, CaO and SO3 in clamshells, eggshells and gypsum[1] characterization is done by using

XRD and SEM. XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) is a test to determine the minerals contained in the sample clamshells, eggshells, and

gypsum. Whereas, SEM test aims to observe the surface of the sample in more detail.

Gypsum Characterization

Characterization of gypsum[1] is done through a compressive test. a compressive strength test was performed to determine

the physical hardness of gypsum. In performing test of gypsum[1] press force by using cylindrical container at diameter 4 cm and

height 8 cm. Gypsum compressive strength test is performed after 7 days of drying the specimen. The tool used in this testing

process is compressive strength[9,10,11] machine.


Raw Material Calcination Process

The raw materials used in this research are waste eggshells and clamshells. The raw material of eggshell waste is obtained

from the waste of bakery, restaurant and street vendors around Banjarbaru area. While the clamshell obtained from the shell waste

that is on the edge of Takisung beach, Pelaihari. In the process of calcined raw materials, first the raw materials first cleaned and

washed thoroughly. Then the raw material is dried and uniformed to size 355 micron size. Next 500 grams of clamshell and

eggshell waste were mashed at 355 micron and calcined at 900° C for 6 hours using furnace.

After going through the calcination process, there is a change in the physical properties of each raw material of egg shells

and clamshell. The change in physical properties is indicated by the change of color. Color changes in eggshells and clamshells

can be seen in Figure 3 as follows:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1 (a) Eggshells before calcination, (b) Eggshells after calcination, (c) Clamshells before calcination, and (d)

Clamshells after calcination

127


After calcination, the eggshell’s weighs less from 500 grams to 367 grams with a yield of 0.734 whereas the clamshell,

after calcination weighs less from 500 grams to 290.5 grams with a yield of 0.581. This is due to the decomposition and release of

CO2 to the air from the CaCO3 compounds contained in the eggshell and the clamshell into CaO which the reaction equation is

[18]:

CaCO3 CaO + CO2 . . . (1)

The results of observation is, eggshell and clamshell was changed the color after calcination that is initially yellowish white

eggshell to white. While the clamshell samples after the initial calcination of white to grayish white. The color change in the

eggshell sample from yellowish white to white occurs as a result of the calcination process carried out which indicates that CaO

(calcium oxide) has formed and that the product of the reaction comprises CaO (calcium oxide)[21]. While on the results of

calcination of clamshell where the color change from white to grayish white due to the content of ash of organic

material[4,5,7,8,12,13,14] contained so that the color becomes so [27].

Result of characterization test

The calcined eggshell and shellfish samples were then characterized by SEM analysis to determine the morphological

structure of the two samples. The process of calcining eggshell and clamshell was done at 900ºC for 6 hours. The result of SEM

eggshell analysis with magnification 2,500x and 5,000x can be seen in figure 4 as follows.

(a) (b)

Figure 4 SEM analysis result of eggshell sample after calcined with magnification (a) 2,5000x and (b) 5,000x

The result of SEM analysis on eggshell samples showed uneven size distribution and amorphous grain shape. Clump-like

structures on the surface of the particles show the formation of silica compounds in the calcined eggshell samples[28] and the

agglomeration structure showing the metal oxides formed by heat treatment in the calcination process[29]. The results of SEM

analysis of clamshell samples after calcination showed the morphological structure that can be seen in Figure 5 as follows.

(a) (b)

Figure 5 Results of SEM analysis of clamshell after calcined with magnification (a) 2,5000x and (b) 5,000x

The SEM analysis of clamshell after calcination showed a morphological structure of non-uniform particles and amorphous

granules that were larger in size than eggshell samples. The dense clump-shaped structure on the surface of the particles shows the

formation of the silica compound in the calcined eggshell sample[28] and the agglomeration structure showing the metal oxide

formed by heat treatment in the calcination process[29]. The particle shape of the clamshell sample is still visible particles of the

128


shell-like shape prior to calcination, indicating that the remaining CaCO3 compounds remain in accordance with the color change

that occurs after the process of calcining the shells showing grayish white ash Organic compounds.

In addition to SEM analysis on egg shells and shells, eggshell samples and calcined clamshells are also analyzed by XRD

to determine the compounds contained in the material. Results of XRD analysis of eggshells and clamshells can be seen in Figure

6 as follows.

Figure 6 XRD analysis for Eggshell and clamshell after calcined

Based on Figure 6 shows the pattern of XRD analysis of shell powder and eggshell after calcination. XRD analysis on

shellfish and eggshell after calcination aims to see and confirm that CaCO3 in shellfish and eggshell are decomposed into CaO. In

the shells after calcination, there are peaks of CaCO3 and CaO diffraction. This indicates that there is still CaCO3 that is not

decomposed to CaO with CaCO3 intensity of 1.219 cps deg at an angle of 2θ = 18.032 deg while the highest intensity of CaO is at

an angle of 2θ = 37.407 deg for 1.324 cps deg. While in eggshell after calcination as well as shells still have diffraction patterns of

CaCO3 with an intensity of 1,182 cps deg at an angle of 2θ = 17.859 deg while the highest peak of CaO intensity is at an angle of

2θ = 37,270 deg at 890 cps deg. Based on the XRD analysis that the calcination results from the shells and eggshells indicating

that CaCO3 has not been completely decomposed into CaO at 900 ° C for 6 hours. The amount of CaO obtained is very influential

with the process of making gypsum[1] because CaO is the main ingredient in the reaction of gypsum formation. In addition to

CaCO3 and CaO there are minerals of SiO2 and MgO obtained by XRD analysis with the appearance of diffraction peak not

significantly different between shell and shell. The amount of SiO content on the shell and eggshell can affect the compressive

strength of gypsum[1] that will be obtained.

Gypsum Test Result

Eggshell and calcined clamshell are used as raw material[4,5,7,8,12,13,14]for gypsum manufacture. Gypsum is formed

from the result of eggshell and shellfish reactions with sulfuric acid and aquaded according to each variable. The mixing reactions

of CaO, H2O, and H2SO4 are as follows:

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 ... (2)

Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4.2H2O ... (3)

The gypsum obtained from the reaction product is then tested to know more clearly the compounds contained in the

material[4,5,7,8,12,13,14] and the morphological structure of the material by XRD analysis and SEM analysis. The results of SEM

gypsum1, gypsum 2, gypsum 3, gypsum 4, and gypsum 5 with magnification 5000x can be seen in Figure 7 as follows.

Clamshell

Eggshell

129


Figure 7 SEM analysis with magnification of 5000x in (a) Gypsum 1, (b) Gypsum 2, (c) Gypsum 3,

(d) Gypsum 4, and (e) Gypsum 5

The results of SEM analysis fifth sample of gypsum, that is gypsum 1, gypsum 2, gypsum 3, gypsum 4, and gypsum 5

shows the structure morphology of crystalline resembles the yarn and stems according to the morphological structure of crystal

gypsum and structure resembles a blob on the surface of the crystal gypsum which indicates The presence of silica elements

contained in the five gypsum variables[28]. Based fifth SEM analysis results can be seen that the structure is best seen in gypsum

3 with a crystal structure that looks bigger and structure that resembles a larger clumps. In addition, the morphological structure

samples gypsum five variables indicate the number and different pore sizes, the results of SEM analysis of samples gypsum 1

shows the number of pores are numerous and large pore size. For SEM analysis the gypsum 2 sample had fewer pores with smaller

pore size than pore size in gypsum 1 sample. The result of SEM analysis of gypsum 3 sample showed smaller amount of pore with

larger pore size when compared with gypsum sample 2. The morphological structure of the gypsum 4 sample shows more pore

count than the gypsum 3 sample, but has a smaller pore size. While the gypsum 5 sample has a morphological structure that shows

more pore amount than gypsum 4 sample with smaller pore size. Based on the form of gypsum crystals, silica content, and the

number of pores and pore size of the five gypsum samples of variables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, it can be concluded that the best gypsum

sample SEM analysis is shown in gypsum 3 sample.

Besides SEM analysis conducted on samples of gypsum 1, gypsum 2, gypsum 3, gypsum 4 and gypsum 5, XRD analysis

was also conducted on five samples of gypsum. XRD analysis is done to know the compound contained in the sample. The results

of XRD analysis of the five gypsum samples can be seen in Figure 8 as follows.

Figure 8 XRD Gypsum sample analysis results

(a) (b)

(e) (d)

(c)

130


The result of this research is gypsum powder material with raw material from shell and cutaneous shell with gypsum

characterization using XRD analysis. The XRD gypsum analysis results in Fig. 8 starts from 2θ = 10°-60°. XRD analysis results

show the type of mineral content contained in the gypsum sample. The mineral types contained in the gypsum sample are

CaSO4.H2O; CaSO4; CaO; SiO2; And MgO. It can be seen in FIG. 8 that the CaSO4mineral peak in each sample of gypsum 1 to 5

shows an increase at an angle (2θ) of 11.51, respectively; 11.715; 11.505; 11.573; and; 11.55 deg with a great intensity of 169

respectively; 1.530; 4.107; 1.533; and 74 cps deg the number of CaSO4 identified indicates that the sample has reacted between

CaO and H2SO4, but in each sample Gypsum still found CaO.H2O content indicating that the sample has not fully formed CaSO4

or CaSO4.H2O minerals with peak of highest intensity respectively at an angle (2θ) ¬ ie 28.483; 28.764; 28.937; 29.024; and

28.646 deg with an intensity of 2.136; 1.711; 2.059; 2.071; and 2.192 cps deg. While in SiO2 minerals seen angle (2θ) ¬ peak

intensity at gypsum 2, 3 and 4 that is 23.461; 23.251; and 23.299 deg with intensity of 297; 723; And 323 cps deg. While on

gypsum 1 and 5 is not seen which signifies the intensity of SiO2 is very small. The high levels of SiO2 and CaO.H2O on gypsum

greatly affect the compressive strength of the gypsum itself because SiO2 reacts to CaO.H2O gives strength to gypsum and can add

to its constituent particles[30].

Water and Strong Water Absorption Test Tap Lightweight Concrete

SNI Standard No. 03-0349-1989 water absorption in concrete by 25% percent weight of concrete. Based on the results of

research conducted on each small sample of 25%, which states that the resulting light concrete has met the standard of concrete in

general. Water absorption test on concrete[9,10,11]done by soaking concrete for 24 hours by using tap water and dioven for 1 hour

at 100 °C temperature aimed to remove water on the surface of lightweight concrete. There is also a result of water absorption of

each lightweight concrete sample I, II, III, IV, and V lightweight concrete made from raw gypsum from shell and egg shell and

lightweight concrete made from conventional gypsum raw material is 2.18%; 6.92%; 8.77%; 5.96%; 5.08%; 5.38. From the results

obtained by light concrete[9,10,11] that has the smallest water absorption in sample I. Based on research[31], that the percentage

of water absorption depends on the pores or cavities contained in the concrete. With more pores the greater the water absorption so

that the resistance of the concrete[9,10,11] will be reduced. Porosity in this concrete causes water to be easily absorbed into the

gypsum. Water absorbed by gypsum begins when mixing of lightweight concrete material. All materials will absorb water when

mixing occurs.

The compressive strength of concrete[9,10,11] is influenced by the strength of its constituent components ie cement paste,

cavity, aggregate and interface between cement paste and aggregate. From the results of the research, the maximum lightweight

concrete press on the BRG4 sample was obtained. The result of concrete compressive strength test of each sample are 14,597

Kg/cm2; 12,559 Kg/cm2; 16,840 Kg/cm2; 10,153 Kg/cm2; 10,928 Kg/cm2; and 26,422 Kg/cm2. For lightweight concrete

composition, water absorption and concrete compressive strength test in detail see Table 5.

Table 4 Concrete Weight Observation Results

No

Sample

Compositions Lightweight

concrete density

(Kg/cm3)

Absorption

of

lightweight

concrete

water (%)

Lightweight

Concrete

Compressive

Strength

(kg/cm2

)

Gypsum

(%)

White

Cement (%)

Styrofoam

(%)

H2O

(mL)

1 BRG1 3

0

1

5

5 50 1241 2.18 14.597

2 BRG2 3

0

1

5

5 50 1151 6.92 12.559

3 BRG3 3

0

1

5

5 50 1320 8.77 16.840

4 BRG4 30

15

5 50 1132 5.96 10.153

5 BRG5 3

0

1

5

5 50 1098 5.08 10.928

6 BRGK 30

15

5 50 1102 5.38 26.422

Description: BRG = Lightweight Gypsum Concrete; BRGK = Conventional Gypsum Light Concrete

Based on the results of the research, the largest gypsum lightweight concrete press on the BRG3 sample is 16.840 kg/cm2

but the result of the compressive strength of lightweight concrete[9,10,11] is still beyond the result of the compressive strength of

lightweight concrete made from conventional gypsum by 26.422 Kg / cm2 therefore this research needs to be fired again. Based

on mild benton density which in this study has fulfilled setandar with big densiatas between 300-1850 kg/m3[22]. The greatest

lightweight concrete density was found in the BRG1 sample.

131


CONCLUSION

Based on the results of the research, the following conclusions are obtained:

1. The best composition of Gypsum composition of eggshell. Eggshell was found in BRG3 sample with ratio of 20% eggshell,

20% clamshell, 20% sulfuric acid and 40% of the resulting 269.9 gram of total mass of 450 gram.

2. Comparison of the best composition of lightweight concrete made from raw Gypsum from waste eggshells and clamshells

found in BRG3 sample with water absorption of 5.08% and compressive strength 16.640 kg / cm2.

3. The lowest water absorption test value is found in gypsum of BGR1 sample that is 2.18%.

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*Corresponding Author: Fayyaz Ahmed Anjum, PhD Scholar at Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan. Email:

[email protected]: +923314092976

Internal Consistency Reliability of Modified Hand Test

Fayyaz Ahmed Anjum1, Dr Iffat Batool2, Muhammad Umar Fayyaz3

1PhD Scholar at Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan

2Assistant Professor at Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan 3Behavior Therapist at ASAS International School, Islamabad, Pakistan

Received: July 24, 2017


ABSTRACT

The present study aims to determine Internal Consistency of Modified Hand Test. 500 participants were

recruited from various cities of Pakistan. Sample included 270 Males and 230 female’sage ranged from 11 to 80

years with mean age of 34.44 and SD 17.34. Participants were further bifurcated into four groups which

included normal 350, maladjusted 50 neurotics/ anxiety related disorders, 50 and psychotics 50. Purposive

sampling technique was used. Scoring booklet was translated into Urdu (native language of people of Pakistan)

using back translation method containing fourteen stimuli. Instructions were individually administered. A pilot

study was carried out to select four new stimuli based upon their ability to generate responses in more scoring

categories. Internal consistency came out for interpersonal with environment r (.43), maladjustive r (-.18) and

withdrawal r (-.39), environment with withdrawal r (-.26) at .01 level significance. Similarly, each main domain

has statistically significant positive relationship at .01 level that is Interpersonal with affection r (.53), direction r

(.39), aggression r (.38) and dependence r(.35), environment with action r(.91),passive r(.22) and acquisition

r(.20), maladjustive with crippled r(.74), tension r(.60) and fear r(.20), withdrawal with description r(.68), fail

r(.56) and bizarre r(.51).

KEYWORDS: Internal Consistency, Normal, Maladjusted, Neurotics, Psychotics

INTRODUCTION

A person’s personality attributes are numerous and personality is described as constellation of enduring

traits [14]. Some of these traits assist a person to deal effectively with his environment while the others may

create hindrance. There are psychological measures tests which claim to measure the entire personality like

Rorschach [8] and Thematic Apperception Test [5], however the present measure of personality Hand Test is a

broad based instrument which measures Interpersonal, Environment, Maladjustive and Withdrawal. It also

measures specific aspect of personality like acting out and pathology scores. A person who attain more score in

healthy personality traits of interpersonal and environment like affection, dependence, communication, action

and acquisition indicates better adjustment. Contrary to this more score in maladjustive domain reflects

problems in dealing with the people and environment and more score in withdrawal is an indication of serious

problems. Hand Test was developed by Wagner in 1962 and new norms for children and adolescents were

introduced in 1983. Hand Test has gained reputation of projective and diagnostic measure and became popular

among clinicians and researchers because it possesses the capacity to measure various aspects of human

personality and behaviour [11]. Despite being projective test, it also offers objectivity in terms of well-defined

quantitative scoring categories as subjectivity in terms of interpreting test responses was a major criticism on

projective techniques [1], [7]. Hand Test has four major domains that is interpersonal, environmental,

maladjustive and withdrawal their brief description is as follows:

Interpersonal

Interpersonal refers to relationships with other individuals and are considered as action

tendencies rather than imaginary or fantasy, interpersonal is divided into six sub categories

a. Affection: This is reflected by inter change of affection, pleasure or friendship feelings for

example “patting at the back”, “friendly waiving of hands”, “khuda hafiz”, “paternal

affectionate hand”, “hi”, “comforting”, “helping.

b. Dependence: Response involves an expression of a wants of dependence, help or aid. For

example “request for assistance”, “praying dua”, “asking for lift”, “asking forgiveness

from a person or God Almighty”, “begging”, “receiving money”, “child reaching out for

mother’s frock”.

134

Anjum et al.,2018

c. Communication: Responses include providing information to other person. For example

“making speech”, “giving understanding to other or something”, “giving lectures”, “a deaf

person talking with hands”, “a sign language”.

d. Exhibition: It involves displaying or exhibiting oneself in order to get attention or

approval, appreciation of others or introducing some special character of hand. For

example “showing one’s muscles”, “ring of engagement”, “rasam e hina going on”, “bride

is showing off dress”, “dancer with graceful movement”.

e. Direction: Responses involves directing, influencing or domineering the action of other

people. For example “a policeman hand directing to stop”, “order by a father or teacher a

child to obey”, “an officer hand giving direction to subordinate to do something”, “an

umpire giving out”.

f. Aggression: responses involve giving or inflicting pain, injury, hostility or insulting

others. For example “slapping someone”, “preparing a punch”, “thappar”, “fight with

others”, “ready for boxing in a ring”, “fist for fight” etc.

Environmental

This type of generalized response involves a person to contact with impersonal world

that he is in grip with the environment in particular fashion, these human contact are consider

important for wellbeing or survival. There are three types of such responses.

a. Acquisition: Responses involve an effort to achieve a goal but the action is yet to be

completed, some tension and strain is accompanied. For example “reaching for something

into high wall or shelf”, “making an effort to get something” “trying to grip something”.

b. Action: This category of responses involves an attitude to utilize constructively,

manipulate, and acquire an object or goal. For example “picking up something”, “writing or

holding a pen or pencil”, “throwing or catching a ball”, “making something”, “putting salt

in curry”, “washing”, “knitting”.

c. Passive: The responses involve an attitude of inappropriate or deliberate withdrawal of

energy from environment or an attitude of rest and relaxation. For example “hands of a

sleeping person”, “just in rest position”, “a thinker’s hand”, “hand on a table”, “loose hand

near chair arms”.

Maladjustive

These responses involve a person inability to deal effectively with the environment (for which

he or she is partially aware) either due to his/her inner weakness or external environmental restriction,

obstructions and reflect subject’s apprehensions or distress due to failure in achieving desired goal. This

category of responses has been further dividing into three sub categories.

a. Tension: Response involve that in spite exerting energy, the goal remains unachievable or

little has been achieved, a feeling of unrest, strain or malaise is expressed. It is also

explained when energy is exerted to support oneself against the gravity of environment. For

example “a fist clinched in anger”, “holding something tightly”, “clinching fingers or hands

to remain refrain from saying something wrong”, stretching or tensing one’s hand or

fingers”.

b. Crippled: Responses involve in which hand is unable to perform an act due to

incapacitation injury dead, disfigured sickness. For example “hand of a dead person”, “hand

of patient”, “an injured hand”, “there is a wound or skin disease”, “it is bleeding”.

c. Fear: This type of responses involve when a hand is threatened with pain, injury, death or

incapacitation to examinee or with whom he identifies e.g. “do not move forward, there is a

danger ahead”, “may be something will happen like bomb blast, road accident or fire”,

“fear of unknown”, “hands of a teacher or father giving warning” or “ready to hit”.

Withdrawal

This type of responses involve inability to or abandonment to perform appropriate or

meaningful action, this type of response is further categorized into three sub groups.

a. Description: Responses involve just acknowledging the presence of a hand the examinee is

not willing to say something about the performance of a hand for example “just hand”, “left

or right hand”, “hand in upward or downward position”, “a palm or finger”, “two or five

fingers”, “open or closed fingers/hands”.

b. Bizarre: Responses involve reflection of pathological thinking pattern, it may be containing

hallucinatory or delusional content. The individual incorporates bizarre idiosyncratic or

morbid content and is an indication of serious disturbance, sometimes it is so morbid that

135


the image is not perceived as hand. For example “trying to get a feel”, “a crocodile

looking”, “looking at a distance”, “dead hand”, “skull”, “skeleton”, “heart”, “duck”,

“banana”.

c. Fail: When the person is unable to give any scoreable response, a fail response is counted

during the scoring summary but not in sum total. [2]; [6]; [4]; [9]

Modification process was initiated with selection of initially tenstimuli. Out of these ten stimuli which

were opted by a panel of experts, while believing that the adapted stimuli are generally used by people of

Pakistan as a non-verbal cues to support their communication, four new stimuli were adapted after pilot study on

sample of 100 participants (50 normal and 50 psychotic). Ten subjects for one stimulus (Riaz, 2008) Stimuli

were selected on the criteria of their capacity to generate responses in more number of scoring categories and

varied range of response, hence the modified version of Hand Test would measure cultural input in addition to

retaining its projective character “no single test can be entirely culture free and its results are based on norms of

that population which are prone to favour to its inhabitants.” [1]. [3] persuaded that new projective techniques

should have specific percept that stimulus should measure specific aspects of personality rather than general and

should also measure some defence mechanisms and they should be relatively unstructured.

Only few studies have been carried out in west to determine internal consistency reliability of original

Hand Test since its inception in 1962.

An investigation was carried out by [12] on a total of 65 protocols of normal, mentally retarded and

maniac depressive participants. Kappa coefficient for sub and main scoring categories ranged from .45 to 1 with

overall .69 reliability coefficient where communication produced lowest kappa i.e. .45 and highest kappa was

found in failure and exhibition as 1 each whereas for the combined categories it remained .92 for interpersonal,

.75 for environmental, .83 for maladjustive and .71 for withdrawal. The overall kappa for the combined category

remained as .81. The second part of the study consisted of agreement between two scorers which remained as

72% for the 15 sub categories and 87% for the combined scoring categories. Low agreement was found where

responses were given in fewer numbers. For example exhibition where percentage of agreement for combined

scoring categories remained from 78 to 96%. Disagreement was found in combined categories rather than sub

categories.

High percentage of agreement was also found amongst three scorers on 100 Hand Test protocols while

determining internal consistency reliability [11].

Rationale

Modification of Hand Test was initiated to adapt a set of four new stimuli possessing cultural

significance and present study has been conducted to establish psychometric properties of Modified Hand Test.

METHOD

Sample

The sample of present study consisted of 500 participants which has been further divided into four

groups, that is 350 normal with equal number of males and females, their age ranging from 10 to 80 years with

the mean age of 37.01 and (SD) 18.6. The second group consisted of 50 participants consisting of 42 males and

eight females’ age ranging from 11 to 46 years with mean age of 20.43 and SD (10.8), these participants have

adjustment problems at home and educational institutions as reported by their teachers and administrative staff.

The third group consisted of neurotic/anxiety related disorder participants and have three sub groups i.e.

generalized neurotic anxiety, obsessive compulsive and phobic with equal number of males and females, age

ranged from 11 to 45 years, mean age 33.10 and SD (10.51). The fourth group consisted of 50 psychotic patients

with equal number of males and females age ranging from 15 to 57 years, mean age 32.28 SD (10.69).They

were further divided into schizophrenic, depressed and bipolar disorder. The third and fourth group of

participants were diagnosed either by psychiatrists or clinical psychologists.

Procedure

Purposive sampling technique was used to recruit participants. The instrument was administered

individually in accordance with standardized procedures in Urdu (native language of participants).The scoring

booklet of Hand test was translated using translation guidelines given by [10]. Only psychotic participants were

offered with the example of Hand shake to take advantage of testing the limits procedure [13] and prompt was

also offered only in the beginning but was not followed later. After an interval of 100 seconds the new stimulus

was presented and in case response is not offered it is scored as fail. Permission to use Hand Test and its

adaptation was obtained from its publishers Western Psychological Services, prior data collection, participants

were approached and informed about the purpose of the study. Permission was sought from heads of respective

schools, colleges and hospitals for data collection. Ethical standards like written informed consent and

confidentiality was also observed, participants were provided with the information such as researcher will own

136

Anjum et al.,2018

the data created during the research format and data will be stored for a period of five years. Copies of consent

forms were kept with the raw data. Participants were provided assurance that the data will be used only for the

research purpose. All personal information were encoded. Participants were assigned a reference number and

the data was stored against the reference number/code rather than against their names. Pearson correlation was

computed to determine internal consistency for the entire sample. The instrument was modified and four new

stimuli(out of ten) possessing the capacity to evoke responses in more scoring categories were adapted after

conducting pilot study of 50 normal and 50 psychotic participants.

RESULTS

Pearson product moment correlation was computed to determine internal consistency relationship of

main domain of interpersonal, environment, maladjustive and withdrawal with their sub categories. Correlation

remained moderate to high for these variables. It was found as negative for those variables which do not have

relationship theoretically. For example aggression and affection are antagonistic to each other similarly negative

correlation was found for variable of exhibition and fear where participants got relatively lesser scored as

compared to others. The description has been appended below.

Table 1: Correlation amongst variables of modified Hand Test for Interpersonal Category,

Internal Consistency reliability (N=500) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M SD

Affection -- 0.15** -0.17** -0.06 0.04 -0.01 0.53** 2.16 1.43

Dependence -- -0.04 -0.01 -0.09* -0.00 0.35** 1.16 0.87

Communication -- -0.07 -0.14** -0.23** 0.30** 1.87 1.43

Exhibition -- -0.03 -0.04 0.01 0.08 0.34

Direction -- 0.00 0.39** 1.23 1.23

Aggression -- 0.38** 1.39 1.32

Interpersonal -- 7.90 2.52

Note: p<.05*, p<.01**

Pearson Product Moment Correlation was run to find the correlation among variables of Modified

Hand Test. Significant positive relationship was found between Affection and Dependence (r =.15, p < .01),

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6 Chart Title

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

Dependance AggresionAffection Communication Direction

INTERPERSONNEL

137


Affection and Interpersonal (r=.54, p < .01), Dependence and Interpersonal (r= .36, p < .05, two tailed),

Communication and Interpersonal (r=.30, p= .01), Direction and Interpersonal (r= .39, p < .01) and between

Aggression and Interpersonal (r= .38, p < .01)

Significant negative relationship was found between Affection and Communication (r-.17, p < .01,),

Dependence and Direction (r= -.09, p < .05, two tailed), Communication and Direction (r= -.14, p < .01) and

between Communication and Aggression (r= -.23, p <.01.)

Non-significant positive relationship was found between Affection and Direction (r=.04), Exhibition

and Interpersonal (r=.01) and between Direction and Aggression (r=0.00).Non-significant negative relationship

was found between Affection and Communication (r=-.06), Affection and Direction (r-.01), Dependence and

Communication (r=-.04), Dependence and Exhibition (r=-.01), Dependence and Aggression (r=-0.00),

Communication and Exhibition (r=-0.07), Exhibition and Direction (r=-0.03), Exhibition and Aggression (r=-

0.04)

Table 2: Correlation among variables of modified Hand Test for Environmental Category, Internal

consistency reliability (N=500) 1 2 3 4 M SD

Action -- -0.00 -0.04 0.91** 3.56 2.14

Acquisition -- -0.02 0.20** 0.16 0.49

Passive -- 0.22** 0.32 0.62

Environment -- 4.06 2.29

Note: p<.01**

Significant positive relationship was found between Action and Environmental (r=.91, p= <.01),

Acquisition and Environment (r=.20, p < .01, two tailed) and between Passive and Environmental (r=.22, p < .01).

Non-significant negative relationship was found between Action and Acquisition (r=-0.00), Action and

Passive (r=-0.04) and between Acquisition and Passive (r=0.02).

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Environment Acquisition Passive Environment Passive Environment

Chart Title


Action Acquisition Passive

ENVIRONMENTAL

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Anjum et al.,2018

Table 3: Correlation among variables of modified Hand Test for Maladjustment Category, Internal

consistency reliability (N=500) 1 2 3 4 M SD

Tension -- -0.03 -0.02 0.60** 0.41 0.73

Crippled -- 0.00 0.74** 0.54 0.89

Fear -- 0.20** 0.05 0.25

Maladjustive -- 0.99 1.51

Note: p<.01**

Significant positive relationship was found between Tension and Maladjustive (r=.60, p < .01), Crippled and

Maladjustive (r=.74, p <.01) and between Fear and Maladjustive (r= .20, p < .01).

Non-Significant positive relationship was found between Crippled and Fear (r=0.00). Non-Significant

negative relationship was found between Tension and Crippled (r=-0.03) and between Tension and Fear (r=-

0.02).

Table 4: Correlation among variables of modified Hand Test for Withdrawal Category, Internal consistency

reliability (N=500) 1 2 3 4 M SD

Description -- 0.00 0.13** 0.68** 0.71 1.25

Fail -- 0.06 0.56** 0.57 1.01

Bizarre -- 0.51** 0.15 0.92

Withdrawal -- 1.44 1.92

Note: p<.01**

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Maladjustive Crippled Fear Maladjustive Fear Maladjustive

Chart Title


Tension Fear Crippled

MALADJUSTIVE

139


Significant positive relationship was found between Description and Bizarre (r=.13, p <.01), Description and

Withdrawal (r=.69, p < .01), Fail and Withdrawal (r=.56, p <.01) and between Bizarre and Withdrawal (r=.51

p <.01).

Non-Significant positive relationship was found between Description and Fail (r-0.00) and between

Fail and Bizarre (r=0.06).

Table 5: Correlation among main categories of Modified Hand Test for overall sample (N=500), Internal

Consistency reliability (500) 1 2 3 4 5 M SD

Interpersonal -- -0.43** -0.18** -0.39** 0.27** 7.90 2.52

Environment -- 0.03 -0.26** 0.32** 4.05 2.29

Maladjustive -- -0.00 0.29** 0.99 1.15

Withdrawal -- 0.15** 1.44 1.92

Grand Total -- 14.35 1.92

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Withdrawal Failure Bizarre Withdrawal Bizarre Withdrawal

Chart Title


Discription Failure Bizarre

WITHDRAWAL

140

Anjum et al.,2018

Significant negative relationship was found between Interpersonal and Environmental (r=-.43 p <.01),

Interpersonal and Maladjustive (r=-.18, p <.01), Interpersonal and Withdrawal (r=-.39, < .01), Environmental

and Withdrawal (r-.26, p <.01). Significant positive relationship was found between Interpersonal and Grand

Total (r=.27, p < .01), between Environment and Grand Total (r= .32, p < .01), Maladjustive and Grand Total

(r=.29, P < .01) and Withdrawal and Grand Total (r=.15, p < .01).

Non-Significant positive relationship was found between Environmental and Maladjustive (r=0.03).

Non-Significant negative relationship was found between Maladjustive and Withdrawal (-0.00).

Limitations

The entire structure of Hand Test has been distributed unevenly because there are six sub-domains in

main domain of Interpersonal whereas all the other main domains like Environmental, Maladjustive and

Withdrawal have three sub-domains.

In the present study effort have been made to establish relationship (internal consistency) among

different variables of Hand Test only instead of checking its consistency among variables in different time

period.

Recommendations

Efforts may be made to enhance the structure of Modified Hand Test to incorporate certain other

variables in major domains of Environmental, Maladjustve and Withdrawal to have equal number of attributes

in all the main domains of Hand Test.

Internal consistency of Modified Hand Test may be determined across time period in addition to their

inter connectedness.

Internal consistency of different variables may be established upon different heterogeneous as well as

homogenous samples.

DISCUSSION

Correlation computed for interpersonal and its subcategories revealed statistical significant results for

affection, dependence, communication, direction and aggression with .53, .35, 30, .39and.38 respectively at .001

level. This depicted that internal consistency of Modified Hand Test for Interpersonal domain has strong linkage

of main category of Interpersonal with almost all categories. Sub category of affection has statistically

significant relationship with dependence which is .15 and statistical significant negative relationship with

communication as -.17 at .001 level and negative with exhibition and aggression. Sub category of

communication has statistically significant negative relationship with direction as -.14 aggression-.23 at .001

level. Similarly, main domain of environmental has statistically significant relationship as .91, .20 and .22 with

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 Chart Title


Interpersonnel Environmental Maladjustive Withdrawl

GRANDTOTAL

141


action, acquisition and passive at .001 level and is an evidence of high internal consistency whereas both

subcategories of action and acquisition have negative relationship with passive sub category. This was expected

because people who engaged in actions and who make efforts to achieve goals rarely remain idle or passive.

Main category of maladjustive has statistically significant relationship as .60, .54 and .20 for variables of tension

crippled and fear respectively, again this kind of relationship is a proof of strong linkage of construct of

maladjustive with its subcategories. Withdrawal main category has also statistically significant positive

relationship with its subcategories as .68, .56 and .51 for description, fail and bizarre at.001 level. Subcategory

of description has statistically significant positive relationship with bizarre i.e. .13 at .001 level. When we focus

on the nature of relationship of main categories of Modified Hand Test, interpersonal has statistically significant

negative relationship with environment, as -.43, maladjustive as .18 and withdrawal as .27 at .001 level.

Whereas environmental also has statistically negative relationship with withdrawal as .26 at .001 level. This

result is in contradiction with previous study carried out by [11] whereby interpersonal and environmental had

been concluded as characteristics of normality whereas maladjustive for neurotic and withdrawal as psychotic.

On the other hand, all the four main categories have statistically positive relationship with total score as .27 for

interpersonal, .32 for environment, .29 for maladjustive and .15 for withdrawal at .001 level. All these results

are proof of high internal consistency, well-defined and elaborative construct of Hand test. However, the

possible reasons of negative relationship between interpersonal and environmental in the present may be

because of heterogeneous nature of the sample.

Conclusion

The result of present study is encouraging that in spite adapted additional stimulus and heterogeneous

nature of sample, moderate to high correlation for main domains and relationship of sub categories with each

other provided an evidence for internal consistency of Modified Hand Test.

REFERENCES

[1] Anastasi, A. (1997). Psychology, psychologists, and psychological testing. American Psychologist, 22(4),

297.

[2] Hardesty, R. A. (1973). The use of the Modified Hand Test and pictorial study of the values to differentiate

between successful and unsuccessful educable mentally retarded work-study students (Unpublished

Doctoral dissertation). The University of Oklahoma.

[3] Kline, P. (1986). A handbook of test construction: Introduction to psychometric design. Methuen.

[4] Mahmood (1985). Hand Test characteristics of solvent abusers. British Journal of Projective Psychology &

Personality Study, 30(2), 17-22.

[5] Murray, H. A. (1943). Thematic Apperception Test.

[6] Naeem, P. (1979). Psychological profile of professional and nonprofessional criminals (Unpublished Ph.D

Dissertation). National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

[7] Riaz, M. N. (2008). Test Construction: Development and Standardization of Psychological Tests in Pakistan.

Islamabad: HEC.

[8] Rorschach, H. (1922). Psychodiagnostik. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 56(3), 306.

[9] Sergio, J. A. (2010). Differences among abused and nonabused younger and older adults as measured by the

Hand Test (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of North Texas.

[10] Sousa, V. D., & Rojjanasrirat, W. (2011). Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for

use in cross‐cultural health care research: a clear and user‐friendly guideline. Journal of evaluation in

clinical practice, 17(2), 268-274.

[11] Wagner, E.E., Maloney,P., &Wilson, D.G. (1981). Split half and test retest reliability for pathological

samples. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 589-592.

[12] Wendler, C. L. W., & Zachary, R. A. (1983). Reliability of scoring categories on a projective test. In Paper

presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association.

[13]Wechsler, D. (1981). WAIS-R manual: Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised. Psychological

Corporation.

[14]Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes and variations. Cengage Learning.

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Anjum et al.,2018

Appendix A

(Additional Hand Patterns)

Additional Hand Patterns

A set of adapted stimuli of modified version of Hand Test.

These were placed in the sequence of stimulus 10 to 13 whereas stimulus fourteen last stimulus is same

which was at stimulus 10 which an invitation to imagination.

143

J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 8(1): 144-156, 2018


ISSN: 2090-4274



www.textroad.com

a Corresponding Author: M. Imran, Department of Mathematics, Govt College University Faisalabad. E-mail address: [email protected]

Unsteady Rotational Flow of a Burgers' Fluid through a Pipe with

Non-Integer Order Fractional Derivatives

Rabia Safdar1, M. Imran2, a, N. Sadiq3, Farooq Ahmad4

1,2,3 Department of Mathematics, Govt College University Faisalabad,

4Punjab Higher Education Department, Govt. Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore, Pakistan.

Received: October 12, 2017


ABSTRACT

In this research articale, we found analytical results for the flow of a Burgers' fluid within a round pipe having

infinite length. The fractional derivatives approach is used by means of integral transform technique. Fluid motion

has been induced by the circular motion of the pipe about its axis. Series form results are accomplished in the form

of generalized G-function. Limiting results are also obtained from general solutions. Numerical computations and

graphical discussion were made to observe influence of non-integer order fractional variables on the fluid flow.

KEYWORDS: Burgers' fluid; Fractional calculus; Rotational flow; Cylindrical domain; Analytic solutions.

1. NOTATION

V velocity

S shear stress

eθ unit vector of cylindrical coordinates

( ) ( )F r, t V r, t 0 rθ= ≠ component of velocity along eθ

( ) ( )r, t r, t 0rH S θ= ≠ component of shear stress along eθ

µ coefficient of viscosity

/µν ρ= kinematic viscosity

ρ constant density

( )i 1 to 3iλ = new material constant

χ , δ fractional parameter

Ω angular velocity constant

( , )F r q Laplace transform of function ( , )F r t

2. INTRODUCTION

The field of Physics, Food Industry and Engineering covered with the application of rotating fluid passing through

pipe. The solidity of fluids in circular domain was suggested by Taylor [1]. By discussing about the Poiseuille flow

in circular pipe, Waters and King [2] find results for Oldroyd-B fluid. Rahaman et al. [3] investigated about the

viscoelastic upper-convected Maxwell fluid within round surface. For this purpose the Fourier Bessel series was

used. Also the application of Laplace transformation is made to obtained the solutions using round duct. Many

researchers are working on this idea of finite and infinite circular domain. The combination of helical flow and

pressure gradient in pipe like domain are analysed for Oldroyd-B fluid [4]. The steady state and uni dimensional

flow of invisid fluids through cylinders and canals are discussed by differential equations [5].

Fetecau [6] find exact results for one dimensional flow of Oldroyd-B fluid with the help of Steklov theorem and zero

slip condition in an infinite circular cylinder. The further application of vicoelastic fluids can be seen in the field of

industry and engineering. The rotational motion along with translation has a specific name of helical flow. This

helical flow has very importance in biomedical sciences and engineering like Hydrodynamics. A lot of work has

144

Safdar et al., 2018

been done by different researchers on this flow. Ting in [7] used the helical flow to obtain the solutions for second

grade and similarly Srivastava [8] do this with Maxwell fluid.

Fetecau [9] worked on the helical flow of second grade fluid and drived the analytical solutions for the problem.

The results for second grade fluid flow were attained by Hayat, Khan and Ayub [10] for unsteady case. In rotating

circular cylinder, Fetecau and Veru [11] considered the helical flow to obtain the analytical expressions for Oldroyd-

B fluid. Meanwhile, Vieru [12] for Maxwell and Nadeem et al. [13] for second grade fluid derived the similar

solutions

The significance of non-integer order derivative can be seen in all the fields of sciences e.g. Physics, Control system,

Medical sciences and Engineering. The application of fractional derivatives on different models has been discussed

by Podlubny [14]. An uncommon type of these non-integer models describes viscoelastic fluid, solutions of such

models are discovered in [15] and [16]. Tan et al. [17] worked on analytical outcomes of generalized second grade

fluid. Similarly, the applications of non-integer derivatives and helical flow on generalized Burger’s fluid are

developed in [18] as well as in [19]. Xu at el. [20] theoretically analyzed the vortex slab, velocity and stress for

second grade fluid. By taking Xanthan gum and Sesbania gel Song et al. [21] examined the viscoelastic Jeffreys

model with non-integer derivatives. The implementation of non-integer derivatives on generalized second grade and

Maxwell fluids passing between two plates are done by Tan et al. [22] and Xu et al. [23]. Recently many research

articles regarding fractional fluids appear for both cylindrical and plates domain [24] -[29]

Our focus here is to find the analytical results of Burgers' fluid tfrough an anfinite pipe. The Laplace

transform method and Hankel is beneficial to removing the time and spatial variable respectively. The general

solutions are proposed in form of generalized G-function. For special case we find the velocity and tangential stress

of Ordinary Burgers' fluid. From the general solution, we obtain the solutions of Oldroyd-B, Maxwell and second

grade fluids for ordinary and fractional derivatives. Equivalent form for the Newtonian fluids are also constructed

and established in form of generalized G-function.

3. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

We have considered here

,),(=,),(=),(= trSStrFtrVV θe (1)

as given in [30], where θe is in cylindrical coordinates r, θ and z . In such case, the conditions of

incompressibility for flows are definitely satisfying.

Moreover, when at start the fluid is in rest position, we have

0.=,0)(0,=,0)( rSrV (2)

The constraint equations for the flow of Burgers' fluid, just like in [19] are

,),(11

1=122

2

32

2

21 trFrrrrtt

F

tt

−

∂∂

+∂∂

∂∂

+∂∂

∂∂

+∂∂

+ λνλλ (3)

2

1 2 32

11 ( , ) = 1 ( , ).H r t F r t

t t t r rλ λ µ λ

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ + + + − ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ (4)

The fractional constraints for Burgers’ fluid (BFFD) can be established by replacing

the total time derivative in Eqs. (3) and (4) with fractional derivatives, by the Caputo fractional differential operator

[14,16]

0

1 ( ), < 1

(1 ) ( )( ) =

(t)= 1

t

t

d f sds

dt t sD f t

df

dx

χχ

χχ

χ

≤Γ − −

∫ (5)

where )(⋅Γ is the Gamma function.

Therefore, the governing equations with BFFD going to used here are

145


( ) ( )2

2 2

1 2 3 2 2

( , ) 1 11 = 1 ( , ),t t t

F r tD D D F r t

t r r r r

χ χ χ χ δ δλ λ ν λ ∂ ∂ ∂

+ + + + − ∂ ∂ ∂ (6)

( ) ( )2 2

1 2 3

11 ( , ) = 1 ( , ),t t tD D H r t D F r t

r r

χ χ χ χ δ δλ λ µ λ∂ + + + − ∂

(7)

where χ and δ are the non-integer order fractional parameters such as 10 ≤≤ χ , 10 ≤≤ δ .

4. STARTTING FLOW THROUGH AN INFINITE PIPE

The BFFD is at non-moving position within domain of round pipe having radius R( > 0). The circular pipe begins

rotate when t = 0+ with velocity αtΩ along with the axis of rotation. Taking this position into mind we are going to

set the intial and boundary conditions for the considered incompressible fluid problem as follows

( ,0)( ,0) = = 0, ( ,0) = 0; [0, ],

F rF r H r r R

t

∂∈

∂ (8)

( , ) = ; 0, N, > 0,F R t R t tα α αΩ ≥ ∈ (9)

where N is the set of natural numbers.

Fig. 1 Geometry view of the problem

5. ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR THE VELOCITY FIELD

The application of the Laplace transform to the governing Eq. (6) and boundary condition (9) gives

( ) ( )2

2 2

1 2 3 2 2

1 11 ( , ) = 1 ( ) ( , ),t t tq q qF r q q F r q

r r r r

χ χ χ χ δ δλ λ ν λ∂ ∂

+ + + + −∂ ∂

(10)

1

!( , ) = .

RF R q

qα

α+

Ω (11)

We can define the finite Hankel transform and its inverse as [31]

10

( , ) = ( , ) ( ) ,R

H l lF r q rF r q J rr dr∫ (12)

,),()(

)(2=),(

2

2

1

1=2

qrFRrJ

rrJ

RqrF

lH

l

l

l

∑∞

146

Safdar et al., 2018

where lr are (positive) roots of the transcendental equation 0=)(1 RrJ , and (.)qJ is the Bessel function of the

first kind with order q . Multiplying Eq. (10) by )(1 lrrrJ on both sides and then integrate it with respect to r from

0 to R. Also, by considering the Eqs. (11) and (12) we have the following results which one can be easily proved, is

2

1 22 20

1 1 2( ) ( , ) ( ) = ( ) ( , ) ( , ),R

Hl l l l lr F r q J rr dr Rr J Rr F R q r F r q

r r r r

∂ ∂+ − −

∂ ∂∫ (13)

where 2

3 2

1 2 1 2 2 1 2

1 2 3

( , ) = (1 ) ( )

!.

( )

H l l l

l l

F r q q R r J Rr

q q r q q r q

δ δ

α χ χ χ χ δ δ

ν λ

αν λ λ ν λ+ + +

+ Ω ×

×+ + + +

(14)

The Eq. (14) can be written as the sum of two terms

1 2( , ) = ( , ) ( , ),H H Hl l lF r q F r q F r q+ (15)

2

21 1

2 2 2

2 1 22 2 1 2 2 1 2

1 2 3

! ( ) 1( , ) ,

! ( ) 1( , )

( ).

lH l

l

lH l

l l l

R J RrF r q

r q

R J Rr q qF r q

r q q r q q r q

α

χ χ χ χ


α

α λ λν λ λ ν λ

+

+ +

Ω=

Ω + += −

+ + + +

(16)

Now, putting on the inverse Hankel transform to Eqs. (16) and considering the useful formula (A5) from Appendix,

we get

1 1

2 2

1 1 22 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2

1 2 1 2 3

!( , ) ,

( ) 1( , ) 2 ! .

( ) ( )

l

l l l l l

rF r q

q

J rr q qF r q

r J Rr q q q r q q r q

α

χ χ χ χ


α

λ λα

ν λ λ ν λ

+

∞

− + +=

Ω=

+ += − Ω

+ + + +∑ (17)

Using the identity Eq. (34) of [32]

2 2

1 2

2 1 2 2 1 2

1 2 3

2 11

32 2 2=0 =0 =02 2 2

21 1 1

2

1 22 2 1 2 2 1 2 2

2 2 2

1

( )

1 ! ( 1)!=

!( )! !( 1)!

( ) ( ) (

l l

m km m

il

m i k

m k m k

q q

q q r q q r q

r m m

i m i k m k

q q q

q q q

χ χ χ χ

χ χ χ χ δ δ

χδ

χ χ χ

δ χ δ χ δχ χ

χ χ χ χ χ

λ λν λ λ ν λ

ν λλ

λ λ λ

λ λλ λ λ

+ +

∞ +

+ +

− + + − + + −

+ ++ + + +

− + − − +

× + ++ + +

∑ ∑ ∑

1,

)m kχ + +

(18)

where 2=1 −−+ mki χδδ .

Eq. (17) can be written as

2

12

2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

11

3 2=0 2

21 1 1

2

1 22 2 1 2 2 1 2 2

2 2 2

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)!

!( 1)!

1 1 1

( ) ( ) ( )

mm

l l

l m il l

km

i

k

m k m k m k

J rr r mF r q

r J Rr i m i

m

k m k

q q q

q q q

χ χ

χδ

χ

δ χ δ χ δχ χ

χ χ χ χ χ χ

ναλ λ

λλ

λ

α α αλ λ

λ λ λ

∞ ∞

+

+ +

− + + − + + − + +

−Ω− × −

+× − +

− + − + − +× + +

+ + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑

1.

(19)

147


The implementation of inverse Hankel transform to Eq. (15) gives

2

1

1 2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

11

3 2=0 2

21 1 1

2

1 22 2 1 2 2 1 2

2 2 2

( )! 2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)!

!( 1)!

1 1 1

( ) ( ) (

mm

l l

l m il l

km

i

k

m k m k

J rr rr mF r q

q r J Rr i m i

m

k m k

q q q

q q q

α χ χ

χδ

χ

δ χ δ χ δχ χ

χ χ χ χ χ

να αλ λ

λλ

λ

α α αλ λ

λ λ λ

∞ ∞

+

+

+ +

− + + − + + −

−Ω Ω− × −

+× − +

− + − + − +× + +

+ + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑

2 1.

)m kχ + +

(20)

The application of inverse Laplace transform on Eq. (20) gives the result for velocity field F(r, t)

i.e.

×−

−Ω−Ω ∑∑∑

∞∞

)!(!

!

)(

)(!2=),(

0=2

2

2

0=2

1

1=2

2 imi

mr

RrJr

rrJrttrF

m

i

m

l

mll

l

lχχ

α

λν

λα

( )tkm

Gkmk

mk

m

k

i ,11,

[1)!(!

1)!( 2

21

,22

2

11

0=

3

χ

δχχ

χδ λαλ

λλ −

+

−+++−

+−+

× ∑

( ) ( )2 2 2

1 2 2 22 , 2 ,21 1

1, 1 1, 1, , ],m k m kG t G tχ χ χ χχ χ δ χ χ δα αλ λ λ λ− −

+ +− + + + − + + ++ − + − (21)

where 2=1 −−+ mki χδδ and the generalized function ),(.,, tG cba is defined in [Eqs. (97) and (101)] [33]

=)(

=),( 1

,, ca

b

cbadq

qLtdG

−−

( ) 1

=0

( );Re( ) > 0,| |< 1.

( ) ( 1) [( ) ]

n c n a b

an

d c n t dac b

c n c n a b q

+ − −∞ Γ +−

Γ Γ + Γ + −∑ (22)

5. ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR THE SHEAR STRESS

By using identity in Appendix )( 1A , we can equivalently have

2

2

2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

11

3 2=0 2

1 1

32 2 1 2 2 1

2 2

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)!

!( 1)!

1 1

,( ) ( )

mm

l l

l m il

km

i

k

m k m k

J rr r mH r q

J Rr i m i

m

k m k

q q

q q

χ χ

χδ

χ

δ χ δδ

χ χ χ χ

νµαλ λ

λλ

λ

α αλ

λ λ

∞ ∞

+

+

− + + − + +

−Ω× −

+× − +

− + − + × + + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑ (23)

where 1 = 2.i k mδ δ χ+ − −

By using the inverse Laplace transform on each side of Eq. (23), we have

148

Safdar et al., 2018

( ) ( )

2

2

2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

11

3 2=0 2

2 2

2 3 22 ,2 , 111, 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)!

!( 1)!

, , ,1, 1

mm

l l

l m il

km

i

k

m k

J rr r mH r q

J Rr i m i

m

k m k

G t G tm k

χ χ

χδ

χ

χ δ χχ χ δχ δ α

νµαλ λ

λλ

λ

λ λ λα

∞ ∞

+

− −

+ − + + +

−Ω× −

+× − +

× − + − − + + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑ (24)

where G is the generalized function as defined in Eq. (22).

6. SPECIAL CASES

6.1 Ordinary Burgers' fluid

By taking 1→χ and 1→δ into Eqs. (21) and (24)

( )

( ) ( )

2

1

2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

121

3 22 2,1=0 2

2 2

1 2 2 22, 2,1 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)![ ,

1, 1!( 1)!

, , ],2, 1 3, 1

mm

l lB

l m il l

km

i

k

J rr r mF r t rt

r J Rr i m i

mG t

m kk m k

G t G tm k m k

α

δ

δ δ

ναλ λ

λλ λαλ

λ λ λ λα α

∞ ∞

+−

− −

−ΩΩ − × −

+× − − + + +− +

+ − + −− + + + − + + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑ (25)

and

( ) ( )

2

2

2 2=1 =0 =02 2 2

11

3 2=0 2

2 2

2 3 22, 2,1 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

( 1)!

!( 1)!

, , ,1, 1 2, 1

mm

l lB

l m il

km

i

k

J rr r mH r q

J Rr i m i

m

k m k

G t G tm k m kδ δ

νµαλ λ

λλ

λ

λ λ λα α

∞ ∞

+

− −

−Ω× −

+× − +

× − + − − + + + − + + +

∑ ∑ ∑

∑ (26)

results are restored for the same motion as in [32], where 2=1 −−+ mkiδ .

6.2 Fractionalized Oldroyd-B fluid

Taking 02 →λ in (17)

1 1

21 2 2

=1 2 1 3

( ) 1( , ) = 2 ! ,

( )

l

l l l l l

J rr qF r q

r J Rr q q r r q

χ χ

χ χ δ δ

λα

λ ν ν λ

∞

+

+− Ω + + +

∑ (27)

then using the process from Eq. (19) to (21). Also, by using the identity

×

−

++++

∑∞

+

m

l

mll

r

qrqrqq

qχχδδχχα

χχ

λν

λλνλνλ

1

2

0=13

21

1

2

1 1=

)(

1

2 21

3 1=0 1

!,

!( )! ( )

mi

mi

m mq qm

i m i q

δ δχδ

χ χ

χλλ

λ − +

− + − +× − + ∑ (28)

149


where 1=2 −−αδδ i .

We have

( ) ( )

2

1

=1 =0 =01 2 1

3 , 1, 1 1 1 , 1 , 1 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

, , ,

mm

l lFO

l m il l

i

i m m i m m

J rr r mF r t rt

r J Rr i m i

G t G t

αχ χ

δ χ χ χχ δ α χ δ α χ

ναλ λ

λ λ λ λ

∞ ∞

− −− − − + − − − + +

−ΩΩ − × −

× − + −

∑ ∑ ∑ (29)

and the expression for associated shear stress

( ) ( )

2

2

=1 =0 =01 2 1

3 , 1, 1 1 3 , 1, 1 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

, , ,

mm

l lFO

l m il

i

i m m i m m

J rr r mH r t

J Rr i m i

G t G t

χ χ

δ χ δ χχ δ α χ χ δ α

νµαλ λ

λ λ λ λ

∞ ∞

− −− − − + + − − − +

−Ω× −

× − + −

∑ ∑ ∑ (30)

similar motion retrieved as Eq. (21) and (27) in [32].

6.3 Ordinary Oldroyd-B fluid

Putting 1→χ and 1→δ into Eqs. (29) and (30) gives

( ) ( )

2

1

=1 =0 =01 2 1

1 1

3 1, 1, 1 1 1 1, , 1 1

( )2 ! !( , ) =

( ) !( )!

, , ,

mm

l lOO

l m il l

i

i m m i m m

J rr r mF r t rt

r J Rr i m i

G t G t

α

α α

ναλ λ

λ λ λ λ

∞ ∞

− −− − − + − − +

−ΩΩ − × −

× − + −

∑ ∑ ∑ (31)

and for shear stress

( ) ( )[ ],,,

)!(!

!

)(

)(!2=),(

1

11,1,3

1

111,1,3

0=1

2

0=2

2

1=1

tGtG

imi

mr

RrJ

rrJtrH

mmimmi

i

m

i

m

l

ml

l

l

OB

−+−−

−+−−−

∞∞

−+−×

×−

−Ω ∑∑∑

λλλλ

λν

λµα

αα

(32)

6.4 Maxwell fluid with fractional derivatives

Assuming 03 →λ in Eqs. (29) and (30), we have

( ) ( )[ ],,,

)(

)(!2=),(

11,1,1111,,

1

2

0=2

1

1=1

tGtG

r

RrJr

rrJrttrF

mmmm

m

l

mll

l

l

FM

χχαχ

χχαχ

χχα

λλλ

λν

λα

−++−−−

−+−−−

∞∞

−+−×

×

−Ω−Ω ∑∑

(33)

also

( )2

2, 1, 1 1

=1 =01 2 1

( )2 !( , ) = , ,

( )

m

l lFM m m

l ml

J rr rH r t G t

J Rr

χχ αχ χ

νµαλ

λ λ

∞ ∞−

− − − +

−Ω× −

∑ ∑ (34)

showing similar motion as in Eqs. (30) and (31) of [32].

6.5 Ordinary Maxwell fluid

Making 1→χ in Eq. (33) and (34)

( ) ( )

2

1

=1 =01 2 1

1 1

1, 1, 1 1 1 1, , 1 1

( )2 !( , ) =

( )

, , ,

m

l lOM

l ml l

m m m m

J rr rF r t rt

r J Rr

G t G t

α

α α

ναλ λ

λ λ λ

∞ ∞

− −− − − + − − +

−ΩΩ − ×

× − + −

∑ ∑ (35)

150

Safdar et al., 2018

and

( )2

121, 1, 1 1

=1 =01 2 1

( )2 !( , ) = , .

( )

m

l lOM m m

l ml

J rr rH r t G t

J Rrα

νµαλ

λ λ

∞ ∞−

− − − +

−Ω × −

∑ ∑ (36)

6.6 Second grade fluid with fractional derivatives

By putting 1λ and 2λ = 0 into Eqs. (17b)

1

22 2

=1 2 3

( ) 1( , ) = 2 ! .

( ) ( )

l

l l l l l

J rrF r q

r J Rr q q r r qα δ δαν ν λ

∞ − Ω + +

∑ (37)

By using the identity given in Appendix )( 2A and using the process Eq. (19) to (21), result for velocity profile is

( )

21

=1 =02

2

1 , , 1 3

( )( , ) = 2 ! ( )

( )

, .

klFS l

l kl l

k k l

J rrF r t rt r

r J Rr

G r t

α

δδ δ δ α

α ν

λ ν

∞ ∞

− − − − +

Ω − Ω − ×

× −

∑ ∑ (38)

Also the affiliated stress

( )

( ) ( )

22

=1 =02

2 2

1 , , 1 3 3 1 , , 1 3

( )( , ) = 2 !

( )

, , ,

kl

FS l

l kl

k k l k k l

J rrH r t r

J Rr

G r t G r tδ δ δδ δ δ δ δ δ α

µα ν

λ ν λ λ ν

∞ ∞

− − − − + − − − +

Ω − ×

× − + −

∑ ∑ (39)

agreeing with the results of [32] for this fluid.

6.7 Ordinary second grade fluid

Substituting 1→δ into Eqs. (38) and (39), we have

( )

21

=1 =02

2

0, 1 , 1 3

( )( , ) = 2 ! ( )

( )

, ,

klOS l

l kl l

k k l

J rrF r t rt r

r J Rr

G r t

α

α

α ν

νλ

∞ ∞

− − − +

Ω − Ω − ×

× −

∑ ∑ (40)

also the interconnected shear stress

( )

( ) ( )

22

=1 =02

2 2

0, 1 , 1 3 3 0, , 1 3

( )( , ) = 2 !

( )

, , ,

kl

OS l

l kl

k k l k k l

J rrH r t r

J Rr

G r t G r tα α

µα ν

νλ λ νλ

∞ ∞

− − − + − − +

Ω − ×

× − + −

∑ ∑ (41)

performing the same motion as in Eqs. (33) and (34) of [34].

6.8 Newtonian fluid

Now, by using )( 3A and )( 4A in Eqs. (40) and (41) then applying 0=3λ

2121

2 1=1 =02

( ) ( )1( , ) = 2 ! exp( ) ,

( ) !

j

l ll

l jl l

J rr r tF r t rt r t

r J Rr j

α αα

α

να ν

ν

∞ −

+

−− Ω − Ω − −

∑ ∑ (42)

and

( ) ( )

11

2

2 2( 1)=1 2

22 2

=0

( ) 1 1( , ) = 2 !

( ) ( 1)!

1exp ,

!

l

l l l l

j

l l

j

J rr tH r t

r J Rr r

r t r tj

αα

α

α

α ρα ν

ν ν

−−∞

−

−

Ω − − × −

× − − −

∑

∑ (43)

151


similar motion recoverd for 1>α .

Now taking 1=α in Eqs. (43) and (44), we get

( )21

3=1 2

( )2( , ) = 1 exp ,

( )

ll

l l l

J rrF r t rt r t

r J Rrν

ν

∞Ω Ω − − − ∑ (44)

and related stress

( )( )22

2=1 2

( )( , ) = 2 1 exp ,

( )

ll

l l l

J rrH r t r t

r J Rrρ ν

∞

Ω − −∑ (45)

similar to the results for Newtonian fluid having Ω acceleration within circular domain.

7. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For analysing some connected visible features of above given results, we made the figures for r with variation in

time t and in additional parameters. Fig. 2 clearly showing that there is decrease in velocity with respect to the

fractional parameter χ but it is an increasing function of r . Fig. 3 showing that impact of second fractional

parameter δ is same to χ . The decreasing behaviour of ν on fluid is shown in Fig. 4. The influences of power

parameter α on the velocity are given in Fig. 5. It is increasing for different values of power function α . The

behaviour of 21,λλ and 3λ are represented in Figs. 6 - 8. Similarly the increasing behaviour of time t on BFFD is

shown in Fig. 9. The comparison of different fluid models with respect to fractional and ordinary derivatives are

given in Fig. 10 and 11 respectively. The roots lr can been approximated by "(4 1) /(4 )"n Rπ+ . In all figures, we

used SI units.

8. CONCLUSIONS

The intension here is to set up the analytical expresions for the velocity and stress profiles for the unsteady flow

of Burgers' fluid through a round pipe with infinite length. The results (25)-(26) parallel to the Ordinary Burgers'

fluid, solutions (29)-(32) similar to the fractionalized and ordinary Oldroyd-B fluid are same as in [32] . Similarly,

the results for fractional Maxwell fluid are derived in (33) and (34). The results (38) and (39) for fractional second

grade, expressions (40) and (41) for ordinary second grade fluid and (42)-(45) equations showing expressions for

Newtonian fluid obeying the similar motion as obtained in [32,34]. Thus, the results unconditionally suggest the

following findings:

• Our results gives the analogous findings for Ordinary Burgers' fluid and Oldroyd-B fluid with ordinary and

fractional derivative.

• The derived results for fractional/ordinary Maxwell and second grade fluids are equivalent to that we have already

in literature.

• It is clear that the fluid motion is a decreasing function for fractional parameter χ and δ .

• The velocity of the fluid is a decreasing function for ν , 2λ and 3λ .

• It is also noticed that the velocity profile is an increasing function for t , α , r , and 1λ throughout the domain.

• The behaviour of velocity profile for different models are also given.

APPENDIX

i

m

i

m

n

mnn

p imi

mr

qrqrqq

q βααββαα

αα

λλν

λλνλνλ

3

0=1

2

0=3

21

1

2

1

)!(!

!1=

)(

1×

−

−+++

+∑∑

∞

+

)],(),([ 111,,1111,, tGtG mpmimpmi

αβα

ααβα λλλ −

+−−−−

+−−− −+−× (A1)

( )trGrrq

qr

qrrqqnkpk

k

n

kk

n

pkk

n

knn

p,)(=

)(

)(=

)(

1 2

31,,1

2

0=12

3

1

2

0=2

3

2νλν

νλν

νλνβ

βββββ

ββ

ββ −×−+

−++ +−−−−

∞

+−

−−−∞

∑∑ (A2)

152

Safdar et al., 2018

=),()( 2

311,0,

2

0=

trGr nkpk

k

n

k

νλν −− +−−−

∞

∑

2 1 2 21

3

2 2 2=03 3

(1 )1 1= = 1, 2,3,...

1 ! 1

jp p p

n n n

pjn n n

r r t r texp p

r r j r

νλ ν νν νλ νλ

− − + − −− − + + ∑ (A3)

=),()( 2

31,0,

2

0=

trGr nkpk

k

n

k

νλν −− +−−

∞

∑

1 2 2 2 22

3

2( 1) 2 2=03 3

(1 )1 1= , = 2,3,...

1 ! 1

jp p p

n n n

pjn n n

r r t r texp p

r r j r

νλ ν νν νλ νλ

− − −

−

+ − −− − + + ∑ (A4)

22

1 20

( ) ( )R

n n

n

Rr J rr dr J Rr

r=∫ (A5)

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Newtonian Fluid Mech., vol. 100, (2001), pp. 115-126

[5] R. W. Fox and A. T. MacDonald, “Introduction to fluid mechanics”, 5th edition, School of Machanical

Engineering, Purdue University, (2004).

[6] C. Fetecau, “Analytical Solutions for Non-Newtonian Fluid Flows in Pipe-Like Domains”, Int. J. Non- Linear

Mech., vol. 39, (2004), pp. 225-231.

[7] T. W. Ting, “Certain Non-Steady Flows of Second-Order Fluids”, Arch. Rational Mech. Anal., vol. 14, (1963),

pp. 1-26.

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(1986), pp. 133-155.

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(2010), pp. 143-151.

[20] M. Y. Xu and W. C. Tan, “Theoretical Analysis of The Velocity Field, Stress Field and Vortex Sheet of

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(2001), pp. 1387-1399.

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Maxwell Model Between Two Parallel Plates”, Int. J. Non-Linear Mech., vol. 38, no. 5, (2003), pp. 645-650.

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[30] Corina Fetecau, M. Imran, C. Fetecau and I. Burdujan, “Helical Flow of an Oldroyd-B Fluid Due to a Circular

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with Fractional Derivatives Induced by a Circular Cylinder”, Meccanica, vol. 48, no. 5, (2013), pp. 1215-1226.

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209424/REV1, (1999).

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Through a Circular Cylinder”, Meccanica, vol. 47, no. 3, (2012), 603-611.

Figure 1 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for the comparison

of different fluid models with respect to ordinary derivative

and fixed values for 2,=0.07,=0.0025,=1,=1,=40,=0.7,= ανδχ ΩtR

95=20,= 21 λλ and 1=3λ

154

Safdar et al., 2018

Figure 2 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for different

values of χ and fixed values for

0.5,=0.0025,=0.5,=6,=0.7,= ΩνδtR 3,=α 55=5,= 21 λλ

and 97=3λ


values of δ and fixed values for 0.0025,=,0.3=6,=0.7,= νχtR

55=5,=3,=0.5,= 21 λλαΩ 3,=α 55=5,= 21 λλ and 97=3λ

Figure 4 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for

different values of ν and and fixed values for

3,=0.5,=0.5,=0.32,=6,=0.7,= αδχ ΩtR and 97=3λ

Figure 5 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for

different values of α and fixed values for

6.5,=0.1,=0.65,=6,=0.7,= νδχtR 25,=0.15,= 1λΩ

75=2λ and 85=3λ


values of 1λ and fixed values for 0.4=7,=,0.7= χtR

0.3,=0.0025,=0.7,= Ωνδ 40=3,= 2λα and 10=3λ


values of 2λ and fixed values for 0.4,=7,=0.7,= χtR

0.3,=0.0025,=0.7,= Ωνδ 23=3,= 1λα and

10=3λ

155


Figure 8 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for different values of

3λ and fixed values for 0.4.7=7,=0,= χtR

0.3,=0.0025,=0.7,=, Ωνδ 23=3,= 1λα and 34=2λ

Figure 9 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for different values of t and fixed values for 0.72=0.5,=,0.7= χδR

95=47,=2,=0.07,=0.0025,= 21 λλαν Ω and 5=3λ

Figure 10 Profiles of the velocity ),( trF for the comparison of different fluid models with respect to fractional

derivative and fixed values for 0.7=R 2,=0.07,=0.0025,=0.9,=0.95,=40,=, ανδχ Ωt 95=20,= 21 λλ and

1=3λ

156



ISSN: 2090-4274



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a Corresponding Author: M. Imran, Department of Mathematics, Govt College University Faisalabad. E-mail address: [email protected]

Rotational Flow of Second Grade Fluid with Caputo-Fabrizio Fractional

Derivative in an Annulus

N. Sadiq1, M. Imran2, a, Rabia Safdar3, Hassan Waqas4

Department of Mathematics, Govt College University Faisalabad

Received: October 14, 2017

Accepted: December23, 2017

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we study the unsteady flow of fractional second grade fluid between an infinite annulus. Initially both,

fluid and cylinders are at rest and motion is due to the rotation of the inner cylinder about its axis. In the governing

equations we used the modified fractional derivative recently given by Caputo and Fabrizio, which is more suitable

for viscoelastic as compare to usual fractional derivative. Our goal is to determine the solutions by usning integral

transform techniques. The obtained solution is represented in terms of generalize G function which satisfy all the

applied initial and boundary conditions. Furthermore, substituting favorable limits of different parameters, we get

similar solutions for ordinary second grade fluid and recover well known solution for Newtonian fluid. For the

validity of the result we made a good comparison between existing and our analytical solutions with the help of

tables and graphs, which shows that both the solutions are equivalent. In the end the effect of the physical

parameters on the fluid flow are illustrated graphically.

KEYWORDS: Rotational flow, second grade fluid, Caputo and Fabrizio fractional derivative.

1. NOTATION

θτ rtr Λ=),(

only non zero shear stress

1α

normal stress module

ρα

α 1=

material constant

µ

dynamic viscosity

ρµ

ν =

kinematic viscosity

ρ

constant density

θe the unit vector along θ direction

f constant

),( qrw Laplace transforms of ),( trw

2. INTRODUCTION

Fluids are divided into two broad classes namely Newtonian and non-Newtonian due to stress strain

relationship. The class of Newtonian fluids has simple and liner constitutive relationship. They are completely

described by Navier-stoks equation. There are many fluids like blood, honey, paste, slums, emulsion etc which are

used in practical life have very complex and non-liner constitutive relationship. To find the solutions of non-

Newtonian fluids under different geometries and circumstance is an uphill task. The system of Navier-stoks equation

failed to completely describe non-Newtonian fluids. Thats why a number of fluids models proposed in literature

namely integral type, differential type [1], and rate type [2]. Among them the differential type fluids model are

specially concentrated by researchers due to their several technological applications.

It is practically verified that differential equations with non-integer order are very significant to describe the

viscoelasticity and some other properties of the fluids. Many researchers are interested in generalizing the flow

157

Sadiq et al., 2018

problems by using fractional derivatives. They have made various definitions of fractional derivative like Riemann-

Liouville, Capto and Capto-Fabrizio fractional derivatives[3-6]. We know commonly, the derivative of constant terms

must be zero but Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative does not follow this rule. We come to know that when we

apply Laplace transform upon Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative it gives some insignificant terms in result. The

new definition of fractional derivative which wipe out these obstacles and having very smooth and singular kernel, is

given by Capto and Fabrizio [6]. To solve our flow problem we also use this new definition because it is most

reasonable for Laplace transform. Some investigations with fractional derivatives can be seen[7-21].

In this article our objective is to get analytical solution for the velocity and stress fields of moving fluid in

an annulus of concentric circular cylinders. In the beginning the fluid and cylinders all are at rest. Due to the rotation

of inner cylinder the fluid flow is devolped around cylinder’s axis, which is due to the effect of time depended

couple acting on the surface of its boundary at )0=( +t . In the governing equation of the above flow model we use

recently modified fractional derivative, given by Caputo and Fabrizio which have very smooth and non singular

kernel. This new approach is more significant and more perfect because it removes all the ambiguities facing other

definitions of fractional derivatives and gives consistency in results which can be verify from graphical results. The

well known integral transforms namely Laplace and Hankel are used to solve the current flow problem analytically.

For better perception, obtained results are represented in form of generalized G function. By considering favourable

limits we make some cases which represent expressions about classical second grade and Newtonian fluid.

Moreover, we recurve well known results about Newtonian fluid.

2. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

For the flow problem here to be considered, velocity and stress tensor are [20]

),,(=,),(=),(= trtrwtrvv ΛΛθe

(1)

where θe is in cylindrical coordinate system. For above flow model the constraints of incompressibility are satisfied

automatically. For this flow model the governing equations are [21, 22]

),,(11

=),(

22

2

trwrrrrtt

trw

−

∂∂

+∂∂

∂∂

+∂

∂αν

(2)

( )1

1( , ) ( , ).tr t D w r t

r r

ητ µ α∂ = + − ∂

(3)

The inner time derivative is replaced by fractional one in Eqs. (2) and (3), we get

( ) );,(11

=),(

22

2

trwrrrr

Dt

trwt

−

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂

∂ ηαν (4)

( ) ),,(1

=),( 1 trwrr

Dtr t

−∂∂

+ ηαµτ (5)

where the fractional differential operator is defined as [6, 26]

−−−

− ∫

),(

,]1

)([exp)(

)(1

)(

=)(

tgdt

d

dt

gM

tgD

t

t

τβτβ

τββ

β

β

(6)

where )(βM is a normalization function such that (1)=1=(0) MM .

when we make 1→β in Eqs. (4) as well as in (5), they reduce to Eqs. (2) and (3), due to the fact dt

dggDt =1

.

158


2.1 Rotational flow through in an annulus

We suppose initially the whole system (an incompressible fractional second grade fluid [IFSGF] in an annulus) is

at rest. We further assume that after time 0t = the inner cylinder begins to rotate around 0)=(r by torque per

unit length 2

12 ftRπ which is time depended but outer cylinder )>( 12 RR remains at rest. The associated

conditions are [23]

],,[0,=,0)(0,=,0)( 21 RRrrrv ∈Λ

(7)

( ) ,=|),(1

=),( 2

1=11 fttrw

rrDtR Rrt

−∂∂

+ ηαµτ (8)

2 w(R ,t)=0. (9)

.

2.2 Calculation of the velocity field

We apply the Laplace transformation to the Eqs. (4), (8) and (9) and using (7), we have

),,(11

])(1

[=),(22

2

qrwrrrrq

qqrwq

−

∂∂

+∂∂

−++

ηηα

ν (10)

,

])(1

[

2=|),(

1

131

=

q

qq

fqrw

rrRr

ηηα

µ−+

+

−∂∂

(11)

2( , ) 0,w R q = (12)

From Eqs. (10) and (11)

),,(11

][=),(])(1[22

2

2 qrwrrrr

qqrwqq

−

∂∂

+∂∂

+−+ ηνηηη

(13)

,][

])(1[2=|),(

1

1

31=

qq

qfqrw

rrRr ηηµ

ηη+−+

−∂∂

(14)

where αηνη +− )(1=2 and 11 )(1= αηµη +− .

),( qrwnH is the Hankel transform of function ),( qrw and is defined as [10, 15,17]

,),(),(=),( 2

1

drrrBqrwrR

qrwnRnH ∫

(15)

where

)()()()(=),( 112121

nnnnnrrYrRJrRYrrJrrB −

(16)

The equation 0=),( 2

nrRB

have nr as positive roots. The Bessel functions of order n , first and second kind are

(.)nJ and (.)nY respectively. After multiplying Eq. (13) with ),( nrrrB , integrating with respect to r from 1R

to 2R , using Eq. (14), and the predefined identity [23]

drrrBqrwrrrr

rR

nR)(),()

11(

22

2

2

1

−∂∂

+∂∂

∫

),,(2|),(12

=1

= qrwrqrwrrr nHn

Rr

n

−

−∂∂

π (17)

we obtained

159

Sadiq et al., 2018

.])()[(1

])(1[4=),(

2

2

223 ηνηηηηη

ρπ nnn

nH

rqrqq

q

r

fqrw

+++−−+

(18)

We rewrite above equation as

].])())[(1(

])(1[

)(

)(1[

4=),(

2

2

22

1

2

2

1

33 ηνηηηηηµηη

ηηµηη

π nnn

nH

rqrqqq

q

qq

q

r

fqrw

+++−+−+

−+−+

(19)

Now we define Inverse Hankel transform as [25]

),()()(

),()(

2=),(

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

2

1=

2

qrwrRJrRJ

rrBrRJrqrw

nH

nn

nn

n

n −∑∞π

(20)

using Eq. (19) in Eq. (20) and well known result [23]

),()(2

1=

)]()([

),()( 2

22

2

1

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1= r

Rr

R

R

rRJrRJr

rrBrRJ

nnn

nn

n

−−∑

∞

π

(21)

we get

)]()([

),()(2]

)(

)(1)[()(=),(

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=1

3

2

22

2

1

nnn

nn

n rRJrRJr

rrBrRJf

qq

q

r

Rr

R

Rfqrw

−−

+−+

− ∑∞

πηηµηη

.])())[(1(

])(1[2

2

22

1

2

2

ηνηηηηηµηη

nn rqrqqq

q

+++−+−+

× (22)

For the final result about velocity field we apply discreet inverse Laplace transformation, Convolution theorem and

using expansions

2

2

1 1

1

1 1,

( )

q

q qq

ηµηµ η ηη

−

=

+ +

(23)

1

2 2 2 2 2 1

2 2

1

[(1 ) ( ) ] [(1 ) ( ) ]n n n n

q

q r q r q r r qη η η ν η η η η ν η

−

−=

− + + + − + + +

2 1 1

3

2 1 10 02 4

( ),

[(1 ) ( )] ( )

k k k k

n

k kn nn

r q q

q r q

ν η ηη η η η

− − − −∞ ∞

+ += =

−= =

− + + +∑ ∑ (24)

where 1

2

3)(1

)(=

+−−

k

k

nk r

ηην

η and η

ηηη

−+

1= 2

2

4nr

.

We get

)],()(1),()[()(=),(1

2,11,

1

3,11,

2

22

2

1

1

tGtGr

Rr

R

Rftrw

ηηµ

ηηηµ

ηη

−−+−− −−

),()[,()]()([

),()(241,31,

2

1

1,0,10

3

0=2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=1

stGsGrRJrRJr

rrBrRJfkk

tk

knn

n

nn

n

−−−−

− +−−

∞∞

∫∑∑ ηηηηµ

ηηπ

,)],()(12),()(1 41,21,41,11,

2 dsstGstG kkkk −−−+−−−+ +−−+−− ηηηηη (25)

160


where ),(.,, tG cba is the generalized function which is defined as [15, 17,24]

=)(

=),( 1

,, ca

b

cbadq

qLtdG

−−

1.<0,>)(Re0,>)(Re;])[(1)()(

)(1)(

0=a

bapcp

p q

dqbac

bapc

t

pc

pcd−

−+Γ+ΓΓ+Γ −−+∞

∑ (26)

2.3 Calculation of the shear stress

After the application of Laplace transform, Eq. (5) becomes

),,(1

])(1

[=),( 1 qrwrrq

qqr

−∂∂

−++

ηηα

µτ

(27)

Eq. (27) implies that

),(1

])(1

[=),( 1 qrwrrq

qqr

−∂∂

−++ηηηµη

τ

(28)

To solve above equation, first we find),(

1qrw

rr

−∂∂

, for this purpose we use Eq. (22) and predefined result [26]

),,(

~),(

1=),( nnnn rrBrrrB

rrrB

dr

d−

(29)

we get

)]()([

),(~

)(2]

)(

)(1[)(2=),(

1

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=1

3

21

nn

nn

n rRJrRJ

rrBrRJf

qq

q

r

Rfqrw

rr −+

+−+

−∂∂

∑∞

πηηµηη

.])())[(1(

])(1[2

2

22

1

2

2

ηνηηηηηµηη

nn rqrqqq

q

+++−+−+

× (30)

where

2 2 1 2 1 2( , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).

n n n n nB r r J rr Y R r J R r Y rr= −% (31)

By using Eq. (30) in Eq. (28), we obtained

)]()([

),(~

)(2

1)(2=),(

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=3

21

nn

nn

n rRJrRJ

rrBrRJf

qr

Rfqr

−+ ∑

∞

πτ

.])()[(1

])(1[2

2

222 ηνηηηηη

nn rqrqq

q

+++−−+

×

(32)

Finally by using identity Eq. (24) in Eq. (25) and applying discrete inverse Laplace transformation we get required

shear stress

k

knn

nn

n rRJrRJ

rrBrRJft

r

Rftr 3

0=2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=

221

)]()([

),(~

)(2)(=),( ηπτ ∑∑

∞∞

−+

1, 3 , 1 4 1, 2 , 1 4( , ) (1 ) ( , )[ ].k k k kG t G tη η η η− − + − − +− + − −

)],()(1),([ 41,21,41,31, tGtG kkkk ηηηη −−+− +−−+−− (33) 3. THE SPECIAL CASES

3.1Ordinary second grade fluid

If we choose 1→η for Eqs. (25) and (33), we get velocity field

161

Sadiq et al., 2018

)]()([

),()(2),()()(=),(

2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=11

3,11,

2

22

2

1

1nn

n

nn

n rRJrRJr

rrBrRJftG

r

Rr

R

Rftrw

−−−− ∑

∞

− απ

αµ

α

,),()(),( 2

13,0,

2

0=1

1,0,10

dsstrGrsG nkk

k

n

k

t

−−−−× +−−

∞

∑∫ αναµ

(34)

and shear stress

k

n

knn

nn

n

rrRJrRJ

rrBrRJft

r

Rftr )(

)]()([

),(~

)(2)(=),(

2

0=2

2

11

2

2

2

2

1

1=

221 νπτ −−

+ ∑∑∞∞

2

0, 3, 1 ,( ).k k nG r tα− − +× − (35)

3.2 Newtonian fluid

If we take α and 01 →α and use the relations from appendix 41 AA − then from Eqs. (34) and (35) we recover

the solution [23]

)]()([

),()()

2()()(

2

1=),(

2

2

11

2

2

3

2

2

1

1=

22

22

2

1

nnn

nn

n rRJrRJr

rrBrRJfft

r

Rr

R

Rtrw

−−− ∑

∞

µνπ

µ

))],(1(1

[2

2

2

tert

rn

r

n

n

ννν

−−−×

(36)

k

n

knn

n

nn

n

rrRJrRJr

rrBrRJft

r

Rftr )(

)]()([

),(~

)()

2()(=),( 2

0=2

2

11

2

2

2

2

2

1

1=

221 ννπ

τ −−

+ ∑∑∞∞

2

2

2

1(1 )[ ( )].nr t

n

n

t r er

ννν

−× − − (37)


Sr. No. w(r,t) with CFD [23] w(r,t) with C-FFD ),( trτ with CFD [23] ),( trτ with C-FFD

1 0.17665 0.17587 -16199.29625 -16199.82818

2 0.00882 0.00878 -40.49823 -40.49957

3 0.00450 0.00448 -10.65041 -10.65077

4 0.00300 0.00299 -4.81548 -4.81564

5 0.00224 0.00223 -2.73220 -2.73230

6 0.00177 0.00176 -1.75773 -1.75779

7 0.00146 0.00145 -1.22489 -1.22494

8 0.00122 0.00122 -0.90216 -0.90219

9 0.00105 0.00104 -0.69200 -0.69203

10 0.00091 0.00090 -0.54756 -0.54759

11 0.00079 0.00079 -0.44404 -0.44406

12 0.00069 0.00069 -0.36733 -0.36734

13 0.00061 0.00061 -0.30890 -0.30892

14 0.00054 0.00053 -0.26339 -0.26340

15 0.00047 0.00047 -0.22724 -0.22724

16 0.00042 0.00041 -0.19805 -0.19805

17 0.00036 0.00036 -0.17415 -0.17415

18 0.00032 0.00031 -0.15432 -0.15432

19 0.00027 0.00027 -0.13770 -0.13770

20 0.00023 0.00023 -0.12363 -0.12362

21 0.00020 0.00019 -0.11161 -0.11160

22 0.00016 0.00016 -0.10126 -0.10125

23 0.00013 0.00012 -0.09229 -0.09228

24 0.00009 0.00009 -0.08446 -0.08445

25 0.00006 0.00006 -0.07759 -0.07757

Table 1: Comparison of velocity field and shear stress with existing results

162


4.1 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The objective of this work is to establish an exact solution for the flow of second grade fluid in an annulus. The new

definition recently given by Caputo and Fabrizo for fractional derivative is used to define the governing equations of

stress dependent second grade fluid. This new definition having smooth and non singular kernel. The outer cylinder is

at rest but the flow is due to the rotation of inner cylinder about its axis which is due to time depended stress. To get

solution we used finite Hankel and Laplace transforms. We are interested to show the behaviour of different physical

parameters graphically of the results given in Eqs. (25) and (33) for exact solution of velocity and shear stress. To

explain physical aspects, we draw all the diagrams against r and for different values of time t . It is clear from Figs.

(1) and (2) that with the passage of time velocity and absolute shear stress increases. Fractional parameter η and

kinematic viscosity ν also have the same behaviour like time. Velocity and absolute shear stress are directly

proportional to η and ν which can be seen from Figs. (5), (6), (9) and (10). By increasing the value of f , velocity

decreases but stress is increases as shown in Figs. (3) and (4). Material constant α shows exactly opposite behaviour

to f . It can be seen in Figs. (7) and (8). It is noted that velocity of the second grade fluid decreases by decreasing

radius of inner cylinder but increases by increasing radius of outer cylinder as expected. The velocity of the fluid have

inverse relation with viscosity of the fluid as shown in Fig. (11).

For the authenticity of our results we make a very good comparison with existing result of M.Imran at. al [23] is given

by table , where as graphical comparison is available in Figs (12) and (13). In all figures we use SI units for material

constants roots nr are approximated by )]/[2(1)(2 22 RRn −− π .

4.2 CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this article we studied unsteady incompressible rotational flow of second grade fluid with Caputo-Fabrizio

fractional derivative. With the help of finite Hankel and Laplace transforms we get final solution.

We observe the following aspects :

• It is observed that the solutions obtained for second grade fluid with two different definitions of fractional

derivative given by Caputo and Caputo-Fabrizio are equivalent but our result with new definition is more

suitable which is clear from non singularity and smoothness of kernel and can be seen from consistency of

graphical results.

• It is found that velocity and absolute shear stress increases with the passage of time for this fluid model.

• The velocity and absolute shear stress are increasing functions of kinematic viscosity ν and fractional

parameter η .

• Material constant α is directly proportional to velocity function and inversely proportional to absolute

shear stress but coefficient f have exactly opposite behaviour.

• As long as fluid become more thick, the velocity of the fluid decreases as expected.

• For the authenticity of our results we recover well known solution of Newtonian fluid [23].

APPENDIX

2 12 2

0, 1, 1 2=0

2 21

2 2=0

(1 )1( ) ( , ) = ( )

1exp = 1,2,3,...

1 ! 1

ab a n

n b a b n ab n

ja

n n

jn n

rr G r t

r

r t r ta

r j r

αν α

ν

ν να α

−∞

− − − +

−

+− − −

− − × − + +

∑

∑ (A1)

221 11

1, 3,1

1 1

1 1( , ) = [( ) (1 ) ]

2

t tG t e t

µαα αµ

α α µ µ µ

−

− − − + + (A2)

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Sadiq et al., 2018

11,0,1

1

( , ) =t

G t e

µαµ

α

−

− (A3)

0 0

( ) ( ) = ( ) ( ) = ( ) ( )t t

c t d t c t s d s ds c s d t s ds∗ − −∫ ∫ (A4)

REFERENCES

[1] Dunn J.E., and K.R. Rajagopal, 1995. Fluids of differential type: critical review and thermodynamic analysis:

Int. J. Eng. Sci., 33(5): 689-729.

[2] Rajagopal, K.R., and A.R. Srinivasa, 2000. A thermodynamical frame-work for rate type fluid models: J. Non-

Newtonian Fluid Mech., 88(3): 207-227.

[3] Friedrich, C.H.R., 1991. Relaxation and retardation functions of the Maxwell model with fractional derivatives:

Rheologica Acta., 30(2): 151-158.

[4] Imran, M.A., I. Khan, M. Ahmad, N. A. Shah and M. Nazar, 2017. Heat and mass transport of differential type

fluid with non-integer order time-fractional Caputo derivatives: Journal of Molecular Liquids., 229: 67-75.

[5] Garra, R., and F. Polito, 2012. Fractional calculus modeling for unsteady unidirectional flow of incompressible

fluids with time-dependent viscosity: Commun Nolinear Sci Numer Simulat., 17(12): 5073-5078.

[6] Caputo, M., and M. Fabrizio, 2015. A new Definition of Fractional Derivative without Singular Kernel: Progr,

Fract. Differ. Appl., 1(2):1-13.

[7] Huang, J.Q., and C.Q. Liu, 1997. Analysis of general second-grade fluid flow in double cylinder rheometer: Sci.

China Ser. A., 40(2): 183-190.

[8] Tan, W.C., F. Xian and L. Wei, 2002. Exact solution for the unsteady Couette flow of the generalized second

grade fluid: Chin. Sci. Bull., 47(21): 1783-1785.

[9] Hayat, T., S.Nadeem and S. Asghar, 2004. Periodic unidirectional flows of a viscoelastic fluid with the

fractional Maxwell model: Applied Mathematics and Computation., 151(1): 153-161.

[10] Tong, D.K., R.H. Wang and H.S. Yang, 2005. Exact solutions for the flow of non-Newtonian fluid with

fractional derivative in an annular pipe: Sci. China Ser., G 48: 485-495.

[11] Qi, H., and M.xu, 2007. Unsteady flow of viscoelastic fluid with the fractional Maxwell model in a channel:

Mechanics Research communications., 34(2): 210-212.

[12] Khan, M., S.H. Ali and H.T. Qi, 2009. Some accelerated flows for a generalized Oldroyd-B fluid: Nonlinear

Anal. RWA., 10(2): 980-991.

[13] Wang, S.W., and M.Y. Xu, 2009. Axial Couette flow of two kinds of fractional viscoelastic fluids in an

annulus: Nonlinear Anal. RWA., 10(2): 1087-1096.

[14] Qi, H., and Hui Jin, 2009. Unsteady helical flows of a generalized Oldroyd-B fluid with fractional derivative:

Nonlinear Anal. RWA., 10(5): 2700-2708.

[15] Rubbab, Q., S.M. Husnine and A. Mahmood, 2009. Exact solutions of generalized Oldroyd-B fluid subject to a

time-dependent shear stress in a pipe: J. Prime Res. Math., 5: 139-148.

[16] Caponetto, R., G. Dongola, L. Fortuna and I. Petráš, 2010. Fractional Order Systems): Modeling and Control

Applications.

[17] Nazar, M., C. Fetecau and A.U. Awan, 2010. A note on the unsteady flow of a generalized second-grade fluid

through a circular cylinder subject to a time dependent shear stress: Nonlinear Analysis Real World

Applications., 11(4): 2207-2214.

[18] Mainardi, F., 2010. Fractional Calculus and Waves in linear Viscoelasticity: An Introduction to Mathematical

Models, World scientific publishing.

[19] Athar, M., C. Fetecau, M. Kamran, A. Sohail and M. Imran, 2011. Exact solutions for unsteady axial Couette

flow of a fractional Maxwell fluid due to an accelerated shear: Nonlinear Anal., 16(2): 135-151.

[20] Kamran, M., M. Imran, M. Athar and M. A.Imran, 2012. On the unsteady rotational flow of fractional

Oldroyd-B fluid in cylindrical domains: Meccanica., 47(3): 573-584.

[21] Raza, N., 2017. Unsteady Rotational Flow of a second Grade Fluid with Non-Integer Caputo Time Fractional

Derivative: Journal of Mathematics., 49(3): 15-25.

[22] Jamil, M., A. Rauf, C. Fetecau and N. A. Khan, 2011. Helical flows of second grade fluid due to constantly

accelerated shear stresses: Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation., 16(4): 1959-1969.

[23] Imran, M., M. Kamran, M. Athar and A. A. Zafar, 2011. Taylor-Couette flow of a fractional second grade fluid

in an annulus due to a time-dependent couple: Nonlinear Analysis Modelling and Control., 16(1): 47-58.

164


[24] Lorenzo C.F., and T.T. Hartley, 1999. Generalized functions for fractional calculus: National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, Glenn Research Center., 209424 NASA:

[25] Debnath, L., and D. Bhatta, 2007. Integral Transforms and their Applications: Chapman Hall / CRC, Boca

Ration, London, New York.

[26] Imran, M.A., N.Raza, M. Abdullah and M.Aleem, 2017. Wall slip and non-integer order derivative effects on

the heat transfer flow of Maxwell fluid over an oscillating vertical plate with new definition of fractional

Caputo-Fabrizio derivatives: Results in Physics., 7: 1887-1898.

Figure 1: Velocity profile of (IFSGF) for different

values of t and fixed value for

1 20.3, 0.5, 0.003, 2, 0.2,R R fν η= = = = − = .

0.002, 972, 2.916α ρ µ= = =

Figure 2: Stress profile of (IFSGF) for different

values of t and fixed value for

1 20.3, 0.5, 0.003, 2, 0.2,R R fν η= = = = − = .


values of f and fixed value for 1 0.3,R =

2 0.5, 0.003, 1, 0.2, 0.002,R tν η α= = = = = .

972, 2.916ρ µ= =


values of f and fixed value for 1 0.3,R =

2 0.5, 0.003, 0.5, 0.2, 0.002,R tν η α= = = = =

165

Sadiq et al., 2018

Figure 5 Velocity profile of (IFSGF) for different

values of η and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

0.0003, 2, 0.002, 972, 7,f tν α ρ= = − = = =. 2.916µ =


values of η and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

0.003, 1, 0.03, 200, 4, 40.916f tν α ρ µ= = − = = = =.


values of α and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

0.003, 2, 0.33, 7, 400,f tν η ρ= = − = = = .

35.916µ =


values of α and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

0.003, 2, 0.2, 4, 972,f tν η ρ= = − = = =

2.916µ =

166


Figure 9Velocity profile of (IFSGF) for different

values of ν and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

2, 0.4, 0.05, 6, 200,f tη α ρ= − = = = = .

32.916µ =


values of ν and fixed value for

1 20.3, 0.5, 2, 0.002, 0.5,R R f η α= = = − = =

10, 972, 32.916t ρ µ= = = .


values of µ and fixed value for 1 20.3, 0.5,R R= =

0.003, 2, 0.2, 0.002, 972fν η α ρ= = − = = =

Figure 12: Comparision between velocity profiles of

(ISGF) with Caputo and Caputo –Fabrizio fractional

derivatives at different values of t and fixed value for

1 20.3, 0.5, 0.003, 2, 0.2,R R fν η= = = = − =

0.002, 972α ρ= =

167

Sadiq et al., 2018

Figure 13: Comparision between Stress profiles of second

grade fluid with Caputo and Caputo –Fabrizio fractional

derivatives at different values of t and fixed value for

1 20.3, 0.5R R= =

, 0.003, 2, 0.2, 0.002, 972fν η α ρ= = − = = =

168



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a Corresponding Author: Sajjad Hussain Presently at Punjab Higher Education Department, Government Postgraduate College

Layyah, Pakistan. +923336468927997, Email: [email protected].

Partial Slip and Buoyancy Effects on MHD Flow Through Porous Medium

Adjacent to Porous Accelerated Sheet in Presence of Heat Radiation

Danial Habib1, M. Anwar Kamal2, Farooq Ahmad3, Sajjad Hussain4

1Department of Mathematics Virtual University Lahore, Pakistan

2Department of Mathematics, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia 3Department of Mathematics, Govt Islamia Civil Lines College, Lahore, Pakistan

4Department of Mathematics, Govt Postgraduate College, Layyah, Pakistan

Received: November 1, 2017


ABSTRACT

A laminar viscous fluid flow being electrically conducting is considered owing to an accelerated sheet. The fluid flow

through a porous medium over a porous surface. The flow is assumed under the effect of applied magnetic field,

radiative heat source and slip conditions. The mathematical model involves the conversion of governing partial

differential equation in to ordinary differential form via similarity transform Physical nature of the problem in explored

by computing results for temperature and velocity field for wide ranges of influential parameters namely slip parameter

A, porosity parameter K, Magnetic field parameter M, Prandtl number , parameter of radiative heat and mixed

convection parameter . The result show close resemblance to the previous results. The radiation raises the

temperature and porosity increasing the flow speed

KEYWORDS: Slip conditions, Accelerated sheet, Differential form, Porous medium, magnetohydrodynamic flow.

1. INTRODUCTION

Various industrial processes such as glass fiber-production, hot-rolling, wire-drawing and manufacturing

films of plastics are some applications of flow and thermal transportation over surfaces being stretched. Sakiadis [1,

2] analyzed first time the approximation for boundary layer for the surface of stretching property. Then, Crane [3]

studied the flow problem in the arena of a sheet being stretched. Afterwards, authorss namely Gupta and Gupta [4],

Chen and Char [5], Dutta et al. [6], examined the work by inclusion of heat and mass transportation. Some other areas

concerned with such problems are addressed by sajjad et al [7], Xu and Liao [8], Hassan et al [9,10 ], Cortell [11],

and Hayat and Sajid [12].

The modern metal-working and metallurgical processes involve the study of magnetohydrodynamic flow of fluid that

is electrically conducting. Magnetic field finds its place where the metal are fused, electrical furnace and in producing

cooling inside a nuclear reactor. Kumaran et al. [13] reported, as a result of steeper streamlines, magnetic field can

make a thinne boundary layer. Pavlov [14] took in consideration the flow of fluid that can conduct electricity having

in boundary layer effects near an elastic plane which is stretching. Kasiviswanathan and Gandhi [15] found exact

solution for flow of a micropolar fluid between two, rotating, parallel disks. The flow for micro polar fluids due to a

rotating disk with magnetic field has been considered by Sajjad and Kamal [16]. Hakiem et al. [17] analyzed the effect

of Joule’s heating on the MHD flow of micro polar fluid past a plate geometry. Arthur and Seini [18] analyzed the

hydromagnetic flow because of a stretched sheet. Muondwe et al [19] made study of hydro magnetic flow over a

contracting sheet with in a porous property medium. Yonghua et al [20] presented numerical solution for convective

heat and mass transfer in power-law fluids along an infinite vertical plate with effects of porosity of medium.

Thiagarajan et al [21] considered MHD flow of a Casson fluid for sheet that was an permeable and exponentially

shrinking.

This article addresses the flow problem adjacent to a sheet that is beimg in stretching form. The flow is considered

through medium with pores and mixed heat transfer is added with radiation. This work an extension to the problem

presented by Daniel [22]. The results have been computed with a strength forward computational technique coded in

commercial software Mathematica.

169

Habib et al., 2018

2. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

The flow for a viscous fluid in the influences of magnetic field of strength B(x), radiative heat source of

strength is assumed over a surface in motion. The fluid is flowing through porous medium over permeable sheet.

The sheet lies in horizontal direction which in being streached with speed Uw = axm. The temperature at the sheet

surface is Tw = + where m, n, a and b are constants. T∞ is temperature in free stream. Fluid temperature is

denoted by T and velocity is V = V(u,v) .

The equation for conservation of mass, momentum and energy are respectively given below: +

= 0, (1)

+

= −

− ! ± #$ − , (2)

% + %

= & % + '(

, (3)

The boundary conditions:

= ) − *+ , = −*+, = . /0 1 = 0 ,

⟶ 0, ⟶ /0 1 → ∞, (4)

Where 56 stands for porosity, the coefficient for is thermal expansion is $, acceleration of gravity is #, *0 is the

suction/injection velocity, 9 is the kinematic viscosity , & is the thermal diffusivity of the fluid, is a constant, : is

the density, L is the slip constant.

By introducing the stream function where

; = 1< = , > = √@A;, and B = %C%D

%EC%D (5)

where u = F and v = − F

The Eq. (1) is identically satisfied, The Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) respectively yield below:

AGGG + HI6J AAGG + K AGJ + B = LAG + 5AG (6)

1 + B′′ + HI6J AB′ = A′B (7)

The boundary conditions preseted in relations (4) become as

A0 = O, A′(0) = 1- PA′′(0), B(0) = 1,

A′(∞) = 1, B(∞) = 0 (8)

where the non-dimensional parameters are namely suction/injection parameter S, magnetic parameter M, parameter

for mixed convection, porosity parameter K, parameter for radiation , Prandtl number and slip parameter

A.


The resulting set of model equations namely Eq. (6) to Eq. (7) along with boundary conditions of Eq. (8)

form a system of nonlinear equations containing derivatives of higher order. There arise difficulties for any closed

form solution of these equations due to nonlinearity. For solution purpose the above mentioned equation are further

reduced to first order of derivatives as following:

A = A1, A′ = A2, A′′ = A3, A′′′ = A′3, B = A4 , B′ = A5 , B′′= A′5

The Eq. (6) and Eq. (7) respectively reduced to the following:

A′Q = L + 5AJ − KAJJ + HI6J A6AQ + AR, (9)

ASG = T(6IUV WAJAR − HI6

J A6AXY, (10)

Then the set of boundary conditions (8) are:

A60 = O, AJ0 = 1 − PAQ0, AR0 = 1, (11)

170


AJ; = 1, AR; = 0,

The above first order system of ordinary differential equations namely Eq.(9) to Eq.(11) has been treated by numerical

technique called ND solve command of Mathematica. Extensive computational effort is continued to get results for

flow speed and heat function for reasonable ranges of the parameters that have influence. Representative results are

shown in graphs.

Figure 1 presents the effect of porosity of medium on velocityAG;. The porosity parameter K is reciprocal to

porosity property of the medium. The smaller values of K indicates larger porosity. Thus the velocity is larger for

large porosity. Figure 2 elaborates the velocity pattern under the effect of slip parameter A. The flow speed in

horizontal direction denoted by AG; is maximum at sheet and becomes zero in the free stream region. Moreover,

the curve of AG; steeps down with increases in A (A< 0). Figure 3 depicts the impact of mixed convection parameter

( > 0). The flow speed of AG; increases with increasing the values of . It is because > 0 shows the buoyancy

aiding effect to the flow. The increases in magnetic field strength causes increase in Lorentz force that opposes the

flow and thus higher values of, M shows reduction in flow speed AG; as depicted in figure 4. Increase in the value

of injection parameter S (S< 0) causes decrease and radiation parameter shows increase in temperature function

B; as demonstrated in figure 5 and figure 6. The increase in causes reduction in temperature field B; as

illustrated in figure 7. Figure 8 and figure 9 respectively show the heat function B; decreases with increases in the

values of heat function for increase in n, m respectively.

Fig. 1: Graph of [′\ under the effect of 5

171

Habib et al., 2018

Fig. 2: Graph of [′\ under the effect of P

Fig. 3: Graph of [′\ under the effect of

Fig. 4: Graph of [′\ under the effect of L

Fig. 5: Graph of ]\ under the effect of O

Fig. 6: Graph of ]\ under the effect of


172



Fig. 9: Graph of ]\ under the effect of K

REFERENCES

[1] B.C. Sakiadis, Boundary layer behavior on continuous solid surface: I. Boundary layer equations for two

dimensional and axisymmetric flow. AIChE Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 26–28, 1961.

[2] B.C. Sakiadis, “Boundary layer behavior on continuous solid surface: II. Boundary layer equations for two

dimensional and axisymmetric flow,”AIChE Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 221–225, 1961.

[3] L. J. Crane, “Flow past a stretching plate,” Zeitschrift fur Ange- ¨ wandte Mathematik und Physik, vol. 21, no.

4, pp. 645–647, 1970.

[4] P. S. Gupta and A. S. Gupta, “Heat and mass transfer on a stretching sheet with suction or blowing,” The

Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 744–746, 1977.

[5] C. K. Chen and M. I. Char, “Heat transfer of a continuous, stretching surface with suction or blowing,” Journal

of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, vol. 135, no. 2, pp. 568–580, 1988.

[6] B. K. Dutta, P. Roy, and A. S. Gupta, “Temperature field in flow over a stretching sheet with uniform heat flux,”

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 89–94, 1985.

[7] H. Sajjad, Muhammad, A. K. and S. Muhammad, Hydromagnetic Flow of Micropolar Fluid between two

Horizontal Plates, both the Plates being Stretching Sheets. World Applied Sciences Journal. Vol.28, pp. 1888-

1895. (3):20-34, (2013)

[8] H. Xu and S. J. Liao, “Series solutions of unsteady magnetohydrodynamic flows of non-Newtonian fluids

caused by an impulsively stretching plate,” Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 46–

55, 2005.

[9] W. Hassan, M. Amna. K. Shamila, F. Ahmad and H. Sajjad, MHD Mixed convective Slip flow and heat transfer

of Casson fluids over an Inclined porous plate with Radiation. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(6)135-142, 2017.

[10] W. Hassan, N. Tariq, N. Rabia, A. Farooq, K. Shamila and H. Sajjad, Radiation effects and Chemical reaction on

Boundary Layer Flow of Electrically Conducting Casson Fluids owing to Porous Shrinking Sheet. J. Appl.

Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(5)117-125, 2017

[11] R. Cortell, “Flow and heat transfer of a fluid through a porous medium over a stretching surface with internal

heat generation/absorption and suction/blowing,” Fluid Dynamics Research, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 231–245, 2005.

[12] T. Hayat and M. Sajid, “Analytic solution for axisymmetric flow and heat transfer of a second grade fluid past

a stretching sheet,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 50, no. 1-2, pp. 75–84, 2007.

[13]. V. Kumaran, A. Banerjee, Vanav Kumar, A. K Vajravelu. MHD flow past a stretching permeable sheet,Appl.

Math.Comput., 210, pp. 26–32, 2004.

173

Habib et al., 2018

[14]. K. B. Pavlov, Magnetohydrodynamic flow of an incompressible viscous fluid caused by deformation of a

surface, Magnitnaya Gidrodinamika, vol. 4, pp. 146-147, 1974.

[15]. S. R Kasiviswanathan, and M. V. Gandhi, A class of exact solutions for magnetohydrodynamic flow of a

micropolar fluid, Int. J. Eng. Sci., 30(4), pp. 409-417, 1992.

[16]. H. Sajjad and M. A. Kamal. Magnetohydrodynamic boundary layer micropolar fluid flow over a rotating disk,

International Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics, 7(3), pp. 301-13, 2002.

[17]. M. A. El-Hakiem, A. A Mohammadein , S.M.M.El-Kabeir, and R. S. R Gorla, Joule heating effects on

magnetohydrodynamic free convection flow of a micropolar fluid, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 26,

pp. 219—227, 1999.

[18]. E. M. Arthur, I. Y. Seini. Hydromagnetic stagnation point flow over a porous stretching surface in the presence

of radiation and viscous dissipation. Applied and Computational Mathematics 3(5): 191-196, (2014).

[19] Muondwe Samuel, Mathew Kinyanjui, David Theuri, Kangethe Giterere. Investigation of MHD Flow stokes

Problem past A Porous Contracting Surfacewith Heat Transfer. International Journal of Pure and Applied

Mathematics Volume 99 No. 4 2015, 385-398, 2015.

[20] Yonghua Cao and Xiaomin Cui. natural convection of power law fluids in porous media with variable thermal

and mass diffusivity., 2015

international journal of heat and technology vol.33, no.2, 2015.pp. 85-90.

[21] M.Thiagarajan, K. Senthilkumar. DTM-Pade Approximants of MHD Boundary-Layer Flow of a Casson Fluid

over a Shrinking Sheet. United States of America Research Journal (USARJ) 1 Vol. 1, No. 1, 2013.pp.1-7, 2013

[22] Y S Daniel, MHD Laminar Flows and Heat Transfer Adjacent to Permeable Stretching Sheets with Partial Slip

Condition, Columbia International Publishing Journal of Advanced Mechanical Engineering Vol. 4 No. 1 pp.

1-15 , 2017.

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Corresponding Author: Muhammad Nisar, Department of Sociology and Gender Studies, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan. Email: [email protected]

Effects of Disabled Children on Their Families

(A Case Study of District Charsadda)

Muhammad Nisar*1, Dilkash Sapna1, Anas Baryal1, Saima Gul1, Zia Ur Rahman2





ABSTRACT

In this study, we examined and analyzed the effects of disabled children on their families. Thirty respondents from District Charsadda, Pakistan (half were male and half were females) who had disabled children, were

interviewed. Purposive sampling was used as method for the selection of the respondents. Qualitative analysis of their interviews was performed. The findings showed that disabled children greatly effected their families. The major impact of them was that of economic. Overall, the effects were more sever where the respondents were more poor. Male members of the families were more suffered economically than female as economic responsibilities are of the male members. However, health of the female respondents was more effected than male as the caring and rearing of the disabled are the responsibilities of females. The marriages of male were more effected than females. Employment of the females were more effected than males. Government and the charitable trusts should provide medical and financial assistance to the disabled and their families in order to

lessen the burden of them. KEYWORDS: Effect, Children, Disabled Children, Family, Charsadda.

1. INTRODUCTION

Disability means the difficulty faced by a person while performing those tasks which other people take for granted. (Dombeck, 2002) or the inability of performing an activity by a person that is considered as normal for

a human being (World Health Organization, 1996). Waqar (214) found that 15 percent of the world’s population is disabled, of which 93 million are children. In Pakistan people with disability are 5.035 million with annual growth rate of 2.65percent. The percentage of disabled children in Pakistan are 43.4 of total people with disability; of which 41.6percent are female and 58.4percent are male. Disable children can effect family’s

finance, employment and health in shape of direct and indirect cost. Direct cost includes medical care like medicines and therapies and indirect cost include means expenses on transportations, education, caregiving etc (Staline & Allin, 2012).

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Leonard et al., (1992) stated that the parents of disabled children spent extra time in care of these children and also lost their employment. Both medical and non-medical activities require for the care of these disabled children. Due to medical complications, the day care centers may also reject these children or may be expensive.

Due to these factors the mothers may lost their jobs or curtail the duty hours. Doe (1995) found that the disabled parents often have economic impact. These parents have often additional expenses connected with their disability like transportation, medicines or housing modifications. They also require extra expenses for caring of their children. For instance, for adults there are par transit systems or other

alternative system available for their movement, but many of these par transit system does not allow the children of these disabled parents with them to go to school, or doctor clinic. Meyers et al., (1998) concluded from their study in California that caring for a disabled child may impose direct costs on family for medical care, transportation, parental labor-market activity, and other health care needs.

Among families who did incur special costs, expenditures averaged $132 overall, and $155 to $163 for those with more than one ill or impaired child. If a child requires exceptional level of care from parent, the parent might reduce hours of work or leave the job to meet the child’s need. Families caring for disabled children are likely to experience more material hardship and economic insecurity.

Burchardt & Metts (2000) concluded from their study in Washington that expenditures of disabled person which effected the households are often composed of medical costs, be they one time like wheel chairs and crutches or recurrent monthly dosages or therapies. If the illness persists, there is the addition of one more dependent

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member in the family who consume the resources of the other earner. In case of the death of working member in

the house may increase the ratio of dependent members to the earner. White's (2001) concluded from their study that in India, for labors associated with agriculture it is very difficult to fulfill the costs of disabled person. They fall in huge debts unlike those families who own lands and have more insurance options for their security to maintain their elite status. For example, 62percent of the households

with more than a half-acre had to sell majority of their land within three years if they have disabled person. Also, the findings of Gathwala & Gupta (2004) showed that 60percent of families in India were severely burdened in relation to the physical health of other family member. While another 20percent have postponed their activities due to unavailability of financial resources.

Kandamuthan & Kandamuthan (2004) conducted a study in south India to examine the influence of disability on the economic functioning of the family and income expenditure pattern. About 300 families with normal children and 300 with abnormal children have participated in the study. The results showed that average expenditure of the families with a disabled child was 254 dollars per annum as compared to the 181

dollars per annum of a family with normal children. Further 90percent were deprived from the basic education and medical facilities and 21percent disabled children’s mothers were unemployed as compared to 12percent of that of normal children. Lee et al., (2004) examined in Washington the prevalence of disabilities among mothers and children, and

analyzed how these disabilities influence mothers’ work participation. It has been found that the disabilities of both mothers and children were more prevalent in low income population as compared high income population. Further the ration was higher in single mother families than married ones. Also both single mothers and married mothers with disability face more economic challenges and hindrances to workforce participation.

Analyzing data from the 1980 Medical Care Utilization and Expenditure Study, Newacheck and McManus (1988) reported that on average disabled children use more health facilities than non-disabled children. They examined that in Europe, families with disabled children are more unstable. Further, these families decline their fertility ratio, have more traditional gender roles, frequently suffer economically, and have unstable health conditions as well as lower well-being as compared to sound families. Lawal et al., (2014) studied in North West Nigeria the parents of children with neurological deficits. The finding shows financial burden of parenting children with neurological disabilities negatively effects the socio-economic status of families. Poor socio-economic status played an in-evitable role in the lives of the parents.

The parents were supposed to meet the responsibilities of their disabled children and hence cut off from normal social lives

3. METHODOLOGY

Purposive sampling was used to select respondents with disabled children from District Charsadda, Pakistan. Respondents aged between 20 and above who belonged to the socio-cultural profile of Pakistan and who had disabled children were the inclusion criteria for this study. Respondents were identified from a school for special children. Potential target respondents were approached and oral consent were obtained from them for the participation in the study because most of the respondents were illiterate. This study contains the stories of thirty respondents, aged 22 to 62 years, who had disabled children and greatly effected their lives. All respondents were asked one question, to tell what were the effects of those disabled

children on their families. Additional questions were asked if the researchers felt that some relevant information were not given or some aspect of the study were not fully addressed. Each interview took approximately one hour. Keeping the cultural and religious context, male respondents were interviewed by male researcher and female respondents by female researcher. During interviews notes were taken by the researchers and all the

interviews recorded digitally for cross verification (Audio recording of the females because of the cultural restrictions). Transcribed written stories about each respondent were read and verified and the correctness of transcripts made from audio recordings was checked by the researchers. Content analysis were then performed. All the interviews of the respondents were analyzed using established methods for qualitative content analysis.

Name of the Respondents were Ayesha, Nabela, Fatima, Nazia, Jalwa, Ranigul, Madiha, Yasmeen, Farah, Nazish, Shela, Zainab, Wajeeha, M. Salman and Hamad Ali. Their ages were round about 35 years up to 65 years. Most of the respondents were female and two respondents were male. Majority of the respondents’ occupations were household. Nazia was a school servant and her monthly income was Rs.3000/- and Zainab,

Wajeeha were house servant and their monthly income were Rs.2000/- and Rs.5000/- respectively. M. Salman was a laborer and his monthly income was Rs.9000/- and Hamad Ali was retired from Govt service and was getting pension from Government and his monthly income was Rs. 40,000/-. Nabila had three disabled children two were mentally retarded and one was hearing impairment and Hamad Ali had three disable children, two

were Hearing impairment and one mentally retarded. Jalwa had two mentally retarded disable children, Ranigul had two hearing impairment disable children. Yasmeen had two hearing impairment disable children. Zainab

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had one disabled child. Majority of the Respondents had only one disabled child, some of them had physical

disability, hearing impairment, some were mentally retarded and other had visual disability.

3.1 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF DISABLED CHILDREN

Most of the people in Pakistan are living below the poverty line. Poverty is the main cause of many social

problems. The disabled children greatly effect their families. They are considered an economic burden because of the poor status of their families. Majority of the respondents were of the view that disabled children are burden on their economy, especially when the disability is of serious nature. Most of them live from hand to mouth. There are heavy expenses on their treatment which they cannot afford. As the disabled children require

regular medical treatment for which huge amount of money is needed. For the treatment, we usually lend money and loans from other people and then it is very difficult to refund those loans as again we have to go for treatment and also other needs of the house have to fulfill. They cannot educate their disabled as well as other normal children because school fees are high. They cannot complete their wishes, they have other children to

support them, and they can afford nothing. One respondent who had three disabled children replied while tears in his eyes that,

“dwi khu zu char ta kenawalam”

“I am out of money due to them”

It shows the wariness of those parents who have disabled children and are poor. When they were asked about the government support regarding this matter, they said that government is not interested in to solve this problem. There are no hospitals for special children. Government do not provide financial support to us. One respondent said that

“waly Pakistan k hum Government shta su” “Is there any Government in Pakistan”

This shows the level of dissatisfaction among people regarding government machinery. One female was of the view that

“hukumat khu bs da maldaru dy nu mung ghareb khalak u, pa mung sok sa kai”

“the government is only for the rich people. We, the poor are just creatures who have no worth.”

3.2 EFFECT ON FAMILIES HEALTH

Regarding the effects of the disabled children on other family members most of the respondents were of the opinion that due to these disabled children our health is being effected. The disabled children cannot care of their own and their family members have to take care of them. Most of the respondents told that they are always worried due to which they became mentally ill; also, most of them had psychological problems. Those family

members were more effected who were involved in the caring and rearing of these children. These effects were becoming intensified as the illness and disability of the children became serious. One respondents replied that “my daughter cannot move and I have to move her from one place to another. I had operated twice because of

this I got a back injury”

Some of the respondents replied that they have to take care of them all the time irrespective that either we are tired and required rest or not. They further said that as they spend a lot of money on their disabled children so we don’t have enough money left to buy medicines and balance diet for us. Majority of them said that we do not eat fruits and meat for months. One of the respondents said

“khpal zan rana heer dy khu bus da dwi gham okhwaru”

“we do not think of ourselves and our needs but all the time we think about their needs, this make us restless

and worried”

3.3 EFFECTS ON EDUCATION

Education plays a vital role in the development of a nation. In the study area if on one side the disabled children are not able to get education; on the other side the education of other family members is also being effected either due to the financial reasons, due to the care of the disabled children or both of these. Most of the people of

the study area are poor who cannot afford both the treatment and care of the disabled children as well as the educational expenses of other family members. When asked that why the females are not going to schools, most of the respondents told that for the care and for the work of house the girl should stay in the house because we cannot afford to arrange servants. One

respondent told that “mung khwarak la sa na munu nu, tu la da talim khabarey kay”

“we don’t have enough money for food, and you are talk about the education”

This shows that how much these people are poor and are living in miserable condition.

Female were not getting education because of the caring and rearing of the disabled brothers and sisters. On the other hand, when inquired about the status of male education, we came to know that the ratio of male education was also low because they have to earn money for their family. They were bread owners of their homes. The

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treatment of the disabled required money due to which the young children indulge in the workforce and hence

their education was effected by their disabled siblings. When asked from a child who left education because of his two disabled sisters he replied

“che zu school ta zama nu mung la ba pesy sok gati”

“if I go to school then who will earn money for us”

3.4 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT

Disabled persons have also great impact on the employment of other family members. It is usually indulging male members earlier into the labor force market for earning money for their families. Some respondents said

that they have started second job. One person replied that “da elaj ao kor kharchy baghair da dwem job na na pura kegi”

“expenses of treatment and household are not fulfilled without second job” Most of the females’ jobs have been negatively effected by these disabled children. They usually left the jobs

because they cannot afford to manage both the caring of their children as well as to fulfill the duty’s requirements. One female said

“da mazura mashum pa kor k yawazy na sham prekhudy”

“I cannot leave this disabled child alone at home”

One other female told that “It is very troublesome situation that on one side you don’t have money in the pocket to fulfill your needs and on

the other hand you cannot go out for work because of the disabled children”.

The ratio of lefting jobs is higher among the females as compared to males and especially at that stage when the

disabled child is growing up.

3.5 EFFECT ON MARRIES

Findings related to this theme, most of the respondents told that marriages of the other family members are effected due to these disabled children. People reported that disability had been responsible for the delayed marriage of one of the other members of their family. It is especially in cases of male children instead of females. The parents were of the view that as they have one or more person with disability at home, and we cannot afford servants for taking care of them so in these situations no one is ready to marry their daughter with

their son. One female said “zu lewanae khu na yam che khpala lor oor ta ghurzum”

“I am not mad that I myself throw my daughter into the fire” It means that marrying daughters to someone in a home in which there are disabled children is considered a hell

in this society. That’s why people don’t want marry their daughters. One other respondent said

“zama lor tol umar da boj na shi wray” “my daughter cannot bearand care these disabled children for whole life”

This shows the estrangement of people from the disabled children and their families. Even due to one or two disabled children people don’t want to make relationship with the normal people and at the end the normal persons suffer.

4. CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded from the above discussion that disability is considered as an economic burden by most of the respondents due to the excessive cost associated with their treatment and health care services. However, the

study also showed an understanding of the real essence of the problems that majority of the respondents are facing problems just because of having some disable children in their families. We found that most of the respondents are weak economically and therefore the extra healthcare costs of their disabled family members put an extra burden over their income and that’s the only reason behind considering them a burden over their

lives. Furthermore, the disabled children have some impact over the lives of the other family members, like they can effect the working schedule of their parents and the educational opportunities of their siblings because the cost that is required for their treatment could also be used for the educational purpose of their other normal siblings.

The essence of the study showed an understanding of the real essence of the problems that majority of the respondents are suffering just because of having some disable people in their families. It was found that disabled children greatly effect their families. Majority of the problems aroused because of the poverty of the respondents. Most heinous problem was that of poverty which further creating other problems. The government

and the charity trust should come to the front to help these effected families. They should provide medical facilities to the disabled children free of cost and arrange monthly stipend for them in order to give relief to their families.

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5. RECOMENDATIONS

These special children should be provided free educational facilities according to their requirements. The disabilities of these special children should be treated free of cost. Re-habilitation measures should be adopted for these special children, in order to make a useful and

effective part of the society. Along with special education, these special children should be imparted different skills according to

their needs, interest and feasibilities. Regular stipend and other support may be provided to these special children, even if they are at their

home.

REFERENCES

[1] Burchardt, T. (2000). The dynamics of being disabled. Center for analysis of social exclusion, London School of Economics.

[2] Dombeck, M., (2002) introduction To Disabilities. https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/ introduction-to-disabilities.

[3] Doe, T. 1(995). Personal Assistance Services and Policy Barriers for Parents with Disabilities. Through the Looking Glass, Berkeley, CA. Technical Report, NIDRR Research and Training Center on Families of Adults with Disabilities Grant No. H133B30076.

[4] Erb, S., & Harriss-White, B. (2001, September 11 & 12). The Economic Impact and Developmental

Implications of Disability and Incapacity in Adulthood - A Village Study From South India. Paper Presented at The Welfare, Demography and Development Conference, Downing College, Cambridge.

[5] Fish, C, M. Parenting Children with Disabilities. This handout is adapted from Marion C. Fish (1990).

Best practices in family-school relationships. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology II. Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists; and Marion C.

Fish (2002). Best Practices in School Psychology IV. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School

Psychologists.© 2004 National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814—(301) 657-0270., City University of New York.

[6] Gathwala G, Gupta S (2004). Family Burden In Mentally Handicapped Children. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 29(4):188-189.

[7] Kandamuthan M, Kandamuthan. S (2004). The Economic Burden of Disabled Children on Families in Kerala in South India: Centre for Development Studies Discussion, p.91.

[8] Lawal, H., Anyebe, E.E., Obiako O.R., Garba S.N. (2014). Socio-Economic Challenges of Parents of Children with Neurological Disorders; A Hospital- Based Study in North West Nigeria, International Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, vol.6(4), pp.58-66. DOI:10.5897/IJNM2014.0122

[9] Lee, S., Gi-Taik, O., Heidi, H., Barbara, G.(2004).’ The Impact of Disabilities on Mothers’ Work Participation’: Examining Differences between Single and Married Mothers Institute for Women’s Policy Research Washington, DC.

[10] Leonard, B., J.D. Brust, and J.J. Sapienza. (1992). "Financial and Time Costs to Parents of Severely Disabled Children," Public Health Reports, 107:302-312.

[11] Meyers, M., Lukemeyers, A., and Smeeding, T. (1998) The Cost Of Caring: Childhood Disability and Poor Families. Social Service Review, 1998; 72(2): 209-223. DOI: 10.1086/515751

[12] Newacheck, P. & M. McManus. (1988). "Financing Health Care for Disabled Children," Pediatrics, 81:385-94 DOI: 10.1111/1468-0009.t01-1-00005

[13] Staline, M. & Allin, S. (2012). The Economic Costs of Childhood Disability; Journal Issue: Children with Disabilities, Volume 22 Number 1.

[14] WHO. (1996). The World Health Report 1996: Fighting Disease, Fostering Development, World Health Organization, Geneva.

[15] Waqar, K. (2014), Disability: Situation in Pakistan, Right to Education Pakistan, Article 25A. Aga Khan University.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



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Corresponding Author: Muhammad Nisar, Department of Sociology and Gender Studies, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, KP, Pakistan. email: [email protected]

People’s Perceptıon Regardıng Jırga ın Pakhtun Socıety

Muhammad Nisar*1, Anas Baryal1, Dilkash Sapna1, Zia Ur Rahman2





ABSTRACT

“This paper examines the institution of Jirga, and to assess the perceptions of the people regarding Jirga in

District Malakand Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. A sample of 12 respondents was taken through convenience sampling

method. In-depth interview was used as a tool for the collection of data from the respondents. The results show

that Jirga is deep rooted in Pashtun society. People cannot go to courts for the solution of every problem and put

their issues before Jirga. Jirga in these days is not a free institution and cannot enjoy its power as it used to be in

the past. The majorities of Jirgaees (Jirga members) are illiterate, cannot probe the cases well, cannot enjoy their

free status as well as take bribes and give their decisions in favour of wealthy or influential party. The decisions

of Jirgas are not fully based on justice, as in many cases it violates the human rights. Most disadvantageous

people like women and minorities are not given representation in Jirga. The modern days legal justice system or

courts are exerting pressure on Jirga and declare it as illegal. Despite all its weaknesses the Pashtuns like Jirga

as it is deep rooted in their culture. If the Jirga enjoys its free status and the Jirga members become educated and

aware the human rights as well as give representation to women and minorities, it will provide quick justice to

the people.”

KEYWORDS: Jirga, Jirgaees, Pashtuns, Disputes, Human Rights.

1. INTRODUCTION

“

Conflicts are found in every society since its inception. The basis of which is mainly money, power, land and

ideology which are scarce resources. But the societies have also developed a proper mechanism for the solution

of these disputes which are deeply rooted in the culture of that society. For instance Panchayat in India (Baxi

and Gallanter 1979; Moore 1985), Mediation Committees in China (Li 1978; Clark 1989), and Jirga in

Afghanistan (Carter and Connor1989; Elphinstone 1992; Olesen 1995; Gletzer 1998); these are different

mechanisms through which conflicts are solved and are different from Western World (Reichel 1998). It is

difficult to trace the exact origin of Jirga. It is as old as Pashtun society (Faqir & Atta, n.d.).Jirga is a Pashtu

word which means circle (Gankoski and Malik, 2006) or gathering of people or consultation (Pashto Descriptive

Dictionary, 1978). Rafi (2002) defined Jirga as the historical institution where Afghans gather and solve their

social, cultural, economic or even religious conflicts by making authoritative decisions. Warda (2002) said that

Jirga reflected a balance between modern legal laws, Islam and Afghan tribal traditions. The legal system is time

consuming, and also there is corruption. That’s why most of the Afghan avoid to go to the courts for conflict

resolution and try to resolve their disputes through Jirga.”

1.1. TYPES OF JIRGA

a. Koranay or Shakhsi Jirga:

In this Jirga the cases between the individuals or families are dealt with. Both the parties select the Jirga

members on mutual consent (Faqir & Atta, n.d.).

b. Olasi or Qami Jirga:

In this Jirga the case of collective importance of community or tribe are discussed. Settling disputes with tribes,

community share in forest, distribution of irrigation water etc are put before this Jirga (Ibid).

c. Sarkari (State-controlled) Jirga:

Sarkari Jirga is under the control of government. Ali (2003) Sarkari Jirga as a Council of three or more persons

whether official or otherwise convened by the Deputey Commissioner and presided over by a magistrate

invested with powers under section 30 of the Code of Criminal Procedure 1898.

d. Loya Jirga - Grand National Assembly

“Loya Jirga is a Pashto phrase that consists of two words – ‘loya’ which means 'grand', and ‘Jirga’ which

means gathering, or 'assembly'. Loya Jirga in Afghan political culture means a ‘grand assembly' of Afghan

tribal leaders, elders and others who gather, in order to discuss vital national issues and make collective

decisions (Wardak, 1998).According to Shah & Tariq ( 2013), after 14 august 1947, legal system of pakistan

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was similar to the old British legal system because there was only one legal system in the sub-continent. The old

British legal system was designed to anglicize the people of sub-continent and creation of English legal culture

Change in the culture of the people is a time consuming and tiring process that’s why the British legal system

were facing difficulties and hence needed reforms. Before and after the independence of Pakistan, Arbitration,

Jirga and panchayat systems were also working as legal system in the country. British government in the sub-

continent was also helping these Jirga and panchayat systems for their own interests. Feudal lords and Waderas

were using people for their own interests and if any one complain against them, were punished. The Panchyat,

Khans, Maliks, Lnadlords and Jirga power is only used to suppress the poor people. These influential and rich

people take decisions and impose them on the poor ones. No one is allowed to interfere in their decisions. In this

type of environment, the powerful and rich people become more powerful and richer while the poor ones

become more weaker and poorer. Panchayats and Jirgas are presided by the feudal lords who themselves sit in

the parliament that is why they are against the legislation to control these tribal institutions. Feudal lords will

lose the control over these tribal institution if they make legislation against them, which is against their interest.

Jirga resolves the cases quickly because the judiciary is too much time consuming (Ahmad, 2010), and it gives

justice to all people irrespective of their social status, influence and wealth (Beg, 2000), but now a days the Jirga

members are taking money in the form of bribe or as fee from the parties, the amount of which varies from case

to case (Islam, 2010). Because of the drawbacks of Pakistani judicial system, the people of the far-flung areas

have not access to quick justice. The courts are over burdened due to which people contact Jirga. In cities, the

mafias have also adopted this system. When the people contact these mafia leaders, they resolve the disputes

quickly because they have contact with the police and solve the problem by taking their own shares (Rehman,

2002).

“Pakistan adopted the colonial legal system after the independence. It was an expensive and time consuming

system and creating too many problems for the people and hence reforms were needed. Meanwhile, Jirga,

arbitration and panchayat systems were prevailing as parallel justice systems in different parts of the country.

The tribal elders usually control the Jirga. People contact the panchayat or Jirga for the solution of their

problems, but when the panchayat or Jirga take evidence, interrogate, give verdicts and impose inhuman and

cruel punishments, then the problem arises (Shah & Tariq, 2013); the ruling class is responsible for the

persistence of Jirga and panchayat system (Manto, 2004), in Pakistan the judiciary is already overburdened

that’s why the people use the forum of panchayat and Jirga for justice (Bellamy, 2008).There are two types of

Jirgas: the one which exists in tribal areas, the decisions of which are challengeable in the court and second is

the panchayat held by feudal lords having absolute powers and which was strengthened by the British

Government for its own motives. The feudal lords control the process of Jirga as they are influential people. The

poor and women have no access to justice and only these influential people are benefited from this. Also for the

authority in their area some parliamentarians support this system (Manto, 2004).

“For the persistence of such kind of system in Pakistan is strong feudal system. Most of the politicians belong to

feudal class who do not want to abolish it; also the administration is playing its role (SDPI, 2008). Women are

mostly affected from its decisions because females are the excluded part of the society. For the settlement of

disputes women and even minor girls are used (Singh, 2009).

The decision of Jirga is implemented through surety of moveable and immovable property. There is no formal

way for the imposition of its decisions. That party who violate the verdict of Jirga may lose their surety and

which may be confiscated by Jirga” (Wazir, 2010).

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

“The study was conducted in union council Sakhakot Jadid of Tehsil Dargain, District Malakand Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan which was selected purposively for this study. Three villages i.e. Khadu, Mayar and

Kharki Dherai were selected randomly. A sample of 12 people was taken through purposive sampling method.

All the respondents were educated because the exposure of the respondents and knowledge of the court system

and human rights was necessary in order to get right response from them. All of the respondents were males

because of the cultural constraints and parda system it is not possible to interview females directly. Further, as

the males have more direct experience with Jirga that is why only males were preferred. Fake names were

assigned to the respondents for the sake of confidentiality and for the collection of accurate data. The names of

the respondents were; Ahmad, Ali, Arshad, Sajjad, Majid, Zaman, Javid, Adil, Sabir, Amjad, Ahsan, and Munir.

In-depth interview was used as method for data collection. Each interview took 30-35 minutes. The data was

analyzed thematically.”

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

“All of the respondents were of the opinion that now a days Jirga is not a free institution like it was in the past.

The decisions of Jirga are influenced mainly by the influential people. Further Ahmad, Ali and Zaman added

that the government declared the Jirga as illegal institution and is not accepting its decisions. Sajjad, Majid,

Munir and Adil also said that the wicked people of the society have strong influence on it and mould its

decisions in their favour. All of the respondents except Sabir, Amjad and Ahsan said that it is true that nowadays

majority of the Jirga members take bribes from the culprit parties and then give their decision in favour of those

parties. They said that the bribes have many shapes e.g cash money, gifts or other sort of activities which may

be fulfilled by the party or parties in order to take decision on their behalf. Munir further added that the Jirga

members take money from him and the plea of Jirgaees (Jirga members) was that that they had left their

activities and come here for solution of your dispute.”

“Regarding the nature, knowledge and experience of the Jirgaees (Jirga members) regarding the issues, there

were contradictory opinions. Ahmad, Ali and Arshad said that the Jirga members these days are not as much

experienced as in the past. Sajjad, Majid and Zaman were of the view that now adays Jirga members are wicked

and they impose their decisions on the parties. They do not probe the matters and also do not listen to the

grievances of the parties, but come with pre planned mind set.

All of the respondents said that the Jirga in the past decided the cases or disputes quickly but not these days. In

the past the Jirga members were experienced and were no personal gains from Jirga that’s why the Jirga decided

the matters quickly. But now unfortunately the Jirga members are not that much experienced that’s why they

cannot decide the cases. Muir further added that one reason is that probably the past society was not so much

complicated as well as not populated as the present days. In past the people were simple and their problems

were not complex so the Jirga decided the disputes quickly. Ahsan and Arshad also added that one reason is that

in the past there was no other system for conflict resolution to which people might go for the solution of their

problems like modern days judicial system. Now a days jirgs members do not solve the problem quickly and the

disputed parties should have to arrange grand feasts for the Jirga members which is quite difficult for the poor

party as the number of Jirga members are usually large.”

“All of the respondents were of the view that the Jirga has promoted inhuman traditions in Pakhtun society.

Mostly the Jirga members are usually illiterate. They do not know about the law of the country, and usually give

certain decisions against the laws. As a result the government intervenes and do not accept those decisions.

Ahsan, Zaman and Ali further added that dire to the illiteracy the Jirga members promoted the ill human

practices of Swara, expulsion of the culprits from the area etc. Amjad further raised the point that in Jirga there

is representation of the women. All the decisions about women are taking without their consent and presence.

They are not present in the proceeding of the Jirga, although they are representing half of the population. All of

the respondents were of the opinion that the Jirga is the representation of the whole community e.g it has no

representation of minorities, women or children. All these people are excluded from participating in and

influencing the decisions of the Jirga.”

“Munir stated that women are not directly involved in the Jirga process. They can be represented by entrusting a

male member to advocate for them. It is because the male members are not encouraging their participation; as

the Jirga is purely a male institution and in case of women she can nominate a male who can represent her in

Jirga and can talk on behalf of her. Ahmad further added that as the women are now educated and have equal

access to all of the State’s institutions, that’s why they should be given representation in Jirga to pursue their

cases and also be the part of the decision making process. Javid said that as the Jirga is a Pashtun institution, so

the Jirgaees are also Pashtun. Those people who are non Pashtuns, there is no representation given to them. If

these people have disputes with local people, the decision is taken by the Pashtun Jirgees, which may be based

on biasness. The Jirga members usually give decision in favour of Pashtun where the code of justice may be

violated.”

“All of the respondents were not fully satisfied with the decisions of present Jirga. Ahmad and Sajjad said that

because Jirga is not completely free, its decisions are moulded by the influential people in their favour. Majid

said that the political leaders and MNAs and MPAs have strong influence on Jirga. Arshad said that usually

these political leaders are part of the Jirga and they take bribes from the people. Sabir added that the Jirga give

punishment to the innocent people who have no concern with the matter. For instance in Swara the girl is

innocent who has no concern with the matter but despite she is given punishment by the Jirga. Munir was of the

view that the seasoned and experienced Jirgaees are now missing due to which the Jirga cannot investigate the

cases which further leads towards injustice.

One thing was surprising throughout the process of interviews that respondents though affected from Jirga’s

decisions, but still they were in favour of the Jirga. On the question regarding either the Jirga should be persisted

or abolished, they were of the opinion that it is our oldest institution and we respect it. It is deeply rooted in the

Pashtun tradition and perhaps the Pashtuns are incomplete without Jirga. There may be certain flaws in the Jirga

but it does not mean that it should be abolished. They added that reforms must be brought in Jirga. They said as

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the demands of the modern society are more advanced than the past so the Jirga members should be well

experienced and qualified to face these challenges.”

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS

What has been discussed in this shows that Jirga is deep rooted in Pashtun society. It is of immense importance.

It is present either in one or other form. People cannot go to courts for the solution of every problem and put

their issues before Jirga. Jirga in these days is not a free institution as in the past. It cannot enjoy its power like

the past. The honesty of the Jirga members are now adays are questioned, because they take bribes. Moreover,

majority of them are illiterate who cannot face the challenges of the new era. The decisions of Jirgas are not

fully based on justice, as in many cases it violates the human rights. Many influential people use their power to

mould its decisions. The modern days legal justice system or courts are exerting pressure on Jirga. Most

disadvantageous people like women and minorities are not given representation in Jirga. Despite all its

weaknesses, the Pashtun people want Jirga. They thought if the Jirga enjoys its free status and the Jirga

members become educated and be aware the human rights as well as give representation to the women and

minorities, it will provide quick justice to the people.

REFERENCES

[1] Beg, A. (2000). Pukhtunistan Today Peshawar: Dunya Pvt, Gazzette of Government of NWFP,

Extraordinary. 16th January 1999.

[2] Bellamy Jr., Karl R. Dorouen Paul. (2008). International Security and the United States. Encyclopedia,

Library of Congress Publishing data.

[3] Faqir, K., & Atta, M. A. (n.d.). JIRGA : A CONFLICT RESOLUTION INSTITUTION IN PUKHTOON.

[4] Islam, F. (2010)."Jirga." Personal communication with Ahmad Nawaz Khan. South Waziristan

[5] Manto, A. H. (2004). Tribal Justice Parallel Judiciary and Human Rights. Dawn, 25th September.

[6] Rafi, H. (2002) Loya Jirga, Peshawar: Aman Publishing LTD.

[7] Rehman, I. A. (2002) Dark Justice, www.newsline.com.pk

[8] SDPI (2008). The Inhuman Face of Jarga. Research and News Bulletin, 15(2)

[9] Shah, A. S., & Tariq, S. (2013). IMPLICATIONS OF PARALLEL JUSTICE SYSTEM (PANCHYAT

AND JIRGA ) ON SOCIETY, 2(2), 200–209.

[10] Singh, A. (2009) Strengthening Governance Through Access to Justice. Dehli: PHL Learning.

[11] Wardak, A. (2002) 'Structures of Authority and Establishing the Rule of Law in Post War Afghanistan', a

Paper Presented at Establishing the Rule of Law and Governance in Post Conflict Societies, Conference

Organised by Harvard University, the United Nations Association – USA, and Koç University, Istanbul,

July 11 - 14.

[12] Wardak, A. (1998). Jirga - A Traditional Mechanism of Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan, (Reichel), 1–

20.

[13] Wazir, S. A. (2010). The Role of Jirga in Conflict Resolution in Fata, a Case Study of North Waziristan

Agency.MA. Thesis. Pakistan Study Centre University of Peshawar

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ISSN: 2090-4274



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*Corresponding Author: Muhammad Amjid, Department of Education National University of Modern Languages, Pakistan. Email: [email protected],

Comparison of Leadership Attributes Among Students at Cadet and

Public Sectors Colleges

Muhammad Amjid1, Shazia Zamir

Department of Education National University of Modern Languages, Pakistan



ABSTRACT

Leadership is a whole practice in that an individual directs, supports and provides help and the other person

pursue and complete the specific task. A leader used to pursue various ways and tactics of leadership

characteristics relating to the requirements of the situation, idea for constructive leadership and achieving the

specific purposes of his/her followers. This research was focused to compare the transformational and

transactional leadership style of students studying in Cadet and Public sector colleges. The population of this

study was comprised of all Cadet and Public Colleges of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan). Two hundred

students studying in Cadet and two hundred students studying in Public sector colleges were included in the

sample. Random Sampling technique was used to select sample of the study. The study was descriptive in

nature therefore a questionnaire was used as an instrument to collect the data. The researcher developed the

questionnaire by using five point Likert Scale on the basis of literature, related studies and under the guidance

of supervisor. The questionnaire was consisting forty statements related to the transformational and

transactional leadership style. Findings based on transformational and transactional leadership style of students

studying in Cadet and Public sectors colleges showed that public sectors college’s students opinions regarded

transformational and transactional leadership style is significantly better than that of cadet college students.

Keeping in view the objectives of the study the statistical analysis and findings of the study the following

conclusions were derived that the public college students opinion regarded transformational leadership style and

its dimensions idealized influence, inspirational motivation and individual consideration and about the

transactional leadership style and its dimensions contingent reward, management by exception, heightened to

attained designated outcomes and performance beyond expectations were of high level than that of cadet

colleges students.

KEYWORDS: Leadership, Transformational leadership style, Transactional leadership style, Cadet colleges,

Public colleges, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan.

INTRODUCTION

Leadership is a practice through which the leaders inspire the approach, manners, and worth of others (Hagen et

al,1998). Leadership is the practice of chief and co-worker approaching jointly by an inspire association and

looking for visualized revolutionize that replicate their shared goals. with no knowledge of leadership, students

are incapable to develop into efficient representatives of constructive revolutionize in their own lives, in the

institutions they perform in, and in the larger society. Student leaders in official or casual situation care for

characteristics in themselves and others relating to produce an ethical societal effect in large society. Student’s

leadership improving schools and produce ability in young students to know their real skills. Students

leadership too named student voice, student society and student contribution. Student’s leadership may assist to

improve significant characteristics like as motivation and self-assurance. Student leadership research studies

identify a chains of skills that students leader may achieve through leadership regulations including public

discussion, decision-making, setting up time management, interpersonal communication, collaboration and

problem solving plans(Hine,2012).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The leadership is an ancient perception and a universal reality in human history (Bass, 1990). From the

early to the present history, leadership has contributed a vital part in improving groups, communities and

nations. from the centuries, leadership has been explained in the term of leader’s manners. Bass tried to explain

the conception of leadership in the typical of Western, Egyptian, Greek, and Chinese literature in the beginning

of the 6th century BC. The past and present evidence and the typical of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius

noticed the responsibility of leaders. Like civilization and management complexity and closely improve in

history by history. Perceptions of leadership may be followed to ancient history, but meaning and categorization

of leadership began from the early 20th century (Rost, 1991). In the last 50 years, there have been more than 65

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Amjid and Zamir et al., 2018

various categorization system to explain the leadership dimensions (Northouse,1997).

Leadership is the ability to obtain all connections of the institutions to perform tasks essential to

achieve the organization’s objectives and goals. Excellent leadership is essential if schools are to be improved.

Good leadership creates a feelings of zeal regarding teaching learning process in the school and community by

focusing on students, parents and community visions and expectations (Astin and Astin, 2001). Leadership is an

inspiring practice. Leadership then transfer to people curve the encouragement and performance of others to

attain several objectives (Cuban,1988). It represents that the practice of inspiration is effective and it is

structured to guide to particular results. The concept of invitational leadership is to clear how the leaders

perform in schools. Leadership is regarding communicating invitational points to the personal and groups with

those the leadership interact in related to place up and act on a joint and developing dreams of developed

educational knowledge for students (Bass, 1990).

Leadership begins with the character of leaders, spoken in conditions of individual worth, self-

consciousness and enthusiasm and ethical capability (Brook-smith,2003). Twelve schools in England and Wales

were focused on heads who were explained effectively by the headquarter for standard in education. The

leaders, have these qualities: Feelings of respect for others, equality and fairness, related for the betterment and

total improvement of pupils and staff, truthfulness and sincerity (Day, Harris and Hadfield ,2001). Principal

must be competent to perform with others to set up the vision in the institutions and practice of the school. They

may be capable to interact the vision to the employees of that must become (Astin and Astin, 2001).

Leadership represents creating and sustaining a feelings of dream customs and interpersonal relations.

Leadership is a vast conception as compare to management. Management is a sub-competency of leadership in

that achieving institutional objective is of highest importance (Okumbe,2001). Leadership involves performing

with and by the people thus as to attain planned objective. The qualities approaches persists that leadership

includes working with and through people so as to achieve set goals. The characteristic approach insist that

leadership is natural.

Studies shows that transformational leadership are capable of transferring the people and customs in an

institution (Masumoto & Brown Welty, 2009; Pepper, 2010). It is recommended that leaders who use

transformational leadership performances create excellent amendments in an institution (Kouzes and

Posner2007). Institutions of higher education and substitute training program should educate principals

transformational leadership performance to get them ready to use answerability and attainment data to take

instruction, serve up like an pedagogical trainer, face up to the status, encourage and guide employees,

supervise employees, grip disturbance inside and outside of the educational institution, and know financial,

societal, scientific, and worldwide change on education (Sadeghi & Pihie, 2012; Styron &Lemire, 2009).

The growing appeal of the directorship need leadership plans to create modification to their plans and

curriculum. Leadership programs must use a curriculum that involves a collection of arranged leadership

process(Kouzes and Posner,2007).Experimental study shows that efficient and able transformational leaderships

are necessary to the achievement of improvement hard works(Al-Omari & Sharaah; 2012, Knab, 2009; Pugh,

Fillingim, Blackbourn, Bunch, & Thomas, 2011).Heads in standard performing educational institution produce

constructive amendment in their institute through making confidence amongst the collaborators and producing

a strong school customs (Leithwood et al., 2008).

Transformational leadership is described as a management approach that produces improvement in the

collaborators, school customs, and instructional institutions (Burton & Peachey,2009). Transformational

leadership was viewed an ethical attempt that move up the confidence and encouragement of the leader and

follower to a superior point (Pepper, 2010). Bass engaged the effort of Burns to extend the complete Range

Leadership Model (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). Transformational leaders are explained liked demonstrating

inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, idealized influence, and individual consideration. The study

group of Kouzes and Posner has developed our knowledge of transformational leadership. Transformational

leadership, as recognized by Kouzes and Posner (2007), serve up as the base of this research study. The study

group stressed leadership is a collection of educated performance that may be used by a personal eager to

formulate a differentiation.

The transformational leadership process permit the principal leader to attain the objectives place by

the institute and attain outstanding outcomes. The five performances of efficient leadership were recognized

during examining about 75,000 leaders over the past 30 years. The five transformational leadership

performances involve modeling the method, affecting a collective visualization, demanding the practice,

caballing others to perform, and motivating the heart (Abu-Tineh et al., 2009; Kouzes& Posner, 2007).

A transformational leader is an individual who encourage and influence followers to attain excellent

results (Robbins and Coulter, 2007). He/she give concentration to the related and progressive requirements of

personal followers; they vary followers’ consciousness of problems by assisting them to come across at

previous problems in a novel method; and they are capable to stimulate, enthusiast and influence followers to

place out more attempt to attain team objectives. Transformational leadership theory is related to the leadership

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that produces constructive change in the followers whereby they careful of one another's well-being and

perform in the well-being of the team as an entire (Warrilow, 2012).

The idea of transformational leadership was brought out by James Macgregor Burns in 1978 in his

explanatory study about political leaders, but its practice has extended into organizational psychology and

administration with additional change by B.M Bass and J.B Avalio (Jung &Sosik, 2002). Transformational

leadership insisted the encouragement, confidence, and presentation of followers by a selection of systems.

These comprise linking the follower's intellect of identification and self to the plan and the joint identification of

the institute; being a role model for followers that influences them and forms them attracted; demanding

followers to get larger possession for their performance, and knowing the powers and weak points of followers,

so the leader may line up followers with responsibilities that improve their presentation.

Transactional Leadership, too identified as managerial leadership, concentrates on the character of

management, organization, and team presentation; transactional leadership is an approach of leadership in that

the leader improves fulfillment of his followers by equally prizes and sentences. Not like Transformational

leadership, leaders utilizing the transactional ideas are not seeing to change the future, they are seeing to just

maintain things the similar as. These leaders give concentration to followers' effort in regard to discover

mistakes and divergences. This kind of leadership is efficient in calamity and crisis conditions, like as while

plans require to be perform in a particular style. In the background of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, transactional

leadership performs at the fundamental point of requirement contentment, where transactional leaders

concentrate on the inferior points of the hierarchy.

Transactional leaders utilize an exchange model, with prizes being presented for excellent performance

or constructive products. Equally, people with this leadership method too may penalize weak performance or

unconstructive products, till the difficulty is accurate. One method that transactional leadership concentrates on

inferior points requirements is by pressing particular assignment presentation (Hargis et al, 2001). Transactional

leaders are efficient in attaining particular assignments accomplished by organizing every section

independently. Transactional leaders are related with practices quite than forward-thinking concepts. These

kinds of leaders concentrate on contingent reward or contingent punishment. Contingent rewards are granted

while the plan objectives are completed timely, before of time, or to maintain assistants performing at a

excellent speed at various times during accomplishment. Contingent punishments are given while presentation

excellence or amount drops under production standards or objectives and assignments are not get together

entirely.

Frequently, contingent sentences are left on a management-by-exception foundation, in which the

exception is something breaking down. In management-by-exception, there are lively and inactive ways. Lively

management-by-exception represents that the leader constantly seems at every subordinate's work and forms

modification to the subordinate's performance to creates accuracy all over the practice. Inactive management-

by-exception leaders await for problems to occurs prior to setting up them. With transactional leadership being

practiced to the inferior-point requires and being additional managerial in method, it is a base for

transformational leadership which employs to superior-point requirements. Transactional leaders utilize prize

and penalty to achieve fulfillment from their followers. They are external motivators that bring minimum

fulfillment from followers. They admit objectives, formation, and the customs of the current organization.

Transactional leaders contribute to be instructive and performance-oriented. Transactional leaders are ready to

work in present systems and discuss to achieve objectives of the organization.

They lean to think in the box while resolving difficulties. Transactional leadership is mainly inactive.

The conducts mainly related with this kind of leadership are creating the standard for prizing followers and

keeping the status quo. In transactional leadership, there are two elements, contingent reward and management-

by-exception. Contingent reward presents prizes for attempts and identifies good quality presentation.

Management-by exception sustains the status quo, interfere when subordinates do not meet up satisfactory

presentation degrees, and starts remedial act to develop presentation.

Students leadership function develop their examination scores, political status in class create in them

the qualities of charming creativeness and powerful belief of their attainment (Levin, 1998; Wallin,2003).

Student leadership involvement gives students chances to perform a series of leadership competencies in a

supportive, knowledge and societal environment “success “and errors “and performance and assessed (Bisland,

2004). Indication and expression have been showed to develop self-assurance and the characteristics of problem

solving in students. (Hay, Byrne, & Butler, 2000). As the young grow up they set out in the practical life or

advanced education where leadership skill turn into more risk; opportunity for leadership come in the form of

common performing daily actions (Brungardt,1997).

Regularly wide literature put students participation as a pre-condition for higher contribution of student

in the process of learning, recommending the schools, allow students to become active contributor in their

schooling, involving contributing in decision related that what and how they understood, and how the

evaluation of their understanding is made (Black, R. 2009). This literature planned that the process of

participation gives student a strong recognition of school’s as well as beginners (McInerney, 2009) It

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recommends participation and leadership as a mean of improving the educational association of those young

age group mostly hoped to become isolated from school (Stokes & Turnbull, 2008). Significant literature

explains the leadership of student as a way of carrying effective modifications school and community source of

bringing positive changes school and society, as a mean of achieving the participation of school and community

(Freire, 2006). It search to educate students as important doer and societal representative capable of guess in a

developed community and carrying out to produce the environment for wishing society(Giroux, 2003)

A previous examination of student leadership carry out in schools investigated that while some schools

provides understanding directions in leadership for the reported students leader this direction be tending to be

one off, quite than supporting students through a constant learning process (Lavery and Hine, 2013). These

characteristics are replicated in qualitative research studies (Thompson, 2012; Dempster, Stevens and Keefe,

2011). Although, there is small evidence of powerful practical trying in the leadership research studies.

Student leadership development comprise giving students opportunities to carry out leadership

competencies in supporting learning environment. It is stated that leadership may be carefully developed so that

it showed much excellence in plan setting signs, problem solving, team constructing, making judgment,

effective communication and network, various solutions; much consideration and self-assurance. These twelve

skills are too related to the four academic skills: Interpersonal relationship, motivation, study competencies and

connection. Using this formation it is proved the leadership of student can be placed in the school curriculum.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

The following null hypothesis were formulated for this study:

1. There is no significant difference in transformational leadership style among students at cadet and public sector

colleges.

2. There is no significant difference in transactional leadership style among students at cadet and public sector

colleges.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions are answered in this study:

1. Is there any significant difference between the transformational leadership style of students at cadet and public

sectors colleges?

2. Is there any significant difference between the transactional leadership style of students at Cadet and Public

sectors colleges?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Population

All the cadet and public sector colleges of Khyber Pukhtunkhawa were the focus of this study.

Sample

A random sampling technique was used for the selection of the sample. Total ten colleges included

five cadet and five public sector colleges in the sample. Two hundred students from cadet and two hundred

students from public sectors colleges were selected randomly as the sample of the study.

Tools of Research

The study was descriptive in nature; therefore, two questionnaires about leadership for the students

were used as an instrument to collect the data. The researcher developed the questionnaires by using five point

Likert Scale on the basis of literature, regarded studies and in the guidance of supervisor. The student leadership

were consisted of two subscales those measured two kinds of leadership attributes i.e. transformational and

transactional leadership.

Data Collection Procedure

Research was carried out after pilot testing of questionnaires before administration to the sample of the

study and was assessed by the specialists. The mean scores were compared. The differences calculated by using

the statistical methods of t-test, and interpreted accordingly through computer software program statistical

package for social sciences (SPSS).

Data Analysis and Results

After collecting the data from respondents it was tabulated and analyzed.

Following statistical techniques were utilized to analyze data

1. Means were computed for every of dimensions of leadership attributes.

2. A t-test for equality of means was used to determine the significant difference in leadership attributes among

cadet and public and students due to demographic variable sector.

3. Cranach’s alpha was used for analysis of internal consistency of items of leadership scales.

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Table: 1 Mean of Transformational Leadership Style of cadet colleges students. S.No. Variables Mean Remarks

1 Idealized Influence.

3.93 Usually true

2 Inspirational Motivation.

4.03 Usually true

3 Intellectual Stimulation.

3.62 Usually true

4 Individual Consideration. 3.83 Usually true

Table 1 shows mean of variables of transformational leadership style of cadet colleges students is 3.93 for

idealizes influence, 4.03 for inspiration motivation, 3.62 intellectual stimulation and 3.83 for individual

consideration and overall mean of transformational leadership style of cadet colleges students is 3.85.

Table: 2 Mean of Transactional Leadership Style of cadet colleges students. S.No. Variables Mean Remarks

1 Contingent Reward.

4.14 Usually true

2 Management –by-exception.

3.73 Usually true

3 Heightened to attained designated outcomes.

4.01 Usually true

4 Performance beyond expectation.

3.90 Usually true

Table 2 shows mean of variables of transactional leadership style is .4.14 for contingent reward, 3.73 for

management-by-exception, and 4.01 for heightened to attained designated outcomes, 3.90 for performance

beyond expectation and overall mean of transactional leadership style is 3.94.

Table: 3 Mean of Transformational Leadership Style of public colleges students. S.No. Variables Mean Remarks

1 Idealized Influence.

4.02 Usually true

2 Inspirational Motivation.

4.05 Usually true

3 Intellectual Stimulation.

3.77 Usually true

4 Individual Consideration. 3.97 Usually true

Table 3 shows mean of variables of transformational leadership style.4.02 for idealizes influence, 4.05 for

inspiration motivation, 3.77 intellectual stimulation and 3.97 for individual consideration and overall mean of

transformational leadership style is 3.95.

Table: 4 Mean of Transactional Leadership Style of public colleges students. S.No. Variables Mean Remarks

1 Contingent Reward.

4.20 Usually true

2 Management –by-exception.

3.86 Usually true

3 Heightened to attained designated outcomes.

4.03 Usually true

4 Performance beyond expectation.

3.97 Usually true

Table 4 shows mean of variables of transactional leadership style.4.20 for contingent reward, 3.86 for

management-by-exception, and 4.03 for heightened to attained designated outcomes, 3.97 for performance

beyond expectation and overall mean of transactional leadership style is 4.01.

Table: 5 Difference between transformational leadership style of cadet and

public sector colleges students. Sector N Mean Std. Deviation t Df Sig.

Cadet 200 77.00 10.00 2.1 398 0.05

Public 200 79.00 11.00

Level of significance: 0.05

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Table No.5 shows that ‘t’ value (2.1) is significant at 0.05 level of significance, So the null hypothesis stating

that there is no significant difference between leadership attributes of cadet and public sector colleges students

is rejected and it is concluded that that there is significant difference between transformational leadership style

of cadet and public sector colleges students.

Table 6 Difference between transactional leadership style of cadet and public sector colleges students. Sector N Mean Std. Deviation t Df Sig.

Cadet 200 73.42 14.182 5.4 398 0.00

Public 200 80.398 14.021

Level of significance: 0.05

Table No.6 shows that ‘t’ value (5.4) is significant at 0.05 level of significance, So the null hypothesis stating

that there is no significant difference between leadership attributes of cadet and public sector colleges teachers

is rejected and it is concluded that that there is significant difference between transactional leadership style of

cadet and public sector colleges students.

Findings:

1.Mean of transformational leadership style of cadet colleges students is 3.85(Table1)

2.Mean of transactional leadership style of cadet colleges students is 3.94 (Table 2).

3.Mean of transformational leadership style of public colleges students is 3.95(Table 3).

4.Mean of transactional leadership style of public colleges teachers 4.01 (Table 4).

5.Significant difference was found between transformational leadership style of cadet and public sector colleges

students (Table 5).

6.Significant difference was found between transactional leadership style of cadet and public sector colleges

students (Table 6).

CONCLUSION

1. It was experimented that public sectors college’s students opinions regarded transformational leadership style

and its dimensions idealized influence, inspirational motivation and individual consideration were of high level

than that of cadet college’s student. The results of this finding describe that in cadet colleges there is very severe

discipline and the cadets are always under keen observation while in public sector college’s relaxed

circumstance the students are always freely contributing in the leadership activities.

2. It was concluded that the opinions of public sector college’s students about transactional leadership styles were

of high level than that of cadet colleges students in its dimensions contingent reward, management by

exception, heightened to attained designated outcomes and performance beyond expectations. The result

represents the free and relaxed circumstance of public colleges where students rarely prove attention in the

academic actions and constantly participate in non academic actions, the teachers are undeceiving to play their

actual character in the public colleges to divert the student attentiveness to the education which is the important

factor for national progress and prosperity.

Recommendations:

1.There is need to develop consciousness related the importance and effectiveness of teacher’s leadership regarded

to the development of students through leadership competencies. Teachers are able to develop leadership

characteristics in their students and may face every complex situation by suggestion novel solution of the

educational difficulty of their students.

2. The teachers may have the characteristic of role model such as passion and ability to affect, clear set of values,

commitment to the society, selflessness and acceptance of others and ability to overcome the problem of their

students to make them efficient and successful citizens of the country.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Muhammad Waqas, Department of Islamic and religious studies, Hazara University, Mansehra, KPK. Pakistan.

FIQHIYYAT-E-SEERAT (Sulah hudaibiya and Conquest of Mecca)

“In the light of Seerat-un-Nabviya of Allama Ibn-e- Kathir”

Muhammad Waqas1, Bilal Khan2

1Department of Islamic and religious studies, Hazara University, Mansehra, KPK. Pakistan.

2Department of Islamic studies, Hazara University, Mansehra, KPK. Pakistan.



ABSTRACT

Seerah is the topic which started during 1st hijra, from that time till now there are several books written on this topic, there is no such personality in history rather than Prophet Muhammad (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) whose biography from his birth to till his death is preserved in such a manner that any aspect of his life is not hidden, there was no such personality in history who was praised to such an extent. There are so many books on seerah of Holy Prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) but the one which was written by Allama Ibn-e-Kathir is unique among them, during his era there are too many books on Seerah al Nabviya ,but his command on hadith and fiqh made his work unique among others, he added authentic Ahadith and narrations in his book and included such points which remained hidden from other authors. His book consist of 4 parts, and also includes fiqh-ul-seerah, which shows his great command over fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The work of Ibn Kathir helps in deeply understanding of seerah. Main topics of this article are: 1 .Narraton of the Seerat Compilation 2 .Narration of the Fiqh-ul- seerah beginning. 3 .Allama Ibn e Kaseer and Fiqh-ul-seerah 4 . Points obtained from Hudaibiah reconciliation and Makkah Conquest. KEYWORDS: fiqhiyyat-e-seerat, Seerat-un-nabviya, by Allama Ibn-e- Kathir.

INTRODUCTION

The Seerat e Nabvi pious life of the Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) after being accumulated , kept on passing from different stages. In each stage there comes such a group of selfless persons who gave their effort and curiosity In the first century Hijra, the aim of all the Muslims was merely Seerat-e-Nabvi (The pious life of the Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) And the Ahadees were being collected by the Tabeien who remained with companions of the Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص). Urwah-bin-Zubair(r.a) then after his death, 124H , after him ibn e Ishaq(r.a), came and he performed a historical deed in chapter of Seerah, After Ibn-e-Ishaq , came Waqidee(r.a) who perched their flags in the chapter of Maghazi. Ibn -e- Ishaq (r.a) and Waqidee (r.a) gave birth to death new experiments in the biography of the holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص)’s pious life, in which new topics were brought under discussion , In these new topics , the most innovative deed was bringing the arguments of the Prophethood(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص). The hero of this task was Abu Bakar Al -Baihaqi(r.a), who was the author of Dalail-un-Naboovah-wa- Mahrifat-ul-Ahwal-al-Shariyah. This book is not only about the arguments; rather it covers all the aspects of “Seerat” In the fifth and sixth century Hijri a group of the religious Philosopher appeared along with Imam Al -Baihaqi(r.a) who individually wrote Ahadees from different points of view, as Abu- Naeem Isbahani(r.a), Imam Baghvi(r.a) And Imam Ibn- e -Jauzi(r.a) etc …similarly different writings appeared in Spain which presented by the various religious scholars.

These book, from the historical point of the view were particularly fixed for the Seerat Pious life of the Prophethood(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص), E.g the Jawam-Al-Seerah of Imam Ibn e Hazam(r.a), Al-Durrar of Ibn Abdul Barr(r.a) And Al Shifaa Of Qazi Ayaz(r.a) . In 5th and 6th century of hijrah the writing of the Eastern scholars like , Imam – Al Baihaqi(r.a), Imam Al Baighvi(r.a), Ibn-e-Jauzi(r.a) and western scholars are like Qazi Ayaz and Ibn e Al Muqri(r.a) were appointed.

In the 8th century hijri, a group of religious scholars, researchers and authors of encyclopedias, appeared. As Allama Zahabi, Ibn Qaiyam and Ibn e Kathir etc. They got unique Position on the basis of their

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educational potential and power. Their warm attachments with ahadith made them prominent then others to write the Hadith from different angles to understand, to judge and the force to memory, were all these factors which forced them to compete, the seerah after minute checking. In these events, A researcher is definitely influenced by the hard work of Allama Ibn-e-Kathir book “Al-Bidayah-wl-Nihayah“. It seems to us that he took the Ahadees from their actual pall rooms then he checked from their authentication and benefited from the all previous . Allama Ibn-e-Kathir was not unknown scholar, un popular historian and was not the owner of weak intention, rather he appeared as such a religious scholar who worked on a number of knowledges, his many books were famous out of which , his books Ibn e Kathir and his books of history, Al- bidayah-wl-Nihayah are still famous until now. As a number of scholars have been writing about him, the same things is motivating us to write about him. Start and Explaination of Term “ Fiqah-ul-seerah”.

In the 20th century Hijri, the people of seert, gave the name of a new term, Fiqheyyat-e-Seerat to the lesson order, points and the matters of Shariya related to the events seerat-un-Nabviya . In addition, after word a number of authors of seerah attached their writing with the same term, and each author explained in his own way, some called it fiqh-us-seerah and same termed it as seerat-un-nabviya, some called it Al-Mustafad Min Ahdaas-al-Seerat-un-Nabviya etc … in the urdu terminology it is known as mutalia-e-seerat (studying life of the Prophet) (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) thought it seemed a bit difference of the people of seerat in the explaination of their term but they all are agree on the same way (as look), and each another adopted this way of the analyses the book of seerah before 20th century , they contained the shariah matters with a sequence . As Jawam Al Seear of Ibn e Hazam, Al durar fee Ikhtisar-Al-Mazghazi-wal-seear by Ibn abd-ul-Barr, and Al Rauz-ul-Anf of Imam Sohaili, Zaad-ul-Maad of Allama Ibn e Qaiyam(r.a). A number of such books were written on this style and those books had the same mode and in which, the events of seerah have been detailed.

Fiqh-ul-Seerah sense is not that by presenting the events of seerat in detail and with augments or only discussing the historical detail of seerah . The lesson must be made clear which is hidden, the benefits, teachings and lesson hidden in the seerah must be lighted, The name of their efforts is Fiqh-ul-Seerah. Dr Ahmed Muhammad-Al-Aleemi, writes:[1] Our some Seerat Authors, named the book of seerat Fiqh-ul-Seerah and included in the lessons and then explained it recording to their own sense and wisdom. Some writers of the seerah, named the book of seerat Fiqh-ul-Seerah and discuss the things, or passing the life of under the indication , some authors discuss , the advice of the guidance , for Jehad etc .

.Allama Ibn e Kaseer and Fiqh-ul- seerah:

Allama Ibn e Kathir family name abu-ul-fida, tittle imad-ul-deen, by race Qureshi by religion al shaafi, full name abu-ul-fidaa imad-ul-deen ismail umar bin kathir bin zou bin kathir al shaafi . He was the resident of basra but he was brought up in Damascus. Imam Ibn-e-Kaseer was born in the central town of Basra on the eastern side of Damascus in 700 or 701 hijri . [2] When Imam Ibn-e-Kathir (r.a) died at that time he had become blind and he was died on Thursday, 24 shaban 774 hijri in the age of 74 years. [3] Muhaddiseen’s point of view is that the last book on seerah of Allama Ibn-e-Kathir was consisted on 4 volumes. Allama Ibn-e-Kathir was very great Scholar of Hadith, Philosopher and historian.

His tafseer Ibn-e-Kathir has a prominent place in art of Tafseer , Similarly in the history his writing Al Bidayah-wal-Nihayah has a unique position, Actualy he wrote As Seerat-ul- Nabiva comprising on 4 volumes . After that he made a complete history which is known as Al Bidayah-wal-Nihayah. [4] Allama Ibn-e-Kathir(r.a) made efforts in the seerat-ul-nabviya, to make comparison. He is of the opinion that baseless traditions should be neglected to narrate the weak traditions separately and mistakes of other narrators must be pointed out. Allama Ibn-e-Kathir(r.a), when started compiling writing of seerat-ul-nabviya before him all the models of past were present there. He collected all traditions, which were considered authentic. Then he narrated the habits and traits of the Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) in the end .Since Allama Ibn-e-Kathir himself was a big teacher and compiler of the Hadith therefore where came anything considerable from the hadith’s point of view he made attention of others . Besides that he was a great jurisprudent. So in his book there is a lot material on the jurisprudence of the seerat and it is very vast.

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In his book Al seerat-ul-nabviya there is a number of such places in which he inducted, such decrees and lessons which are clear proof of his Tafseer, Hadith, Jurisprudence and seerat (the life of the Prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص). [5] In the following a few matters and lessons are discussed which are related to Seerat. Some of such extractions are as under.

Lessons of the Seerat, related Hudaibiyah reconciliation.

Hudaibiyah reconciliation brought a possibility of clear victory for the Muslims. It was the decision of

ALLAH almighty that this time there should be no war between Muslims and Non-Muslims because:

Entering the Muslims with swords (weapons) meant bloodshed of a lot of men. Weak Muslims present in Makkah could be killed by Muslims who hid Islam in there heart due to fear of

their nation. This thing was already in the knowledge of Allah almighty that the people who are stopping the holy Prophet and his companions from Masjid E Haram, very soon Allah will open their hearts for Islam. ALLAH will make conquer many countries by their hands. These people will convey the message of ALLAH to the people and would show the path to the detracted. [6]

Opening the Ahraam of Umrah and suggestion of Umm e Salma:

This event indicates a number of wisdom for example the: opinion of woman:

Opinion of Umm-e-Salma was correct and scared. She understood that companions of the Prophet were thinking that the order which holy Prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) gave them to take off Ahraam, was only relaxation for them, whereas Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) himself would be in Ahraam. Therefore Umm-e-Salma suggested that they themselves they should open their Ahraam, so that their confusion may be finished. From this we can get clear proof if a woman, with god thought, and positive views, give consultation, her consultation must be accepted. [7]

Difference between saying and action :

Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) ordered three times to do a thing before him there was a great companion of the prophet in spite of that no one acted upon the order of the prophet but when holy prophet adapted practical aspect by um-ul-Momineen, the purpose was solved at once in a such matters, practical model is proved very useful. [8]

Good luck and Bode is forbidden:

When Sohail bin umar came to holy Prophet for negotiations, holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) seeing him said: [9] سهل امرکم

Your task has become easier . and here the reasoning of good luck are found and it is not bode. Because we have many references from the Holy Prophet. He (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) said:

ال طيرة وخيرها الفالBode has no fact and good luck is better among such things. The companions requested. O Prophet of Allah , what is Faal (Good luck)? Holy Prophet answered:

[ 10]الکمۃ الصالحۃ يسمعهاThe good word which some body listen among you. Difference between luck and bode is that thinking for good Luck from ALLAH, bode is un liked . [11] Bode was discussed before holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) that was said:

[12]بکاحسنها الفال وال ترد مسلما فاذا رای احدکم ما يکره فليقل :اللهم ال ياتی بالحسنات اال انت وال يدفع السيئات اال انت وال قوة اال among them is good luck is better A bode may not stop some body from his task , if a person see anything not liked, he should say like this O Allah nobody can bring any good luck except you and nobody can stop any evil except you . Allah! only goodness can be obtained through your help and one can not be saved from any sort of evil except from your help.

The person is disbeliever who considered the stars effective in the following of rain says:

hazrat Khalid johani that it rained in the right of hudaibiyah. After that we offered prayer behind the Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) . Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) after being freed from the prayer , said !

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هل تدرون ما ذا قال ربکم ؟Do you know what, your Lord said? He said Allah and his Prophet know well, so he said. Allah Al mighty said among the men some were ,who were in the morning with faith on me and some others, became dis believes ,the one who said, it rained with the mercy of Allah, he was with faith and mercy of ALLAH and he is denying the effect of stars, and who said it rained through starts, he who said it rained though the starts, he is disbeliever , and believes in the stars. [13] The Paganism discussed in the verse according to the scholars can be one from the following two kinds. Paganism of belief or paganism of blessing. The person who says that rain fell due to such star and he believes that star is effective in the following of rains , such a person adapted such a paganism which expels him from Islam . Imam Shafi says! the person says that person says that this rain falls on the base of such and such stars , his saying this is on the way of ignorant people such belief is polytheism as said the holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) . Because the word "نوء" came in the Ahadith for the time and itself is a creature. Who for himself or for any other is not the owner of anything. So the person who says that, it rained on reaching a star on a certain places it is not dis believe. but I do not like such things . [14]

Matter of obtaining sacredness from the belongings or things of the virtuous people.

Hazrat urwa-bin-Masood, discussed the merits of the companions of the prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) he says, by God, holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) whenever spitted, it was received in the hands of companions. The person used to apply that spittle on his body and face. And everybody tried to take his water from which holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) mad ablution even, they could fight with one another to obtain this water. [15] Imam Shatibi , says while commenting on the hadith apparently , it seems from these or such follower of Sunnah of the prophet . Then it is correct using his used articles, the sacrament must be obtained from the remaining water of his ablution His spitted must be axed and health recovery sahifa must be obtained from his other memorials . But before us , there is an absolute reasoning against this that after the death of holy Prophet , so such event occurred regarding any companion of the Prophet . After him there was not anybody superior to Hazrat Abu bakar , Nr the people did such thing with hazrat Umar , Hazrat Usman and Ali [R.a] Rather the following seat and Sunnah in saying and actions. The companions followed the holy Prophet in reality, It was conflux from then on giving up such matters. In the end, they say that this sacrament must not be made around to common people of discipline. [16]

Tale of Hazrat e Kaab bin ujrah and befalling of the verse of ransom:

In Hudaibiyah , Holy Prophet came to hazrat kahab at that time lice were following of his head . Then holy prophet said:

"ايؤذيک هوامک"do your lice hurt you ? He said : yes . then Holy Prophet said him to:

[17]"فاحلق راسک "cut your hairs . Then this verse befell:

[18]أو على سفر فعدة من أيام أخر وعلى الذين يطيقونه فدية طعام مسكين منكم مريضافمن كان however whoever is sick among you or he has any uncomfortable ness in his head then he has to pay the ransom , whether he fasts , pays almoner or sacrifice. verses of surah Baqarah are giving clarification of such person who have problem (pain ) in their head . Though this verse befell about Hazrat Kahab bin hijrah , but it is implication is for each Muslims who is passing from such condition .

Order of the offering prayers in residences: Narrated by Abu Maleah , one night , it was raining heavily , I went towards the mosque , when I came back made the door open , my father said , who are you I said Abu Maleah , He said we were with Holy Prophet with on the day of hudaibiyah , it rained but too little that even soles of our shoes were not wet , but that it was announced by the man on the order of Holy Prophet:

[19]صلو فی رحالکم Offer prayer in your residence.

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Decree about the left over prayer:

Any person who slept in the time of prayer or forget to offer the prayer , he must offer the prayer , no sooner , he remember although , the time of prayer might have passed Muslims kept on sleeping in fajar prayer on returning from hudaibiyah , their Muazzin, Bilal also could not wake up . They woke up by the heat of sun they offered the prayer. [20]

Terms and conditions of recompilations: Respected Imam and worthy scholars have taken the argument of agreement between Muslims and fighters not fighting for a period of hudaibiyah reconciliation, weather this reconciliation was by wealth or without wealth, Medina reconciliation is without money. In short reconciliation by praying the money would be better. But the majority it is not correct if reconciliation is made paying the money by the Muslims because in this there is disgrace of Muslims, and also for there is no reasoning in the Quran and Sunnah . , However in such situations it is possible, when it was needed and without it was impossible. e.g : the fear of death , or imprisonment , in such situations reconciliation is legal , as Jiziya is possible for prison . Imam Shafi , Imam Ahmed and many other scholars are all of the opinion that reconciliation must be only for the limited periods and its maximum periods must be ten years because Holy Prophet reconciliation with Qureish for the such period in the year of Hudaibiyah [21] Imam Abu Hanifa is of the view that it depends on the opinion of imam, he can reconcile for more than 10 years if he think it better. [22] In the light of Hadith, the statement is authentic, however if it is more better to reconcile for more than 10 years , that agreement can be renewed as : According to the opinion of Imam Shafi According to the some latest Scholar one of the opinion [23] that making agreement of reconciliation for ever above corrected and they obtain support of this decrease of all mighty Allah:

تلوكم إلى قوم بينكم وبينهم ميثاق أو جاءوكم حصرت صدورهم يصلون إال الذين لسلطهم عليكم فلقا أن يقاتلوكم أو يقاتلوا قومهم ولو شاء لكم عليهم سبيال لم فما جعل [24]فإن اعتزلوكم فلم يقاتلوكم وألقوا إليكم الس

Except those who belong to that nation with whom your reconciliation agreement has been done or who come to you in this positions , that they are un willing to the fight with your or with their nation .And If Allah willed , you were overcome by them and they would certainly fight with you , so if these people part from you and not fight with you and send to you the message of reconciliation , then Allah does not show you any way (path) to fight on the base of this quotation . It is actual that relation of Muslins with non-Muslims is based on reconciliation and not on the war and jihad has been ordered for the protection of the Muslims . [25] But the statement is rejected on the base of following argument:

1. Advocates of this quotation had already stated that scholars are agree on this reconciliation with the enemy must necessarily for the fixed duration and reconciliation pact is not correct forever . After copying this quotation themselves one opposing it.

2. It verse from which the argument has been taken is cancelled all mighty Allah says : كاة ا لهم كل مرصد فإن تابوا وأقاموا إذا انسلخ األشهر الحرم فاقتلوا المشركين حيث وجدتموهم وخذوهم واحصروهم واقعدوف الة وآتوا الز الص

غفور رحيم فخلوا سبيلهم إن [26] Then Kill the non-believers after passing the month of respect , where ever you find them , arrest them , surrender them , and sit on every place to kill them , If they spent and start offering prayers and paying zakat , then leave their paths . Certainly Allah is the must kind and forgiven. Allama Ibn-e-Jareer copied the same thing from Ikrama, Hassan, , Qatada and Ibn-e-Zaid. [27] Imam qurtabee said copying from Mujahid that the very sense of this verse is correct . [28]

3. The doctrine as well as its base is rejected because of the above mentioned verse of sur-e-toba 4. And the thing that Jihad is not only been Ordered for the protection of the Muslims Syed Qutab writes in this

regards, this idea is definitely wrong and he says that this thought is of those people who put weapon aside from the non believes and these are totally unaware of the stages of preaches, definite order must be kept absolute .[29]

Absolute decree must be kept absolute: It is a Jurisprudential principle that absolute remains absolute is not inductor and inductance does not be restrictive, it is justified from the tradition of ibn e hashn which he copied through the references of the Abu Ubaid , he says that some companions asked the holy prophet “did you not say that would enter Makah , with peace , then holy prophet said:

بلی ،افقلت لکم من عامی هذا ؟Why not! But did I say this year to you ? People said No, then prophet said:

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[30]فهو کما قال لی جبريل عليہ السالمMy this saying was to that which hzrt Jibraiel said to me. Actually it was the good news of Makkah conquest this turned the glances of companion of prophet to this side when prophet of Allah, definitely says any order, then his definite order must be accepted definitely rather imposing ban on it. Which may stop its implementation or its application? Summary is that submission of the holy prophet is essential, though the order of the prophet may apparently against. The wisdom and hearts did not like it. The events of Hudaibiya, show that when hazrat umar and few other companions of the prophet saw the currently in the rights of the Muslims, they did not want to reconciliation with the Qureish . Later on they were ashamed on their actions and come to know that they had suffered from the sin because such a matter on which holy prophet was agreed, this disliked it. [31]

The Muslims can open (take off) the ahraam if they feel any hurdle or difficulty while performing umrah ,with ahraam ,it is legal to remove the ahraam and it is not essential to repeat the umrah.[32]

Jurisprudence of seerah relation to Makkah conquest

If the conquest of Makkah is evaluated attentively, a number of lesson for the Muslims are hidden in their event of seerat the pious life of the holy prophet in the following ,the period and matters regarding jurisprudeted and discuss.

Murder of Muslim spy: After the news of spying of hazrat Hatib was caught, hazrat umar gave suggestion of his murder to prophet the holy prophet did not consider this punishment wrong, rather he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) did not punish him on the base that he (hatib) was present at Baddar it was serious sin ,the spying committed by hazrat hatib but ever than he remained momin (true Muslim) and his faith sustained .[33] Now here the matter is obvious that forgiveness of hazrat hatib cannot be the argument for the person who commits the same mistake. It is not correct to forgive the person who commits the mistake like hatib on the bases of hatib’s forgiveness, it had the particular reason which was not possible after the period of companions of the holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) and it was his (hatib) procure in Baddar. So it is worthy to understand. Allama ibnul qeem presented the research regarding this matter. He said! To murder of the spy is on the disposal of imam. If the murder of such person goes is farrow of the Muslims then he must be murdered, however if it is more better to remain him, he must be left alive.[34]

To give the equivalent post according to his status or post on which he was during his polytheism when

he embrace Islam. When abu Sufiyan, was captured by the Muslims and hazrat Abbas kept him in his refuge. Hazrat abbss told the holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) that Abu Sufiyan liked the leadership and designation so you should give him the honors, whoever one who would enter his house would be in peace. By doing this the aim was to convey him the massage if he is sincere and will spend his potential in the way of Allah, his status among the Quraysh will never be reduced..[35]

Makkah, conquered through reconciliation or through fight:

Allama ibn-e-kathir says! Most of the scholars are of the view that Makkah was conquered through fight and the advocates of these statements are imam Abu hanifa, and imam ahmad and presented the reasoning by Abu Huraira.

حبس [36]أحلت لي ساعة من نهار وإنها وال تحل ألحد بعديعليهم رسوله والمؤمنين, أال وإنها لم تحل ألحد قبلي عن مكة الفيل, وسلط إن Allah stopped the people of elephants from Makkah and empowered his prophet and momneen (true muslims) upon the people of Makkah. Listen that Makkah remind legal neither or anybody before me or after me (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) and for me, the fighting has become valid in a carton part of a day. The words of hadith cleanly argue that Makkah was conquest through war.

Similarly, khalid bin Waleed fought with the group of banu-bakar and akhabish and murdered nearly their 12 members. Similarly Abu Sufiyan came to holy prophet on the day of Makkah conquest and demanded peace. Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) gave him peace and said who entered his house, would be safe. The other party is of the view that Makkah was conquered through reconciliation and they held the recording from the saying of Allah. Allah almighty says:

وا األدبار [37]ولو قاتلكم الذين كفروا لولAnd if pagans would fight with you, they would run away and would not find any helper or friend in the next verse:

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ة من بعد أن أظفركم عليهم [38]وهو الذي كف أيديهم عنكم وأيديكم عنهم ببطن مكAnd he is the same who gave you victory upon the non-Muslims and stopped their hands on you and yours on them It is quite clear from these two verses that Makkah was conquered through reconciliation not through war. Similarly this point is proved and clears through hadith that

[39]بمر الظہرانصالح اهل مکۃ holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) reconciliated with people of Makkah in mur-rul-zuhran. Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) said:

[40]من دخل المسجد فهو آمن ،ومن اغلق بابہ فهو آمن ومن القی السالح فهو آمن ومن اغلق بابہ فهو آمن the person is in peace, who entered the mosque. Similarly he is also in peace who shut his door. Who threw his weapon, is in peace. This proved that no war was fought on the day of Makkah conquest.

Similarly on the day of Makkah conquest hazrat Saad bin ubada said: اليوم يوم الملحمۃ ،اليوم نستحل الکعبۃ

Today is the day of war ,Today Kaaba has been made halaal. When holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) heard these, (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) said:

کذب سعد ،ولکن هذا يوم يعظم هللا فيہ الکعبۃSaad told a lie. Today is the day, in which Allah has given dignity to his Kaaba. Holy prophet, would have distributed Booty (mal-e-ganemat) if Makkah have conquered through Fight. It was conquered through reconciliation.

Most of the scholors, while answering the arguments of others say that it is not proved from holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص)giving peace to some people that Makkah conquered through reconciliation. It is the argument that, he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص)announced the forgiveness after the war and if Makkah would have conquest through reconciliation, then, there was no need of peace.[41] Decree of shriyya, related to Makkah conquest

Traveler can fast in Ramadan and can also break it. Holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) fasted on the occasion of returning of war pro cession on returning from madina and broke it on kudaid. [42]

Traveler, can shorten the prayer with 4 rakkat’s to 2 rakkat’s. holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) offered qasar prayer in Makkah for nighteen days. [43]

The bequest of the chattel more than one third as it is obvious of the tale of saad bin abi waqas. When he fell ill in the holy city of Makkah and consulted the holy prophet about the bequest of more than one third’s chattel, he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) forbade.[44]

Holy Prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) offend Chasht prayer eight rakaat from this it is argued, that chasht prayer is liked/masnoon. [45]

A woman can also give peace and for other it is essential to accept this peace. Holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) accepted the peace of umm-e-Hani which she provided to the two relatives of her husband.[46]

Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) narrated a rule that a child will be attacked to the father or mother and not to the person who raped as, holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) made the decision about the child of female slave of zumha. There was a controversy between Abd-bin-zumha and saad bin abi waqas. Holy prophet(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) gave the decision in favor of abd bin zumha. It was because this child was born from the female slave of his father. [47]

from heathen husband and wife, if wife becomes Muslim, the Nikkah will be sustained provided that before the mensuration of his wife, the husband becomes Muslim. As it was in the case of Safwan bin umiyya and ikrama bin Abu jhal their wives became Muslims and they also became Muslims before the completion of the menstrual of their wives. Their Nikkah sustained .[48]

If husband is naturally a miser and does not meet the expedient of his wife and offspring’s, than wife can take suitable amount without telling her husband, to fulfil the needs, as it is proved from the event of Hind bint-e-utba and Abu suffiyan. [49]

Hair can be dyed of hina, however it is not legal to dye them with any black color. As it is obvious of Abu kuhafa errant, who was the father of Abu bakkar Siddique from this it meant to oppose the Jews and Christians. [50]

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It is forbidden they recommending to finish the limitations of Allah almighty after a case being presented by the ruler. As in case of makhzomi woman who made theft, hazrat usama asked to spume her. At this holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) was annoyed. Then said:

عيف أقاموا عليه الحد، و إنما أهلك الذين قبلكم، د أنهم كانوا إذا سرق فيهم الشريف تركوه، وإذا سرق فيهم الض لو أن فاطمة بنت محم ايم [51]سرقت لقطعت يدها

People before you were decayed on the base, when among them, if a respected man committed theft, would be left and when the theft was committed by a weak(poor) he would be given punishment. Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) said. By god (he swore) if Fatima bint-e-muhammad would commit theft he would cut her hands.

Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) forbade to murder a woman until she took part in the war. On the day of Makkah conquest, He (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) passed by a woman, he(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) expressed annoyance and said, which war she fought? [52]. Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) forbade killing children and woman in wars. [53]

Hazrat abu bakkar brought his father before the holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) who had become blind as a respect holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) seeing he said. Why did you not let your father remain in the home. I(ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) myself would come to him. Hazrat Abu bakkar said O-prophet of Allah it was batter that he came instead you. Then hazrat abu bakkar made his father sit before the holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) . He placed his hand on his chest and said. Be a Muslim and he became Muslim. [54]

The person who does not intend the pilgrimage or umrah, it is legal for him to enter the Makkah without ahram. Holy prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) entered the Makkah on the eve of Makkah conquest there was black turban on his head. On this eve he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) was not in ahram.[55]

The people with whom, agreement has been made, if they attack on such people whom, the imam had given the promise, no promise will remain and it would be legal to kill them in their homes and there is no need of war announcement. The need of declaration is due when there might be fear of dishonesty, when dishonesty is practically proved the agreement finishes. [56]

In case of any compulsion or rapprochement, the scorch of the woman can be taken by taking off her clothes. As it was in case of the woman who carried the latter of Hatib(ra). Hazrat ali and hazrat miqdad-bin-aswad in the condition of belief warned her to make her search by taking off her dress. The woman, fearing from such a search gave the latter which she had hidden in her hair. [57]

When a person in the condition of rage, declares a Muslim, polytheist with supposing Allah, prophet (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) and the faith, he himself would not be polytheist or sinner, rather he would get due to his motive and devotees. On the condition he does not have any personal interest or ambition.

The person can be murdered without being demanding him for repentance who has been converted badly as it was in the matter of Abdullah bin Oby bin Srah.

REFERENCES

[1]. Duroos-fil-seerah-til-nabviyah-wa-ebaroha (fiqh ul seerah), Doctor Ahmad Muhammad al aleemi, jamia tul imarat al arabia al mutahidda, p: 8.

[2]. Zail tzkira-tul-Huffaz, Shamsud din abul mahasin Muhammad bin ali bin al hasn bin Hamza al hussani aldamishqi al shafee, darul kutub al ilmia,1419 hijra-1998 AD, Vol:1, p:38.

[3]. Al-durar-ul-kamina-fee-aayanil mea assamina, abul fazl ahmad bin ali bin Muhammad bin ahmad bin hajr al asqalani, majlis daeratul maarif al usmania- haidrabad, al hind, 1392.AH/1972.AD,Vol:1, p:446.

[4]. Muhazraat-e-seerat , Doctor Mehmood ahmad Ghazi, al faisal nashran o tajraan e kutub, urdu bazaar, Lahore,p:221.

[5]. Muqaddima al-sera tul nabvyyah , Ibn-e-Kathir,abul fida ismaeel bin umer bin Kathir al-dimashqi al qurashi,tehqeq: Mustafa abdul wahid, darul marifa, Beirut, lebanon,1395Ah/1976 AD. Vol:1, p:7.

[6]. Al-sera tul nabvyyah ,Ibn-e-Kathir,abul fida ismaeel bin umer bin Kathir,Vol:2,p:234-237. [7]. Ibid, Vol:2,p:240. [8]. Ibid, Vol:2,p:240. [9]. Saheeh-Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismaeel al Bukhari, hadith no: 2732. [10]. Saheeh-Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismaeel al Bukhari, hadith no: 5754. [11]. Fath-ul-baari, abul fazl ahmad bin ali bin Muhammad bin ahmad bin hajr al asqalani, Vol:10,p:225. [12]. Sunan-e-abe Dawood, abu Dawood suleman bin ashas as sjistani, , hadith no: 3919.

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[13]. Saheeh-Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismaeel al Bukhari, hadith no:846. [14]. Al umm, Muhammad bin idrees shafe, darul marifa Beirut, lebanon, 1410 AH/1990 AD, Vol:1,p:225. [15]. Saheeh-Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismaeel al Bukhari, hadith no: 2731. [16]. Al aatisaam, ibraheem bin musa shaatbi, 8/2, daar ibn e affaan, as saudia, 1412 AH-1992 AD,

Vol:2,p:8. [17]. Sahih al-muslim, muslim bin hajjaj al qusheri, hadith no: 1201. [18]. Surah al baqara: 196, [19]. Sunan-e-ibn-e-maja, abu Abdullah Muhammad bin yazeed al qazweeni, hadith no:963. hafiz ibn e hajr

says that the hadees is saheeh and its sanad is muttasil (Fathul baaril,abul fazl ahmad bin ali bin Muhammad bin ahmad bin hajr al asqalani, Vol:2,p:184.)

[20]. Al sunan-ul-kubra, abu abdur Rahman ahmad bin shoaib bin ali al khurasani al nisaae 266/5, muassisat ur risala Beirut, 1421 Ah-2001 AD, Vol:5,p:266.

[21]. Fiqh-ul-seerah, Muhammad saeed ramzaan al booti, p: 242. [22]. Fathul qadeer, Muhammad bin ali bin Muhammad bin Abdullah ash shokaani al yamni ,dar ibn e

kaseer, darul kalim al tyyeb, Beirut, 1414 AH, Vol:5,p:546. [23]. Aasaar ul hrb fil fiqhil islami, by allama az zuhaaly, p: 680. [24]. Surah al nisaa: 90. [25]. Aasaar ul hrb fil fiqhil islami, by allama az zuhaaly, p: 675. [26]. Surah al tobah: 5. [27]. Jama al bayan fee taveel ul Quraan, Muhammad bin Jareer bin yazeed bin, abu jafar al tabri

Vol:9,p:24. [28]. Al jama le ahkamil Quraan (tafseer al qurtbi), abu abdullah Muhammad bin ahmad bin abu bakr bin

frh al Ansari al khzrji shamsud din al qurtbi , darul kutub al misryya, al qahira, 1384 AH-1964 AD. Vol:5,p:308.

[29]. Tafseer fee zilaal ul Quraan, syyed Qutub, Vol:3,p:1433. [30]. Al seera tul nabvyyah, abu Muhammad abdul malik bin hisham bin ayyub al himyari Vol:3,p:341. [31]. Marvyyat ghazwa tul hudybiya, hafiz al hakmi, dar ibn ul qyyem, 1411 AH,p:313. [32]. Al-sera tul nabvyyah , Ibn-e-Kathir,abul fida ismaeel bin umer bin Kathir,Vol:2,p:240. [33]. Ibid, Vol:2,p:374. [34]. Zad-ul-maad fil hdye khairil ibad, ibn ul qyyem al jozya, Vol:3,p:443. [35]. Al-sera tul nabvyyah , Ibn-e-Kathir,abul fida ismaeel bin umer bin Kathir,Vol:2,p:382. [36]. Ibid, Vol:2,p:376. [37]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 4298. [38]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 2743. [39]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 4292. [40]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 3171. [41]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, kitab ul maghazi, hadith no: 4303. [42]. Shrh-ul-zrqani , muhammad bin abdul baqi al-zurqani, kitab-ul-nikah, Dar sader Beirut, hadith

no:11181. [43]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, baab zikr-e-Hind bint e utba bin rabea, hadith

no: 3825. [44]. Sahih al-muslim, muslim bin hajjaj al qushari, hadith no: 2102. [45]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, baab hadees ul ghaar, hadith no: 3475. [46]. Musnad ul imam ahmad bin hambl, abu Abdullah ahmad bin Muhammad bin hambal Vol:2,p:115. [47]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, baab qtlun nisaa fil harb, hadith no: 3015. [48]. Al-serah al nabvyyah (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص), abu Muhammad abdul malik bin hisham bin ayyub al himyari, Vol:4,p:67. [49]. Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 4286. [50]. Zadul maad fil hdye khaeril ibad, ibn ul qyyem al jozya, , Vol:3,p:420. [51]. Zadul maad fee hdye khaeril ibad, ibn ul qyyem al jozya, Vol:3,p:432. [52]. Saheeh al bukhari, Muhammad bin ismaeel al bukhari, hadith no: 2434. [53]. Suraha al fatihah: 22. [54]. Suraha al fatihah: 24. [55]. Fathul bari sharh saheeh al bukhari, ahmad bin ali bin hajr abul fazl al asqlani al shafi, Vol:5,p:8. [56]. Al sunanul kubra, ahmad bin al Hussain bin ali bin musa abu bakr al baihqi, 118/9, darul kutub al

ilmyyah, Beirut, lebanon, 1424 AH- 2003 AD. Vol:9,p:118. [57]. Fathul bari sharh saheeh al bukhari, ahmad bin ali bin hajr abul fazl al asqlani al shafi, Vol:9,p:8.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Nafi Gul, Assistant Professor, GCMS, Charsadda, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Introduction to the Sect of Noor Bakhsia and the Intellectual Analysis of

Their Fundamental Islamic Beliefs

Nafi Gul1, Professor Dr Hafiz Hifazatullah

1Assistant Professor, GCMS, Charsadda, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

2Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Theology, Islamia College University Peshawar, Pakistan



ABSTRACT

The Noor Bakhshiasect lives in the Northern Areas of Pakistan, especially in Gilgit and Skardo. They are the

followers of Mir Sayyed Noor Bakhsh. His compilation kitab-ul-Iteqaadiyya is effectual in the basic

fundamental Islamic beliefs whereas his second compilation Alfeq-ul-Ahwat is acted upon/ followed in the

practical life. Besides, there is the practice of sunnahism in these beliefs but in terms of purpose and reverence

towards the priests, they exhiloitshia, ism. It has a separate school of understanding. This sect has specific

fourteen slogans. They believe in Allah, the almighty along with all his qualities. They also have faith in all

messengers, holy Books, angles and the day of judgment. They believe in the existence of heaven and hell.

Currently there are three sects of this school of thought Imamia, Sophia and Hamdania. Mukhtar Hussain is the

spiritual leader of the last sects, Hamdania which is out of Islam.

KEY WORDS: (Sect, Noor Bakhshia, Islamic beliefs, Imamia, Suphia, Hamdania, conservative)

INTRODUCTION TO SECT OF NOOR BAKHSHIA

The founder of the Noor Bakhshia sect was Sayeed Noor who was born on 15 Shaban 690 hijri in a city

known Qain Saojan in the province of Qahqehestan. According to some other traditions, he was born on 28,

muharram-ul-harram, 690 hijri. According toImam Mussa Kazim his position in the family is traced back to

Imam Jafar Sadiq being the sixth imam of shiaism.

His original name was Said Muhammad. Among his loved ones he was known as “MIR”. His father

name was Muhammad and his grandfather name was Abdullah. So his complete name became like “Mir Sayeed

Muhammad Noor Bakhsh Ibne Abdullah Leshawi”.

The reason to write “Noor Bakhshia” is that a friend of him saw in his dream that there is some light

falling on Mir Bakhshia from the sky and then other people get enlightened through him. The second reason that

his spiritual teacher Khwaja Ishaq Khatlani bestowed upon him the nickname “NOOR BAKHSHIA”.

Education:

Mir Sayyed got his early education in a village. He learnt the holy quran by heart at the age of seven

years, and in a short time he received the Islamic disciplines of knowledge from Sheikh Ahmad Bin Fahad Ali.

After getting the religious and worldly knowledge at the age of seventeen. He focused his attention to the

spiritual side of the knowledge. He successfully travelled through the realm of reality and understanding and

stood in the line of the acknowledge saints.

The genealogical table of Mir Sahib goes like this:

Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh

Khwaja Ishaq Khatlani

Khwaja Ishaq Khatlani

Ameer Kabeer Sayyed Ali Hamdani Sheikh Mahmood Mirzdiqani

Sheikh Alla-ud-din Samnani

Sheikh Ali Lala

Sheikh Najam-ud-din Kubri

Sheikh Ammar Yasir

Sheikh abuNajeeb Seherwardhi

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Gul and Hifazatullah, 2018

Sheikh Ahmad Ghazzali

Sheikh Abubakkar Nissaji

Sheikh abu Usman Maghrabi

Sheikh abu Ali Kaayee

Sheikh abu Ali dodhbari Sayed-al-tayefa Sheikh Junaid Bughdadi

Sheikh Sari Saqtui

Sheikh Maroof Kerkhi

Sheikh Hazrat Immam Ali Razza

Immam Mussa Kazim

Immam Jafir Sadiq

Immam Muhammad Baqir

Immam Zain-ul-Abideen

Imam Zain-ul-abideen had got permission from Hazrat Hussain, and Hazrat Hussain from Hazrat Ali and Hazrat

Ali from Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W). Due to natural talent Noor Bakhsh quickly overcome all the hardships in

the way of knowledge, and he earned the NOOR BAKHSH title from Khwaja Ishaq Khatlani at the age of twentyfour. He gave his teachers gown to Noor Bakhsh and appointed him to all other disciples around there. At

the age of thirty one, KhwajaIshaq Khatlani himself gave him permission on 19 rabi-us-sani 865 at his worship

place and assign him the responsibility to teach other disciples.

When the teacher and the disciples focused on the spiritual development of people , the ruler got frightened and

revolted against them. It must be remembered that Shah Rukh Bin Taimour, the descendent off his reigned the

zammam kingdom those days. He took it a revolt against his kingdom and a serious clash between the

opponent’s development.

On rajjab 12, 869 hijri, on Friday he dressed in black, wore a black turban and order his followers to

fight resultantly left so suphies martyred in the city of Khatlan. Two sons of IshaqKhatlani were also included in

the martyrs. Mir Noor Bakhsh and his companions were arrested. Being in chains they were taken to Harat city.

After imprisonment of 18 days in utter darkness, they were exiled and sent to shiraz and from there they transferred to Khuzistan. After six months imprisonment and physical hardships they were freed by the order of

Governor of sheraz. After freedom from jail they travelled to Basra but was again arrested in Kurdistan. Mir

sahib traveled far and wide including many countries like Iraq, Kurdistan, Koristan and Gillan. A huge crowd in

these countries took oath on his hands, and many a people turned his lovers.

While living in Kurdistan for few days,the king came to know about him and issued order for arresting

him. The king got so much angry at him that he wished to kill him. He made a plan to escape. He fled from

Kurdistan and reached Khalkhal in three days with much hunger and fatigue. The ruler of Khalkhal arrested him

and once again handed him over to Shahrukh khan. Later on, he was set forth to Gillan.

Mir sahib got some leisure time in Gillan and the reasons were the death of Shahrukh khan on one hand

and the internal agitation and revolt against him on the other hand. he had also started writing correspondents

with Taimouri rulers. After living in Gillan for few years he shifted to Solighan and preached his disciples. He

made his son shah qasimfaiz bakhsh his own decedent.

Death:

Eventually he passed away on 15 Rabi-ul-Awal 899 Hijri on the day of Thursday at the age of 37 years

and was buried in his own garden.

Before the start of Noor Bahkhshia it is essential to know about the religious state of affairs in

Baltistan, before the arrival of Islam the people of Baltistan were fire worshipers. It is worth mentioning that the

origin centre of this religion was in Iran. The forefathers of the people of Baltistan had migrated from Iran that’s

why Iranian culture and civilization is dominant in Baltistan.

The second religion which had been prevalent in this region was Chospon which is still there. The

followers of this religion believed in superstitions and Gods. The believers of this religion maintained that it is a

separate creature in this world beside human beings and Jinn. They believe that they have been created neither from clay like human, nor from light like angels, nor from fire like Jinn, rather they are composed of strange and

different components. They neither drink nor eat that’s why they perform acts of wisdom and sagacity. The

regions where they live are blessed with good things. They are extremely fond of music and dance and travel far

and wide for this purpose. One kind of this creature is Hala or Halano and many believers claim that they have

their powers too. Besides Hala or Halano there is another creature called “Mini Jam” which means (jinn of the

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mosques).The believers have a strange belief in this creature that they kicked the dirty people at night. Another

creature called “Chin Chinfu” which shouts at children.

The third religion which existed before islam was Budhism Baltistan having convents places all over

the province and some of them are still found in Skardu, Shagar and Khaploo. The monks used to live in these

convents and would preach the teachings of bhudda. Soon after people starting worshipping the monks with a mixed religion of Chin Chin Fu and Chospon. This religion could be found even today in Tibet and occupied

Kashmir.

It is important to mention that the whole Baltistan remained deprived of Islam till 8th Hijri/ 14th

centuries. The Islamic preachers and saints started coming to Baltistan in the last decade of this century. History

mention the names of these preachers like Sayyed Ali Hamdani, Mir sayyed Noor Bakhsh and Syeed Shams-ud-

din Iraqui. Due to these people Islam got introduced not only in Baltistan but also in the adjacent areas.

A brief mentioning of three preachers is as follows Mir sayyed Ali Hamdani came to Baltistan in 1381.

He preached Islam and many people embraced Islam. He also built two mosques, one at Gamba and the other at

Skarduthey still exist there and people also pray therein. Mir sayeed Noor Bakhsh came to Baltistan, first in

1381 and second in 1383. He spent few years here and preached Islam to the people and they became muslims.

Sayyed Ali Hamdani and Noor Bakhsh sahib tried their level best to convert people to Islam and they succeeded

to a great extent but they both belonged to different school of thoughts as evident from their books. There are three different opinions about Sayyed Ali Hamdani and Sayyed Noor Bakhsh. The first one is

that they were sunni, the second is that they were shia, and the third one put them into separate religious sect.

The reason is that they choose the most acceptable method leaving out difference found in both the religion of

Sunni and Shia and compiled them in the two books Alfiqa-al-Ahwat and Kitab-ul-Itiqadia. He founded a

separate school of thoughts in the religion. As it is doubtful that Noor Bakhsh was either Sunni or Shia, similarly

is the doubtful approach of the people towards Noor Bakhshia. The Sunni think that he was a Sunni and Shia

Believe that he was a Shia.

Since Noor Bakhshia is a spiritual sect and its spiritual leader is Noor Bakhsh that’s why it is called

Noor Bakhshia. From scholastic point of view it is a separate school of spiritual thoughts. Noor Bakhshia could

not spread as much in his lifetime as after his death, though it remained prevalent in these regions but it received

huge appreciation in the 9th Hijri in Iraq and other adjacent areas. The followers and disciples led this movement ahead and it successfully succeeded. The number of followers increased to thousands in a district called

“Baltistan” and is located in the northern areas of Pakistan.

During his lifetime he had appointed many of his disciples for different places in order to preach his

beliefs and convictions to people. After his death all his disciples unanimously choose his son Shah Qasim Faiz

Bakhsh as their spiritual leader and took oath on his hand. Shah Qasim Faiz Bakhsh taught and preached the

fundamental 14 slogans called “Mirror of Noor Bakhshia” or “14 spiritual slogans” which are as follow:

1 Banda khuda

2 Zurrieat-e-Adam

3 Millat-e-Ibraheem

4 Ummat-e-Muhammad

5 Deen Islam

6 Kitab-e-Quran 7 Kabba Qibla

8 Mutabiyat Sunnat

9 Muhhib-e-Ali

10 Silsila-e-Zahab

11 Mazhab-e-Suphiya

12 mashrab Hamdaniya

13 Rawish-e-Noor Bakhshiya

14 Mureed-e-Murshad

After this Sayyed Ali Kuraisy appeared in the history of Noor Bakhshiaa strikingly different person

who not only eclipsed all previous leading figures in Noor Bakhshia sect but also laid the foundation of hatred and division. He compelled so many followers of this sect to leave Islam disintegrated their beliefs making them

religiously biased, disunited and sceptical. Sayyed Ali Kuraisy was born in1309. He was the son of sayyed

Ghoon Ali and the grandson of Peer khan uloom. First of all he publicly announced that Mir Sahib was a

Shiaand he proved this by referring to some of his books.

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Due to this Sayyed Ali Kuraisi tried to get the Noot Bakhshian on board in order to make them

celebrate the Shiate’s Custom and traditions like sitting in Shia councils following the imams and celebrating

the days of birth and death. The region of Kuraisy which was the centre of Noor Bakhshia became the central

point of Shiaism. Slowly clash of ideas developed and Sayyed Ali kuraisy openly criticised the book of Al-

Akhwat written by Mir sahib. He changed people’s mind about the spiritual weightage of Mir Sahib’s beliefs and convections. It was like attacking Noor Bakhshia and uprooting altogether.

The second reason was Ali Khuraisi’s book called Kashaf-ul-Haqaiq in which he had criticized the

book of Dawat-us-suphia written by Noor Bakhsh. He mentioned that the book was against Islam and Shariyat.

The chasm of differences got so widened that the Noor Bakhshia sect got divided into two sects.

1: Imamia 2: Suphia

The sect of Imamia was the outcome of Syeed Ali Khuraisi’s modern beliefs while the suphia was the old

conservative sect practising the Noor Bakhshia’s original spiritual beliefs and practices. Historical studies reveal

that these differences developed between 1920 to 1953. Many efforts were made to bridge this gap but failed. In

1957 a delegation of Noor Bakhshia scholars met at the late PirSyeed Ali Shah’s residence. In this meeting the

scholars from both the sects swore to Allah that they would never level allegations against each other and that

each sect would be free to promote and preach its teachings. But on contrary to the expectations the difference

and clashes between the two sects increased. Later some sympathetic arbitrator came in and held a convention in 1982 which was headed by Sayyed Noon Ali shah Almosavi. It was sort of a pact. He swore to god that he

would never go against Noor Bakhshia and in case of violation he would be held responsible for any

punishment.

This pact remained effectual till 1991 and both the sects made progress and development in many fields of life.

However when Sayyed Noon Ali Shah Almosai passed away in 1991 his elder son Sayyed Muhammad Shah

Noorani had to be as per family tradition the Pir of Noor Bakhsh school of thought which again caused

differences between two sects. When the state of affairs got deteriorated, arbitrators were appointed through

youth federation at Chaq Chan Mosque. Each sect forwarded their own point of views. The Sophia sect

maintained that they follow their ancestors method of spiritual life and are called Sophia Noor Bakhshia. The

Imamia sect asserted that they followed their 12 Imams along with Sophism and Noor Bakhshia as their spiritual

leaders. This meeting could not reach any conclusion till morning. Eventually a written pact was forwarded through

N.Y.F application in which both the sects put their signatures. “We- the twelve members committee hereby

declared that no speaker from Noor Bakhshia sect will everspeak against Sophia. No written or spoken

preaching will be allowed henceforth. Rather the books of their ancestors will be followed in letter and spirit.

According to “SURMO” rules no materials on differences will be extreme violation of the pact in case it is done

so. This pact could not work it remained effectually only in written form. Rather it added fire and the opponents

began collecting written materials against each other. This widened the gap between the two sects.

In 1999 N.Y.F called a meeting of ten Noor Bakhshia scholars in which the scholars presented their own point

of views and appointed two arbitrators on their mutual consent. The arbitrators were given absolute power to

decide the differences they collectively named the sect as “Suphia Noor Bakhshia” the remaining portion of the

pact was the same” old Song” consequently the Noor Bakhshia sect got divided into two sects. One Noor

Bakhshia Imamia and the second Noor Bakhshia Sophiya.

Introduction to ImamiaSophiya:

The literal meaning of imam is the one who is followed and obeyed. This word can be used for the

head of many institution, no matter he is concerned with Islam/religion or world. Religiously, the most upright

imam is Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W),the most authentic interpreter of Holy Quran is Hazrat Abdullah Bin

Abbas, the most veracious compiler of Ahadith is the Imam Muhammad Ismail Bukhari etc. Similarly it is

applicable for worldly leaders like Imam-ul-Hind, Imam Raghib-ul-Asfahani……

Metaphorically, Imamia is meant the group of shiates who think of HazratAli(R.A)as their imam after

the Holy prophet (S.A.W).Except those 12 imams,they only follow them and believe non.

Introduction to Suphiya Noor Bakhshia Sect:

The singulars of suphies is suphie literally suphie means the one who spiritually worships and getrid of all which is not spiritually clean and clear. Suphie stands for spiritual purity of heart and mind. According to

suphies, no one can be an imman in the presence of ahli-e-baith. Imamia has a particular class of 12 imams who

follow none but them. Basically there is no striking difference between imamia and Sophia both believe and

followed their fundamental code of principles being derived from the books called “Al-ahwat and Aitiqadiya”

there are only a few points where they differ, especially the spiritual leader and disciple the bone of contention

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is that Imamia considered it hereditary and familial, whereas the Sophiya advocates the spiritual leadership to be

given to the most upright and righteous. The second this is the Aitikaf (seclusion for worship) which goes from

three days to40 days while the imamia don’t believe in it

The number of Sophia Noor Bakhshia is greater from imamia Noor Bakhshia and they have occupied

most of the mosques and convents in Baltistan. The majority of Sophia is in Skardu, Khaplo, Ladakh, Kargil, Gilgit and Karachi. While the Imamia are in majority in Krais.

Recently a lower sect of Noor Bakhshia has come into being called (Hamdania) led by Manzoor

Hussain he is actually a resident of Sargodha and has written a separate book called “Mushaf-e-Muhammad

Mustafia”. They mention his name in azan. They don’t face to Kaa’ba while saying theirprayesthese sects has

been Islamic multified and is found mostly in shagar.

The sect of Noor Bakhshia believes that Allah is omnipresent and omniscient; he is all knowing and all

powerful. They equally believe in the qualities of Allah. They maintain that Allah have the power being the

most ancient and omnipresence. Allah is one. Allah has no partner no son no father. There is nothing before

Allah.

Their belief in celestial books like Torah, Zaboor, Bible, and other booklets is that these books have

been revealed on different prophets and messengers at different periods of time. To have belief in them is an

integral part of faith. The holiest book “THE QURAN” is superior to all other celestial books in every respect. To have faith in these books is included in the 14 slogans of Noor Bakhshia.

As far as the prophethood is concerned with the Noor Bakhshai sect believe that the prophet and

messenger was a source and bridge between Allah and Human beings. all prophets are being sent by Allah.

They also believe in the finality of the prophet hood of Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W). it is obviously

clear they believe that hazrat Adam(AS) was the first and Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W) is the last messenger sent

by Allah.

The belief in Angels is Noor Bakhshia sect is the same as it is in Islam. Angels have been created from

light. There is no gender in them. They perform different functions. They are always ready to obey Allah’s

commands.

Noor Bakhshiasect also believe in the “Resurrection” or “the Final day” or the day of judgement”.

Good deeds will be rewarded and bad deeds will be rewarded with punishment. Since, it is a spiritual sect, the killing of one’s bad self is tantamount to “small Doomsday”. Devouring one’s heart from all worldliness and

focusing on life hereafter in the main object of this spiritual sect.

Conclusively speaking, the Noor Bakhshiasect believes in Islam like the followers of sunnah-wl-jammah.

However, they believe in the piousness of Immams, that they are free from sinslike prophets, believe in the

glory of Hazrat Ali, Muta’aa, and also add some phrases in Azan. These acts resemble Shiaism to large extent.

REFERENCES

1. Ai fiqh-ul-Ahwat, Sayed M.Noor Bakhsh, Idara madrasa shah Hamdan Sophia noorbakhshia,1973, p-B

2. Sophia Noor Bakhshia, part 2nd, Ghulam Hasan Hasnu, Silver link composing centre royal park

Lahore,1988,p -61,62

3. Ayena Islami, Molana Shakorali Anwarkori, Alnadwat-ul-Islamia noorbakhshia. p 18

4. -ditto- pages: 17, 18

5. -ditto-

6. Mir Sayed Noor Bakhsh and Maslaki Noor Bakhshia, Dr, Ghazi M, Naeem, Shah Hamdan publications

Islamabad, 1973, p-16

7. Mir Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhshaur Maslak Noor Bakhshia, Dr Ghazi Muhammad Naeem, Idara

Shah Hamdan Sophia Noor Bakhshia Skardu, Taba 1973, p-14.

8. Tareekh-e- Baltistan, Ghulam Hassan Seherwardhi, Abdul Jabbar press lahore1992, p-64,65

9: -ditto-

10. Baltistan Par Aiknazar, Muhammad yousaf Hussain abadi, anonymous, p-64

11. -ditto-

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12. Aiyena Baltistan, fidda Hussain Shamim, idarahamdaniaskardu. P-25

13. Tareekh-Jammu, molvi Hashmatullah, verynaag publishers Mirpur Azad Kashmir,1992 p-203

14. -ditto-

15. -ditto-

16. -ditto-

17. Dawaat-e- Sophia, Ameer Kabeer Sayeed Ali Hamdania, urdutarjuma Allama Muhammad bashirfazil,

Nadwatul Islamia Noor Bakhshia Islamabad, p- 197-918

18. Tabqaat-e- Nooria, Shah Qasim Faiz Bakhsh, Shah Hamdan publications Islamabad,1999, p –16

19. Meer sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh and Maslak-e- Noor Bakhshia, Dr Ghazi Muhammad Naeem,

Shah Hamdan publication Islamabad, p- 206

20. -ditto-

21. -ditto-

22. -ditto-

23. Souphia Noor Bakhshia part 2, Ghulam Hassan Hasno, silver link composing centre royal Park Lahore,

1988, p-6

24. Mir Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh and Maslak Noor Bakhsh, Dr Ghazi Muhammad Naeem Hamdan

publications Islamabad. P-206

25. -ditto-

26. Souphia Noor Bakhshia part 1, Ghulam Hassan Hasno, Braatliberarykhaploo Baltistan. P-10

27. Krais convention, Ghulam Hassan Hassno, Braat library Khaploo, Baltistan. P- 11

28. Suphia Noor Bakhshia part 2, Ghulam Hassan Hasno, Silver link composing centre royal Park Lahore,

1988, p-11

29. Tabqaat Nooria, Shah Qasim Faiz Bakhsh, Shah Hamdaan publications Islamabad, 1999, p-26

30. -ditto-

31. -ditto-

32. Meer Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh and Maslak Noor Bakhshia, Dr Ghazi Muhammad Naeem, Shah

Hamdan publications Islamabad, p-211

33. Al manjid fil fiqqawl Adab, loeis Maloof alyasoe Bairut, p-18

34. Saboot Imamat, AllamaNaseer-ud-din Hunzarai, Khana Hikmat Karachi 1947, p-140

35. Souphia Noor Bakhshia, Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh, Shah Hamdaan publications Skardu, p-30

36. Insan Nama, Sayyed M. Noor Bakhsh, urdutarjuma, Ghulam Hasan Hasno, Baratlibraray Baltistan, 1980

p-91

37. Sophiya Noor Bakhshia, Sayyed M. Noor Bakhsh, Shah Hamdan publications Skardu, p-32

38. Kitab-ul-Aitiqadia Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh, Al Nadwatul Islamia Noor Bakhshia, 1975, p 24-

25

39. Najm-ul-Hudda Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh, Al Nadwatul Islamia Noor Bakhshia, 1975, p 43

40. Falah-ul-Mumineen, Moulana Hamza Ali Academic Press Lahore, p 13- 14

41. Kitab-ul-Aitiqadia Sayyed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh, Al Nadwatul Islamia Noor Bakhshia, 1975, p 53-

54

42. Maahnama Tibian p 15 9th edition.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Mohibur Rehman, PhD Scholar Department of Islamic Theology Islamia collage Peshawar KPK, Pakistan.

A Jurisprudential Evaluation of Noncasuistical Questions Mentioned in

Kanz-ul-Daqaayeq

Mohibur rehman1, Dr. Saleemur Rahman2

1PhD Scholar Department of Islamic Theology Islamia collage Peshawar KPK, Pakistan

2Associate professor Department of Islamic Theology Islamia collage Peshawar KPK, Pakistan



ABSTRACT

In every age, Ulama, Muhaddiseen and Jurisprudents have provided such a sincere services to the Ummah which is a matter of pride. One of them is Allama Nasafi (May Allah’s Mercy be upon him, the author of Kanz-ud-Daqaiq). The mentioned book is the author’s brief and comprehensive work beautifully encompassing and interpreting the Hanfi School of Islamic Jurisprudence. But a common perception about Mathoon is that every issue in it depends upon casuistical (Mufta Biha, on which, fatwa is given) but is not hundred percent correct. Allama Nasafi Sahib, in his book has discussed the same issues which are Zahir-ur-Riwayah and casuistical (MuftaBiha). Keeping in mind, the reputation of the book and the flawlessness of issue that came in my research that aroused an interest in my mind to compare these issues with their sources or origins. Through my efforts and by the Grace of Allah the Almighty got the opportunity to do it. The article below includes all these issues. KEYWORDS: Noncasuistical, Jurisprudence, Evaluation, reciprocal, composition, provision, attitude

INTRODUCTION

From first Islamic century to the existing world, Islamic scholars have compiled a great jurisprudential collection. This collection consists of such extraordinary and scholarly books which are unexaggeratedly considered as a great treasure for the Muslim community. The best of human brains work for its composition. Among these outstanding brains, one is Allama Nusfi Mutawaffi (710 Hijri)who was one of the greatest jurisprudent, famous orator, unmatchable interpreter and expert of reciprocal knowledge. He remained busy in compilation and composition along with his rhetoric teaching and casuistry and compiled many useful books on multidimensional aspects of knowledge. He compiled unmatchable and famous text of Islamic jurisprudence namely, Kanzul Daqayeq which has recognized as the 3rd famous text of Hanif’s Jurisprudence after Qudori and Waqaya.AllamaNusfi’s text is comparatively more brief and comprehensive. There is no parallel of this text regarding its briefness and comprehensiveness in the entire jurisprudential collection. In respect to grading and importance, matoon comes after ummahaatkutub. Matoon refers to those brief books of science and arts in which the basic and important issues of these doctrines are depicted in an easy way comprehensively. In text, it is usually taken in consideration that all the updated issues regarding the under discussion piece of knowledge are evaluated and the basic principles (on which all the scholars are agreed upon) are depicted in brief and comprehensive composition. However, a general perception about matoon has come into front that every included proposition will be casuistical. But this is not 100% right. Sometimes there are such questions in matoon which are not casuistical but are considered commonly as casuistical and people attached to the verdict/decree are committed to make mistakes in understanding and depicting them. Now that, text is famous, reciprocal and popular in the authentic matoon of Kanzul Daqayeq whereby commonly in Islamic jurisprudence and properly in Hanfi jurisprudence it is consulted in every Madrassa and learning casuistry. The author of Kanzul Daqayeqhas taken keen provision for two things in his book. First, those questions are described expediently which are obvious amongst Hanafites and second, most of the sayings of Aayema Salasa are those which are casuistical. In the preface of Kanzul Daqayeq, AllamaNusfi says: ’’وسميتہ بکنز الدقائق وهو وان خال عن العويصات والمعضالت فقد تجلی بمسائل الفتاوی والوقعات‘‘1

Translation: “I gave it the name of Kanzu lDaqayeq. Though it is free from complicated and perplexed propositions, yet it is adorned with verdicts and the issues of new era. For example, it is adorned with those issues which consist

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of day todays’ happenings and incidents because people are in need of such kinds of issues to be solved rather than unique and complex issues. However, some of the issues are invisible and uncasuistical. Keeping the popularity of the book in mind if one inculcates deep into the matter, this proposition becomes more considerable. In the current article, a jurisprudential evaluation of such propositions are cinematographed so that the sphere of this important text would be obvious in casuistry and teaching. Allama Nusfi has described a question in Kitab-ul-buyooah 2 which apparently suggests that this question is incidental and casuistical, though it is not true. The question is : ‘ ‘‘ومن باع صبرةکل صاع بدرهم صح فی صاع “If a person sells a granary with the scheme that its every gauge would be equal to one Dirham, then the barter would be rightful in only one gauge according to Imam Abu Hanifa. As it is mentioned in the text, if a clothing stall is sold with the scheme that the price of one meter is one Dirham, then the rate will not be legitimate in one meter. According to Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad, the rate in both of the cases is right. A verdict on the saying of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad is given for easiness over these two above-mentioned questions.3 ” کما فی البحر، وظاهر ما فی الهدايۃ ترجيح قولهما لتأخيره دليلهما کما هو عادتہ، وقد صرح فی

‘‘الخالصۃ فی نظيرة بأن الفتوی علی قولهما۔ وايضا فی فتح القدير ؛ قال الفقيہ؛ والفتوی علی قولهما تيسيرا لألمر علی الناس Another such question is described in this book. If someone bought 10 yards out of 100 yards of a house, this bargain will be wrong as mentioned in the text but according to the authors, this rate is right and legitimate. The verdict is based on authors’ utterances because it is in the hands of authors to eradicate this ignorance to fix the place of bargain.4” لما فی الدر المختار : وفسد بيع عشرة اذرع من دار او حمام وصححا ۔ قال ابن عابدين : والصحيح الجواز عندهما النها جهالۃ بيدهما

‘‘ای المتبايعين۔ Similarly, AllamaNasafi has uttered a question in Bab-e-KhayarAlrawi (Khayar is explained as if a person buys a thing without even looking at it and after seeing it, he has the right to keep it or to refuse it)5 though it is not casuistical. Casuistical quote is of Imam Zafar. The question is: ” ‘‘وظاهر الثوب مطويا وداخل الدار الخ أی کفت رؤيۃ ظاهر الثوب وداخل الدار According to AyemaSalasa, the appearance of clothing stall or the house is enough to be taken and with it, the appearance of Khayar becomes defunct. On the other hand, Imam Zafar is not agreed upon. The above-mentioned disagreement is based on behavioral attitude because there was no difference in the houses of Kofi but today’s houses are quite different and there are a lot of diversities inside them.6 کما فی الجوهرة النيرة: وقال زفر البد من رؤيۃ داخل

‘‘البيوت وهو الصحيح وعليہ الفتوی ألن الدور مختلفۃ ” Moreover, this question has been explained in the chapter of Khayar-e-Aib (the thing which is lacking in its originality is different from what is called defect and in the chapter of Byoo’aat, defect means that defect which is originated with the seller and the buyer has not seen it during its purchase and the seller has not to accept that after once it is disowned by him.) 7 which is stated on the consent of Imam Zafar, whereas the verdict in under discussion question is on the consent of Saahibain. The question is: ۔اؤ کان طعاما فاکل کلہ او بعضہ لم يرجع بشئی الخ‘‘ ” Similarly, if edibles are on sale and the buyer eats it fully or some part of it and then he comes to know about its sale, according to Imam abuHanifa, the seller will not morally claim any reverse of it where’s the buyer will have the right to consult according to Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. The verdict is based on the consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. کما فی البحر، أن الفتوی علی قولهما فی الرجوع بالنقصان کما فی الخالصۃ وردما بقی‘‘۔8”In the chapter of illegitimate rate, the legitimate rate of honey bees has not been described whereas Imam Muhammad has considered it legitimate and this verdict is right. According to Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Abu Yusuf, the sale of honey bees is not legitimate and Imam Muhammad has said that if honey bees are in the protection of someone, then its sale is legitimate. The verdict of Imam Muhammad is casuistical.9 Similarly, Allama Nasafi has mentioned the question in the chapter of Tolia (means that there is no difference in the selling and buying price of the item)10 and Murabiha (means the selling price is higher than the buying price of the item)11 whereas the verdict is against it. The question is: ”کما فی البحر الرائق:أن الفتوی علی قول محمد ايضا فی بيع التحل کما فی الذخيرة والخالصۃ۔“If someone has borrowed an item with the price of one thousand rupees and then sold it with a profit of one hundred rupees and the buyer cancelled the sale, then after bargain he came to know that the seller has borrowed it with one thousand rupees, so he has to pay eleven hundred rupees because actually the price is not time bound as mentioned in the text. Whereas jurisprudent Abu Jafar says that a comparison must be made between cash and loan. The buyer must prefer the return in such case.12 “فان اتلف فعلم لزمہ بالف ومائۃ الخ” It is not legitimate to count the bread and to borrow as mentioned in Bab-ur-Riba. Whereas according to Imam Muhammad, it is right and a verdict is also there over this question. …………Arabic……… The author has said that borrowing the bread in terms of weight is legitimate which the consent of Imam Yusuf is but borrowing by counting is not legitimate. However, Imam Abu Hanifa is strictly against it, whereas Imam

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Muhammad is of the opinion that borrowing bread by counting or in terms of weight due to people’s intensive need is legitimate in both of the cases and the verdict is on it13

الرجوع بفضل ما بينهما۔کما فی البحر: قال الفقيۃ أبوجعفر المختار للفتوی ” The affair of meat is considered illegitimate in Bab-us-salam14. Whereas according to Imam Yusuf and Imam Muhammad it is legitimate under some conditions. The question is: ”واللحم ای ال يصح السلم فی اللحم“ According to Imam Abu Hanifa, advance payment for meat is not legitimate. Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad say that if kind, place, efficacy, quality and quantity are described then the advance payment will be legitimate. The verdict is on the consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad.15 “ کما فی البحر: وفی الحقائق والعيون ”الفتوی علی قولهماSimilarly, the question described in the chapter of Masayel-e-Mutafarriqa is also noncasuistical. Casuistical consent is that of Imam Yusuf. The question has been described thus: Impure Darhams are given instead of pure Darhams and the borrower did not know about it and he lost or spent those Darhams, it will be considered payment by the borrower according to the scholars. Imam Abu yusuf says that it is to change the impure ones into the pure ones which is undoubtedly illegitimate. This consent of Imam Abu Yusuf is preferred.16 “وان قضی زيفا عن جيد وهو ال يعلم وتلف فهو قضاء الخ” Similarly, the question of customary money is described in Kitab-u-Saraf17 which is based on the consent of Imam Abu Hanifa and it is noncasuistical, whereas the verdict is on the consent of Imam Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. The question is.” ولو اشتری بہ او بفلوس نافقۃ شيئا وکسد قبل دفعہ بطل البيع الخ ” If something is bought with customary money and the time is over before its payment, the rate will be considered invalid according to Imam Abu Hanifa. Whereas according to Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad, it will not be invalid and the borrower will have to pay it. Though both of the parties have disagreement over the specified day, yet the verdict is on the consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad rather than the consent of Imam Abu Hanifa.18 “کما فی الدر المختار وصححاه بقيمتہ المبيع وبہ يفتی رفقا بالناس بحر وحقائق۔” The decision over false witnesses is enacted both internally and externally in Kitab-ul-QadhiElalQadhi (means correspondence between two judges will be considered reliable only when there is a distance between the two which should take a complete day and night while corresponding completes and the verdict is on it)19 whereas the decision will be enacted outside and it will not be enacted inside and the verdict is on it. “ وينفذ القضاء بشهادة الزور فی العقود النسوخ ”ظاہرا وباطنا الخIf the judge announced the decision regarding some affairs with the help of false witnesses, it will be enacted both outside and inside simultaneously. According to Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad, it will be enacted outside but not inside and the verdict is on it.20 “کما فی البحر ، قال الفقيہ ابو الليث الفتوی علی قولهما۔” In the questions of Kitab-u-Shahda21, it is mentioned that the witness, the judge and the reporter should not act upon their own letter if they don’t remember the incident. Whereas Imam Muhammad has considered it legitimate. The question is.” وال يعمل شاهد وقاض وراو بالخط ان لم يتذکروا الخ ” According to Imam Muhammad, the witness, the judge and the reporter should not act upon their own letter if they don’t remember the incident whereas it is legitimate according to Sahibain. Imam Muhammad further says that it is legitimate for every above-mentioned person if the incident has not been remembered. According to Imam Yusuf, it is legitimate for the judge and the reporter only and not for the witness. Shams-ul-AyemaHalwani says that the verdict is on the consent of Imam Muhammad and in Bazazeyya, it is also punctuated22. “ کما فی البحر الرائق ، قال شمس ”االئمہ الحلوانی ينبغی ان يفتی بقول محمد وجزم فی البزازيۃ بانہ يفتی بقولہ۔In the chapter of advocacy, the question of Wakeel Bilkhasoomat is described which is actually controversial. Noncasuistical consent is written in the text whereas the verdict is on the consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. According to Imam Abu Hanifa, it is not legitimate to make Wakeel Bilkhasoomat without the will of the opponent whereas Wakeel Bilkhasoomat can be made without the will of the opponent according to Imam Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. Actually this controversy is necessity. The consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad is casuistical. Similarly, Allam Nasafi has declared clearly in Kitab-u-Dawa that the oath of defendant regarding wife’s divorce and freedom of the slave is undoubtedly illegitimate whereas religious scholars have declared this type of oath as legitimate in some cases. The oath of divorce will not be taken from the defendant unless the defendant himself insists to do so as mentioned in the text. But some of the jurisprudents are of the opinion that if the defendant is proved to be quarrelsome and shameless in this era of life and the oath is being insisted upon, then it is legitimate for the judge to take an oath from him because in this era, people have no fear over oath taken over the name of Allah but they really fear over

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the act of divorce. Therefore, oath of divorce is considered as legitimate.23 “ کما فی مجمع االنهار۔ وقيل ان الح الخصم صح فی ”زماننا لکن ال يقضی عليہ باالنکول وفی البحر الفتوی علی عدم التحليف بالطالق والعتاق وهو ظاهر الروايۃ۔The questions of deposits are also brought under discussion and in some cases Mooda is considered as guarantor whereas the verdict is opposite as Imam Muhammd says: if Mooda hands over the property to other than his family and if there is some loss in the property, the fixation will be on Mooda. Imam Muhammad says in this connection that if he gives the property in the protection of a person who is reliable, then fixation will not be on Mooda. The verdict is on the consent of Imam Muhammad.24 “ الی أمين من امنائہ ممن يثق بہ فی مالہ، وليس فی وفی مجمع األنهر: لکن روی عن محمد المودع أذا دفع الوديعۃ الی وکيلہ، وليس فی عيالہ أو دفع ”عيالہ ال يضمن، وفی النهايۃ وعليہ الفتوی۔Similarly, the question has been written on the consent of Imam Abu Hanifa over the questions of holding which is non casuistical whereas the verdict in this question is over the consent of Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad. That question is: ………Arabic…………. According to Imam Abu Hanifa, when a brick-maker makes the bricks and become dry, he will be rightful to be paid whereas according to Sahibain, when the brick-maker only sequences the bricks, he will be rightful to be paid. The verdict is on the consent of Sahibain.25 ”وفی رد المحتار ؛ قولهما استحسان زيلعی ولعلہ سبب کونہ المفتی ب“Similarly, another question about holding has been made a part of the text which is noncasuistical and casuistical consent is against it. The question is:, If the holder gave his house on rent for some months and the months were mentioned, the treaty will be right. And the beholder even rested for some days in a month, the holdings will be legitimate in this case as well. Therefore, the holder cannot displace the beholder at the end of the month. But the verdict is that at the beginning of the month, one day and one night can be considered for displacement. Allama Nasafi has mentioned another question in the text but the question seems to be incidental. Whereas that question is controversial according to Ayema Salasa and the casuistical consent is that of Imam Muhammad whereas the question is written over the consent of Imam Abu Hanifa. The question is: If the lord says that you have worked for me gratuitously and the worker says that he worked for wage, according to Imam Abu Hanifa, the consent of the lord will be preferred. Imam Abu Yusuf says that if the dealing between the two was on wage in the past, then the worker is rightful to be paid. Imam Muhammad says that if the worker is famous for wages, then he deserves to be paid. The verdict is on the consent of Imam Muhammad. A question has been described about the control of an insane man in Hajar (means stop and in Shariah, to stop forceful implementation is called Hajar) on the consent of Imam Abu Hanifa whereas the verdict is on the consent of Sahibain which is described by other jurisprudents. The question is: According to Imam abu Hanifa, an insane man is legitimate to have occupancy in his own property when he is free, clever and adult even he may be lavish and villainous. According to Sahibain, such an insane should be stopped and he is not legitimate to control his property. The verdict is on the consent of sahibain.26 Another question about Hajar has been described that the borrower will not be “Mehdhoor” due to loan whereas he will be “Mehdhoor” according to Imam Yusuf and Imam Muhammad and the verdict is on it. The question is:” ودين According to Imam Abu Hanifa, no one will be “Mehjoor” due to the loan because he is ”ای اليحجر علی أحد بسبب دينclever and adult, therefore his occupancies are legitimate. According to Sahibain, the borrower will be “Mehjoor”. The verdict is on the consent of Sahibain27.”وذکر البحر الرائق؛ وعندهما يجوز عليہ بسبب الدين وعلی قولهما الفتوی۔ ” It is said about the borrower that the property of borrower will not be sold in the question of debt whereas according to Imam Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad, the judge has this authority and the verdict is also on it. The question is:” ولم يبع عرضہ وعقاره ” If the debtor has goods and property, according to Imam Abu Hanifa, the judge should not sell it for the payment of

debt but he has to send the debtor into jail. Sahibain say that if the debtor does not sell the goods and property by himself, then the judge will have to sell it for payment of debt. The consent of Sahibain is casuistical.28 “ کما فی البحر

ذلک وعليہ الفتوی کذا فی البزازيۃ۔ الرائق؛ وعندهما يبيع القاضی ”

REFERENCES

1Kanzuldaqaiq, university of mishigan america. no:840,11.

2Kitabul Al taarifat, 1/48, darulkutub al Elmia Beruit Lebnon. 3Al bahr al raiq /5, 3, nashirdaar al kitab al islami, fatah al qadeer, kitab al bayuh, 680, nashir dar al fikar.

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4Rad al muhtar, matlabmahm fi ahkaam. alnaqoodazakasratalakh 6/565,nashir dar al fikar, berut, t:al saniaah:1616,al bahar al raiq, baih al shaih, 5/315, nashir dair al kitab al islami. 5Kitabul Al taarifat, 1/37, darulkutub al Elmia Beruit Lebnon. 6al joharata al niira ,baabkhiyar al rooyah 1/195,nashir al mutbaataalkhiira t:ala wali ,1366 hijri. fatah 7AneesulFuqaha, 1/74, Darulkutub al elmia Beruitlebnon. 8Al bahr al raiqbabkhiyar al rooyah g/59, anshir dar al kitab al islami, rad al muhtaar, babkhiyar al aaib,g5/, nashirdar al fikar, berut, t:alsaaniah 1996, 1616 hijri. 9Ramzul Haqaiq, Aini, 2/31, Idara al Quran walUloom Islamia Karachi Pakistan. 10Al bahr al raiqbabkhiyar al rooyah 6/106,anshir dar al kitab al islami, rad al muhtaar, babkhiyar al aaib,g5/, nashirdar al fikar, berut, t:alsaaniah 1996, 1616 hijri.

11Ramzul Haqaiq, Aini,2/49, Idara al Quran walUloom Islamia Karachi Pakistan. 12Ramzul Haqaiq, Aini,2/49,Idara al Quran walUloomIslamia Karachi Pakistan. 13Al bahr al raiqbabkhiyar al rooyah 4/125,anshir dar al kitab al islami, rad al muhtaar, babkhiyar al aaib,g5/, nashirdar al fikar, berut, t:alsaaniah 1996, 1616 hijri.

14 Al ikhtiyaarlataaleel al mukhtar ,baab alsalm,6/36,naar mutbata al halbi,kahirata,tareekh alnashar;135 hijri,1938,fatah alqadeer,baab al raba ,38/8,nashir daar al fikar. 15 Al-Ghayatsharh Al Hidaia, 7/69, Darul Fikar Birueit Lebnon.

16Al bahar al raaiq: alsalam fiiallham, nashirdaar al kitab al islami .186, waiiyadaa, albaniyatasharah al hadayta, alsalmfiialllham,nashirdaaralkitabalislamiwayadaa,albaniyatasharahalhadiyata, alsalmfiiallham,nshirdaar al kitab,alaalmya,berut lebnan,t:alaawali,166 hijri,8/132 17 Rad al muhtaarmatlabmsaailfiialmakaasa, nshirdaaralfikar, berut, alsaniyaah.albahr al raaiqbaahdarhameenwadinahrabadham wadinareen,619,nashir darralkitabalislami.

18 Rad al muhtaarkitabulqazidaaralfikar,berut ,alsaniyaah.albahr al raaiqbaahdarhameenwadinahrabadham wadinareen,619,nashir darralkitabalislami.

19 Al bahar al raaiq,kitab al shadata ,8/28,:nashir :daar al kitab,alsilami,radalmuhtaar, kitaab ,alqaadi ,ala qadii5/238,nahir daar alkitab,1212 hijri/1996. 20Al aqood al darretafiitanqeeh al fattavi al haamdiya,kitab aldavai,2/38,nashir daaralmarafa, majma ala nahaar, kitab al dava,355,nashir daar al hayaaltaraas al arabi. 21 Majma ala nahar, kitabaldyata, 2/339, nashir; daaralhayaaltaraasalarabi. rad al muhtaar, kitab al yadaa,5/, daaralfikarberutt; al saniaah1212,1994. 22Al bahar al raaiq, kitab al shadata ,8/28,:nashir :daar al kitab, alsilami, rad almuhtaar, kitaab,al qaadi ,ala qadii5/238,nahir daar alkitab,1212 hijri/1996.

23 Majma ala nahar, kitabaldyata ,2/339,nashir; daaralhayaaltaraasalarabi. rad al muhtaar, kitab al Yadaa,5/, daaralfikarberutt; al saniaah1212,1994.

24Rad almuhtaaralialdar al muhtaar, sharoot alajarata,128/8,nashir daar al fikar, berut alsaniaah,1616,1996.

25Rad almuhtaarali al daralmukhtar, kitab alhajara,,128,nasshir daaaralfikarberut, alsaniaah 1616,1996.

26Rad almuhtaarali al daralmukhtar, kitab majnoon,,127/6,nasshir daaaralfikarberut, alsaniaah 1616,1996.

27Rad almuhtaarali al daralmukhtar,kitab majnoon,,96/7,nasshir daaaralfikarberut, alsaniaah 1616,1996.

28Rad almuhtaarali al daralmukhtar, kitab majnoon,,95/7,nasshir daaaralfikarberut, alsaniaah 1616,1996.



ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Hafiz Ashfaq Ahmad, Ph. D Scholar, Department of Islamic Theology, Islamia College University, Peshawar Pakistan.

A Critical Evaluation of Contention of Qyas and Arguments of Imam Razi

1Hafiz Ashfaq Ahmad, 2Dr. Hussain Farooq

1Ph. D Scholar, Department of Islamic Theology, Islamia College University, Peshawar Pakistan 2Professor Department of Islamic Theology, Islamia College University, Peshawar Pakistan

Received: July 21, 2017


ABSTRACT

Literally “Qiyas” means measurement or comparison to establish similarity or equality between two things, while terminologically it’s the analogical deduction applied to those Islamic Laws not clearly mentioned in Quran and

Sunnah. Qiyas refers to the extension of Shariah ruling (Hukam) from an original case (Asal) to a new case (Fara) on the basis of the same effective cause (Illat) as lying there in the original case .Quran and Sunnah provide permission

to analogical reasoning on the occasion where no clear instructions have been paid on a particular matter. Similarly

the jurists of Islam unanimously used this source as a tool for the deduction of all the new cases they faced. Imam Razi (Rh) one of the well-known scholars of Islam has provided bundles of proofs in support of Qiyas and washed all

the misconceptions of the deniers.

KEY WORDS: Qiyas, Illat, Asal, Faran, Hukam, Comparison. Contention, argument, faith

INTRODUCTION

Preamble: As it is a universal fact that Islam is a complete code of life and this faith of every Muslim is an evidence of being

Mohammaden, but it is also a fact that many of the walks of life have to face numberless problems with the changing scenarios of the surrounding world. A complete solution to all these problems has not been described in the Qur’an. A number of problems have not been described in the Qur’an and Sunnah with great details. In order to bring such

described problems in teachings of Shariah, help is being sought through other sources of Shariah like Ijmaa and Qyas.

Literary and Conventional Meaning of Qyas: Literary, Qyas means measurement, estimation and comparison. Conventionally, Qyas means the solution of

undescribed questions in the light of related described questions with common cause. Islamic scholars have decided

Qyas as the fourth argument among all the arguments of Shariah. Imam Razi, like the democratic scholars, is in favor of Qyas. He has given arguments in favor of Qyas on many occasions and has also answered in detail to the opposers.

The scholars of principles have defined Qyas thus:

“The question which has no clear and obvious solution in Qur’an and Sunnah must be solved according to the related

described questions of Qur’an and Sunnah having similar kind of situations or such an incident which is directed by Qur’an and Sunnah should be equalized with the undescribed incident.11

According to Scholars of principles, there are more interpretations of Qyas. For example, equalizing, joining, catching

and transforming the incidents. So, interpretations like Ilhaq, Taswiya, Ta’adia etc. are also used for Qyas.

It is come to notice that Qyas is declarative, not demonstrative because this order is proved to be timed equally both for decider and for the incident. The researcher has only to find that cause which is there in the incident and in Qyas,

only the exemplar of the order is transformed from real to subsidiary. The solution of new questions has been

discovered through Qyas which has no clear meaning, rather included in its meaning through a cause. According to Hassami:2

"إذا اخذوا حکم الفرع من االصل مسوا ذلک قياسا لتقديرهم الفرع الصل فی احلکم والعلة"

It means that new questions, derived from the previous decision of jurisprudents, are called Qyas and in such cases, the jurisprudents perceive according to the decision and cause of the incident.

In another interpretation, Qyas is to proclaim undescribed questions within the described questions in terms of

common cause.3 According to Noor-ul-Anwar:4

ة"رع تقدير الفرع الصل فی احلکم والعلالقياس فی اللغة التقدير وفی الش " “To accommodate the undescribed questions into the described ones in decision and cause.”

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Qur’an, Sunnah and Qyas: Solid foundations for the reliability of Qyas in Qur’an and Sunnah exist. There are many Ayahs and Hadiths which

affirm Qyas to be adopted and practiced.

Qur’an says:5

ويل األبصار" "فاعتربوا أ “So, be trustful O! “

According to jurisprudents, this trust means:6

"الی نظريه ای احلکم علی الشئ مبا هو 6بت لنظريهردالشئی "

“To return a thing to its premonitory, means a proved order for a thing which is proved for its premonitory” Qur’an has stressed for the formation of a particular group for Tafaqa Fid-deen. With bookish knowledge, the

knowledge of contrivance has been considered the purpose of Prophet’s (SAW) apostleship and it is the second name

of Tafaqa Fid-deen and of the knowledge of contrivance for inferences of the orders which becomes prominent in the

shape of Qyas. Additionally, the defects and excesses of orders in Qur’an and Sunnah have been described and these defects and excesses pave the way for more inferences and educts.

Similarly, many of the Hadiths are in strong favor of Qyas. Moreover, it is stressed to adopt Qyas in day to day

incidents. Hadith by Ma’az Bin Habal is an obvious proof regarding Qyas which is highly appreciated by Hazrat Muhammad (SAW).

Pious of the Past and Qyas: It becomes quite clear after great pursuit in the book of instructions that Qyas has been brought into practice in the questions of inference in Khair-ul-Quroon. These people brought Qyas into practice in many questions. It is not proved

from any Sahabi who objected or rejected `Qyas. Those sayings which are related to some scholars do not mean to

reject Qyas7 moreover, if one looks with reference to the context, it relates to that opinion which is equal to reality,

conditions of Qyas and concession of rules are not there, there is not enough ability in decision-makers of Qyas, there is no proof of it in Qur’an and Sunnah and it is mere personal opinion of the person. Surely, such types of Qyases are

inglorious. These are those Qyases about which Imam Abu Hanifa says:8

"البول فی املسجد أحسن من بعض قياسا>م"“Some Qyases of the people are worse than their gossips in the mosque”

Moreover, the Qyas which is accorging to Shariah, have an Ijmaa of the Sahabas about its rightfulness.9 Allama Ibn-e-Qaim Jozia has discussed Qyas under the heading of Qyas in great detail in Ilam-ul-Mo’uqi’een Ann Rabb-ul-

Aalameen. He says: “Sahaba Kiram paved the way to Ijtehaad for religious scholars by bringing Qyas into practice in

the incidents of their own observations; methods are settled and lead the scholars.” Similarly, the quote of Imam Mazni

has been copied. He says: “It is a continuous process from the era of Muhammad (SAW) to the present time. The jurisprudents took Qyas in consideration during their inference of an order therefore; there is no space for Qyas to be

refused by anyone10.

Qyas and Rational Arguments: Common sense demands the contention of Qyas. The sphere of Qur’an and Sunnah are limited and proposed whereas

human society is continuously changing with the passage of time. Evolutionary development is producing new

problems day by day so, it is impossible to say that these questions in Qur’an and Sunnah surely have the solutions to all these new problems. Therefore, it becomes necessary that great consideration should be taken in purpose and

indisposition and these new indispositions should be made central to seek solutions for new incidents and happenings.

The main purpose of order of Shariah to accomplish the needs of Muslims and these orders consist of contrivance of

Shariah and this aim is achieved with the adaptation of Qyas. It is the demand of Allah’s equity and contrivance. If it is observed from another angle, it becomes obvious that Qyas means to seek parallel solution in accordance with

already existing solution and it can never be found in Shariah that a thing is illegitimate and its contrived solution is admissible.

Similarly, we apply Qyas from one thing to another for worldly affairs in numerous happenings of daily life, estimate about it and consider it a natural order by accepting it good. So, anything which is natural and appraisable has no

reason to be rejected. As Islam is a complete code of life and life is full of problems, so undoubtedly this natural and

appraisable action should be a part of worldly life of Muslims. If it is studied from a different angle, mind cannot refuse this truth of life of a Muslim rather it is compelled to accept it a bare truth. The fact is that our great religious

scholars were the beacons of knowledge and they were unmatchable in Allah’s fear, righteousness, and intelligence

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and in high-order thinking. They used Qyas for inference of orders for centuries, so it is never possible that they all

were betrayed.

Viewpoint of the Negators of Qyas:

As it is mentioned earlier that Qyas is a contention of Shariah and majority of the religious scholars have considered

Qyas as a contention of Shariah and they have continuously acted upon Qyas, yet some the scholars are the negators of Qyas. The negators of Qyas debate on the described orders of Qur’an but if one studies it deeply, it is not true11. Moreover, somewhere their own debates are against them. Sometime they consider Qyas at specific points but it is

not a Qyas of Shariah rather it is mere an opinion of their own intellect having no base of Qur’an and Sunnah. Those

which have been refused by pious of the past, actually those are based on personal judgment without anything related

to Qur’an and Sunnah. As mentioned earlier that it is necessary for establishing Qyas that the scholar must have that prescribed knowledge and intellect which can confirm the reliability of Qyas. Without that prescribed knowledge and

intellect, Qyas is inglorious.

If negators and acceptors of Qyas are deeply studied, it will become clear that both of them are just in their respective point of views. The negators of Qyas tries to prove with their arguments that trust should be on those prescribed orders

in Ijtehaad in order to save Shariah from dispersion and carnal wishes. On the other hand, the acceptors of Qyas are

of the opinion that nor they oppose the described orders neither they repel them but they always seek solutions of the

day’s happenings within the sphere of those described orders. Moreover, if we look into this difference of opinions closely, it becomes quite clear that those conditions which are prescribed by the acceptors of Qyas can easily fulfill

the needs of the negators of Qyas. The only difference between them is of their notions; otherwise both of them are

right in their own ways.

Need and Importance of Qyas:

Undoubtedly, Allah’s teachings which are with us in the shape of Qur’an and Sunnah are purely complete but they

are collectively complete according to the principles and rules. It does not mean that the detailed description of every problem of every era are there in these unmatchable teachings of Allah and in this way, they are fully complete. This

completeness means completeness in principles and rules and these principles and rules are limited. Whereas this

changing phenomenon of human life creates numerous and problems which need solution according to those

prescribed principles and rules. The jurisprudents have described this truth. In accordance with … اليوم اکملت لکم دينکم the

jurisprudents say:12 "ص علی قواعد العقائد والتوفيق علی اصول الشرع وقوانني االجتهاد الادر اج حکم کل حادثة فی القرآن "هو التنصي“It is to introduce the rules of faith and the principles of Shariah in this Ayah. It is not so that the solution of every

common incident or the details of every question is there in the Qur’an.”

Further it is said:13

ادث من الوحی الصريح وبقيت احکامها مهملة اليکون الدين نسبة الی احلوادث الواقعة قليلة غاية القلة، فلومل يعلم احکام تلک احلو الاألحکام التی ثبتت بصريح الوحی "وال شک أنلمجتهدين والية استنباط احکامها"لکامال، فالبد من أن يکون

“It is undoubtful that those orders which are proven from evident revelation, they are too much less in number against

today’s incidents and accidents. If the orders of today’s incidents and accidents have not been investigated with evident revelation through inference, these orders will remain absurd and the claim of superiority of religion will be fallacious.

Over this discussion, it becomes essential to give the right of inference to the jurisprudents.”

Naturally, it is needed to expand the sphere of rules and principles in accordance with due consideration and the soul

and sense of described orders with rational comprehension for the purpose to hold the demands of every era and the name of this path is Qyas.

The Jurisprudential Status of Qyas:

Ihl-e-Sunnat-wa-Aljumaat is agreed upon that the status of Qyas is derived from Qur’an, Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and Ijma-e-Ummat. In the presence of these three, Qyas is not legitimate. Similarly, the Qyas which is based on inference of cause, its command will be based on supposition because its caused is based on the opinion of

jurisprudent and not on the described ones. It is obvious that the described commands and the opinions cannot have a similar jurisprudential status.

Contention of Qyas and Imam Razi:

Imam Razi who is the spiritual guide of philosophy and locution, has given numerous arguments on the contention of Qyas in his exposition Mafatih-ul-Ghaib Al-Maroof Ba tafseer-e-Kabeer and has given detailed answers to the

negators of Qyas. In Tafseer-e-Kabeer (Edition-20), according to the Ayah of urah Ban-i-Israeel " وال تـقف ما ليس لك به علم" .

he answered to the negators of Qyas on the basis of this Ayah.

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The negators of Qyas have got inference from this Ayah that Qyas benefits in supposition and supposition is against

knowledge. Therefore, to issue commands with Qyas in the faith of Allah is equal to issue command without

knowledge. So, it is necessary to reject Qyas on the basis of this command of Allah. "علم به لك ليس ما تـقف وال"

I give its answer by some means. Answer No.1: it is lawful in many ways in accordance with Ijma-e-Ummat to impose command only with supposition in faith.

A: it is legitimate to act upon the verdict and it is supposition.

B: It is supposition to act upon testimony and it is legitimate. C: It is supposition to struggle for ascertaining Qibla and it is lawful.

D: It is not possible without supposition to evaluate the organs of body and to punish the criminals for their crimes

and it is lawful.

E: To cut a vein, to shave and treatment of all ailments are done on the basis of supposition and it is legitimate. F: It is done with supposition to say that this slaughter is a Muslim’s slaughter. It seems certain and it is lawful to

have a base for it.

G: Allah says:14

." وإن خفتم شقاق بـينهما فابـعثوا حكما من أهله وحكما من " “And this difference is supposed rather than evident.”

H:It is said about a rhombus person that he is a Muslim, is supposition and a number of things are based on this

supposition like taking Zakat from him and burying him in Muslims’ graveyard etc.

I:Many of the common stuffs of life like wandering in the world, urge for earning, giving concession up to

some specific time, trust in friends and belief in the enmity of enemies are based on supposition and this is legitimate.

J:The Holy Prophet (SAW) said:15" حنن حنكم >لظاهر وا: يـتـوىل السرائر "

“We impose only on evident and Allah knows about those which are not evident and it is reiteration over this

fact that supposition is legitimate in these ten kinds of incidents. Therefore, the verdict of those people becomes

invalid who say that supposition is not legitimate on the basis of already described command. Answer No. 2: Supposition also comes under the meaning of knowledge. The strongest argument over this in Qur’an.

Allah says:16 " ن فإن علم تموهن مؤمنات فال تـرجعوهن إىل الكفار EمياG ذا جاءكم المؤمنات مهاجرات فامتحنوهن ا: أعلم"

In this Ayah, this is certain that the fact about these women’s faith will be considered by their verbal confession and it will benefit supposition and this supposition is declared knowledge by Allah.

Answer No. 3: When it is proved through a strong argument that it is essential to act upon Qyas, this argument became

an argument of this fact which has been proved with the command of Allah about the method of Qyas and it will be based on the described rules. Everyone has to act upon this supposition. So, to act upon the supposition in this case

will be by command and it will be based on true belief. The negators of Qyas have answered of the first question that

the command of Allah " ال تـقف ما ليس لك به علم و . " is common and these ten cases are exclusive. So, common will remain

common except these ten cases.

We further say: The difference between these ten cases and common ones is that these commands are purely common and these commands are commonly established, in rhombus hours with a rhombus person. And in such condition, in which a person moves from one meaning to another meaning, it is wholly related with that rhombus person. Similarly,

the rhombus hours of a rhombus person replace the described rules in witnessing, in ascertaining Qibla and in many

incidents and it will begin an unfinished array which will have no limit and this is unavoidable. On the basis of this

need, we did adequate supposition. Those commands which are proved through Qyas are changeable commands and they can be applied in certain situations and these commands are very limited and proved and to derive arguments

from them is possible. This is the reason that the jurisprudents brought forward those commands through Qyas, made

them affirm and described them in their books. When you came to know this fact, we say that it is impossible to derive argument on the basis of your personal

description. So, there is no doubt that the negator did adequate supposition in this case. In the light of above-mentioned

research, my results are as under: Qyas is an important source in the sources of Shariah which is a great dependence of day to day problems. According to a great number of jurisprudents and Muhaddiseen, Qyas is a contention of Shariah.

The debate of the negators of Qyas is based on the described rules of Qur’an and Sunnah which becomes a

contention against them with slight reluctance. Imam Razi is amongst the acceptors of Qyas and he has proved the contention of Qyas in his exposition

“Tafseer-e-Kabeer” in certain places and has answered to the negators of Qyas.

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1 Irshad al fahool. Muhammad bin Ali shawkani,pag No.198. Darul fikar Beirut Lebanon, 2000.

2 Hussami, Muhammad Mansoor Ali. .pag No.91 Bab ul Qiyas.Maktaba Bushra Karachi pak.

3 Minhaj ul Usool Maa nioaiyat ul wosool,Imam Baidhawi, 2/4, Darul fikar Beirut Lebanon.

4 Noorul Anwar,Ahmad bin Saeed, Bab ul Qias .pag No.224, maktaba Rahmania Peshawar Pak.

5 Holy Quran , surah Al Hashar:2

6 Tawdeih Talweeh,page, Page No: 54, Maktaba Islamia Lahore Pak

7 Aalamul Mawqiaeen li Ibne Qayem, 19/1

8 Tahdieb u al Thadieb,Ahmad bin Ali Al Asqalani, 33/11, Maktab Al Waqfia, India.

9 Minhaj ul Usool Maa nioaiyat ul wosool,Imam Baidhawi, 17/4, Darul fikar Beirut Lebanon,

10 Aalamul Mawqiaeen li Ibne Qayem, 19/1

11 Saheeh ul Al bBukhari Hadith No:1086



14 Holy Quran , surah Al nnisaa:35

15 Almaqasid ul hasana fi biane Kaseer minal Ahadeeth ul Akinna, Shamsu din Muhammad bin Abdur rahman,Darul

kutab Al Arabia Beirut, 1985.

16 Holy Quran, Surah Al Mumtahina:10

216



ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Shan E Farooq, Department of Mathematics, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. Email: [email protected]

Time Dependent Slip MHD Flow Due to Stretching or Shrinking Vertical

Sheet with Thermal Radiation

1Asmat Ullah Yahya, 2Danial Habib, 3Sajjad Hussain, 4,*Shan E. Farooq

1Department of Mathematics National College of Business Administration & Economics Lahore, 2Department of Mathematics Virtual University Lahore, Pakistan,

3Department of Mathematics, Govt. Postgraduate College, Layyah, Pakistan, 4,*Department of Mathematics, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.



ABSTRACT

This article addresses the time dependent flow of electrically conducting viscous fluid adjacent to a shrinking and

stretching sheet. The flow is considered through porous medium and mixed convection heat transfer is added with thermal radiations. The flow is considered in the presence of applied magnetic field with slip boundary conditions.

The mathematical formulation involves second order non-linear partial differential equations which are then

correspondingly transformed to ordinary differential form for purpose of numerical solution. The results have been

computed with computational technique NDsolve coded in Mathematica. Rigorous computations are meant to study

the influences of existing parameters namely the buoyancy parameter , the stretching/shrinking velocity

parameter, Prandtl number, n

R radiation parameter, velocity slip parameter, s unsteady parameter, M is

magnetic parameter, and w

f suction parameter. The momentum and thermal characteristics are mapped to represent

the impacts of the above mentioned parameters on these physical quantities.

KEYWORDS: Time Dependent Flow, Slip Flow, MHD Flow, Stretching/Shrinking Sheet, Thermal Radiation

INTRODUCTION

The study of time dependent flow of viscous incompressible fluid past vertical bodies has wide technological and engineering applications. Sukumar, et al. [1] an analysis is made to study the slip effects on MHD flow of Jeffrey fluid over an unsteady shrinking sheet with wall mss transfer. Samad and Rahman, [2] analyzed the

effect of radiation on unsteady MHD free convection flow past a vertical porous plate which is immersed in a porous

medium. Das et al. [3] analyzed an unsteady free convection flow past a vertical plate with heat and mass fluxes in the presence of thermal radiation by analytical method. Ali et al [4] considered unsteady, viscous, incompressible,

electrically conducting blood flow and heat transfer through a parallel plate channel when the lower plate is

stretching. Ahmad and Sajjad [5] investigated unsteady blood flow having micropolar fluid properties with heat

source through parallel plates channel. Thermal radiation is key to many fundamental phenomenon surrounding us, from solar radiation to fire

incandescent lamp, cooling of towers, gas turbines and various propulsion devices for aircraft, energy utilization,

temperature measurements, remote sensing for astronomy, space exploration, and play a major role in combustion and furnace design.

Khan, et al [6] analyzed Non-Newtonian MHD mixed convective power-law fluid flow over a vertical

stretching sheet with thermal radiation, heat generation and chemical reaction effects. Reddy et al. [7] studied the

thermal radiation and magnetic field effects on unsteady mixed convection flow and mass transfer over a porous stretching surface with heat generation. Seini and Makinde, [8] investigated the effects of heat

radiation and first order homogeneous chemical reaction on hydromagnetic boundary layer flow of a viscous, steady,

and incompressible fluid over an exponential stretching sheet.

Crane, [9] was the first who analyzed the steady two dimensional flow over a linearly stretching sheet and found the similarity solution in closed analytical form. Sharada and Shankar, [10] dealt mixed convection in MHD

stagnation point flow due to stretching surface. Mahathaa et al. [11] suggested the stream of a viscous and

incompressible nano fluid over a stretching sheet under the impact of transverse magnetic field. Ali et al. [12] considered magnato hydrodynamic flow of viscous fluid due to a sheet that stretches. Sajjad et al [13] investigated

217

Yahya et al.,2018

MHD boundary layer flow and heat transfer for micropolar fluids over a shrinking sheet. Danial [14] analyzed

magneto hydrodynamic flow of viscous fluids owing to moving boundary with thermal radiations, porosity of surfaces and medium.

This work been undertaken to examine the unsteady flow aspect of the previous study by Zaimi and Ishsk [15] with

extension for thermal radiation and applied magnetic field with an easy computational technique.

Mathematical Analysis

The time dependent radiative flow problem is formulated mathematically with assumptions as follows:

The fluid is incompressible and viscous. The flow is unsteady, two dimensional Cartesian coordinates are being

used. The fluid flows towards a stagnation point. The flow is due to stretching or shrinking vertical sheet that is placed in plan y = 0. The flow is confined to y > 0. The fluid velocity is v = v(u, v)as function of t, x, y coordinates.

The fluid temperature is T, The equations of flow and heat transfer are given as

0

u v

x y

(1)

2 220 0 ( )

2

Hu u u dU u eu v U u g T Tt x y dx y

(2)

32 2

2 2

*163

T T T T T Tu v

t x y Cpy y

(3)

The boundary conditions are

0( ), , 0

( ) , ,

w

uu cx L v v T T at y

y

u U x ax T T as y

(4)

where v0 is suction/injection velocity, where

is the buoyancy parameter, ɛ is the stretching parameter, is the

Prandtl number and is the velocity slip parameter, The fluid temperature is T, The surface temperature (x)

= + , where is free stream temperature and b is positive constant, e electrical conductivity, for

kinematics viscosity, p

c for specific heat capacity,µ dynamic viscosity coefficient, * is the Stephan-Boltz-man

constant, * is Rosseland constant α =k/ρcp is thermal diffusivity, 0 is the magnetic permeability, g is the

acceleration of gravity and is the thermal expansion coefficient.

We use similarity function to convert the above mathematical model into ordinary differential form as below:

( , , ) ( )(1 )

ax y t xf

t

(1 )a

yt

( )T T

T Tw

uy ; v

x

1a

u xft

218


12( )

1a

v ft

The continuity equation (1) is satisfied here identically. By inserting the above relations in to equations (2) and (3), we get

121 ( ) ( ) 0

2f ff f s f s M f (5)

4

31 Pr Pr 0Rn s f f

(6)

The boundary condition (4) become

(0) , (0) (0), (0) 1

( ) 1, ( ) 0 0

wf f f f

f as

(7)

Where

2(1 )( )

2g t

T Twa x

is the buoyancy parameter ,

(1 )c t

a

is the stretching/shrinking parameter, Pr

= ∝

is the Prandtl number,

34 (1 )

p

T tRn c abx

is a radiation parameter,

1 2

1 21 2 (1 )

aL

t

is the velocity slip

parameter, sa unsteady parameter,

2 20 0 (1 )HeM t

a

is magnetic parameter, and

1 21( )

tf Vw a

suction parameter.


Mathematical formulation for the unsteady MHD flow of viscous fluid due to stretching / shrinking surface

with radiative heat transfer and slip boundary resulted in the form of a set of non linear ordinary differential equation namely Eq.(5) to Eq.(7). This difficult system of equations has been firstly reduced to set of first order

differential equations which is coded for ND solve command of mathematical version 11.1 Rigorous effort has been

carried out for sufficient ranges of the pertinent parameters involved in the resulting model equations in order to

have a look in to the physical nature of the problem. Results for horizontal velocity ( )f and temperature function

( ) have been plotted and presented for some representative values of the influential parameters.

Table 1 indicates that magnitude of (0)f and θˊ(0) reduces with increase in M when λ=1 but (0)f

increases in magnitude and θˊ(0) decreases when = -1. Table 2 depicts that (0)f and θˊ(0) decreases in

magnitude with increase in δ when λ=1 or λ= -1. Table 3 shows that magnitude of (0)f decreases but θ (0)

increases in magnitude with increase in Pr when λ=1 or λ = -1. The increase in unsteadiness parameters caused

increase in magnitude of (0)f and θ (0) increase when λ=1 and decrease in (0)f but increase in θˊ(0) for λ= -1

as presented in table 4. The increase in value of parameter Rn shows increase in magnitude of (0)f but decrease in

magnitude of θˊ(0)when λ=1 or λ= -1 as shown in table 5. The increase in the values of parameter ε (ɛ >0), decrease

the magnitude of (0)f but increase in (0) for λ=1 or λ= -1 as depicted in table 6.

Fig.1 shows that the curve of ( )f rises up with increase in the value of slip parameter δ. The effect of

the parameter ɛ (ɛ > 0 / ɛ < 0) on ( )f is indicated in the Fig.2. The magnitude of ( )f increases with increase

in the magnitude ɛ. Fig.3 demonstrates the pattern of ( )f curve for different values of λ (λ < 0). It is seen that

buoyancy opposing phenomena (λ < 0) causes reduction in value of ( )f . The increase in magnetic field strength

causes significant decrease in fluid flow velocity ( )f as shown in Fig.4. The increase in the values of

unsteadiness parameter s causes increase in flow speed ( )f as increase in Fig.5. Similarly Fig.6 shows that the

219

Yahya et al.,2018

flow speed increase in magnitude as the increase in the value of suction parameter fw As usual the increase in values

of Prandtle number Pr, as demonstrated in Fig.7. Fig.8 has been presented to show the influence of λ on θ(ƞ). The curve of θ(ƞ) rise with increase in λ (λ < 0). Similarly the radiation parameter Rn and ɛ, velocity parameter negative

shows rise in temperature ( ) as illustrated respectively in Fig.9 and Fig.10. The increase in suction velocity at

wall causes decreases in θ(ƞ)as demonstrated in Fig.11, for increase in values of fw. The Fig.12 indicated the

influences of unsteady parameters ‘s’ on θ(ƞ). It is seen that θ(ƞ) decreases with increasing in ‘s’.

Table 1: The result of (0)f and θˊ(0) for different values of M with fixed values of

ε = 1, Pr = 0.72.

1 1 1 1

0.1 0.3066 -0.3023 -1.07603 -1.010

0.2 0.2513 -0.3771 -1.06871 -1.002

0.3 0.1975 -0.4288 -1.06154 -0.994

0.4 0.1450 -0.4790 -1.0545 -0.987

Table 2: The result of (0)f and for different values of with fixed values of

= 1, = 0.72.

1 1 1 1

0.1 0.3066 -0.3237 -1.0160 -1.01007

0.2 0.2678 -0.2863 -1.0816 -1.0034

0.3 0.2375 -0.2569 -1.0859 -0.9979

0.4 0.2133 -0.2330 -1.0893 -0.9935

Table 3: The result of (0)f and for different values of S with fixed values of

= 1, Pr= 0.72.

1 1 1 1

0.1 0.3066 -0.3237 -1.0760 -1.0100

0.2 0.3602 -0.2649 -1.0988 -1.0352

0.3 0.4152 -0.2046 -1.1215 -1.0602

0.4 0.4716 -0.1428 -1.1442 -1.0850

Table 4: The result of and for different values of Rn with fixed values of

= 1, = 0.72.

Rn

1 1 1 1

0.1 0.3066 -0.3237 -1.0760 -1.010

0.2 0.3129 -0.3304 -1.0258 -0.962

0.3 0.3183 -0.3360 -0.9838 -0.923

0.4 0.3229 -0.3409 -0.9480 -0.890

220


Table 5: The result of (0)f and for different values of Pr with fixed values of

= 1

Pr

1 1 1 1

1 0.28647 -0.3020 -1.2472 -1.1739

3 0.21049 -0.2187 -2.1177 -2.0352

5 0.17695 -0.1824 -2.7224 -2.6410

7 0.15663 -0.1607 -3.2138 -3.1332

Table 6: The result of and for different values of with fixed values of

= 1, = 0.72.

1 1 1 1

0.1 1.4390 0.6421 -0.8661 -0.7653

0.3 1.2195 0.4705 -0.9172 -0.8270

0.5 0.9803 0.2716 -0.9651 -0.8830

0.7 0.7231 0.0489 -1.0112 -0.9367

Fig. 1: Graph of f under the effect of δ.

Fig. 2: Graph of f under the effect of ɛ.

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Yahya et al.,2018

Fig. 3: Graph of f under the effect of λ.

Fig. 4: Graph of f under the effect of s.

Fig. 5: Graph of f under the effect of Fw.

Fig. 6: Graph of f under the effect of M.

Fig. 7: Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of Pr.

Fig. 8: Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of λ.

222


Fig. 9 Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of R.

Fig. 10 Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of ε.

Fig. 11 Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of Fw.

Fig. 12 Graph of θ(ƞ) under the effect of s.

CONCLUSION

This article examined unsteady stagnation point flow of viscous fluid under the effects of magnetic field,

radiative heat source and boundary slip. Moreover, the flow is continuous due to vertical sheet with moving boundary that is stretching or shrinking. Some of the important results are as follows:

The curve of ( )f rises up with increase in the value of slip parameter δ.

The magnitude of ( )f increases with increase in the magnitude of ɛ, stretching parameter (ɛ > 0 / ɛ < 0).

The buoyancy opposing phenomena (λ < 0) causes reduction in f / (ƞ).

The increase in magnetic field strength causes significant decrease in fluid flow velocity ( )f .

The increase in the values of unsteadiness parameter s causes increase in flow speed ( )f .

The flow speed increases in magnitude as the increase in the value of suction parameter fw.

The increase in Prandtl number Pr, causes reduction in temperature ( )

The curve of ( ) rise with increase in λ (λ < 0).

The radiation parameter Rn and the parameter ɛ, (ɛ < 0) shows rise in temperature ( )

The increase in suction velocity at wall causes decreases in ( )

The temperature function ( ) decreases with increase in unsteady parameter s.

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Yahya et al.,2018

REFERENCES

[1] M. Sukumar, M.K. Murthy and S.V.K. Varma. (2016), Slip effects on MHD flow of Jeffrey fluid over an

unsteady shrinking sheet with wall mass transfer. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 24 (6), 1920-

1925.

[2] M.A.Samad and MM. Rahman. (2006), Thermal radiation interaction with unsteady MHD flow past a vertical

porous plate immersed in a porous medium. Journal of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering.3,7-14.

[3] S. Das, R. N, and A. J. Chammkha (2015), Unsteady free convection flow past a vertical plate with heat and mass fluxes in the presence of thermal radiation. J. of Applied Fluid Mechanics. 8(4), 845-854.

[4] Muhammad Ali, Farooq Ahmad, Sajjad Hussain, Analytical solution of unsteady MHD Blood Flow And Heat Transfer Through Parallel Plates When Lower Plate Stretches Exponentially, J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.,

5(3)1-8, 2015.

[5] F. Ahmad, S. Hussain, Abdullah Ansari (2015), Unsteady MHD blood flow with micropolar fluid

characteristics and heat source through parallel plate channel, J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 5(4)80-86.

[6] M.S. Khan, I. Karim, M.H.A. Biswas. (2012), Non-Newtonian MHD mixed convective power-law fluid flow

over a vertical stretching sheet with thermal radiation, heat generation and chemical reaction effects. International Journals.savap.org.pk. 3(2), 2223-9553.

[7] G. V. R. Reddy, B. A. Reddy, N. B. Reddy. (2013), Thermal radiation and magnetic field effects on unsteady

mixed convection flow and mass transfer over a porous stretching surface with heat generation. International J.

of Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 18(4), 1151-1164.

[8] Y. I. Seini and O. D. Makinde. (2013), MHD boundary layer flow due to exponential stretching surface with

radiation and chemical reaction. Hindawi Publishing Corporation Mathematical Problems in Engineering. Article ID 163614, 7 pages.

[9] L.J. Crane. (1970), Flow past a stretching plate. J. Appl. Math. Phys. 21, 645–647.

[10] K. sharada and B. Shankar. (2016), Mixed convection MHD stagnation point flow over a stretching surface

with the effects of heat source or sink and viscous dissipation, Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics. 4,

578-585.

[11] B.K. Mahathaa, R. Nandkeolyarb and G. Nagarajuc. (2015), MHD stagnation point flow of a nanofluid with

velocity slip, non-linear radiation and newtonian heating, Procedia Engineering. 127, 1010 – 1017.

[12] F. M. Ali, R. Nazar and N. M. Arifin. (2011), MHD stagnation-point flow and heat transfer towards stretching sheet with induced magnetic field, Appl. Math. Mech. -Engl. Ed.32(4), 409–418.

[13] S. Hussain, B. Ali , F. Ahmad(2015), MHD Boundary Layer Flow and Heat Transfer for Micropolar Fluids

over a Shrinking Sheet, J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 5(5) 330-338.

[14] H. Danial, S. Hussain, B. Ali, Shan-E-Farooq(2018), Thermal radiation with Soret and Dufour effect for

MHD flow passing through porous medium, Sci.Int.(Lahore),30 (2),187-192.

[15] K. Zaimi and A. Ishak. (2016), Stagnation-point flow towards a stretching vertical sheet with slip, effects,

Mathematics. 4, 27; doi:10.3390/math4020027.

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ISSN: 2090-4274



*Corresponding Author: Farooq Ahmad, Punjab Higher Education Department, Dean Faculty of Sciences, Govt. Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore.

Some Results of K -Fractional Derivatives

Muhammad Khurshid Azam1, Muhammad Younas2, Ghulam Farid3,

Muhammad Imran4, Farooq Ahmad5,*, Muhammad Azizurehman6

1University of Management and Technology, Lahore,

2COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore Pakistan. 3University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. 4Govt. College University, Faisalabad.

5Punjab Higher Education Department, Dean Faculty of Sciences,

Govt. Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore. 6University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.



ABSTRACT

In this paper, we introduce Hadamard Caputo type k -fractional derivative. Some results with integral transforms of

Caputo k -fractional derivative and Hadamard Caputo type k -fractional derivative are discussed.

KEYWORDS: k -fractional Derivatives, Semi-group property, Integral transforms.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fractional calculus is the study of derivatives and integrals of non-integer order. Fractional derivatives and integrals

have useful applications in science and technology. They are used in control theory, geological surveying,

thermodynamics, hydrology, statistical mechanics, electric conductance of biological systems, astrophysics, biophysics, finance, computed tomography, electrochemistry, mathematical physics and engineering.

Diaz and Pariguan [8] had introduced the k -Gamma function which had paved the way to redefine the usual classical

fractional operators. So, the classical fractional operators are extended to k -fractional operators. The k -gamma

function is also defined as:

(1) 1

1

0( ) ( ), Re( ) 0.

kt

k

x

x kk

xx e t dt k x

k

The k -beta function is defined as

(2) 1 11

0

1( , ) (1 ) ,

y x

k kkB x y t t dt

k

Re( ) 0,Re( ) 0.x y

(3) ( ) ( ) 1

( , ) , .( )

k kk

k

m n m nB m n B

m n k k k

R. A. Cerutti [11] introduced the k -Caputo fractional derivative. Let f be continuous on [ , )a and let

, ,k n . Then ,x a

(4) 1

( )1[ ( )] ( ) ( ) , ( 1) ,

( )

nxC nkk

ak

D f x x y f y dy k n knk nk

is called Caputo k -fractional derivative of order . It can be written as

(5) [ ( )] ( ),C nk n

k kD f x I D f x

where nk

kI is called Riemann-Liouville k -fractional integral [10].

Note that: when 1,k it reduces to the Caputo fractional derivative. Also

[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) .C C C

k k kD f x g x D f x D g x (Linearity)

225

Azam et al., 2018

Here, Hadamard caputo type k -fractional derivative is introduced. Let f be continuous on [ , )a and its

derivatives exist in the space [ , ).nAC a Let , , ,k n then ,x a

(6)

1

( )1[ ( )] log ( ) , ( 1) ,

( )

nkx

n

H ka

k

x dtD f x f t k n kn

k nk t t

is called Hadamard caputo type k -fractional derivative of order , provided it exists. In (6), the operator

nd

dx

is used rather than

nd

xdx

and is written inside the integral. It can be written as

(7) [ ( )] ( ).k nk n

H k HD f x I D f x

where k nk

H I is called Hadamard k -fractional integral [9]. Also

1 2 1 2[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) .H k H k H kD c f x c g x c D f x c D g x (Linearity).

2. MAIN RESULTS

THEOREM 2.1. For continuous f on [0, ) and let , , , , ,k m n where 1 ,m m

1 ,n n .nk Then 0,x a

(8) [ ( )] [ ( )].H k H k H k H kD D f x D D f x

Proof: Using equation (6) in the LHS of equation (8), we have

1 1

( )

2

1[ ( )] log log ( ) .

( ) ( )

n nk kx x

m n

H k H ka t

k k

x y dt dyD D f x f t

k nk nk y t t y

Using Fubini's theorem and substituting log logy x

zt t

, we get

( ) 11 11

( )

2 0

1[ ( )] log ( ) (1 ) ( ) .

( ) ( )

m nk n nx

m n k kH k H k

ak k

x dtD D f x f t z z dz

k nk nk t t

Using equations (2) and (3), we get

( ) 1

( )1[ ( )] log ( ) .

[( ) ( )]

m nkx

m n

H k H ka

k

x dtD D f x f t

k m n k t t

Similarly, we can prove

( ) 1

( )1[ ( )] log ( ) .

[( ) ( )]

m nkx

m n

H k H ka

k

x dtD D f x f t

k m n k t t

Hence, [ ( )] [ ( )].H k H k H k H kD D f x D D f x

THEOREM 2.2. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , , 1 .k n n n Then 0,x a

(9) 1

[ ( )] [ ( ) ( )].k

H H k nI D f x f x f a

k

Proof: Using the definition of Hadamard k-fractional integral [9] and equation (6), we get

226


11

( )

2

1[ ( )] log (log ) ( ) .

( ) ( )

k nx xk nk

H H ka t

k k

x y dt dyI D f x f t

k nk y t t y

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting log logy x

zt t

, we get

11 11

( )

2 0

1[ ( )] log ( )[ (1 ) ( ) ] .

( ) ( )

nnx

k n k kH H k

ak k

x dtI D f x f t z z dz

k nk t t

Using equations (2) and (3) and simplifying, we get (9).

COROLLARY 2.3. For continuous f on [0, ) and let , , , , ,k m n where 1 ,m m


(10) [ ( )] [ ( )].H k H k H kD D f x D f x (Semi-group Property).

THEOREM 2.4. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , ,k n . Then 0,x a

(11) 1

1 ( )[ ( )][ ] ( ) .

( )

nk

kH k

k nD x x

n

Proof: Using equation (6) in the LHS of equation (11) and finding the nth derivative, we get

1

1 1

0

( )[ ] log ( ) ,

( ) ( )

nkx

n

H k

k

x dtD x t

k n nk t t

By substituting logx

zt and ( )u z n , we get

11

1

0

( )( ) ( )[ ] ( ) ( ) ,

( ) ( )

nk k n

ukH k

k

x nD x u e du

k n nk

Using equations (2) and (3), we get (11).

THEOREM 2.5. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , ,k n . Then 0,x a

(12)

1 1( )

log log .( )

nk

kH k

k

k kx xD

a k a

Proof: Using equation (6) in the LHS of equation (12) and finding the nth derivative

11 1( )

log log log ,( ) ( )

n nkx

H ka

k

x x y dyD

a k n nk y a y

By substituting log logy x

za a

1 111

1

0

( )log log (1 ) ( ) ,

( ) ( )

k nnk

H k

k

x xD z z dz

a k n nk a


THEOREM 2.6. For continuous f on [0, ) and let , , , , ,k m n where 1 ,m m


(13) [ ( )] [ ( )].C C C C

k k k kD D f x D D f x

Proof: Using equation (4) in the LHS of equation (13), we have

227

Azam et al., 2018

1 1

( )

2

1[ ( )] ( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] ,

( ) ( )

n mx xC C m nk kk k

a tk k

D D f x x y y t f t dt dyk nk mk

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting y t

zx t

( ) 1 1 11

(2 )

2 0

1[ ( )] ( ) ( )[ (1 ) ( ) ] .

( ) ( )

m n n mxC C nk k kk k

ak k

D D f x x t f t y y dy dtk nk mk

Using equations (2) and (3), we get

( ) 1

( )1[ ( )] ( ) ( ) .

[( ) ( )]

m nxC C m nkk k

ak

D D f x x t f t dtk m n k

Similarly, we can prove

( ) 1

( )1[ ( )] ( ) ( ) .

[( ) ( )]

m nxC C m nkk k

ak

D D f x x t f t dtk m n k

Hence, [ ( )] [ ( )].C C C C

k k k kD D f x D D f x

THEOREM 2.7. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , , 1k n n n . Then 0,x a

(14) 1

[ ( )] [ ( ) ( )].C

k k nI D f x f x f a

k

Proof: Using the definition of Rieman-Liouville k-fractional integral [10] and equation (4), we have

1 1

( )

2

1[ ( )] ( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] .

( ) ( )

nx xC nk k

k ka t

k k

I D f x x y y t f t dt dyk nk

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting y t

zx t

1 11

1 ( )

2 0

1[ ( )] ( ) ( )[ (1 ) ( ) ] .

( ) ( )

nxC n n k k

k ka

k k

I D f x x t f t y y dy dtk nk

Using equations (2) and (3) and solving, we get (14).

COROLLARY 2.8. For continuous f on [0, ) and let , , , , ,k m n where 1 ,m m


(15) [ ( )] [ ( )].C C C

k k kD D f x D f x (Semi-group Property).

THEOREM 2.9. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , , , 1 .k n n n Then

0,x a

(16) 1 1( )

[( ) ] ( ) .( )

nC kk k kk

k

kD x a x a

Proof: Using equation (4) in the LHS of equation (16) and finding the nth derivative, we have

1 1 1

[( ) ] ( ) ( ) .

( )

n nxC k k kk

a

k

kD x a x y y a dy

k n nkk

By substituting y a

zx a

228


1

1 1 11

0

( )

[( ) ] (1 ) ( ) ,

( )

k k

n nC k k kk

k

x ak

D x a z z dz

k n nkk


THEOREM 2.10. Let , (0, ), , , 1 .k n n n Then x

(17) [ ] .n

C x xk kk D e k e

Proof: Using equation (4) in the LHS of equation (17) and finding the nth derivative, we have

1

[ ] ( ) ( ) .( )

nnx

C x ykk

k

D e x y e dyk nk

By substituting x y z and z t

1

0[ ] ( ) .

( )

xk nC x tkk

k

eD e t e dt

k nk

Using equation (1) and solving, we get (17).

THEOREM 2.11. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , , .k n Then ,x a we have

(18) ( )( )( ) [ ( ) ]( ), Re( ) 0.

( )

C nkk

k

nk sk kM D f t M f y s n s

k ks k

Proof: Using the definition of Mellin Transform and equation (4) in LHS of equation (18), we have

1

1 ( )

0

1( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] .

( )

ntC s nkk

ak

M D f t t t y f y dy dtk nk

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting y

tz

1 11

( )

0 0

1( ) ( )[ (1 ) ] .

( )

n s n n sC nk k kk

k

M D f t y f y z z dz dyk nk

Using equations (2) and (3) and the definition of Mellin Transform, we get the required result.

EXAMPLE 2.12. Let (0, ), 0, 1.k s Then 0x , using equation (18), we can get

( )( )ln ( ) ( ) ( ) , Re( ) 0.

( )

C nkk

k

nk sk k dM D t f t M f y s n s

k ks ds k


(19) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ,

nk

C nkkL D f t ks L f t

Re( ) 0.s

Proof: Using the definition of Laplace Transform and equation (4) in LHS of equation (19), we have

1

( )

0

1( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] .

( )

ntC st nkk

ak

L D f t e t y f y dy dtk nk

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting t y z

1

( )

0 0

1( ) ( ) ( ) .

( )

nC sy n szkk

k

L D f t e f y z e dz dyk nk

By substituting sz

229

Azam et al., 2018

1

( )

0 0

( )( ) ( ) ( ) .

( )

nk n

C sy n kk

k

sL D f t e f y e d dy

k nk

Using equation (1) and the definition of Laplace Transform, we get (19).

EXAMPLE 2.14. Let (0, ), 1, , .s k n Then 0x , using eq. (3.19), we can get

( )

( ) , Re( ) 0.( 1)

nk

kC t

k

ksL D e s

s


(20) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ,

nk

C nkkF D f t iks F f s

Re( ) 0.s

Proof: Using the definition of Fourier Transform and equation (4) in the LHS of equation (20), we have

1

( )1( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] .

( )

ntC ist nkk

ak

F D f t e t y f y dy dtk nk

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting t y z and isz

1

( )

0 0

( )( ) ( ) ( ) .

( )

nk n

C isy n kk

k

isF D f t e f y e d dy

k nk

Using equation (1) and the definition of Fourier Transform, we get (20).

THEOREM 2.16. Let f be continuous on [0, ) and let , ,k n . Then 0,x a

(21) ( )( ) ( ) [ ( ) ],n

nkH kM D f t sk M f x

Re( ) 0.s

Proof: Using the definition of Mellin Transform and equation (6) in the LHS of the equation (21), we have

1

1 ( )

0

1( ) [ (log ) ( ) ] .

( )

nxs nk

H ka

k

x dyM D f t x f y dx

k nk y y

By using Fubini's theorem and substituting logx

uy

1

1 ( )

0 0

1( ) ( ) ( )[ ( ) ] .

( )

ns n suk

H k

k

M D f t y f y u e du dyk nk

By substituting su z

1

1 ( )

0 0

( )( ) ( ) ( )[ ( ) ] .

( )

nk n

s n zkH k

k

sM D f t y f y z e dz dy

k nk

Using equation (1) and the definition of Mellin Transform, we get required result.

EXAMPLE 2.17. Consider the differential equation

3

2 [ ( )] ( ) 0, 0.D f x bf x x a

with initial condition

1

2[ ( )] .x aD f x A

This can be solved by taking 2, 2, 3k n and using equation (21) and then by taking the inverse Mellin

Transform.

230


3. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The objective of this work is to introduce the Hadamard Caputo type k -fractional derivative and discuss some

properties of k -fractional derivatives. Integral transforms of the k -fractional derivatives are found. Discussion is

concluded by hoping that these results of -fractional derivatives will be extended for complex numbers by analytical

continuation in near future.

4. RECOMMENDATIONS

The authors recommend that reader should have sound knowledge of fractional derivatives before studying and

applying the above discussed results.

5. ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the referees for their careful assessment and fruitful suggestions to improve the

paper.

REFERENCES

[1] Azam, M. K., Ahmad, A. & Sarikaya, M. Z., 2016. Applications of Integral Transforms on some k-fractional

Integrals, J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 6(12): 127-132.

[2] Azam, M. K. & Rehman, M. A., 2017. Study of Generalized type k-Fractional Derivatives, Advances in Diff. Eqs.

: 2017:249.

[3] Azam, M. K., Rehman, M. A., Ahmad, F., Farid, G. & Hussain, S., 2016. Applications of k-weyl fractional integral,

Sci. Int. (Lahore), 28(4): 3369-3372.

[4] Azam, M. K., Rehman, M. A., Ahmad, F., Imran, M. & Yaqoob, M. T., 2016. Integral transforms of k-weyl

fractional integrals, Sci. Int. (Lahore), 28(4): 3287-3290.

[5] Sarikaya, M. Z., Dahmani, Z., Kiris, M. E. & Ahmad, F., 2016. (k,s) -Riemann-Liouville fractional integral and

applications, Hacettepe J. Math. & Stat., 45(1): 1-13.

[6] Azam, M. K., Zaffar, F., Rehman, M. A., Ahmad, F. & S. Qaisar, 2018. Study of Extended k-Weyl Fractional

Integral via chebyshev inequalities, Italian J. of Pure and Appl. Math., 39: 785-796.

[7] Azam, M. K., Zaffar, F., Rehman, M. A., Ahmad, F. & S. Qaisar, S., 2018. Study of Extended k-Hadamard

Fractional Integral, J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(7): 180-188.

[8] Diaz, R. & Pariguan, E., 2007. On hypergeometric functions and Pochhammer k -symbol, Divulg. Mat., 15: 179-

192.

[9] Farid, G. & Habibullah, G. M., 2015. An Extension of Hadamard Fractional Integral, Int. J. Math. Anal., Vol. 9,

10: 471-482.

[10] Mubeen, S. & Habibullah, G. M., 2012. k -Fractional integrals and application, Int. J. of Contemp. Math. Sciences,

7: 89-94.

[11] Cerutti, R. A., 2015. The k-Fractional Logistic Equation with k-Caputo Derivative, Pure Math. Sci., 4(1): 9-15.

[12] Romero, L.G., Luque, L.L., Dorrego, G.A. & Cerutti, R.A., 2013. On the k -Riemann-Liouville Fractional

Derivative, Int. J. Contemp. Math. Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 1: 41-51.

[13] Samko, S. G., Kilbas, A. A. & Marichev, O. I., 1993. Fractional Integrals and Derivatives: Theory and

Applications, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

[14] Zemanian, A. H., 1968. Generalized Integral Transformations, (Pure and Appl. Math.), vol. 18, John Wiley and

Sons, New York.

k

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*Corresponding Author: Shafqat H. Memon, Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran UET Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Campus (SZAB) Khairpur. Mir’s Sindh Pakistan. [email protected]

Voltage Stability and Reactive Power Compensation of 132kv Grid Integrated

50MW Wind Farm Using Statcom

Shafqat H.Memon1*, Zubair A. Memon2, M. Aslam Uqaili3, Shan-E-Farooq4

1Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran UET Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Campus (SZAB) Khairpur

Mir’s Sindh Pakistan 2, 3Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering Technology Jamshoro Sindh Pakistan

4Department of Mathematics, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan


Accepted: January 23, 2018

ABSTRACT

Wind energy as a clean energy is a viable solution to generate electricity to overcome the energy crises. There are many

challenges in maintaining power quality norms and standards when wind farms are integrated with national grids due its

intermittent nature of input source. So in order to overcome power quality issues, flexible alternating current transmission

(FACTs) plays a vital role. In this work, the behaviour of double fed induction generator (DFIG) based 50MW wind farm

integrated with 132kV is investigated under steady state and during a disturbance i.e. fault conditions. In order to fulfil

reactive power requirement for maintaining voltage profile during fault conditions an IGBT- based static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) with phase locked loop (PLL) control strategy is used. It is found that Grid integrated wind farm

by the use of STATCOM maintains continuity of supply by avoiding the tripping of wind farm, this capacity of wind farm

is said to be low voltage ride through capability (LVRT). Hence, STATCOM improves the transient response and allows

wind farm to remain in operation even during severe grid faults by enhancing LVRT capability.

KEYWORDS: Voltage stability, reactive power compensation, DFIG, STATCOM, LVRT.

1. INTRODUCTION

Due to rapid increase in industry sector, population growth and development in information technology have increased

electricity consumption need that has resulted in gap between supply side and load side demand [1]. So, in order to

overcome this energy gap, it is very much required to utilize the alternate energy resources (renew-able energies) such as

wind, biomass, hydro, co-generation, etc [2]. Being a cheap, clean and abundant source of energy, wind energy has gained

so much popularity. Grid-integrated wind generation potential is increasing at highest rate in electricity production and it is

targeted to meet the 12% global demand of electricity through wind energy generation by 2020 [3].

But the wind energy integration with national grid has introduced a number of challenges [2] due to intermittent

nature of input source and it needs to be considering the power quality aspects [4] because it is systematic regulation and

stability of power (voltage, current, frequency) with defined standards as required by electrical utilities [5,6]. When wind

generators are going to be connected with grid, the power quality problems that mainly arise are voltage fluctuation,

reactive power, harmonics, power peaks and flicker [7,8,9]. The performance operation of wind energy system and its

impact on power quality is assessed by standard specified by IEC-61400 (International Electro technical commission)

[10,11]. The wind energy based generators are not able to supply the voltage and frequency control when particularly

exposed to fault, they absorb greater amount of reactive power [2,12]. Due to this, wind farm with low voltage ride through

capability (LVRT) are going to be tripped from connected grid.

Hence, High LVRT capacity plays vital role in achieving voltage stability and power quality enhancement during faulted period in grid integrated wind energy system. Therefore to enhance LVRT capacity by providing reactive power

compensation a control strategy is required such as FACT’s controller (SVC and STATCOM). But STATCOM

performance is much better as compared to SVC in terms dynamic reactive power compensation and voltage stability [13].

Hence, STATCOM is preferred as reactive power compensator with phase locked loop (PLL) control strategy during fault

condition and will continue to provide reactive power till fault is cleared so that continuity, reliability and stability of grid

connected wind energy should be assured.

2. Wind Farm Using DFIG In this work, the wind farm using double fed induction generator is taken into account. The three phase stator

windings of DFIG are directly linked with grid and its three phase rotor winding is linked to rotor converter (Crotor).The

rotor converter of the DFIG contains rotor-side converter (RSC) and grid-side converter (GSC), both are interlinked in back-to-back through a dc-link capacitor as shown in fig. 1.[4].The RSC is used for controlling the power output of wind

turbine as well as controlling the voltage (or reactive power) where as GSC is used for maintaining the dc link capacitor

voltage .

During steady state operation, wind farms should have ability for controlling voltage or reactive power to achieve a

constant voltage profile at the point where wind power is injected to the grid and avoiding voltage instability that has

happened due to faults [12]. During the faulted periods, the RSC is blocked because to avoid damaging itself due to the

high fault currents. When the RSC is blocked, GSC has not sufficient capacity to provide the required reactive power at the

PCC to regulate the voltage and avoid tripping the wind farm.

232

Memon et al., 2018

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Double fed induction generator [4].

Therefore control scheme is required in grid connected DFIG-based wind farm to maintain continuous operation even

during contingencies (i.e. faulted conditions) which is connected at the point of interconnection to regulate voltage by

reactive power compensation and preventing the under voltage protection from disconnecting the wind farm [8]. If this

control scheme is not applied, the voltage instability occurs at the PCC and voltage will fall below 0.75 (under voltage

protection limit) and DFIG’s based wind farm will not be able to remain connected with grid due to low fault ride through capacity.

3. Voltage Stability

The term voltage stability defines the ability of power system to maintain the constant voltage profile among all the buses

when being subjected to the disturbance [14].

A system is affected by the condition of voltage instability (i.e. drop in voltage) when it is exposed to contingencies, load

demand growth or variation in operating conditions. The distribution system is not capable to fulfil the need for reactive

power which is mainly responsible for unacceptable voltage profiles (i.e. voltage dips and voltage sags. [16]. The LVRT

capacity is most significant parameter in terms of voltage stability of grid integrated wind farm.

4. LVRT Capability

The low voltage ride through capability of wind turbines make them able to continuously remain connected with grid even during severe voltage sags produced at fault conditions for particular period of time as specified by grid codes [3].

As per requirement of NEPRA grid codes, wind farm must be capable f withstanding the voltage dip down to 30% of

rated voltage for 80msec at least for normal clearing case and 180msec for struck breaker contingency event [9]. There are

following methods to increase the LVRT capability of wind farm [3] as shown below in fig. 2. In this work STATCOM as

a FACT’s controller is chosen for LVRT enhancement.

Fig. 2. LVRT improvement methods [3].

5. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

STATCOM is a shunt connected static device whose output current (inductive or capacitive) can be regulated irrespective

of system AC voltage [14]. The reactive power compensation (generation or absorption) of STATCOM is based on

electronic processing of voltage and current in a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) implemented on the secondary of

coupling transformer [16]. The VSC contains forced commutated power electronic devices (IGBT’s, GTO’s) for obtaining voltage V2 from dc source.

In this work, an IGBT-based STATCOM model is used with phase locked loop control strategy. The operating principle

of STATCOM is shown in fig. 3.[4] and the control system of STATCOM can be seen in following fig. 4.[4] By means of

VSC, the STACOM is able to inject reactive power to the connected bus at PCC, thus regulate the bus voltage by reactive

power compensation.

233


Fig. 3. Operating principle of STATCOM

Fig. 4. One line diagram of STATCOM with its control strategy [4].

6. System Description

The test system used for this case study can be represented through one line diagram shown in fig. 5. The test system

includes integration of 50 MW wind power plant to 132kv grid. The 132kV grid is feeding a distribution system of 22kV at

50Hz through 132/22 kV, step down transformer of 60 MVA, which feeds a 660V system through 22kV/660V, with step

down transformer of 60MVA. The wind farm consisting of 20 wind turbines each has rating of 2.5 MW (total 50 MW).

Also it has a protective system implemented at Bus660 used for monitoring of current, bus voltages, speed of turbine and

DC link capacitor voltage. The GSC in DFIG is used to regulate the dc link capacitor voltage of constant (i.e 1200V)

during steady state operation. The STATCOM is shunt connected at the bus (B22kV) for the purpose of dynamic reactive

power compensation and improvement in voltage profile.

Fig. 5. Integration of 50MW wind farm with 132kV grid.

7. Simulation Results and Discussion

The simulation work is performed using MATLAB/SIMULINK software for test system of Grid connected wind energy

system. The steady state and transient response (i.e. under different fault conditions) is analyzed, where mainly the effect of

different fault conditions on voltage stability and reactive power requirement is taken into account. The FACT’s controller STATCOM is used to enhance voltage profile and to compensate reactive to improve the transient response of Grid

integrated wind farm.

7.1. Response of system at steady state conditions

A step profile of wind speed is injected with initial value of wind speed at 8m/s and then wind speed reaches up to 14m/s as

shown in fig. 6. The wind farm block was operated at control parameters where voltage regulation mode is set with

reference voltage of 1pu with respect to generator base rating (20*2.5MW and V=660V) at bus B660.During steady state

condition voltage is maintained at 1pu and current increases and finally maintained at 0.82pu as shown in figs. 8 and 9

respectively. The generated active power is started to increase smoothly and reached at its nominal value of 50MW as

shown in fig. 7. During this time, speed of turbine also starts from 0.8pu and reaches up to 1.21pu as shown in fig. 11. The

voltage at B660 is maintained to 1p.u at PCC by controlling the reactive power. The wind farm has equivalent dc link voltage of 1200V as shown in fig. 12.

234

Memon et al., 2018

Fig.6. Profile of wind speed

Fig. 7. Active power generated (MW)

Fig. 8. Voltage at PCC (B660)

Fig. 9. Current at PCC (B660)

Fig. 10. Reactive power generated (Mvar)

235


Fig. 11. Turbine speed

Fig. 12. Dc link equivalent voltage

7.2 Response of the system at injection of single line to ground fault

7.2.1 Response of the system at injection of single line to ground fault without compensation

When wind farm is exposed to single line to ground fault, voltage at PCC drops during faulted period which results in over

current in rotor circuit of DFIG, fluctuations in dc link capacitor voltage and change in speed. In order to avoid this, RSC

must be blocked so that rotor circuit should not be damaged due to high fault currents.

When single to ground fault is injected temporary at the bus (B22kv), the RSC of DFIG is blocked by making the control

mode to var regulation at Qref command equal to zero hence no more exchange of reactive power is possible between

DFIG and power system. Besides this DFIG based wind farm is equipped with suitable protection scheme which is responsible to disconnect the wind farm from the connected grid when its voltage at PCC falls below 0.75pu.

During faulted period, voltage at PCC falls below to 0.7pu as shown in fig. 13. Hence, tripping of wind farm is

performed by its designed protective scheme. Besides this, the power out of wind farm becomes zero as shown in fig. 14.

Fig. 13. Voltage at PCC during SLG fault

without compensation

236

Memon et al., 2018

Fig. 14. Active power generated during SLG


Fig. 15. Reactive power generated during SLG


7.2.2 Response of the system at injection of single line to ground fault with STATCOM compensation

When Static synchronous compensator is implemented at bus3 in grid connected wind farm for maintaining voltage profile

at PCC above under voltage protection limit (i.e 0.75pu) as shown in fig. 16. It will make able the wind farm to remain

connected with grid by compensation of reactive power, hence the tripping of wind farm is avoided and continuity of service is maintained.

During SLG fault, RSC is blocked and GSC has not capability to provide required reactive power, hence 10 MVA

STATCOM is used for injecting reactive power of 3Mvar as shown in fig. 17. and hence voltage profile is improved and

continuity of wind farm is maintained.

Fig. 16. Voltage at PCC during SLG fault

with STATCOM compensation

Fig. 17. Reactive power generated during SLG

with STATCOM compensation.

237


Fig. 18. Reactive power generated by

STATCOM during SLG

7.3 Response of the system at injection of line to line fault

7.3.1 Response of the system at injection of line to line fault without compensation

When line to line fault is injected temporary the bus (B22kv), by keeping the control mode to Var regulation at Qref

command equal to zero hence the RSC of DFIG is blocked now there will be no more exchange of reactive power is

possible between DFIG and power system. When system is exposed to line to line fault, it is observed that voltage at PCC

falls below up to 0.5pu as shown in below fig. 19. The wind farm is tripped by protective system because voltage sag

produced is increased beyond its limit of under voltage protection 0.75pu.

Hence it can be seen from drop in voltage that voltage sag produced by line to line is more severe than produced by single

line to ground fault.

Fig. 19. Voltage at PCC during L-L fault


Fig. 20. Reactive power generated (Mvar)

during L-L fault without compensation

7.3.2 Response of the system at injection of line to line fault with STATCOM compensation

When line to line fault was injected, the voltage at (B660) at PCC drops to 0.45 so order to maintain the voltage profile to 0.75pu as shown in fig. 21, STATCOM is implemented for providing compensation of reactive power so that tripping of

wind farm should be avoided. Hence 15MVA STATCOM is used.

238

Memon et al., 2018

Fig. 21. Voltage at PCC during L-L fault


Fig. 22. Reactive power generated during L-L fault


8. CONCLUSION

The steady state and transient response analysis of 132kV grid integrated 50MW wind power plant is investigated through

Matlab/simulink software and following conclusions were observed.

For stable and continuous operation of grid connected wind energy system during faulted period, voltage stability

is necessary because voltage instability during fault conditions in terms of voltage dips/voltage sags is responsible for disconnection of wind farm from connected grid which can also lead to cascaded tripping and occurrence of

blackouts.

This can be avoided by implementing reactive power compensator (i.e STATCOM) at the point of common

coupling that will enhance LVRT capacity of grid integrated wind farm by providing reactive power

compensation, hence bus voltage at PCC will be regulated within acceptable limits and power quality will also be

enhanced.

Nomenclatures

Crotor

Qref

Abbreviations DFIG

FACT’s

GSC

GTO

IGBT

L-L

LVRT

NEPRA

PCC

PLL

RSC

SLG STATCOM

SVC

VSC

Rotor convertor

Reference reactive power

Double fed induction generator Flexible alternating current transmission

Grid side convertor

Gate turn off thyristor

Insulated gate bipolar junction transistor

Line to line

Low voltage ride through capability

National electrical power regulatory authority

Point of common coupling

Phase locked loop

Rotor side convertor

Single line to ground Static synchronous compensator

Static var compensator

Voltage source convertor

239


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*Corresponding Author: Farooq Ahmad, Professor of Mathematics and Dean of Sciences, Punjab Higher Education Department, Govt. Islamia College Civil Lines, Lahore. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Stresses and Power Consumption Analysis of Mixing Flow in Cylindrical

Shaped Container

Saeed Ahmed Memon1, Rafique Ahmed Memon2, Muhammad Anwar Solangi3, Farooq Ahmad4

1Research Scholar, Department of Basic Sciences and Related Studies, MUET, Jamshoro, Pakistan. 2Associate Professor, Department of Basic Sciences and Related Studies, MUET, SZAB Campus,

Khairpur Mir’s, Pakistan. 3Professor, Department of Basic Sciences and Related Studies, MUET, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

4Professor of Mathematics and Dean of Sciences, Punjab Higher Education Department, Govt. Islamia College Civil Lines, Lahore.


Accepted: January 3, 2018

ABSTRACT

The paper in hand is the part of our previous study of rotating mixing flow in cylindrical container. A pair of co–

rotating stirrers has been considered for the computational analysis, the stirrers are rotating in same direction of the container and fixed eccentrically. The two-dimensional complex industrial mixing flow of Newtonian fluid is

analyzed. A semi-implicit time-stepping Taylor-Galerkin/pressure-correction finite element multi stepping scheme

adopted as numerical method, posed in a cylindrical coordinate system. Effects of inertia on hoop, radial differences and rate of work done are the core interest of the study. The numerical predicted results have shown a

good behavior with the actual industrial mixing process.

KEY WORDS: Finite Element Method, Effects of inertia, Newtonian fluid, hoop and radial stresses

1. INTRODUCTION

Improvement of the design of mixers and process products are considered major application of this research. This research is concerned with mixing industry such as powder mixing process, chemical process application and

mixing of paper pulp in paper industry and others too. This research will be instrumented in reducing power

consumption through optimization of the mixer designs and enhancing the level of work- done in the mixers.

The outline of the rotational blending in a mixed vessel to foresee power utilization is of modern significance, by

and large mechanical issues are trying to bargain, especially in the field of substance procedure applications, for

example, powder blending forms[1] , blending of butter in a food tackling industry granular blending ,and paper mesh blending in paper industry and various other mechanical based techniques. In numerous blending forms the

convoluting components are the utilization of instigators with stirrer in certainty that the fomenter might be worked

in the transitional administration, the utilization of the liquids which shows exceptionally complex rheological conduct and the rotational bearing and speed of stirrers.

The principle target of this examination is to build up a two-dimensional numerical model for stream between an

external pivoting round and hollow vessel divider and stationary and turning twofold tube shaped stirrers in co-

turning. Stirrers are situated on the blending vessel top, and being set in whimsical position, as vessel under two dimensional suspicions, as vessel originally will be taken as interminable stature. Somewhere else, the limited vessel

issue in three-measurements [2-6] will be viewed as furthermore diverse numbers and sorts of stirrers [7, 8] will

dissect.

As far as recent exploration is concerned, is almost within 20 years, great advances has been made , especially it

encompass semi Taylor–Galerkin Pressure–Correction plan that has developed and refined . This plan, at first imagined in successive structure [9] and in this manner in parallel style [10-12], is suitable for the recreation of incompressible Newtonian and non-Newtonian.

The re-enactment strategy addresses the numerical arrangement of the two-dimensional force conditions for

incompressible streams. A galerkin spatial discretization immediate ensured by fleeting discretization in a taylor

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Memon et al., 2018

arrangement and finally it entails a supposed time walking Taylor-Galerkin limited component plan. A semi

verifiable treatment for dissemination is utilized to address direct dependability requirements. The stream is demonstrated as incompressible by means of a weight revision plane

The present work is focused on the investigations for effects of variation in inertia and stirrer’s speed on the overall flow patterns, work-done rate and consumption of power .The dough kneading applications are primarily focus of this research and could be achieved through development of new material structure and maximizing the rate of

work-done per unit power. Newtonian fluids have used in the computations.

2. PROBLEM SPECIFICATION

Mostly the food industry comprises the non-Newtonian fluids. In present work, investigations are made for 2D

mixing flows of Newtonian fluids. practically the fluid in industrial processes, rotation of lid of vessels drives the fluid causing mixing and the stirrers are attached with the vessel lid. Eccentrically configured double stirrers have

used with fixed and rotating movements. Initially, analysis of problem was made for rotating flow between rotating

cylindrical vessel and stationary stirrers to validate the predictions of finite element calculations for this cylindrical polar co-ordinate system by comparing the results against findings of previous research [13, 14]. Subsequently, co-rotational direction of stirrers is also investigated against stationary stirrers in a rotating cylindrical vessel.

This research study includes various parameters shear stress, shear rate, contour plots of velocity gradients, hoop and

radial stress difference and power are submitted and perceived as solution fields of interest the spatial integral of the rate of work may be defined power, where as invariant of rate of deformation tensor is I2 ,and work-done per total

time as w, v , tn and vr are components in radial ‘r’ and azimuthal ‘θ’direction respectively and ω is domain of

interest in two dimensional polar coordinate.

Effects of increasing inertia on stresses and power consumption for co-rotating stirrers will be analyzed. Numerical simulations of all fields of interest, difference of stresses( hoop and radial) and rate of work-done will be presented

through contour plots of velocity gradient with increasing Reynolds numbers for generalized Newtonian fluids.

Speed of rotating stirrers will be considered at half, same and double against the speed of outer container. Finally the differences of all the addressed variables will be discussed in terms of comparative study between results available in literature and predicted results of generalized Newtonian fluids.

FIGURE–1: Finite Element Meshed Geometry of Double stirred-Eccentric Rotating Cylinder flow.

Figure–1 shows the computational domain along with finite element mesh to solve the selected problem. The mesh contains 8960 total number of elements, 18223 nodes and 40057 degrees-of-freedom. Further details about the

convergence of mesh along with initial and boundary conditions are available in our previous investigations [15–

17]. In present work, contour plots of velocity and other variables of interest are presented as solution fields.

242


3. GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND PROPOSED NUMERICAL SCHEME

A system consisting of conservation of mass, generalization of momentum transport and Newtonian constitutive

equations can be modelled of two dimensional isothermal flow of incompressible Newtonian fluid. Domain is

taken over by coordinate system from of two dimensional cylindrical components.

· u = 0,

(1) The conservation of momentum transport equation, as

puuut

u

.

Re

1 2

(2)

Whereas is considered as the spatial differential operator, p denote isotropic fluid pressure and

is taken as fluid

velocity vector.

Relevant non dimensional Reynolds number is defined as

VR

Re (3)

Since V is considered to be rotational speed of the vessel,

is denoted by fluid density and

is characterized by

zero shear- rate viscosity and R is characteristic length scale is the radius.

In this research solutions through contour plots of stream function and pressure will be investigated. Other area of

interest considered for solution is power and rate of work done and shear stress. The spatial component of the amount of work done is called perceived as power.

These quantities are defined in Table -1.

Table 1: Definitions of various parameters.

Sr. No. Parameter Mathematical definitions

1 Shear-rate

22I&

2 Local rate-of-work done u :Tw&

3 Power

dt,wtP )()( x&&

4 Total work done T

dttPW )(&

W and p are represented by local rate of work done and pressure respectively. 2 is the second invariant of rate of

deformation tensor.

Relevant non-dimensional Reynolds number is defined as:

Re = ν−1VcR,

Where kinematic viscosity ν = μcρ−1;

243

Memon et al., 2018

Vc is the characteristic velocity, considered as speed of the vessel .R, is radius the characteristic scale. c denotes

zero shear- rate viscosity. Suitable scaling takes the form in each variable R

Vpp cc*

, R

Vc* && and

2

2

R

VWW cc* &&

.

At a 50 rpm of characteristic rotational speed and zero shear viscosity of 105 Pa s, scaling yields dimensional

variables p = 2444 p*, &

= 23.28 & * and W

&= 56894W& *, with shear-rates O(102)s−1.


The predicted solutions are analyzed in co-rotating rotational direction for various speed of the stirrers. The minimum values to maximum values of a variable in a range are plotted as contours. The solutions of equations are

analyzed numerically through plots of work-done with respect to time interval and consumption of power. The

comparative study is also carried out.

Different levels of zero-shear viscosities μo in increasing order are considered and then Reynolds number calculations are made as discussed above. At zero shear viscosities are μo = 1.05 Pa s, μo = 10.5 Pa s and μo= 105.0

Pa s the corresponding calculated Reynolds Numbers are Re=8.0, Re=0.8 and Re=0.08 respectively. These levels are actually simulating the material properties in the form of model fluid to model dough to actual dough respectively.

4.1 Contours of hoop and radial stress difference (N1)

The figure–2 shows the symmetric behavior on both stirrers with equal magnitude but when we reaches upto inertial level 8.0 the symmetry in isobars change to asymmetry at half velocity

(v ) =0.5. and extrema remaining at same position as upper and lower of stirrers between narrow gap and in fig(3)

at same velocity v =1.0 and same Reynolds Numbers no any change seemed in symmetry as shown in previous

case but extrema shifted from narrow to wide gap and also extrema shifted their position from up to down. and at

inertial level 0.8 same thing is happened and also circular region is observed and at Reynolds number 8.0, extrema twisted from narrow to wide gap. In fig(4), at double speed and Re=0.08, there is no change in symmetry as shown

in previous case but once again extrema shifted from wide to narrow gap and circular region is also observed at

narrow gap and on stirrers , at Re=0.8 also same symmetry is seemed as in figure–3 but only difference is that

extrema shows also in narrow gap and no change at inertial level 8.0.

Now we define the RWd contour figures at different Reynolds Numbers and velocities i.e., (0.08, 0.8 and 8.0) at half

velocity in figure–2 the symmetry is seemed out in contours from inertial level 0.08 to 0.8 maxima is shown on

stirrers between narrow gap and wall of vessel and minima is shown near the outer wall of vessel between stirrers in wide range and asymmetry is seemed at Re=8.0 just only maxima moved towards center of wide range. In figure–2

symmetric structure is viewed but only maxima twisted from narrow gap to wide gap range at inertial level 0.08 and

0.8 at same speed i.e (v =1.0) finally in figure–4 also same symmetry observed just only maxima shifted from

narrow gap to wide gap range at inertial levels 0.08 and 0.8 at double speed i.e(v =2.0).

Contours with asymmetric nature are observed with increase of inertia from Re=0.08 to Re=8.0. At Re=0.08 with

double rotational speed of stirrers, influence of comparable equilibrium have been observed through the variants of

geometry from minima to maxima on N 1 and RWd. Similar magnitude in non-dimensional negative and positive

extrema on both sides (lower and upper) was observed along with symmetrical contours at narrow gap of both sides

as shown in Fig. 4.The increase of stirrers’ speed (from half to double) against the vessel speed affected the all

244


depended variables which are listed in Table 2.For all the cases of both inertial values, an increase in the maxima

and minima have observed with the increase in speed of stirrers. The symmetrical velocity gradients were observed with respect to geometry from minimum(half) to

maximum(double)the speed of stirrers for the inertial values of Re=0.08 and Re=0.8. Whereas the asymmetrical

trends were in velocity gradients with increase in minima and maxima with increase of Reynolds Number i.e. Re=8.0.Doubling the speed of stirrers shows no effect on consumption of power at minima however at maxima it increase upto 25%.

At first, the vessel flow is driven with very high work-done. Later, a rapid decrease in work-done was observed and

reaches at some uniformity for getting steady-state solution for half speed with co-rotating stirrers but this solution is changed further of doubling the speed with a gradual decrease in work-done.

Re = 0.08 Re = 0.8 Re = 8.0

(a) Hoop and radial stress differences (N1)

(a) Rate of Work done (RWd)

Figure–2: Effects of inertia on hoop and radial differences (N1) and Rate of Work done (RWd) when velocity

is fixed at Vθ= 0.5

245

Memon et al., 2018

Re = 0.08 Re = 0.8 Re = 8.0

(a) Hoop and radial stresses differences (N1)




Re = 0.08 Re = 0.8 Re = 8.0

(a) Hoop and radial differences (N1)




246


5. CONCLUSIONS

The performance of industrial problem associated with mixing was successfully predicted with the help of numerical

flow simulator. Realistic simulations were successfully developed for complex mixing process for Newtonian fluids.

The co-rotating twin stirrer case was investigated with increasing inertia (Reynolds no.) from 0.08 to 8.0. Increase in the speed of stirrers for co-rotating stirrers case, an increase in all medium values of inertia. The symmetrical

velocity gradients were observed with respect to geometry from minimum (half) to maximum (double) the speed of

stirrers for small and medium inertial values (Re=0.08 and 8.0). Whereas the asymmetrical trends were in velocity

gradients with increases in minima and maxima with increase of Reynolds Number i.e. Re=8.0. Power consumption has no effect at minima on doubling the speed of the stirrers. The optimized mixer designs could be developed for

completing dough mixing processes with robust predictive capability of numerical solutions.

The future work may be directed for the in-depth investigations of rotation of concentric configured two co-rotating

stirrers with Newtonian fluids and agitators.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are greatly acknowledged to the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro and Shaheed Z. A. Bhutto campus for supporting and providing computational facility.

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248

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