Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Nd isotopic and geochemical constraints on the provenance and tectonicsetting of the low-grade meta-sedimentary rocks from the Trans-NorthChina Orogen, North China Craton

1367-9120/$ - see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.11.007

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 88332013.E-mail address: denverliu82@gmail.com (C. Liu).

Chaohui Liu a,⇑, Guochun Zhao b, Fulai Liu a, Yigui Han ba Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, Chinab Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Received 5 August 2013Received in revised form 8 November 2013Accepted 13 November 2013Available online 21 November 2013

Keywords:Trans-North China OrogenLow-grade supracrustal successionsGeochemistryNd isotopeBasin evolutionPaleoproterozoic

In the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) of the North China Craton, low-grade supracrustal successionsextensively occur in the Wutai, Lüliang, Zanhuang, Zhongtiao and Dengfeng Complexes from north tosouth. Meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai and Zhongtiao Complexes were collected for geochem-ical and Nd isotopic studies and several samples from the Zanhuang and Dengfeng Complexes were alsoanalyzed for Nd isotopic studies for comparative purpose. Most of the meta-siltstones and meta-sand-stones from the Wutai and Zhongtiao Complexes are characterized by depletions in mobile elements likeCaO, Sr and Na2O, high Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) values and strong positive correlationbetween Al2O3 and TiO2, indicating intense weathering conditions. Significant post-depositional K-meta-somatism is indicated in the A–CN–K diagrams for most of the analyzed samples and the relatively highpre-metasomatized Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values (43–87) also imply a high degree of sourceweathering. Depleted transitional trace elements (Ni, Cr, Co and Sc), fractionated light rare earth ele-ments patterns, mild negative Eu anomalies in the majority of these meta-sedimentary samples pointtoward felsic source rocks, including the �2.5 Ga granitics, TTG gneisses and the Paleoproterozoic gran-itics in the TNCO. Minor contribution from mafic rocks is evidenced from relative high contents of MgO,Fe2O

T3, Sc and lower La/YbN ratios in some older sequence-set samples from the Zhongtiao Complex. Our

geochemical and Nd isotopic data, combined with previous studies in the lithostratigraphic sequence,provenance and depositional age, suggest that the older and younger sequence-sets of the low-gradesupracrustal successions in the TNCO were deposited in the different depositional environments. Theolder sequence-set was deposited in a back-arc basin between the ‘‘Andean-type’’ continental marginarc and the Eastern Block after �2.1 Ga, whereas the younger sequence-set formed in a foreland basinbetween �1.88 and �1.80 Ga, which is consistent with the model that the collision between the Easternand Western Blocks to form the Trans-North China Orogen occurred at �1.85 Ga.

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1. Introduction

The Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO), one of the oldest oro-genic belts including high-pressure granulites and retrogradedeclogites, has been suggested as the location where two discretecontinental blocks, named the Eastern and Western Blocks, col-lided to finally form the basement of the North China Craton(Guo et al., 2002, 2005; Wilde et al., 2002; Kusky and Li, 2003;Kröner et al., 2005a, 2006; Liu et al., 2005, 2006, 2012a; Polatet al., 2005, 2006; Wilde and Zhao, 2005; Wu et al., 2005; Zhaoet al., 2005, 2007, 2010, 2012; Li and Kusky, 2007; Trap et al.,2007, 2012). However, controversy still remains over the timingand tectonic processes involved in the collision of the two blocks,

ranging from the westward-directed subduction with collision at�2.5 Ga (Kusky and Li, 2003; Polat et al., 2006; Li and Kusky,2007; Kusky, 2011), through the eastward-directed subductionwith collision at �1.85 Ga (Wilde et al., 2002; Kröner et al.,2005a, 2006; Wilde and Zhao, 2005; Zhao et al., 2005), to the west-ward-directed subduction with two collisional events at �2.1 Gaand �1.85 Ga, respectively (Faure et al., 2007; Trap et al., 2007,2012).

Available geochronological and geochemical data show that the�2.5 Ga geological events in the TNCO are arc-related, producinggranitoid and volcanic rocks in the low-grade granite-greenstoneterranes (Wilde and Zhao, 2005). On the other way, geochronolog-ical, metamorphic and structural studies reveal that the final colli-sion between the Eastern and Western Blocks happened at�1.85 Ga (Guo et al., 2002, 2005; Guan et al., 2002; Kröner et al.,2005a,b, 2006; Liu et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2010; Zhao et al.,

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174 C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

2010). However, it remains ill-defined what geological events oc-curred in the TNCO between the �2.5 Ga arc-related magmatismand the �1.85 collision of the Eastern and Western Blocks, atime-span of approximate 650 Ma.

In the last few years, an increasing number of geochronologicalstudies suggested that the �2.1 Ga geological events were alsowidespread and important in the TNCO, forming volcanic rocksin the low-grade supracrustal successions and granitoids in theWutai (Wilde et al., 2002; Wilde and Zhao, 2005; Du et al.,2010), Fuping (Guan et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2002), Lüliang (Genget al., 2000; Yu et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2008a), Zanhuang (Trapet al., 2009; Yang et al., 2011) and Zhongtiao Complexes (Sunand Hu, 1993). Nevertheless, different tectonic settings have beenproposed for the �2.1 Ga geological events. Faure et al. (2007)and Trap et al. (2009) suggested that the �2.1 Ga events occurreddue to the continental collision between the Eastern Block and amicro-continental block (called the Fuping Block), whereas Yanget al. (2011) and Du et al. (2010) proposed a continental rift basintectonic setting. Alternatively, Zhao and co-workers suggested aback-arc extensional event between an ‘‘Andean-type’’ continentalmargin arc and the Eastern Block (Zhao et al., 2012; Liu et al.,2012b,c). Obviously, only the geochronological and geochemicalstudies on the igneous rocks cannot settle the above controversy.

Geochemical and Nd isotopic studies have been proven to beuseful to constrain the provenance and tectonic setting of clasticsedimentary rocks, especially in the case of the Archean and Prote-rozoic sediments, which has undergone intense deformation andmetamorphism (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al.,1993; Tran et al., 2003; Roddaz et al., 2007). In this paper, we pres-ent an integrated study of major and trace element geochemicaland Sm–Nd isotopic data obtained from meta-sedimentary rocksfrom the low-grade supracrustal successions in the TNCO. Thesedata will not only provide significant constraints on the prove-nance and tectonic setting of these supracrustal successions, butalso provide an insight into understanding the Paleoproterozoictectonic evolution of the TNCO.

2. Geological setting

As mentioned above, the North China Craton has been dividedinto the Eastern and Western Blocks and the TNCO in-between(Fig. 1; Zhao et al., 2005). Moreover, the Eastern Block is subdividedinto the Longang Block (also called the Yanliao Block; Santosh,2010) and the Langrim Block, whereas the Khondalite Belt sepa-rates the Western Block into the Yinshan Block in the north andthe Ordos Block in the south (Fig. 1; Zhao et al., 2005). Afterreviewing structural, metamorphic and geochronological data,Zhao et al. (2005) proposed that the Khondalite Belt representeda �1.95 Ga collisional belt between the Yinshan and Ordos Blocks,whereas the TNCO resulted from the collision between the Easternand Western Blocks at �1.85 Ga. A detailed overview of the litho-logical, geochemical, structural, metamorphic and geochronologi-cal differences between the above mentioned blocks and mobilebelts has been given by Zhao et al. (2005, 2012).

The TNCO is a nearly NS-trending �1200 km long and 100–300 km wide zone across the central part of the North China Craton(Fig. 1). Basement rocks of the orogen consist of Neoarchean toPaleoproterozoic TTG gneisses, supracrustal rocks (metamor-phosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks), syn- to post-tectonicgranites and mafic dykes. Geochemical and isotopic data suggeststhat most of the basement rocks have been formed in arc-relatedsettings (Kröner et al., 1988; Sun et al., 1992; Liu et al., 2005).Moreover, ultra-mafic to mafic rocks of the Jingangku Formationin the Wutai Complex have been interpreted as ancient oceanicfragments and mélange (Wang et al., 1996; Polat et al., 2005). More

lithotectonic elements as classical indicators of collision tectonichave been found in the TNCO, including linear structural beltscharacterized by strike-slip ductile shear zones, large-scale thrust-ing and folding, transcurrent tectonics, sheath folds and minerallineations (Trap et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007, 2009, 2012),high-pressure granulites and retrograde eclogites (Zhai et al.,1992, 1995; Guo et al., 2002, 2005) and clockwise metamorphicP-T paths involving near-isothermal decompression (Zhao et al.,2001). These evidences led Zhao et al. (1998, 1999, 2000) to sug-gest that the TNCO is a continent–continent collisional belt, alongwhich the Eastern and Western Blocks amalgamated to form thecoherent basement of the North China Craton. Available metamor-phic ages obtained from metamorphic zircons and monazites inmost lithologies of the TNCO yielded consistent metamorphic agesand suggested that the collision happened at �1.85 Ga (Guan et al.,2002; Zhao et al., 2002, 2008b; Kröner et al., 2005a,b, 2006; Guoet al., 2005; Liu et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2010).

The low-grade supracrustal successions are widely distributedin the TNCO and those in the middle and south sectors of the TNCOare well exposed and extensively studied. The laterally correlatablesupracrustal successions are called the Hutuo Group in the WutaiComplex, the Yejishan Group in the Lüliang Complex, the Gantaoheand Dongjiao Groups in the Zanhuang Complex, the Lower Zhong-tiao, Upper Zhongtiao and Danshanshi Groups in the ZhongtiaoComplex, and the Songshan Group in the Dengfeng Complex(Fig. 1; Liu et al., 2012b). Liu et al. (2012b) divided the low-gradesupracrustal successions into two sequence-sets (Fig. 2). The oldersequence-set is mainly composed of meta-clastic rocks, carbonatesand meta-volcanic rocks, whose maximum depositional age wasestimated at ca. 2.17–2.08 Ga by detrital zircon dating results(Liu et al., 2011a,b, 2012b,c), although zircon ages from meta-vol-canics put the younger age limit to ca. 2.06 Ga (Sun and Hu, 1993).On the other way, the younger sequence-set consists only of meta-conglomerates and meta-sandstones, whose depositional age wasestimated at ca. 1.88–1.80 Ga (Liu et al., 2011a,b, 2012b). Thethicknesses of the low-grade supracrustal successions in the Wutaiand Zhongtiao Complexes are up to 10,000 m and 7000 m respec-tively (Bai et al., 1992, 1997), although some of the thicknessesmay have been overestimated due to structural duplications. Thelow-grade supracrustal successions in these two complexes aretherefore good candidates for investigating their characteristicsof the source provenance and tectonic settings by the geochemicaland Nd isotopic studies on the meta-sedimentary rocks.

The Hutuo Group is mainly situated in the southern part of theWutai Complex and has been divided into the Doucun, Lower Don-gye, Upper Dongye and Guojiazhai Subgroups (SBGMR, 1989;Fig. 2). The Doucun Subgroup can be subdivided into the Sijizhu-ang, Nantai and Dashiling Formations, consisting of basal conglom-erates, quartzites, slates, phyllites and volcaniclastic rocks,metamorphosed to greenschist facies (Fig. 2). These terrigenousdeposits are characterized by vertical facies change from coarseclastic sediments into fine-grained siliciclastic rocks, which areinterpreted to be deposited in a graben-related environment (Miaoet al., 1999). The Lower Dongye Subgroup consists of the Qingshi-cun, Wenshan and Hebiancun Formations and is dominated byturbiditic deposits interlayered with meta-volcanics and dolom-ites. The Upper Dongye Subgroup, which can be subdivided intothe Jianancun, Beidaxing and Tianpengnao Formations, is com-posed of thick-bedded dolomitic successions intercalated withsiliciclastic rocks. In contrast to the lower part of the Hutuo Group,the Guojiazhai Subgroup includes mostly molasse sedimentaryrocks, ranging from silty–sandy phyllites (the Xiheli Formation),through coarse-grained arkoses (the Heishanbei Formation), toconglomerates (the Diaowangshan Formation; Bai, 1986). It is wor-thy to note that the dolomitic pebbles in the Diaowangshan Forma-tion are similar to, and possibly derived from the Upper Dongye

Fig. 1. Tectonic subdivision of the North China Craton (modified after Zhao et al., 2005). Also shown are locations of the Paleoproterozoic low-grade supracrustal successions.

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 175

Subgroup (Bai, 1986). The non-marine molasse deposits are char-acterized by wedge-shape and upward coarsening succession,which is more than 900 m in thickness in the NNW and rapidlywedges out SSE (Miao et al., 1999). Depositional age of the HutuoGroup is estimated at ca. 2.14–1.81 Ga based on the recently pub-lished geochronological data (Du et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2011a).

The Lower Zhongtiao Group is exposed in a NE-trending foldbelt and was subdivided into five formations: the Jiepailiang, Long-yu, Yuyuanxia, Bizigou and Yujiashan Formations (Fig. 2). The low-est Jiepailiang Formation contains terrestrial (mainly alluvial andlacustrine) conglomerates, pebbled arkoses and minor sandstonesmetamorphosed in greenschist facies and preserves ripples andcross-beddings suggesting a SE-flowing paleocurrents (Bai et al.,1997). The overlying Longyu and Yuyuanxia Formations are com-posed of sericite schists and dolomitic marbles with interbeddedcherty bands and quartzites. The Yuyuanxia Formation is overlainby the Bizigou Formation, which consists mainly of black carbona-ceous sericite schists, phyllites and minor meta-volcanics. Theuppermost Yujiashan Formation is typified by a thick successionof dolomitic marbles and thin units of stromatolitic dolostones.The overall sedimentary facies of the Lower Zhongtiao Group indi-cates major changes in the basin configuration related to a signif-icant tectonic sinking (Bai et al., 1997). The Upper ZhongtiaoGroup, a thick succession of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks withthin layers of dolomites, is in disconformable contact with theLower Zhongtiao Group (Sun and Hu, 1993; Fig. 2) and subdividedinto three formations. The basal Wenyu Formation is composed ofblack pelites with interbedded dolostones. Above the Wenyu For-mation are the Wujiaping and Chenjiashan Formations which aresimilar in lithologies, consisting predominantly of quartz sericiteschists and quartzites. The Danshanshi Group is a thick successionof conglomerates and sandstones metamorphosed in sub-green-schist facies (Fig. 2) and has been subdivided into the Zhoujiagou,Xifengshan and Shajinhe Formations (Sun et al., 1990). The basal

Zhoujiagou Formation is made up of thick poorly sorted and ma-trix-supported conglomerates. Above the Zhoujiagou Formationis the Xifengshan Formation that consists of quartzites with minorconglomerates. The uppermost Shajinhe Formation is typified by athick succession of conglomerates. It is worthy to note that thechert, quartzite and dolomitic pebbles in the Danshanshi Groupare similar to those in the underlying Lower and Upper ZhongtiaoGroups (Sun and Hu, 1993), and thus the Danshanshi Group mayhave been sourced from the Lower and Upper Zhongtiao Groups.The presence of 2168 Ma detrital zircons in the Lower ZhongtiaoGroup and the 1780 Ma unmetamorphosed volcanic rocks overly-ing the Danshanshi Group indicate that the low-grade supracrustalsuccessions in the Zhongtiao Complex were deposited between�2.17 Ga and �1.78 Ga (He et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2012b).

3. Samples and analytical techniques

Eighteen samples (twelve meta-sandstones and six meta-silt-stones) from the Hutuo Group and eight samples (seven meta-sandstones and one meta-siltstone) from the Lower Zhongtiao,Upper Zhongtiao and Danshanshi Groups were collected for majorand trace element analysis. Fresh samples were taken carefully toavoid the effects of weathering and hydrothermal alteration. Thensamples were first crushed into slabs and the central parts werepowdered for whole-rock analyses. Major element oxides wereanalyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF, Rigaku-2100) at the NationalResearch Center for Geoanalysis, Beijing. Analytical uncertaintiesof the XRF analyses are estimated to be at ±3–5% for those majoroxides present in concentrations greater than 0.5%.

Trace elements, including the rare earth element (REE), wereanalyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, TJA-PQ-Excel) at the National Research Center for Geoanalysis,Beijing. About 50 mg samples powders were dissolved in Teflonbombs using a HF + HNO3 mixture for 48 h at �190 �C. An internal

Fig. 2. Synthesized regional stratigraphic columns of the Paleoproterozoic supracrustal successions in the Wutai, Zanhuang and Zhongtiao Complexes of the TNCO (modifiedafter Liu et al., 2011a, 2012b,c). Data sources: the Wutai Complex (Bai, 1986; Wilde et al., 2004b; Du et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2011a), the Zanhuang Complex (Wang et al., 2004;Wan et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2012c) and the Zhongtiao Complex (Sun and Hu, 1993; Liu et al., 2012b).

176 C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

standard solution containing the single element Rh was utilized tomonitor signal drift during analysis. Analytical results of the USGSstandards (G-S, W-2, MRG-1 and AGV-1) and the Chinese nationalrocks standards (GSR-1, GSR-2, GSR-3 and GSR-5) indicate thatanalytical uncertainties for most elements are less than at 5%. Geo-chemical data of the meta-sedimentary samples from the LowerZhongtiao Group measured by Li et al. (2011) are also used in thisstudy. Whole-rock geochemical data were processed with the‘‘GeoPlot’’ Excel™ plug-in by Zhou and Li (2006).

A complementary Nd isotopic study was completed on fiveand two meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai and Zhong-tiao Complexes, respectively. Nine meta-sedimentary samples,five from the Gantaohe Group and four from the Songshan Group,were also analyzed for comparative purpose. Nd isotopic compo-sitions were carried out using a multiple-collector inductivelycoupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICPMS), at the Institute

of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences,Beijing. Sample powders were first dissolved in distilled aceticacid (10%) for 24 h at 60 �C, and then the residuals were dissolvedin Teflon breakers with HF + HNO3, and separated by conventionalcation-exchange techniques. REEs were separated and purified onquartz columns by conventional ion exchange chromatographywith a 5 ml resin bed of AG 50W-X12 (200–400 mesh) after sam-ple decomposition. Nd fractions were further separated by pass-ing through cation columns followed by HDEHP. Measured143Nd/144Nd ratio was corrected for mass fractionation relativeto 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Analytical precisions of isotope composi-tions are given as 2 sigma standard errors (2r) and errors of ini-tial isotopic ratios are quoted at the 2r level. In addition, Ndisotopic data of the meta-sedimentary samples from the LowerZhongtiao Group analyzed by Li et al. (2011) are also used in thisstudy.

Fig. 3. Selected major elements vs. Al2O3 and Fe2OT3 vs. TiO2 plots of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a–e) and Zhongtiao (f–j) Complexes.

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 177

4. Results

4.1. Major elements

The Doucun and Lower Dongye meta-sandstones have SiO2 con-tents ranging from 73 to 91 wt.% (mean �79 wt.%) and Al2O3 con-tents from 4 to 14 wt.% (mean �9 wt.%; Supplementary Table 1).

SiO2 contents in the Upper Dongye and Guojiazhai meta-sand-stones range to higher values (79–99 wt.%; mean �89 wt.%). Aver-age SiO2 contents in the Doucun and Lower Dongye meta-siltstones are characteristically low (57–68 wt.%; mean�61 wt.%). For the Zhongtiao Complex, the Lower Zhongtiaometa-sandstones have less SiO2 contents (72–84 wt.%; mean�79 wt.%) and more Al2O3 contents (6–17 wt.%; mean �12 wt.%)

Fig. 4. Paleoproterozoic Upper Continental Crust (PUCC; Condie, 1993) normalized spider diagrams of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a) and Zhongtiao (b)Complexes (same symbols as in Fig. 3).

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than the Upper Zhongtiao and Danshanshi meta-sandstones (SiO2:88–97 wt.%, mean �92 wt.%; Al2O3 1–6 wt.%, mean �4 wt.%). Onthe other way, the meta-siltstones from the Lower and UpperZhongtiao Groups display similar SiO2 (47–68 wt.%, mean�57 wt.%) and Al2O3 (15–19 wt.%, mean �17 wt.%) contents.

As the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai Complex de-fine a linear trend on SiO2–Al2O3 diagram (correlation coefficientR2 = 0.88; Fig. 3a), they can be considered as single population forstatistical calculation to identify the feasible mineralogical controlon major and trace elements. For the good correlation of SiO2 andAl2O3, the aluminous clay and quart controls are evident. More-over, K2O and Fe2O

T3 also appear to be bounded in clay minerals

as they are strongly and moderately correlated with Al2O3, respec-tively (R2 = 0.91 and 0.56; Fig. 3b and c; Cai et al., 2008). The highlyweathered condition of provenance is evident as Al2O3 and TiO2 arestrongly correlated (R2 = 0.85; Fig. 3d). As both of Al and Ti areimmobile elements in nature, they are tending to be enriched in

residual sediments with different Al/Ti ratios and binary mixingof these sediments result in their strong correlations (Young andNesbitt, 1998). The moderate correlation with Fe2O

T3 and TiO2

(R2 = 0.52; Fig. 3e) can be attributed to chlorite, which is an impor-tant constitute of clays in the relative mafic source rocks, or theiron retention under an oxygen atmosphere (Holland and Beukes,1990). Similar mineralogical control on major and trace elementsfor the meta-sedimentary samples from the Zhongtiao Complexcan also be identified (Fig. 3f–j), although the aluminous clay con-trol is weaker and the chlorite control is stronger.

Compared with Paleoproterozoic Upper Continental Crust(PUCC; Condie, 1993), the meta-sandstones are enriched in SiO2and K2O and slightly to strongly depleted in the other major ele-ments (Fig. 4). On the other hand, the meta-siltstones are enrichedin K2O, MgO, TiO2 and Fe2O

T3 and depleted in other major elements

relative to PUCC (Fig. 4). Using the geochemical classification dia-gram of Herron (1988), the meta-sandstones are plotted in the

Fig. 5. Classification of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a) andZhongtiao (b) Complexes (after Herron, 1988; same symbols as in Fig. 3).

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 179

wacke, arkose, sublitharenite, subarkose and quartz arenite fields,whereas the meta-siltstones are classified as Fe-shale, shale andwacke (Fig. 5).

4.2. Trace elements

Like major elements, trace element contents in the analyzedmeta-sedimentary samples are also quite variable. For the largeion lithophile elements (LILEs), the Wutai meta-siltstones showenrichments in Ba and Rb, whereas the Wutai meta-sandstonesare only enriched in Rb when compared with PUCC (Fig. 4). Thisis not the case for the Zhongtiao meta-sedimentary samples, whichare comparable with PUCC in terms of LILEs, such as Ba and Rb, butstrongly depleted in Sr (Fig. 4). For the high field strength elements(HFSEs), the Wutai meta-siltstones and all the Zhongtiao samplesare comparable with PUCC, but the Wutai meta-sandstones aremoderately to strongly depleted in all the HFSEs. For the transi-tional trace elements (TTEs), the Wutai and Zhongtiao meta-silt-stones are comparable with PUCC, whereas the meta-sandstonesare moderately to strongly depleted (Fig. 4).

A main feature of the trace element distributions are the gener-ally negative correlations with SiO2 and positive correlations withAl2O3, reflecting quartz dilution and close association of most ele-ments with clay minerals, respectively. For example, Al2O3 is corre-lated with K2O (R2 = 0.91) and Rb (R2 = 0.87) for the Wutai samples,indicating that these elements are fixed in K-rich clays, such as il-lites. The TTEs, like Sc (R2 = 0.75 and 0.60), Cr (R2 = 0.68 and 0.59)and V (R2 = 0.61 and 0.59), show a strong to moderate correlation

with Al2O3 for the Wutai and Zhongtiao samples, respectively(Fig. 6a and f). In addition, these TTEs are also strongly to moder-ately correlated with Fe2O

T3, TiO2 and MgO, suggesting that the

TTEs are not only fixed in clay minerals like chlorite but also are re-lated to mafic components enriched in Fe, Ti and Mg (Fig. 6b and g).On the other way, the HFSEs, such as Ta, Y, Zr and Nb, covary withAl2O3 and P2O5, which indicates that the HFSEs are bounded inboth the clay minerals and other accessory minerals like monazite(Fig. 6c, d, h and i).

4.3. Rare earth elements

Total REE (TREE) contents are variable throughout the succes-sions (Supplementary Table 1). Meta-siltstones generally havehigher REE contents than associated meta-sandstones, suggestingmore important control of clay minerals on the REEs than thesand-sized quartz and feldspar. TREE contents are lower in theZhongtiao meta-siltstones (97–313 ppm, mean�169 ppm; Supple-mentary Table 1), but range to higher values in the Wutai meta-siltstones (64–293 ppm, mean �219 ppm). TREE contents of themeta-sandstones are generally less than 100 ppm, reflecting quartzdilution.

All the Zhongtiao samples are characterized by moderately frac-tioned REE patterns with the mean La/YbN ratio of 6.03, slightlylower than the ratio of PUCC (8.98, Condie, 1993), whereas the Wu-tai samples display highly fractioned REE pattern with the meanLa/YbN ratio of 14.9, which is much higher than that of PUCC.Moreover, heavy REEs of the Wutai samples are slightly fractionedwith the mean Gd/YbN ratio of 1.88, very similar to that of PUCC(1.82; Condie, 1993), whereas the Zhongtiao sample are indicativeof a lower mean ratio of 1.35. Lithological average of Eu anomaliesin samples from the different complexes span a very narrow range(Eu/Eu* = 0.58–0.74; Supplementary Table 1), similar to the valueof PUCC (0.67; Condie, 1993), with the exception of the Wutaimeta-sandstones, which have slightly shallower anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.84). The highly fractionated REE patterns and negative Euanomalies suggest dominant felsic source rocks for both the Wutaiand Zhongtiao samples.

The REEs are generally positively correlated with Al2O3, reflect-ing partly control of clays on the REEs. The tune of correlation coef-ficient with Al2O3 is high for La (R2 = 0.51), Ce (R2 = 0.59), Yb(R2 = 0.62) and Lu (R2 = 0.62) of the Wutai samples, and moderatefor La (R2 = 0.41), Ce (R2 = 0.40), Yb (R2 = 0.37) and Lu (R2 = 0.36)of the Zhongtiao samples (Fig. 6e and j). Since REEs are also posi-tively correlated with K2O with similar intensity for the Wutaisamples, illite seems to be the host mineral of REEs. This doesnot appear to be the entire story for the Zhongtiao samples, ofwhich the REEs are moderately correlated with P and Th, indicatingpartial monazite control. The REEs, along with the HFSEs, arethought to not be easily affected by weathering, diagenesis, ormost forms of metamorphism (Taylor and McLennan, 1985).Therefore, our discussion on provenance characteristics chieflybased on these immobile elements, their ratios and overall REEpatterns (see Fig. 7)

4.4. Nd isotopes

Nd isotopic results are presented in Table 1 and Figs. 8 and 12.All but four of the analyzed samples have 147Sm/144Nd ratios in therange of 0.10 and 0.13. eNd values are calculated at 2.10 Ga and1.85 Ga for the samples from the older and younger sequence-setsrespectively, which represent their maximum depositional ages(Liu et al., 2011a, 2012b,c). Even though the meta-sedimentaryrocks from the same sequence-set vary in the maximum deposi-tional ages from 2.17 to 2.08 Ga and 1.88 to 1.84 Ga, the choicesof 2.10 and 1.85 Ga as the depositional ages for eNd calculations

Fig. 6. Selected trace and REE elements vs. major elements plots of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a–e) and Zhongtiao (f–j) Complexes (same symbols as inFig. 3).

180 C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

Fig. 7. Chondrite (Sun and McDonough, 1989) normalized REE patterns of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a) and Zhongtiao (b) Complexes (same symbols asin Fig. 3). The dashed lines represent the REE patterns of PUCC.

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 181

does not affect the conclusions. Samples from all the complexeshave similar TDM model ages of 2.52–2.79 Ga. The eNd(t) values ofthe samples from the older sequence-set range from �4.8 to�1.5, whereas those from the younger sequence-set range from�7.1 to �4.3 (Table 1).

5. Interpretations and discussion

5.1. Pose-depositional alteration and source chemical weathering

The meta-sedimentary samples from both the Wutai andZhongtiao Complexes are enriched in Ba, Rb and K relative to PUCCand depleted in Ca, Sr and Na (Fig. 4). These features could suggesthigh chemical weathering paleo-conditions and post-depositionalK-metasomatism (Nesbitt and Young, 1982; Fedo et al., 1995). Thisinterpretation is also supported by the large variations of K2O/Na2O (1–84; Supplementary Table 1) compared with PUCC (�1;Condie, 1993). As mentioned before, the positive linear relation

between Al2O3 and TiO2 is also consistent with the strong chemicalweathering of source rocks (Fig. 3d and i; Young and Nesbitt,1998).

Plotting Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values in the A(Al2O3)–CN (CaO* + Na2O)–K (K2O) plot can tell us more informa-tion about chemical weathering, source rock and K-metasomatism(Nesbitt and Young, 1984; Fedo et al., 1995). CaO* represents theCaO content in the silicate fraction only. However, in this studywe do not have CO2 data to correct Ca in carbonates to obtainCaO*. Therefore, we have accepted the values of CaO as CaO* ifCaO 6 Na2O and assumed the concentrations of Na2O as CaO* ifCaO > Na2O (Roddaz et al., 2006). This is justified on the basis thatmost samples have low CaO contents (typically 3), suggesting that originalcarbonate minerals were rare. CIA values of the Wutai samples(43–72, mean �62) and the Zhongtiao samples (51–79, mean�67), lower than those of the Phanerozoic shales (70–75), do notsuggest severe weathering in the source rocks as indicated by theirCa, Sr and Na depletions in the PUCC-normalized spider diagrams

Table 1Sm–Nd isotopic compositions of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Paleoproterozoic low-grade supracrustal successions of the TNCO.

Group/subgroup Formation Sample Lithology Tstra Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd 2r eNd(t) TDM

Lower Zhongtiao Jiepailiang 5YQ07-1a Meta-sand 2.10 2.97 18.34 0.0980 0.511122 7 �3.0 2.64Lower Zhongtiao Jiepailiang 5ZY01-1a Meta-sand 2.10 1.21 6.07 0.1209 0.511392 8 �3.9 2.87Lower Zhongtiao Jiepailiang 5YQ04-1a Meta-sand 2.10 0.99 5.11 0.1174 0.511399 9 �2.8 2.76Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 09ZT01-1 Meta-sand 2.10 7.83 40.46 0.1170 0.511424 8 �2.2 2.71Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5SJ08-1a Meta-sand 2.10 7.89 33.20 0.1439 0.511866 6 �0.8 2.48Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5SJ08-2a Meta-sand 2.10 4.53 25.59 0.1071 0.511223 9 �3.5 2.74Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT60-1a Meta-sand 2.10 6.97 33.86 0.1247 0.511525 7 �2.3 2.77Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5SJ08-5a Meta-silt 2.10 6.42 33.71 0.1154 0.511265 6 �4.9 2.90Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT60-4a Meta-silt 2.10 5.24 26.13 0.1214 0.511268 9 �6.4 3.09Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT61-1a Meta-silt 2.10 6.12 32.57 0.1138 0.511278 4 �4.2 2.84Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZY03-1a Meta-silt 2.10 5.80 27.85 0.1260 0.511543 6 �2.3 2.78Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZY04-4a Meta-silt 2.10 3.69 17.19 0.1300 0.511428 4 �5.6 3.11Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZY04-5a Meta-silt 2.10 12.97 61.04 0.1286 0.511682 5 �0.3 2.62Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZY05-1a Meta-silt 2.10 10.32 52.97 0.1180 0.511208 6 �6.7 3.07Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT07-1a Meta-silt 2.10 8.69 41.36 0.1272 0.511580 5 �1.9 2.75Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT07-2a Meta-silt 2.10 7.77 30.86 0.1523 0.511938 6 �1.7 2.54Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT07-3a Meta-silt 2.10 5.41 28.26 0.1160 0.511430 6 �1.8 2.67Lower Zhongtiao Bizigou 5ZT08-1a Meta-silt 2.10 11.01 50.92 0.1309 0.511712 5 �0.3 2.44Lower Zhongtiao Chenjiashan 05ZT054-1 Meta-sand 1.85 3.36 18.94 0.1073 0.511330 7 �4.3 2.59Lower Dongye Wenshan 07WT017-4 Meta-sand 2.10 1.41 8.14 0.1048 0.511268 12 �1.9 2.62Lower Dongye Qingshicun 07WT013-1 Meta-sand 2.10 1.29 7.55 0.1034 0.511176 10 �3.4 2.71Doucun Sijizhuang 07WT011-1 Meta-sand 2.10 2.02 13.10 0.0933 0.510989 55 �4.3 2.74Doucun Dashiling 07WT012-5 Meta-sand 2.10 6.78 42.20 0.0972 0.511070 8 �3.8 2.70Guojiazhai Heishanbei 07WT025-1 Meta-sand 1.85 3.31 21.00 0.0954 0.511164 5 �4.7 2.58Songshan Miaoposhan 09SS18-1 Meta-sand 1.95 0.66 3.78 0.1057 0.511167 16 �5.9 2.78Songshan Wuzhiling 09SS07-1 Meta-sand 1.95 2.52 14.51 0.1051 0.511279 17 �3.6 2.61Songshan Wuzhiling 09SS08-1 Meta-sand 1.95 1.77 10.86 0.0984 0.511208 14 �3.3 2.57Songshan Luohandong 09SS31-1 Meta-sand 2.35 0.93 4.81 0.1172 0.511310 67 �1.9 2.89Gantaohe Nansi 09FP34-1 Meta-sand 2.10 8.07 48.80 0.1000 0.511226 16 �1.5 2.57Gantaohe Nansi 09FP10-1 Meta-sand 2.10 1.59 8.71 0.1107 0.511226 16 �4.4 2.83Gantaohe Nansi 09FP16-1 Meta-silt 2.10 6.33 34.05 0.1124 0.511226 16 �4.8 2.88Gantaohe Nansizhang 09FP17-1 Meta-sand 2.10 5.47 32.38 0.1022 0.511226 16 �2.1 2.62

Unit of the stratigraphic age (Tstra) and model age (TDM) is Ga.Stratigraphic ages are approximate and estimated based on available geochronological data as shown in Fig. 2 (see text).

eNdðtÞ ¼ ½ð143Nd=144NdÞS=ð143Nd=144NdÞCHUR � 1� � 10000:

Nd depleted mantle model ages were calculated using the following equation: TDM = (1/kSm) � ln[1 + (0.51315 � 143Nd/144Nd)/(0.2137 � 147Sm/144Nd)]; two-stage Nd modelages (T2DM) were calculated for samples with 147Sm/144Nd ratios either >0.13 or

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 183

(Fig. 4) and the linear correlation between Al2O3 and TiO2 (Fig. 3dand i). In the A–CN–K plots, however, about 40% of the meta-sed-imentary samples are plotted in the right side of the ‘‘limit ofweathering’’ lines and indicate different degree of K-metasoma-tism, which accounts for their relative low CIA values (Fig. 9aand b).

The pre-metasomatized CIA values of the samples can be as-sessed in the A–CN–K plots if the compositions of the source rocksare known (Fedo et al., 1995). Two meta-sandstones with the low-est CIA values from the Wutai Complex (07WT11-2 and 07WT12-5) define a line parallel to the A–CN join (Fig. 9a). This line couldrepresent a primary weathering trend departing from the originalsource rocks, whose compositions are similar to granite (Fig. 9a).On the other way, the Zhongtiao samples were probably derivedfrom a source with compositions between granodiorite and granite(Fig. 9b). Following the method of Fedo et al. (1995), backward pro-jection of the line between the K apex and the sample point to thepredicted weathering trend path indicates the pre-metasomatizedCIA value of the particular sample. By this way, the pre-metasoma-tized CIA values obtained for the Wutai samples range from 43 to84 (means�70) and for the Zhongtiao samples range from 62 to 87(mean �78), which is in conformity with the observation of high

Fig. 9. A–CN–K diagrams of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a) andZhongtiao (b) Complexes (same symbols as in Fig. 3). Mineral abbreviations:Ka = kaolinite, Gi = gibbsite, Chl = chlorite, Sm = smectite, Il = illite, Pl = plagioclase,K-sp = potassium plagioclase.

chemical weathering paleo-conditions during their deposition.The intense nature of chemical weathering can also be portrayedby Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW; Harnois, 1988), which isnot effected by K-metasomatism. The Wutai meta-sedimentarysamples have average CIW values of 83 (52–99; Supplementary Ta-ble 1), and the Zhongtiao samples have higher average CIW valuesof 86 (68–99; Supplementary Table 1), which also indicates strongchemical weathering conditions and are in conformity with worldwide humid warm climate in the Paleoproterozoic (Eriksson et al.,1998).

Maturity of the source material of clastic sedimentary rocks canbe reflected by Index of Compositional Variability (ICV; Cox et al.,1995). Clastic sedimentary rocks with low ICV values could suggesta mature source with higher proportion of clay minerals, indicativeof recycled sediments in passive margin settings (Van de Kamp andLeake, 1985), whereas those with high ICV values could imply animmature source in active tectonic settings. Both the Wutai andZhongtiao meta-sedimentary samples have a large range of ICVvalues from 0.63 to 1.62 (mean �1.02) and 0.45 to 2.09 (mean�1.03) respectively, which may reveals the mixture of a maturesource and an immature source. This is supported by the chemicalcomposition of HFSEs and TEEs, such as in the Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc dia-gram (Fig. 10), which suggests not only a geochemical trend due tocompositional variation but also sediment recycling.

5.2. Possible source areas

Clastic sedimentary rocks with different geochemical featurescan be produced by mixing of different source rocks (Arndt and

Fig. 10. Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc plots of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai (a)and Zhongtiao (b) Complexes (same symbols as in Fig. 3). Data sources: �2.1 Gagranitoids (Ren et al., 2009), �2.5 Ga TTG gneisses and granitics (Sun and Hu, 1993),Lengkou meta-volcanics (Sun and Hu, 1993) and Paleoproterozoic mafic volcanics(Sun and Hu, 1993; Du et al., 2009).

184 C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

Goldstein, 1987; Murphy and Nance, 2002; Long et al., 2012). Forinstance, relative enrichments of MgO, Fe2O

T3, Sc, Cr, Ni, Co and V

are generally related with addition of mafic materials. As men-tioned above, the low-grade supracrustal successions in the TNCOhave been divided into the two sequence-sets (Fig. 2), although theaccurate vertical and lateral facies variations with the two se-quence-sets are difficult to define duo to the severe metamorphismand deformation at �1.85 Ga. The major and trace elements of themeta-sedimentary samples from the two sequence-sets in the Wu-tai and Zhongtiao Complexes partly resemble to each other, but arenevertheless distinct enough to tell the slight difference in thesource rocks. For the major elements, samples from the older se-quence-set are relatively enriched in Al relative to Si, and maficcomponents (Mg and Fe) relative to felsic components (Na andK). In the Al2O3—Fe2O

T3 � 2-MgO � 2 diagram, the younger se-

quence-set samples are plotted in the fields of the �2.5 Ga TTGgneisses and granitics and the �2.1 Ga granitoids (Fig. 11a andc). In contrast, some of the older sequence-set samples from theZhongtiao Complex have major element contents typical of moremafic sources, such as the Paleoproterozoic mafic volcanics andthe Lengkou meta-volcanics (Fig. 11c).

The HFSEs, TTEs and REEs are generally considered as immobileelements during post-depositional alterations and have been pro-ven to be useful tools for constraining the source rocks of clasticsedimentary rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al.,1993). Moreover, incompatible to compatible element ratios, suchas La/Sc and Th/Sc, are sensitive indicators for discriminating felsic

Fig. 11. Geochemical triangle diagrams of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutasymbols are same to Fig. 3.)

and mafic materials (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000). The older se-quence-set samples from the Wutai and Zhongtiao Complexeshave a wide range of compositions (Supplementary Table 1), sug-gesting the mixing of mafic (low Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios) and felsic(high Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios) materials. In the La–Th–Sc diagram,some of the older sequence-set samples from the Zhongtiao Com-plex have significantly high Sc and low Th contents, showingimportant mafic material inputs (Fig. 11d). In contrast, the youngersequence-set samples have higher Th/Sc (0.9–3.6; mean �1.9) andLa/Sc (2.0–9.5; mean �5.4) ratios than those of PUCC (0.72 and2.13; Condie, 1993), indicative of felsic sources.

Like the major and other trace elements, the REE patterns of themeta-sedimentary samples from the two sequence-sets in the Wu-tai and Zhongtiao Complexes also display some important differ-ences to discriminate their source rocks. In the Wutai Complex,the average values of La/YbN, Eu/Eu� and Gd/YbN from the two se-quence-sets are very similar (14.2 and 15.1; 0.75 and 0.71; 1.93and 1.57), indicating a dominant contribution of the �2.5 Ga TTGgneisses and granitics in the Wutai and Fuping Complexes (15.9,0.77 and 1.81; Liu et al., 2004), which is also consistent with ourprevious detrital zircon U–Pb dating results (Liu et al., 2011a).However, in the Zhongtiao Complex, meta-sedimentary samplesfrom the older sequence-set exhibit low REE fractionation withthe average La/YbN ratio of 5.7. These samples are also character-ized by relative low HREE fractionation with Gd/YbN (mean�1.34) and mild negative Eu/Eu* anomaly (mean �0.71). All ofthese REE features are unlikely to be generated from the sole

i (a and b) and Zhongtiao (c and d) Complexes. (Date sources are same to Fig. 10 and

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 185

granitic source, a mafic source is required to explain this type ofREE patter as discussed in the early paragraph. In the ZhongtiaoComplex, mafic parts of the Paleoproterozoic volcanics with themean La/YbN ratio of 5.3, Gd/YbN of 1.47 and Eu/Eu* of 0.67 (Sunet al., 1990; Sun and Hu, 1993) can be a potential source.

Mixing between felsic and mafic sources can also be reflected inthe eNd(t) vs. Th/Sc diagram (Fig. 12), which allows examination ofmixing by considering both geochemical and isotopic features ofthe potential sources. Also shown are the typical compositions ofmajor geochemical reservoirs, including the average arc rocks andthe MORB at 2.10 Ga and 1.85 Ga. All the Wutai samples and thesingle sample from the younger sequence-set of the ZhongtiaoComplex have eNd(t) values and Th/Sc ratios similar to those ofthe late Archean to Paleoproterozoic granitoids, indicative of ab-sence of source rocks from the coeval less differentiated young ter-rane (McLennan et al., 1995). However, samples from the oldersequence-set of the Zhongtiao Complex are plotted between thePaleoproterozoic volcanics field and the late Archean to Paleoprote-rozoic granitoids field (Fig. 12b). McLennan et al. (1993) found thatsedimentary rocks from modern continental arc and back-arc areplotted approximately between arc andesite and upper crust.Therefore, our data lends support to the possibility that the oldersequence-set was formed in a back-arc setting (Liu et al., 2012b).

5.3. Tectonic model for deposition of the low-grade supracrustalsuccessions

The whole-rock geochemical and Nd isotopic results in thisstudy, in combination with lithostratigraphic and geochronological

Fig. 12. eNd(t) vs. Th/Sc diagrams of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutaiand Zhongtiao Complexes. End members compositions are from McLennan et al.(1993). Date sources are same to Fig. 8 and symbols are same to Fig. 3.

relationship, indicate that the older and younger sequence-sets ofthe low-grade supracrustal successions in the TNCO were depos-ited in the different depositional environments, which has impor-tant implications for the tectonic evolution of the North ChinaCraton in the Paleoproterozoic. As mentioned above, differentschools of thought concerning the timing and tectonic processesinvolved in the collision of the Eastern and Western Blocks, rangingfrom the eastward-directed subduction with collision at �1.85 Ga(Wilde et al., 2002; Kröner et al., 2005a, 2006; Wilde and Zhao,2005; Zhao et al., 2005), through the westward-directed subduc-tion with collision at �2.5 Ga (Kusky and Li, 2003; Polat et al.,2006; Li and Kusky, 2007; Kusky, 2011), to the westward-directedsubduction with two collisional events at �2.1 Ga and �1.85 Ga,respectively (Faure et al., 2007; Trap et al., 2007, 2012). For the�2.5 Ga collision model, the older sequence-set in the Wutai Com-plex was considered as molassic deposits formed in a foreland ba-sin due to the �2.5 Ga westward continent–continent collisionalevent (Kusky and Li, 2003; Li and Kusky, 2007). However, both ofthe previous U–Pb dating results of detrital zircons from themeta-sedimentary rocks and igneous zircons from the meta-vol-canics suggest that the older sequence-set was formed at�2.1 Ga (Liu et al., 2011a; Du et al., 2010). In addition, the up-ward-deeping lithostratigraphic sequence and existence of meta-volcanics are also different from classical foreland basin sedimen-tation (SBGMR, 1989; DeCelles and Giles, 1996). For the two colli-sions model, the older sequence-set in the Zanhuang Complex wasinterpreted as foreland basin deposits related to the �1.85 Ga col-lision (Trap et al., 2009), which is also inconsistent with the litho-stratigraphic and geochronological data (HBGMR, 1989; Liu et al.,2012c).

We suggest that the older sequence-set of the low-grade supra-crustal successions was deposited in a back-arc basin, which is sit-uated between the ‘‘Andean-type’’ continental margin arc and theEastern Block, due to the following reasons:

(1) The older sequence-set is composed chiefly of meta-clasticrocks including large quantities of schists and quartzites,and variable amounts of carbonates and meta-volcanics, ofwhich the latter show typical geochemical affinities, includ-ing negative Nb and Ti anomalies, to arc-related igneousrocks (Sun and Hu, 1993; Du et al., 2009). Moreover, theseterrigenous deposits show vertical facies changing fromcoarse clastic sediments into finer-grained siliciclastic rocks,reflecting major changes in the basin configuration relatedto a significant tectonic sinking (Bai et al., 1997; Miaoet al., 1999).

(2) The maximum depositional age of the older sequence-setwas estimated at ca. 2.17–2.06 Ga, which is nearly contem-porary or slightly earlier than the late stage of the subduc-tion-related 2176–2024 Ma granitoids in the TNCO (Guanet al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2002; Wilde et al., 2004a; Kröneret al., 2005b; Wilde and Zhao, 2005).

(3) The age patterns of detrital zircons from the older sequence-set are similar, suggesting that the Neoarchean to Paleopro-terozoic arc-related rocks in the TNCO are the major sourcesrocks, and the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean crust of theEastern Block is the subordinate provenance (Liu et al.,2012b,c). Such a combination of major arc-related litholo-gies and minor craton-derived sources is also indicated bytrace element geochemistry and Nd isotopes of the meta-sedimentary samples from the Wutai and Zhongtiao Com-plexes. On the Th–Sc–Zr/10 and Ti/Zr vs. La/Sc diagrams,most of them are plotted in the CIA and ACM fields, whereasa few samples are plotted in the PM field (Fig. 13). In addi-tion, nearly all the samples have eNd(t) values identical tothe Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic arc-related granitoids

186 C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189

in the eNd(t) vs. Th/Sc diagrams (Fig. 12). This kind feature ofthe source rocks is similar to that in other classic back-arcbasins, such as the Tonto Basin Supergroup in the NorthAmerican craton (Condie et al., 1992).

On the other hand, all the geological, geochemical, isotopic andgeochronological features of the younger sequence-set of the low-grade supracrustal successions in the TNCO suggest that it wasdeposited in a foreland basin as evidenced by the following factors:

(1) The tectonic setting shift from the back-arc basin to the fore-land basin is supported by the disconformities or unconfo-rmities between the older and younger sequence-sets(Fig. 2).

(2) The younger sequence-set consists mainly of thick sequenceof meta-sandstones and meta-conglomerates and is charac-terized by a transition from early deep-marine sedimenta-tion to later coarse-grained nonmarine or shallow-marinesedimentation, which is similar to most foreland basin sed-imentation (DeCelles and Giles, 1996).

(3) Almost every rock type represented in the pebbles of themeta-conglomerates from the younger sequence-set can befound in the older sequence-set, which means that most ofthe former may have been sourced from the latter. In addi-tion, the average higher Si/Al, Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios andlower Eu/Eu* and eNd(t) values of the younger sequence-setthan those of the older younger sequence-set imply that

Fig. 13. Tectonic discrimination diagrams of the meta-sedimentary samples from the WOIA - oceanic island arc, CIA – continental island arc, ACM – active continental margin,

the former was recycled from the latter (McLennan et al.,1995), which is also supported by the dominant PM signa-tures of the meta-sedimentary samples from the youngersequence-set (Fig. 13).

(4) The detrital zircon age pattern of the samples from the youn-ger sequence-set suggest that the Neoarchean to Paleoprote-rozoic arc-related granitoids in the TNCO were the mainsource rocks, which is similar to the Grenville Orogen fore-land basin (Krabbendam et al., 2008).

(5) As mentioned above, the depositional age of the youngersequence-set are constrained between �1.88 and �1.80 Ga,which overlapped with the timing of the major collisionalevent in the TNCO. Available data indicate that all colli-sion-related events, including the emplacement of syn-colli-sional granites, regional metamorphism and deformation inthe TNCO occurred in the period between 1880 and 1820 Ma(Guan et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2002, 2008b; Kröner et al.,2005a, 2006; Liu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2009; Wanget al., 2010). These tectonic processes were generally simul-taneous with overall rising of the fold–thrust belt and unroo-fing of the orogen, resulting in the formation of anapproximately coeval foreland basin (Dickinson and Gehrels,2008).

Such a conversion in the depositional setting from the back-arcbasin to the foreland basin in the late Paleoproterozoic is well con-sistent with the model that the TNCO was originally a continental

utai (a and b) and Zhongtiao (c and d) Complexes (after Bhatia and Crook, 1986).and PM – passive continental margin. Symbols are same to Fig. 3.

C. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 94 (2014) 173–189 187

margin arc along the western margin of the Eastern Block and thefinally collision to form the North China Craton occurred at�1.85 Ga (Wilde et al., 2002; Kröner et al., 2005a, 2006; Wildeand Zhao, 2005; Zhao et al., 2005).

6. Conclusions

The whole-rock geochemical and Nd isotopic compositions ofthe meta-sedimentary samples from the low-grade supracrustalsuccessions in the TNCO yield several conclusions relative to theweathering, source rocks and tectonic settings.

(1) Most of the meta-siltstones and meta-sandstones from theWutai and Zhongtiao Complexes have undergone significantpost-depositional K-metasomatism. Calculated high pre-metasomatized CIA values (43–87), high CIW values (52–99), depletions of CaO, Sr, Na2O and strong linear relation-ship between Al2O3 and TiO2 indicate intense weatheringconditions, which is in conformity with the wide humidwarm climate in the Paleoproterozoic.

(2) Geochemical and isotopic data suggest that the majority oflow-grade supracrustal succession were built from detritusderived from felsic rocks, including the �2.5 Ga TTG gneissesand granitics and the �2.1 Ga granitoids in the TNCO. In con-trast, geochemical characteristic of some older sequence-setsamples from the Zhongtiao Complex are indicative of moremafic sources, such as the Lengkou meta-volcanics and thePaleoproterozoic mafic volcanics.

(3) Obvious differences in the lithostratigraphic sequence, prov-enance, depositional age and geochemistry of the older andyounger sequence-sets of the low-grade supracrustal suc-cessions in the TNCO, combined with other geological evi-dences, lead us to propose that the former was depositedin a back-arc basin after �2.1 Ga between the ‘‘Andean-type’’ continental margin arc and the Eastern Block, whereasthe latter formed in a foreland basin between �1.88 and�1.80 Ga, which is consistent with the model that theunique collision between the Eastern and Western Blocksto form the coherent basement of the North China Cratonoccurred at �1.85 Ga.

Acknowledgements

This research was financially funded by the 973 project (No.2012CB416603), the NSFC grants (41190075 and 40725007), HongKong RGC GRF (7069/12P), the China Geological Survey Program(No. 1212011120150) and the Basic Outlay of Scientific ResearchWork from the Ministry of Science and Technology (No. J1218).We thank Kejun Hou for his laboratory assistance. We are alsograteful to for thoughtful and constructive reviews that signifi-cantly improved the quality of this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, inthe online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.11.007.

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